Plato and Confucius On Poetry

In Quest of Harmony: Plato and Confucius on Poetry
Author(s): Zong-qi Cai

Source: Philosophy East and West, Vol. 49, No. 3, Human "Nature" in Chinese Philosophy: A
Panel of the 1995 Annual Meeting of the Association for Asian Studies (Jul., 1999), pp. 317345
Published by: University of Hawai'i Press
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IN QUEST OF HARMONY: PLATO AND

CONFUCIUS ON POETRY
Zong-qiCai
ofIllinois
atUrbana-Champaign
University
Plato(427?-347? B.C.)and Confucius(ca. 551-479 B.C.)livedonlyabout halfa

unrelated
worlds.The influence
of thesetwo
apart,but in two culturally
century
on humankind
can be measuredonlyon the grandest
thinkers
scale of timeand
thethoughts
ofPlatoand Confucius
have
space. Forabouttwoand a halfmillennia,
shaped all aspectsof lifein thosetwo largestculturalspheresthatare known,
as theWestand theEast.To comparePlatonicand Confucian
respectively,
thought
of Westernand Eastern
is to embarkon an expeditionback to thefountainheads
theideasofPlatoand Confucius,
we can observesimilarities
cultures.
Bycomparing
and differences
betweentheseculturesat theirinfancy
and betterunderstand
why
woulddevelopas theydid. Forthisreason,Plato-Confucius
thetwogreattraditions
abound in theworksof comparative
philosophy.'Whilethesecomcomparisons
cover
a
broad
intellectual
seldom
they
spectrum,
parisons
explorethetopicofthe
To bringdue attention
aesthetics
ofpoetry.
to thistopic,I wouldliketo considerthe
twothinkers'
viewsof poetryin relationto theirbroadereducational,ethical,and
concerns.
philosophical
theories
ofpoetry
ofPlatoand Confucius
as we understand
The respective
them
much
of
are
the
of
centuries
critical
Neither
today very
products
interp'retation. Plato
set
out
to
formulate
a
of
norConfucius
consciously
theory poetry.
Theybothcameto
or "dialogues"withtheirfriends
discusspoetryin the courseof conversations
or
of
is
not
the
as
Plato's
notion
same
with
Confucius',
exactly
pupils.
poetry
regardto
and itsreferential
bothitsontologicalimplications
scope.2ForPlato,poetryisa very
broadcategoryforthoseworks,composedby humanbeingsor thedivinemuses,
setto music,and cast intheformofan epic or a tragedy.
thatare usuallyrhymed,
did notentertain
sucha generalizednotionofpoetry,
Confucius
nordid he discuss
in
a
of
works
the
as
so extensive range
Analects(Lunyu ) Platodid in hisdiais fixednoton poetryin general,buton the Bookof
logues.3Confucius'attention
thePoetry),
theearliestChineseanthology
ofancient
(hereafter
(Shi
4.)
Poetry jing
Ever
and
since
the
Confucius'
remarks
on
the
Han, however,
poems
songs.
Poetry
beenconsideredto be comments
havecustomarily
on poetryingeneralas muchas
on a singleanthology.
Thanksto thisingeniousidentification
of the Poetrywith
have
become
an
remarks
invaluable
source
of ideas about
Confucius'
poetry,4
on
as
and
have
taken
a
coherent
poetry
phenomenalsignificance
theoryof that
subject. In the Westerncriticaltradition,Plato's conversationalremarkson poetry
have undergonea similarprocess of transformation
intoa coherenttheoryof poetry.
will
to
the
discussion
we
see
that
the theoriesof poetryof Plato
below,
Proceeding
PhilosophyEast & West Volume 49, Number3 July1999 317-345

of Hawai'i Press
? 1999 by University

317
in termsnotonlyof ideas expressedbut

and Confucius
warrant
close comparison,
on theWesternand Chinesecriticaltraditions
also of theirlastinginfluence
as a
whole.
TheEducational
ofPlatoand Confucius:
TheCultivation
ofIntellectual
and
Systems
MoralHarmony
ForbothPlatoand Confucius,
poetryis nota purebelletristic
pursuit
separatefrom
concerns.Rather,
itis an integral
intellectual,
moral,and utilitarian
partofa broad
in
of
education
each
to
seek
institute
the
of
an elite
system
they
hope producing
educatedclass to runan ideal government
of the best,the wisest,and the most
Themodelmembers
ofthiseliteclassforPlatoarephilosophers
orwouldvirtuous.5
be philosophers,
and forConfucius,
or
Since
the
theories
of
Rf
junzi
gentlemen.
of
and
in
Plato
Confucius
are
formulated
the
broader
context
of
their
dispoetry
cussionsofeducation,a briefcomparison
oftheireducationalsystems
is necessary.
The coreofPlato'seducationalsystemis a rigorous,
cultihighly
programmatic
vationof intellectual
music
and
harmony
through
physicaltraining
(gymnastics),
intellectual
studies(mathematics,
and astronomy),
and pure reasoning
geometry,
to be completedstep-by-step
(dialectic)-a lifelong
enterprise
bytheyoungguardiansofhisidealrepublic.
Theeducationofyoungguardians
mustbeginwithmusic,whichPlatoexpressly
Thisis becauseyoungguardians
claimsto includeliterature.
aretoo weakbodilyto
and harmony
Whatcomesaftermusicis
developrhythm
through
physicaltraining.
Of
numerous
of
the
a
gymnastics.
possibleways training body,Platorecommends
characterized
the
endurance
of
coarse
food
and
military
gymnastic,
by
physical
Forhim,thissimplegymnastic
istheparentofhealthinthebodyas simple
hardship.
inthesoul.6A manwho has beenthrough
musicis thatoftemperance
sucha gymnasticcomesto possessnotonlyan excellentphysiquebutalso thewisdomofnot
hisown lifebeyondthepointof itsusefulness
to thepublic.7
wishingto lengthen
a properbalance betweengymnastics
and musiceducation,Plato
Emphasizing
notes"thatthe mereathletebecomestoo muchof a savage,and thatthe mere
musicianis meltedand softened
beyondwhatis good forhim."8Havingacquired
hardinessthrough
and gentlenessthroughmusic,a youth'ssoul will
gymnastics
thatit "will move spontaneously
become so well-proportioned
and harmonious
towardsthetruebeingofeverything."'
Atthisstage,however,youngguardiansare stilltoo delicatementally
to deal
withabstract
Beforeembarking
on thecontemplation
oftruebeing,they
reasoning.
mustalso go through
a rigorous
in arithmetic,
and, to a lesser
training
geometry,
These threesciencesservein theirown waysto preparehim
extent,astronomy.
forthedialecticor purereasoning.
Arithmetic
compels"thesoul to reasonabout
abstractnumber,and rebelagainstthe introduction
ofvisibleor tangibleobjects into
the argument."10As faras itsfinerabstractpart is concerned, geometryleads the
soul to turnitsgaze toward"where [all] is fullof perfectionof being.""11According
to Plato, astronomy,or the motionof solids, is the sisterscience of Pythagorean
318
East& West
Philosophy

concerned
Itis to theeye as thelatteris to theear-both beingwrongly
harmonics.
and sensiblerather
thantheeternaland immutable
in heaven.As
withthematerial
if
with
a
view
to
the
it
is
"studied
Jowett
observes,only
good and notafter
Benjamin
of
thefashionoftheempirics"does itbecomea worthy
subject studyfora youth.12
in thesesciencesas well
Youngguardiansare to have completedtheirtraining
of
The
best
fromtheclassoftwentythe
as in musicand gymnastics
by age twenty.
to
the
honor
of
are
beingtaughtwhatPlatocalls the
higher
year-olds promoted
of
Thisselectclass is to have
connection"
the
sciences.13
"inter-communion
and
ofthem[thesciences]to one
mastered
theknowledgeofthe"naturalrelationship
mindor diahave a comprehensive
anotherand to truebeing,"and consequently
of
the
most
this
select
classwill
lecticaltalentbytheage ofthirty.14
Then,
promising
howto "giveup theuse ofsight
tothestillhigher
honorofbeingtaught
be promoted
and theothersensesand [be] in companywithtruth
to attainabsolutebeing."15
will
fiveyearsofsuchphilosophical
be
sentbacktotheworldand
After
study,
they
or otheroffices
to be provedfirmagainsttemptations
and adverwillholdmilitary
sities.Finally,when theyreachfifty
yearsof age, thosewho have distinguished
in politicalserviceand inthemastery
ofknowledgeare readyat lastto
themselves
the
absolute
the
dialectic, onlysciencethatdoes awaywith
goodthrough
approach
and goes directly
to thefirst
hypotheses
principle.By meansof dialecticor pure
all
they"raisetheeye of thesoul to the universallightwhichlightens
reasoning,
and
behold
the
absolute
in
the
will
not
things,
good."16Notably,
processthey
only
transformation
ofthesoul,butalso findintheabsolute
bringabouta transcendental
good the "pattern
accordingto whichtheyare to orderthe Stateand the livesof
and theremainder
oftheirown livesalso."17After
individuals,
theyhaveperformed
theirowndutiesand brought
theirliketo be therulers
oftheState,theywill"depart
to the Islandsof the Blestand dwellthere"and will be honoredas demigodsin
and sacrifices.18
publicmemorials
Like Plato,Confuciusplaces the cultivation
of harmony
at the centerof his
educationalsystem.Whathe wantshis pupilsto cultivate,
however,is primarily
moralharmony
rather
thanintellectual
WhereasthePlatonicintellectual
harmony.
culminatesin the cognitionof theabsolutetruth,
Confucianmoralharharmony
leads
one
toward
the
achievement
of
the
moral
virtueof renfI,
mony
supreme
which is inclusiveof but not limitedto the meaningsof goodness,humanity,
Whatunifies
all theseconcretevirtues
isthe
benevolence,and manyothervirtues.19
ideal ofthemostperfect
inwardand outwardharmony
thatcan everbe achieved
Confucius
seldomspeaksofthemanifestation
ofrenin
by humanbeings.Although
individual
he
the
attainment
of
ren
as
the
ultimate
persons, regards
goalofhisbroad
educationalprogram.
LikePlato,Confuciusbelievesthateducationshouldbeginwiththe studyof
poetry,on account of itsbeneficialeffectson theyoungmind.As to whatcomes after
the studyof poetry,however,Confuciusholds a view quite different
fromPlato's.
Whereas Plato next introducesphysicaleducation and the abstractsciences, Confuciusproceeds to his centraltaskof moraleducation. ForConfucius,moraleducation is not a matterof imposingon his disciples an elaborate set of ritualisticrules
Zong-qiCai

319
theirinnerand outerlife.Rather,
itis a matter
ofhelpingthemtocultivate
governing
a harmonious
character
and to establishharmonious
withpeople of
relationships
different
socialstrata.
ForConfucius,
a gentleman
is one who has successfully
cultivated
bothinner
and outerharmony.
A gentleman
underall circumdisplaysa spiritoftemperance
stances.Temperance,
a minorvirtue
tosome,isofcardinalimportance
toConfucius,
because itis thekeyto developing
one's harmonious
character.
Itmeanstheavoidinone's thought,
ance ofextremes
speech,and action.20Confucius
alwayshas the
in hismindwhenhe
GoldenMean ortheMiddleCourse(zhongdaorF) foremost
Evenwhenpraising
a gentleman's
moralcharacter,
Confucius
depictsa gentleman.
stresses
thathisvirtues
areneverdevelopedtoa fault.A gentleman
like
the
Master
is,
"affableyetfirm,commanding
but not harsh,politebuteasy."21He is
himself,
but
not
on
some
and "conciliatory
butnotaccomoccasions,
"proud
quarrelsome"
on
others.22
modating"
After
a gentleman
has achievedharmony
in temperament,
and conlearning,
withtheresponsibilities
ofthestate.
duct,Confucius
believes,he shouldbe entrusted
hisprivateand publiclifeinthespiritofpropriety
and temperance,
Byconducting
he helpsbringtheentiresocietyintoharmony.
In servinghisparents,
a gentleman
wearsan air of reverenceand exertshimself
to the utmost;in servinghis supehe is punctilious
and readyto laydownhisown life;indealingwithfriends,
he
riors,
his inferiors,
he alwaysgenerously
is alwaystrueto hiswords;in treating
provides
and whenfacingHeaven,
fortheirneedsand exactstheirserviceina fairmanner;23
greatmen,and DivineSages,he alwaysstandsinawe.24Thanksto hisadoptionof
theseproperattitudes,
he comestoenjoya harmonious
withall people.
relationship
His filialpietywinstheaffection
ofhisparentsand enhancesfamilial
His
harmony.
earnshimtrust
fromhissuperiors
and contributes
to theharmony
between
loyalty
fromthe
and inferiors.
His trustworthiness
winshimfriends
and brothers
superiors
hisbondwithhisequals.25His generosity
and
"FourSeas" and hencestrengthens
the
and
of
the
multitude
and
helppromotepeace
respect support
compassiongain
inthesocietyat large.Inshort,
willradiatefarand
hisinwardharmony
and harmony
fromhisindividual
selftothefamily
to thestateand to theheavenly
wide,reaching
Dao.
a definite
timetable
forhisprogram
UnlikePlato,Confucius
does notprescribe
thathe expectshisdisciplestoattainto
ofmoraleducation.Thereare no indications
a
time.
does cherish
a certainkindofmoralharmony
However,Confucius
by given
to
in some
in his minda broadpattern
of spiritual
which
is
akin
Plato's
progress,
when
his
own
He
us
hints
that
talks
about
of
he
spiritual
ways. gives some
pattern
progress:
I setmyheartuponlearning.
Atthirty,
I had plantedmyfeet
The Mastersaid,Atfifteen
I knewwhat
I
Atfifty,
firm
the
At
no
from
suffered
perplexities.
upon ground. forty, longer
I could
I heardthemwithdocileear.Atseventy,
werethebiddings
of Heaven.Atsixty,
thebounfollowthedictatesofmyown heart;forwhatI desiredno longeroverstepped
dariesofright.26
320
East& West
Philosophy

Ifwe place thisand otherpassagescitedabove alongsidewhatwe have readinthe

Republic,we can see thatPlatoand Confuciusdesigntheirschemesofeducation
WhilePlato
withthecomparableobjectivesofachievinginnerand outerharmony.
in
the
of
the
mind
ever
achievement
of
the
harmony
higherrealmsof
emphasizes
to ever
humanthought,
Confuciusstressestheexpansionof innermoralharmony
we can see thatboththinkers
broaderrealmsof humanexistence.Furthermore,
subscribeto comparablebroadtimeframesforone's spiritual
Theyboth
progress.
believethatone's spirituallifebeginswitheducationin poetryand thearts,proin thecourseof
of inwardand outwardharmony
thedevelopment
gressesthrough
intheattainment
ofabsoluteknowledge
or thespontamiddleage, and culminates
neousawarenessoftheheavenlywill.
Beneficial
TheUse ofPoetry:
versusHarmful
Effects
BothPlatoand Confuciushave mixedviewsabouttheuse ofpoetryintheireducaOn theone hand,theyendorsetheuse ofpoetry
as a good toolfor
tionalsystems.
intellectual
or
moral
hold
that
harmony.
They
poeticharmony
producesa
cultivating
on
one's
consciousness
than
other
moresubtleand efficacious
impression
typesof
On theotherhand,theyregardpoetryas one oftheleastimportant
subharmony.
in
it
no
more
than
an
role
their
of
and
educaauxiliary
respective
jects study give
effects
ofpoetrystemming
tionalsystems.
fromits
Moreover,
theyfeartheharmful
sensual
To
such
harmful
to
emotion
and
effects,
pleasures. prevent
theyseek
appeal
forlaterstagesofeducationorto weed outtheinfluence
to ban theuse ofpoetry
of
bad poetry.
In thethirdbookoftheRepublic,Platogivesa detailedexplanation
oftheuseand music:
fulnessofpoetry
I continued,
thedecisive
ofeducation
inpoetry
andmusic:
Hence,Glaucon,
importance
sinkdeepintotherecesses
ofthesoulandtakethestrongest
andharmony
hold
rhythm
thatgraceofbodyandmindwhichis onlyto be foundinonewhois
there,
bringing
inthiskindmakesa manquick
a proper
upintheright
way.Moreover,
brought
training
inartorinnature.
orugliness
willrightly
toperceive
Suchdeformity
anydefect
disgust
hewillwelcomeithomewithjoyintohissoul,and
him.Approving
all thatis lovely,
nourished
hewill
Allthatisuglyanddisgraceful
thereby,
growintoa manofnoblespirit.
condemn
and
abhor
while
he
is
still
too
to
the
understand
and
reason;
young
rightly
heras a friend
withwhomhiseducation
whenreason
hasmadehim
comes,hewillgreet
longfamiliar.
I agree,hesaid;thatisthepurpose
inliterature
ofeducation
andmusic.27
Here Platoendorsesthe use of poetryand musicfortwo reasons.First,
theycan
arouse in the young a healthyaversionto the inharmoniousand the ugly.Second,

theycan bringabout the grace of body and mind.Throughpoetryand music,Plato
"shall flow intothe eye and the ear,
maintains,the grace of harmonyand rhythm
like a health-giving
breeze froma purerregion,and insensiblydraw the soul from
the earliestyears into likenessand sympathywiththe beautyof reason."28Among
Zong-qiCai

321
the poemsand typesof musicsuitableforthe young,he particularly

extolstwo
witha firm
simplekinds:thoseabouta bravemanwho "meetstheblowsoffortune
to endure,"and thoseabout a prudentman who acts
stepand a determination
in
and
times
oftriumph.29
moderately wisely
Platorejectstheuse ofpoetry
forlaterstagesofeducationas vehemently
as he
endorsesitforthe initialstage.In Book 10 ofthe Republic,Platoturnsaroundto
deliverhiswell-known
ofpoetry:
condemnation
I think,
hesaid,thatwe mayfairly
himas theimitator
ofthatwhichtheothers
designate
make.
inthedescent
from
nature
an imitator?
Good,I said;thenyoucallhimwhoisthird
he
said.
Certainly,
Andthetragic
andtherefore,
likeall otherimitators,
he is thrice
poetis an imitator,
removed
from
theking
andfrom
thetruth?
tobe so.30
Thatappears
WhileinhisearlyworksPlatocensuressomepoetry
foritsimitation
ofevil,herehe
condemnspoetry
wholesaleforitsact ofimitation,
its
notwithstandingpossibleimitationof good morals.He criticizespoetrynotforethicalreasons,buton philois notto be admitted
intohisidealrepublicbecauseoftwo
sophicalgrounds.Poetry
reasons.First,
does notleadthesoulbeyond
relatedepistemological
poeticimitation
of
sense
to
an
of
universals
or ideas ofwhichthe
objects
particular
apprehension
As RichardKannicht
for
absolutetruth
is constitutive.
pointsout, Plato"theabsolute
via recourseto theIdeas)
oftruth
attainedphilosophically
(i.e. dialectically
primacy
the givenworldit
entailsthe rejectionof mimeticpoetry,since by representing
in
fromthetruth
of
it
and
to
that
extent
remains
distance
doubtful
merelyrepeats
Ideas."31Second,poeticimitation
excitespassionsinthebase partofthesoul,while
Platowrites
partofthesoul. Inthisregard,
keepingincheckthereasonofthebetter
"awakens
and
nourishes
and
thatthe imitative
the
poet
strengthens feelingsand
...
the
reason
an
evil
forhe indulgesthe
[andthus]implants
constitution,
impairs
nature."32
irrational
Probablybecause thisbroadattackon poetryoccursin the lastbook of the
to represent
Plato'sfinalview of poetry.In any
Republic,it is oftenmisconstrued
in
is
as
such
used
criticalanthologies,
wherethe
it
treated
case,
manywidely
passage above is presentedin isolationfromPlato'smorepositivecommentson
Thisinevitably
of Platoamong
givesriseto thecommonmisconception
poetry.33
as
an
avowed
of
students
ofWestern
enemy poetry.
poetics
Plato'snegativeviewadvancedin Book10 oftheRepublicshouldnotbe seen
hisfairly
to havesuperseded
positiveviewofpoetryinhisearlydialoguesand inthe
viewsshouldbe placed
earlybooksof the Republic.Instead,his two conflicting
alongsideeach otheras two different
competingsides of histheoryof poetry,each of
which was to exerttremendousinfluenceon Westerncriticismat different
historical
periods. Plato's shiftto the negativeview indicatesnot a finalconclusion, but just
anothernew perspectiveon poetrydeveloped afterhe became the disciple of Socrates.34Apartfromthe influenceof Socrates, his adoption of this new perspective
322
East& West
Philosophy

to do withthechangingcontexts
ofhisdiscussion.Indiscussing
also has something
theeducationofyoungguardiansin theearlybooksofthe Republic,it is onlytoo
and laysdowntheprinciple
for
natural
thatPlatodistinguishes
good and bad poetry
Whenthecontextofhisdialoguechangesto histheory
theproperuse ofpoetry.
of
ideas in Book10, itis equallysensibleforhimto denouncepoetry's
bondagetothe
worldofsenses.
missionas a doublejourney-first
InthelightofPlato'sidea ofthephilosophical
theascenttotheworldofideasand thenthedescentbacktotheworldofsenses35viewsof poetry.He takesa positive
histwo conflicting
we can betterunderstand
whenhe sees itfromtheperspective
oftheascentand recognizesits
viewofpoetry
as a stepping-stone
to higherstrataofspiritual
usefulness
However,when
harmony.
the
and
of
descent
itsdegenerate
confronting
seeingpoetryfromthe perspective
he cannotbutembracea negativeviewand proposeto bannatureas an imitation,
ishitfromhisidealrepublic.Butindoingso, he meansonlytoexposetheinferiority
of poetryto transcendental
ideas,notto ban an expedientuse of it in thesensible
world.As a matter
offact,accordingto Plato,whenphilosopher-kings
descendback
to thesensibleworld,theyshouldseekto reorder
thatworldafter
thepattern
found
intheabsolutegood. Poetry,
of
is
other
to
be
re-created
with
a
among
things sense,
universals
viewto illustrating
theexistenceof
beyondthesensibleworld.
viewofpoetryis evidentin Plato'sTimaeus,Laws,and other
Sucha revisionist
afterthe Republic.The following
dialogueswritten
passage fromthe Timaeusis
of
Plato's
view
in
revisionist
of
his
laterdialogues:
representative
poetry
so muchofmusicas isadapted
tothesoundofthevoiceandtothesenseof
Moreover,
is
sake
to
us
for
the
of
andharmony,
whichhasmotions
akinto
hearinggranted
harmony;
ofoursouls,isnotregarded
therevolutions
the
of
the
Muses
as
by intelligent
votary
given
witha viewtoirrational
whichisdeemed
tobethepurpose
ofitinour
bythem
pleasure,
tocorrect
whichmayhavearisen
inthecourseofthesoul,
day,butas meant
anydiscord
andtobe ourallyinbringing
herintoharmony
andagreement
withherself;
andrhythm
toowasgivenbythemforthesamereason,
on accountoftheirregular
andgraceless
andtohelpusagainst
them.36
wayswhichprevail
amongmankind
generally,
Thispassageamountstosomething
ofa reversal
oftheviewofpoetry
in
putforward
Book 10 oftheRepublic.In Book 10, poetryis condemnedforitsdealingwiththe
truth.
Butherethesoundofthe
appearancesof sense insteadofthesuprasensible
voiceand thesenseofhearing
no
to
On thecontrary,
bring disgrace poetry.
theyare
describedas constitutive
akinto "revolutions
ofpoeticharmony
ofthesoul."
Poetryis censuredin Book 10 foritsarousalofpassionsor the"irrational
prinand rhythm
are endorsedas a welcomeallyincorrecting
ciple." Hereitsharmony
herintoharmony
withherself."
as William
Just
anydiscordinthesouland "bringing
C. Greenepointsout,Platocomesto befriend
himself
to poetryagain in his later
dialogues because he himselfappears thereas "a poet who has achieved a greater
degree of truthand hence a greaterseriousnessof purpose" of poetry.37In the light
of thisreaffirmation
of poetry'susefulnessfortrainingthe philosophicalmind,Plato
in the Laws begins all over again to discuss the educational use of poetryjust as he
Zong-qiCai

323
hasdone intheearlybooksoftheRepublic.Once more,he sees fitto acknowledge

educationas being"first
giventhrough
Apolloand theMuses"38to distinguish
good
and bad kindsofpoetry
and music,to urgethepoetto portray
thecharacter
ofgood
39and to advocatea rigorous
exerciseofcensorship
to guardagainsttheabumen,
siveuse ofpoetry.40
LikePlato,Confuciusconsiderspoetrya usefultool forhelpingtheyoungto
cultivateinwardand outwardharmony.
WhereasPlatobelievesthatgood poetry
the
of
and
into
holds
imparts grace harmony rhythm thesouloftheyoung,Confucius
thatgoodpoetry
can teachtheyounghowto regulate
theirinwardfeelings
and bring
withotherpeople.Thisviewofpoetryis clearlyexpressed
themselves
intoharmony
in hisbestknownremark
on thePoetry:
Howcomeyou,little
thePoetry?
ThePoetry
to
ones,do notstudy
mayhelpto inspire,
andtoexpress
of
to keepcompany
Itmaybe usedintheservice
observe,
grievances.
ofone'slordabroad.Furthermore,
itmaybroaden
athomeandintheservice
one'sfather
ofthenamesofbirds,
andtrees.41
ourknowledge
beasts,
plants
ofthePoetry
use as a literacy
all thefunctions
primer,
Exceptforitsleastimportant
Condiscussedhereare gearedtowardenhancinginwardand outwardharmony.
father-son
and
theuse ofthePoetry
forregulating
fuciusnotonlyexplicitly
mentions
thefourimportant
butalso setsforth
waysin whichthe
lord-subject
relationships,
to
enhance
broader
human
can
function
relationships:
xing (to inspire),
Poetry
X, grievances).
and
t
(to
(to
observe),qun a
keep company), yuan (to air
guan IV
claim
to
know
their
exact
these
four
termseach
no one can
meanings,
Although
on whichexegetesand criticshave anchhave,clearlyenough,a generalpurport
overthepasttwomillennia.
As we go overthe
oredtheirglossesand commentaries
we willfindthateach and everyone
bestknownoftheseglossesand commentaries,
to theachievement
ofinwardand outwardharmony.
ofthesefourtermspertains
here
rendered
as
"to
has
been
glossedas "to introduce
comparinspire,"
Xing,
and "to
isonsand bringcategories
(Han
dynasty)
by KongAnguoTL-I-A
together"
These
Zhu
Xi
two
evoketheheart'sintent"
(1130-1200).i42
glossesspeakto
by
*A,
thePoetry
thetwodifferent
beneficial
effects
produceson thereader:to evokeone's
withpoeticmetamoralconsciousnessand to help one expressoneselfproperly
whatthe Poetry
it
is
to
note
to
that,according Confucius,
important
phors.Here,
Conthancrudeemotions.43
evokesin thereaderis moralideas rather
Apparently
theevocationofmoralconsciousness
becausehe believesthatinthe
fuciusstresses
and achievean
one's emotionsintomoralsentiments
processone can transform
offeelings
and thoughts.
inwardharmony
Guanis glossedas "to observetheriseand declineofmoralcustoms"byZheng
Xuan $- (127-200)44 and "to observe the success and failures[ofgovernment]"
by Zhu Xi.45Huang Kan ?{Fil (488-545) explainsZheng Xuan's gloss ofguan in the
statesand therein
contextof the Poetry:"The Poetrycontainsthe songs of different
the riseand fallofsocial customsmaybe observedand understood."46In the lightof
the glosses by Zheng Xuan and Zhu Xi, it is generallyassumed thatConfuciustakes
of both the social
the Poetryto be a mirrorin which the readercan see reflections
324
East& West
Philosophy

stateand thesocialdiscordofan ill-governed

ofa well-governed
state.By
harmony
inthePoetry,
thedepictions
ofgoodand bad governments
he believesthat
observing
one can learn,as WangFuzhi itAZ (1619-1692) says,"to makeuse ofpraiseand
satireto establisha code ofrightness."47
one another"by Kong
Qun is glossedas "to keepcompanyand tryto improve
not
to
"to
but
follow
the
tide
ofbad customs"by
and
be
accommodating
Anguo48
theexegetesundoubtedly
bearinmindthisremark
ZhuXi.49Inglossing
thisterm,
by
and
"Men who keepcompanyall day longbutnevermention
Confucius:
rightness
The exegetes
who are givento pettyacts of cleverness,are indeeddifficult."50
assumethatby thetermqun Confuciusmeansnotonlya rejectionof bad human
of good humancompanygovernedby moral
companybutalso an establishment
inthePoetry.
as exemplified
rightness
withthe lordby meansof grievances"by
Yuanis glossedas "to remonstrate
without
"to
and
as
air
beingangry"byZhu Xi. Iftakenlitgrievances
KongAnguo
would
mean
"to
air
this
term
grievances"and wouldgivethewrong
simply
erally,
thatConfuciusencouragespeopleto venttheirgrievancesby meansof
suggestion
to Confucius'advocacyofpropriety
and
This
is,ofcourse,in contradiction
poetry.
Inorderto prevent
sucha misunderstanding,
emotionalrestraints.51
manyexegetes
ofthesubtlemannerinwhichpeopleexpress
see fittoexplainthetermas indicative
For instance,ZhangJuzhengk)iE
grievancestowardtheirrulersin the Poetry.
sorrowsand grievancesfrombeneathearnest
writesthatthe Poetry"bringsforth
of loyalty.
admonitions,
Havinglearntthis,one willknow
yetkeepsthesentiment
howto handlegrievances."52
we can see thatConfucius
Basedon theglossesofthefourterms,
encouragesthe
to
one's
cultivation
of
moral
Like
as
an
aid
of
the
harmony.
Poetrylargely
study
in
the
as
the
initial
this
the
of
Confucius
Plato,
stage cultivating
Poetry
regards study
setstraight
Confucius
moralharmony.
says,"Leta manbe inspired
bythePoetry,
by
to
the
of
Bao
Xian
therituals,
and perfected
music."53
by
According
interpretation
gJ (6 B.C.-A.D.65), to be "inspiredby the Poetry"is to have one's moralcultiand to be "set straight
vationinitiated
by rituals"is to have
by readingthe Poetry,
on firmmoralground.To be "perfected
oneselfestablished
by music,"LiuBaonan
bymusicand
J~ij@ (1791-1855) explains,is to haveone's moralqualitiesrefined
to
brought completion.
of thesubjectsof education,Confuciusundoubtby hisarrangements
Judging
Whenmentioning
thesubrole
to
the
an
studyofthePoetry.
edlyassigns auxiliary
arts
other
he
the
and
the
before
in
of
the
order
Poetry
subjects:
learning, places
jects
to
conductofaffairs,
"TheMastertookfoursubjectsforhisteaching:culture,
loyalty
encomand thekeepingofpromise[s]."54
Of thesefoursubjects,thefirst
superiors
in
and
the
next
three
cover
the
arts
the
broadest
the
literature
and
sense,
passes
to moral edumajor aspects of his moral education. This sequence fromliterature
cation is also reflectedin anotherpassage: "A gentleman,"he says, "who is widely
versed in lettersand at the same time knows how to submithis learningto the
restraints
of ritualis not likely,I think,to go farwrong."55However,when talking
and the arts
about these subjectsin theorderoftheirimportance,he places literature
Zong-qiCai

325
last."Set yourmindon theWay,base yourself

upon morality,
place yourdepenhimself
Confucius
does
dence on theGood,and dabblein politearts."56Although
notexplainthereasonforplacingpoetryand theartsat thebottomof hiseducait is nonetheless
notdifficult
to see whyhe choosesto do so. In
tionalprogram,
insomeworksinthePoetry,
thelicentious
content
andflorid
rhetoric
he
denouncing
a
fear
of
the
harmful
effects
an
uncontrolled
use
of
producedby
betrays deep
poetry
thisfearintoa sweepinginjunction
and the arts.Althoughhe does nottranslate
as Platodoes in Book10 oftheRepublic,he feelsimpelledby itto
againstpoetry,
down
strict
moraland aestheticprinciples
forpoetryand theartsin general.I
lay
shallreturn
to discussthesemoraland aesthetic
below.
principles
TheAdmiration
forPoetry:
TheUltimate
Good in theBeautiful
Platoand Confucius
admirepoetry
and theartsas muchas theyfearthemfortheir
poweroftransformation.
unparalleled
Alongsidetheinstancesofone's mindbeing
and
led
and
corrupted
astrayby poetry thearts,theybothenvisioncircumstances
whereone's mindis lifted
totherealmoftheultimate
andthearts.In
goodbypoetry
suchcircumstances,
and theartsenableone
observing
theyemphasizehowpoetry
to suspendone'ssensesand achievea directcommunion
withtheultimate
in
reality
Inpraising
thecourseofartistic
intuition.
thistransforming
reverse
their
power,they
viewsofpoetry
and theartsand considertheminstrumental
to achieving
customary
or moralharmony.57
thehighest
formofintellectual
to
the
common
ofPlatoas theenemyofpoetry,
we canfindin
Contrary
conception
his earlydialoguesan impassionedglorification
of poetrythathas been largely
critics.In thefollowing
neglectedby literary
passagesfromthe Phaedrusand the
forinstance,
he singsthepraisesofidealpoetry
withthesamefervor
as
Symposium,
willdo morethantwomillennia
later.There,notonlyis poetry
thehighRomantics
thriceremoved
from
itis laudedas an embodiment
notcalledan imitation
thetruth,
of thetruth.
as the artificer
of
Likewise,notonlyis the ideal poet notdenigrated
of
the
title
of
falsehood,he is acclaimedas themakerorcreator
worthy
philosopher.
Go andtellLysiasthatto thefountain
andschooloftheNymphs
we went
them
to
him
to
of
and
other
down,andwerebidden
by
composersspeeches-toHomer
andother
writers
ofpoems,
whether
settomusicornot;... toallofthem
we aretosay
on
thatiftheir
are
based
the
of
the
and
can
or
truth,
compositions
knowledge
they defend
them
...
are
to
be
not
then
but
called,
orators,
prove
they
onlypoets,
legislators, worthy
ofa higher
theserious
oftheir
life.
name,befitting
pursuit
PHAEDRUS:What
namewouldyouassign
tothem?
SOCRATES:Wise,I maynotcallthem;
forthatis a greatnamewhichbelongs
toGod
ofwisdom
orphilosophers
is their
andbefitting
title.(Phaedrus
modest
alone,-lovers
SOCRATES:
278)58
She answersme as follows:"Thereis poetry,

which,as you know,is complexand
All creationor passageof non-being
manifold.
intobeingis poetry
or making,
and the
of
all
are
and
of
art
the
masters
arts
are
all
or
makers."
creative;
processes
poets
"Very
true."(Symposium
205)s9
326
East& West
Philosophy

InthesetwopassagesPlatolavishesupontheidealpoeta wholearrayofeulogistic
"makers,""creators,"and "phiterms,such as "loversof wisdom,""legislators,"
most
what
are
peopleexpectto see inthewritings
losophers"-eventhoughpoets
of
Given
thecommonmisconception
of
Plato.
not
in
those
and
ofthe Romantics,
to findtheseaduone maybe morethansurprised
Plato'sviewsconcerning
poetry,
Platochoosesto
To
in
his
understand
in
abundance
such
terms
why
writings.
latory
on particular
his
views
we
must
consider
in
such
terms,
unqualified
praisepoetry
Inhisearly
and
Love.
the
absolute
beautiful
universal
beautiful
forms,
beauty,
things,
ofideas,Platoconceivesof
ofhistheory
beforethedevelopment
dialogues,written
formslyingbehind
all beautiful
as absolutebeauty,whichunifies
theabsolutetruth
of
the
absolutebeautyto
outflow
is
the
divine
Love
For
the beautiful
things. him,
themto beautiful
and through
forms
beautiful
things.Itis also thedivineinthesoul
thefollowhimto searchforabsolutebeautythrough
ofhumanbeingsthatinspires
ingsteps:
that
toperceive
oftruelove,begins
undertheinfluence
theseascending
He whofrom
of
that
for
the
sake
mount
of
earth
and
the
beauties
from
...
to
upwards
beauty
begin
to
all
from
two
on
to
and
from
one
and
as
these
other
two,
going
stepsonly,
beauty,
using
to
fair
until
and
from
fair
forms
to
fair
from
fair
and
fair
notions,
forms,
practices
practices,
whatthe
andat lastknows
ofabsolute
hearrives
atthenotion
from
fairnotions
beauty,
isthatlife
ofManitineia,
saidthestranger
is.This,mydearSocrates,
essenceofbeauty
absolute....60
ofbeauty
manshouldlive,inthecontemplation
aboveallothers
[that]
us as analogousto theprocess
forabsolutebeautystrikes
Thisprocessofsearching
intheRepublicand to be discussed
setforth
ofascendingtowardtheabsolutetruth
below. Bothprocessesare characterized
by the passage as proceedingfromthe
and fromtheuniversal
to theuniversal,
fromtheparticular
concreteto theabstract,
betweenthesetwoprocessesis thattheformer
totheabsolute.The majordifference
totranscendental
is a direct,unmediated
knowledge,
experience
leap fromaesthetic
theacquisition
same
destination
toward
the
is a gradualascent
andthelatter
through
the
and thesoul.Considering
ofthesense,thebody,theintellect,
oftheharmonies
in
the
former
to
transcendental
of
aesthetic
procknowledge
experience
proximity
ess, it makesgood sense forPlatoto assign,amongotherhonorableappellations,
to the poet. Inasmuchas the poet is inspiredby the
the name of philosopher
divineLove of beautyand in turninspiresthe same in others,Platosees fitto
inall thefine
that"Love is a goodpoetand accomplished
declareintheSymposium
arts."61
It mustbe emphasizedthatwhen Platopraisesthe ideal poet and poetryand
aesthetic
talksaboutthedirectleaptotranscendental
experience
through
knowledge
ofanyrealpoetsor ofanyexisting
ortheloveofbeauty,he is notthinking
poetical
works.To him,all poetsofearliertimesand ofhisowntime-includingHomer,the
greatestmaster-fall farshortof the ideal of a truepoet. None of theirworksmeasthe ideal

ures up to the ideal of truepoetry.Consequently,he chooses to identify
"'true'
who
are
with
and
in
Timaeus
the
philosophers
poet withthe creatingdeity
servantsof Eros, beauty, and the Muse."62 On the other hand, he unhesitatingly
Zong-qiCai

327
showshislowregard
forrealmimetic
themas thesixthofnineorders
poetsbylisting
of livespossibleforfallensouls.63Thisranking
is waydownfromthefirst
orderof
and
the
more
than
the
are
manual
laborers,
philosophers,
"onlypeople
lowly
poets
and tyrants,
inthatorder."64
exclusionofreal
Yet,inspiteofhisdeliberate
sophists,
poetsand poetryfromhis praises,whatPlatohas said aboutthe ideal poet and
poetrydoes becomethesourceoftheworshipofrealpoetsand poetryintheRenaissanceand theRomantic
era.65
in
is
true
that
the
later
of ideas
It
dialoguesPlato,havingdevelopedhistheory
and expoundedintellect
and reasonas a favoredmeansofachievingtranscendental
no longerspeaksso admiringly
ofthepoetand poetryas he did inthe
knowledge,
insofar
as
he
the
earlydialogues.Nevertheless,
alwayssees the absolutetruth,
absolutebeauty,andtheabsolutegoodas beingone and neverjettisons
histheory
of
Plato
be
assumed
to
in
his
later
as
well
as
his
that
the
believe,
life,
beauty,
may
early
absolute"can be approachedeitherbya hypothetical
scienceofdialecticor bythe
directintuition
oftheloverofbeauty,"66
eventhoughtheloverofbeautyis,to him,
morea philosopher
thana realpoet.
LikePlato,Confuciusholdspoetryand theartsinthehighest
esteemwhenhe
comes to considertheiraestheticimpact.In the threepassagesto be examined
observesthetransforming
effects
ofpoetry
and musicon hisown
below,Confucius
moralconsciousnessand identifies
such aestheticexperiencewithself-forgetting
the highest
formof moralharmony
in hisphilosophical
spontaneity,
system.In so
he
movespoetry
and theartsfromtheperipheral
to thecentralpart
doing, virtually
ofhisteachings.
WhentheMaster
heardtheShaointhestateofQi, hebecameoblivious
ofthetasteof
meatforthreemonths.
He said,"I never
that
music
could
be
toperexpected
brought
fection
likethis."67
Nowhereelse intheAnalectsis Confucius
to suchan extentoverwhelmed
withjoy
or sadness,or admiration
or disgust.Confuciusis describedas beingveryfondof
meat.Whenheadmitshispupils,theonlythinghewillacceptfrom
themis a bundle
of meat-be itcalled a giftor tuition.So in hiscase, theforgetting
ofthetasteof
meatforthreemonthscan be takenas a metaphorical
statement
aboutthetransformation
of hisstateof consciousness.Fora moderncriticinfluenced
by Kantian
thismentaltransformation
of Confuciusmayseem to exemplify
aesthetics,
pure
aesthetic
as itis markedbyitspurgeofsensuouspleasure(thepalatefor
experience,
effect
Buthe also praisestheShao68elsemeat)and by itsenduring
(threemonths).
whereas "beingperfectly
beautiful
and perfectly
he takesthe
good."69Apparently,
Shao to be a supremeexampleofaestheticand moralperfection,
notaesthetic
perfectionalone. LikePlato,he holdsthatmoralvirtueand aesthetic
beautyare notat
beautiful.
odds, but bound up witheach other.The perfectly
good mustbe perfectly
Justas Plato speaks of his world of ideas as being absolutelygood and absolutely
beautiful,Confuciussingsthe praisesof his idealized Golden Age in bothmoraland
aestheticterms.
328
East& West
Philosophy

isonlyforheaven,
wasYaoas a lord.Greatness
TheMaster
said,"Great
yetYaomatched
not
find
a
name
for
it.
Noble
and
arehisaccomcould
it.Howsublime!
grand
People
Luminous
arehiscultural
embellishments!"70
plishments!
The case ofConfuciusbeingtransported
bytheShao is nottheonlyinstanceofan
withaestheticexperience.Ifwe
intensestateof moralconsciousnessinterfused
we willsee thattheselfofhisown spiritual
recallConfucius'description
progress,
moral
consciousness
he achievesat the
form
of
the
spontaneity, highest
forgetting
identical
a
stateofaesthetic
of
is
akin
if
not
with, heightened
to,
entirely
age seventy,
endsor non-purposiveness.
byspecificutilitarian
experienceuntainted
This mergingof the highestmoralconsciousnesswithaestheticexperience
becomeseven moreevidentin thepassagecitedbelow.71The passageis partofa
Confuciushas withfourof his disciples:Zilu Tf , Ran You f$},
conversation
asksthesefourpupilsto tellhim
GongxiHua /;S , and ZengXifh. Confucius
if
each
would
seek
their
merits
wererecognizedby somewhatemployment
they
that
ask
to
a
of a thousandwarriors
he
would
lead
one. The first
replies
country
hit
enemies
and
natural
to endow
threatened
calamities,
by
by powerful
promising
conductinthreeyears.
thepeoplewithcourageand to teachthemthewayofright
The second pupilrepliesthathe wouldask to governa regionof roughly
sixtyto
and
to
have
well
in
the
for
the
seventyleagues
promise
people
provided
space of
threeyears.The thirdrepliesthathe would liketo assumethe dutyof a junior
inperforming
is calleduponto
assistant
variouscourtly
ceremonies.
Then,thefourth
his
give reply:
Tien[ZengXi],whataboutyou?
Thenotesofthezithern
hewassoftly
diedaway;he putitdown,roseand
fingering
I
will
fear
words
not
be
so
well
chosen
as thoseoftheother
three.
The
replied
saying, my
in
All
Master
What
harm
is
there
that?
that
is
matters
that
each
should
name
his
said,
desire.
whenthemaking
oftheSpring
Clothes
TsengHsi[ZengXi]said,Attheendofspring,
hasbeencompleted,
togowithfivetimes
sixnewly-capped
six
and
times
seven
youths
in
the
lustration
the
river
take
the
air
at
the
Rain
Dance
altars,
uncapped
boys,perform
I,
TheMaster
andthengo homesinging.
heaveda deepsighandsaid,I amwithTien.72
This is perhapsone of the mostheatedlydebatedpassagesin theAnalects.Why
does Confucius
ofthefirst
threepupils'choices,which
expressa subtledisapproval
inpolitics
all seemto be in linewithhiscustomary
on
active
emphasis
participation
and on theobservanceofrituals?
does
he
an
endorsement
ofZeng
Why
give explicit
Xi's choice,whichseemsall too similarto thecourseof nonactionadvocatedby
withthefirst
Daoists?His disagreement
threeis nottoo difficult
to understand,
as he
Xi
to
that
he
himself
with
them
because
explainsshortly Zeng
disagrees
theywere
askingfora kingdomor an officialpost and lacked thevirtueofyielding(rang$). In
otherwords,Confuciusdisprovestheirchoices to be those of non-purposiveaction
because they are not untaintedby personal ambitions.As to his agreementwith
Zeng Xi, Confuciusgives no explanationand has leftposterityspeculatingabout it
Zong-qiCai

329
ever since. Of the countlessinterpretations

the most
givenby laterConfucians,
as
Chan
"that
Hsi
was
the
are,
noteworthy
Wing-tsit says,
Tseng
enjoying harmony
oftheuniverse
fromofficialdom
at the
(WangCh'ung),thathe was wiselyrefraining
timeofchaos (HuangK'an),thathe was thinking
ofthe'kingly
way'whereasother
ofthegovernment
offeudalstates(Han YU),thathe was inthe
pupilswerethinking
ofthePrinciple
ofNature(ChuHsi),andthathe was
midstoftheuniversal
operation
of
freedom
the
spirit
(WangYang-ming)."73
expressing
All theseinterpretations
are perceptive
in theirown ways,and,together,
they
with
Xi.
constitute
a threefold
of
Confucius'
First,
explanation
agreement Zeng
Zeng
lifethatleavesno roomforegotistic
Xi'schoicerepresents
a courseofnon-purposive
lifeexemplifies
thewayofsagedesiresand pursuits.
Second,sucha non-purposive
actionsbutreignthrough
themoralinflukings,who do notrulebynon-purposive
life
from
theirownunselfconscious
life.Third,
sucha non-purposive
ence emanating
in
one
ultimate
which
leadstothestateofself-forgetting
enjoys
harmony
spontaneity
whether
thatharmony
is called "harmony
oftheuniverse,"
withall things,
"Princi"freedom
of
of
or
Nature,"
spirit."
ple
of thesoul, he
transformation
when Platodiscussesthe ultimate
Interestingly,
and
comesto embracethreesimilarideals:non-contentiousness,
philosopher-kings,
withall
thatafterone has achievedharmony
theultimate
He maintains
harmony.
who is willingbut not
or ideas,one becomesa philosopher-king,
the universals
lifeofZengXi,whostands
as Confucius
praisesthenon-purposive
eagerto rule.Just
lifeofa
the
non-contentious
Platoglorifies contemplative,
above politicalambition,
and who,
who "looksdownuponthelifeofpoliticalambition"74
philosopher-king
"most
reluctant
to
likeConfucius'
is
govern."75
sage-kings,
ofZengXi'sidealnon-purposive
significance
Havinggraspedthephilosophical
as Xu
ofsucha lifeto aesthetic
activities.
Just
life,we can nowconsidertherelation
Xi
aesthetic
what
to
do
is,
out,
essentially,
activity.76
Zeng proposes
Fuguanpoints
in the riverand the altarvisitin the spiritof a
As Zeng Xi depictsthe lustration
in
we
have
excursion,
springtime
good reasonto assumethathe engageshimself
thana ceremonialpurpose.His depictheseactivities
foraestheticpleasurerather
theaestheticoritionofthehumming
and singingofpoetry
onlyservesto confirm
endorsessuchan aesthetically
ofhisproposedlife.Inasmuchas Confucius
entation
he seems
ofself-forgotten
lifeas an idealwaytotheattainment
oriented
spontaneity,
artistic
to be doingwhatPlatodoes inthePhaedrusand theSymposium-celebrate
and moving
intuition
as themeansofachievingtheblessedformofconsciousness
and theartsto thecenterofhisteachings.
poetry
in Content
and Form
Moraland Aesthetic
Principles:
Simplicity
Both Plato and Confuciusjudge poetical and musical works in the lightof their
positiveand negativeeffectson the maintenanceof harmonyat various levels. On
the one hand,theyfindin some worksexamples of harmoniousrelationshipsin the
realmsof gods or men,and encouragetheyoungto studythoseworks.On the other
hand, theyboth see in otherpoems many undesirableelementsthatconfuseone's
330
East& West
Philosophy

of the Ideas (divineharmony),

or upsetone's mentalequilibrium
and
perception
actions.On thegroundsofthesenegativeeffects,
Plato
inclineone to inappropriate
from
kinds
of
and
banish
the
his
to
censor
various
republic.In
poetry
poet
proposes
was
to
have
edited
Confucius
believed
out
thousands
times
of
widely
premodern
to merely
poemson moralgroundsand thusreducetheextantcorpusofthePoetry
as a meremythbymostmodern
threehundredand fivepieces.Thoughdiscredited
thisbeliefshouldnotjustbe dismissed
outofhand.Considering
Confucius'
scholars,
harshverdicts
on licentious
it
is
at
least
a
of
works,
plausibleconjecture whatConfuciuswould liketo do withthe undesirablepoems in the Poetry.
In judgingthe
content
and formofpoetry
and music,Platoand Confucius
bothadheretothesame
ofsimplicity.
Forthem,simplicity
leadsto thegood and thebeaugoldenprinciple
as
leads
to
the
bad
and
theugly.Thereare plentyofexamplesthat
tiful, multiplicity
tellus howthesetwoancientthinkers
ofaesthetics
to
applytheirsimilarstandards
theevaluationofparticular
works.
Inthefirst
twobooksoftheRepublic,Platoidentifies
thelivesofgodsand good
menas good contents
of poetryand music.ForPlato,simplicity
in contentmeans
thatgodsmustbe singularly
of
of
evil
in
traces
deeds
orwordsgood-devoid any
and remainso underall circumstances.
of
their
lives
is conAnycontrary
depiction
demnedby himas theusurpation
ofsimplicity
or duplicity.
by multiplicity
Among
numerousexamplesofsuchtampering
withgodlysimplicity,
he citesthebattleof
of gods by magicor illusions,the terrifying
wordsand
gods,the metamorphosis
scenes concerning
the
lamentations
and
and
Hades,
unseemly
laughter, drunkennessand softness
and indolenceintheworksofHomer,Aeschylus,
and others.For
ofthesingular
in
are no small
Plato,all theseblatantadulterations
goodness poetry
as
are
bound
to
the
soul
of
the
the
matter, they
corrupt
young, hope of his ideal
He
is
fearful
that
all
theseuntruths
wouldcause theyoungto
republic.
particularly
forman erroneousnotionofthegods and admirepatricides,
and other
fratricides,
violentacts willfully
attributed
to thosegods,and thatthe youngwould ape the
in poeticalworks,and act in
unbecoming
languagesand deeds falselyrepresented
oftheirownsoulsbutthreaten
theharmony
of
waysthatnotonlyupsettheharmony
theStateat large.Inviewofthisgravedanger,Platomakesthecensorship
ofpoetry
hisfirst
orderofbusinessinthebuilding
ofhisrepublic:
Thenthefirst
willbe toestablish
a censorship
ofthewriters
offiction,
andletthe
thing
censorsreceiveanytaleoffiction
whichis good,and rejectthebad;andwilldesire
mothers
andnurses
totelltheir
children
theauthorized
onesonly.Letthem
fashion
the
mindwithsuchtales,evenmorefondly
thantheymouldthebodywiththeir
hands;but
mostofthosewhicharenowinusemust
be discarded.77
The scope ofPlato'sproposedcensorship
encompassestheformas well as thecon-
tentof poetry.As Mihail I. Spariosupointsout, Plato believes thatpoetrycan "affect

the soul of the futureguardiansnot onlythroughitscontentor tales (logoi, mythoi),
but also throughitsdiction (lexis) or itsmannerof presentation."78In otherwords,
the formof poetryis, to Plato, inseparablybound up with its content. "Beauty
of style and harmonyand grace and good rhythmdepend on simplicity,"he
Zong-qiCai

331
of a rightly
and noblyorderedmindand
announces-"I meanthetruesimplicity
he
that
and
discordand inharmonious
Conversely,
argues
"ugliness
character."''79
motionare nearlyalliedto ill wordsand ill nature."80
Giventhisstraightforward
identification
of formwithcontent,it is all butcertainthatPlatowouldestablish
as thecriterion
ofgood formand denounceelaboratemultiplicity
as the
simplicity
trademark
ofbad form.
ThisisexactlywhatPlatodoes whenhe discussesthestyleofdramatic
imitation.
to
no
to playmorethanone character
According Plato, one shouldallow himself
ordramatic
because"thesamepersonwillhardly
representation
typeina narrative
be able to playa seriouspartin life,and at thesame timeto be an imitator
and
imitate
other
as
for
those
wish
who
to
imitate
he
all, gives
many
parts well."81 So,
thispracticaladvice:"theyshouldimitate
from
youthupwardonlythosecharacters
whichare suitableto theirprofession-the
courageous,temperate,
holy,free,and
thelike."82Although
he admitsthata pantomimic
have
themiracuperformer
may
lous powerof imitating
and holdingchildrenand theirattendants
alike
anything
himthatinourStatesuchas he are
Platocontends
that"we mustinform
spellbound,
to exist;thelaw willnotallowthem."83
of
notpermitted
Analogousto hiscriticism
is his oppositionto the mixedstyleof harmony
and
the mixedstyleof imitation
scale" and agreesto
ofnotesor panharmonic
meter.He censuresthe"multiplicity
of
oflyreswiththreecorners
andcomplexscales,orthemakers
banish"theartificers
The
instruments
other
harmonized
instruments."84
any
many-stringed
curiously
only
to remaininhisStatearethesimple"lyreand harpforuse inthecity"anda pipefor
inthecountry.85
He subjectstheuse ofmetertothesamerules,as
use byshepherds
or meters
he warnspeople"notto seekoutcomplexsystems
ofmeter,
ofeverykind,
to discoverwhatrhythms
are theexpressions
of a courageousand harbutrather
moniouslife."86
In discussingtheworkscontainedin the Poetry,
Confuciusjudgesthemby a
standardof simplicity
to
moral-aesthetic
comparable thatof Platoin manyways.
as
LikePlato,he regards
moral
ofgoodpoetry.
Just
goodnessas thehallmark
singular
ofgodsinsomeofHomer'sworks,Confucius
theproperportrayals
Platocommends
the
the
wholesome
contents
of
as a whole:"ThreeHundredPoems87
Poetry
praises
in
fromtheright."'88
summed
this
'no
Whenhe disbe
phrase: departing
up
may
in
cusses "The Osprey,"thefirst
and the mostfamouspoem thispoeticalcollecof its fine moral-aesthetic
tion, he speaks admiringly
qualities:"The song of
withoutbeingvex'The Osprey'is passionatewithoutbeinglicentious,
sorrowful
of
the
a
well
This
is
moral
as
as
aesthetic
one. Confucius
ing.""89 judgment
poem
praisesitsobservanceof the principleof the MiddleCoursein the avoidanceof
Inthemeantime
he tacitly
refers
to theabsenceofexcessesin
emotionalextremes.
meant
formand style.The wordyin4, renderedhereas "licentious,"
originally
"excessive" in the time of Confucius, and only later took on the meaning of
"debauched."
In explainingthis passage, traditionalChinese commentatorstend to interpret
thisword in these two senses alternately.Takingthe word yin in itsoriginalsense,
we can assume thatConfuciusis herecommentingon theabsence ofexcesses in the
332
East& West
Philosophy

Thisbeingthecase, we shouldconpoem'sformand styleas well as itscontent.90

rather
thana puremoraljudgment.
Thisis
siderthispassageto be a moral-aesthetic
is
in
with
to
the
as
it
the
the appropriate
interpret
way
passage,
keeping
typical
and aestheticsintheAnalects.ForConfuciusas forPlato,moral
fusionof morality
Confucius
does notdiscuss
and aestheticqualitiesare one and thesame.Although
on an abstractconceptuallevelas
theaffinity
betweenthegood and thebeautiful
works:"The
does Plato,he does applaudthefusionofthetwo in thebestartistic
beautiful
and perfectly
MasterspokeoftheShao as beingperfectly
good.""91
In the Analects,Confuciusconsistently
associatessimplicity
withthe morally
withthemorally
bad and aesdesirable,and "multiplicity"
good and aesthetically
While
he
the
first
of
undesirable.
takes
the
as
of
thetically
piece
Poetry exemplary
he
the
of
of
as
"excessiveness":
"Do
simplicity, regards songs Zheng typical
away
withthe tunesof Zhengand keep the flatterers
at bay. The tunesof Zhengare
excessiveand theflatterers
are dangerous."92
In anotherpassage,Confucius
deliversan even moreforthright
of
denunciation
"I
"multiplicity":hatepurplethatusurpsred."93Herehe denouncespurplebecause
fromtheadulteration
itis a mixedcolorthatresults
ofthepurecolorofred.Appaa
for
he
uses
red
as
the
virtue
of
and purpleas a metaphor
metaphor
rently
simplicity,
or"duplicity"
inmoralas wellas aesthetic
fortheviceof"multiplicity"
matters.
This
strikes
us as beingtrulyanalogousto Plato'sviewon simplicity
and multiplicity
in
and
meters.
imitation,
melodies,
poetic
Whether
or notConfucius
editedthePoetry
and expungedthousands
ofpoems
as alleged,he wouldcertainly
havebeensympathetic
totheidea ofcensoring
works
thatfailedto meethis moral-aesthetic
standards.His desireto do away withthe
ofhowhe wouldcensorpoetryifhe wereinan
songsofZhengis a clearindication
In
a
official
to
do
so.
Confucius
position
way,
maybe seento practicea measureof
inthenameof"rectification."
Inadditionto hisattempt
to eradicatethe
censorship
of
he
seeks
to
the
and
in
his
homestateLu.
music,
songs Zheng,
rectify
songs, hymns
The Mastersaid, "AfterI returned
fromWei to Lu, musicwas rectified,
odes and
to rectify
lanhymns[were]putto theirproperuse."94Moreover,he setshimself
the
raw
for
material
and
other
arts:
itself,
very
guage
poetry
literary
Iflanguage
is incorrect,
thenwhatissaiddoesnotconcord
withwhatwasmeant;
andif
whatis saiddoes notconcordwithwhatwas meant,
whatis to be donecannotbe
Ifwhatistobedonecannot
effected.
beeffected,
thenrites
willnotflourish.
andmusic
If
ritesandmusicdo notflourish,
thenmutilations
andlesserpunishments
willgo astray.
Andifmutilations
andlesser
thenthepeoplehavenowhere
toput
punishments
goastray,
handorfoot.95
LikePlato'scensorship
of poetry,
Confucius'rectification
of languageis motivated
of reality.Justas
by the concern over the dire consequences of misrepresentation
Plato dreads thatthe poetic misrepresentation
of gods will lead to the imitationof
evil conduct by his ingenuousguardians,Confuciusfearsthat linguisticmisrepresentationof sociopoliticalrealitywill lead to a willfuldestructionof the hierarchical
sociopolitical structure.Unless language is rectifiedand made to representreality
Zong-qiCai

333
Confuciusbelieves,therecannotbe orderand harmony

in humanrelatruthfully,
letalone stablepoliticaland social institutions.
tionships,
In rectifying
the use of language,Confuciusadoptsthe same moral-aesthetic
ofsimplicity
standard
thathe does injudgingpoetry,
music,and thearts.According
to him,simplelanguageis thelanguagefora gentleman:
TheMaster
isashamed
tolethiswords
outrun
hisdeeds.96
said,A gentleman
TheMaster
allthatmatters
istogetone'smeaning
said,Inofficial
speeches
through.97
in
Here Confuciusshowsthata gentleman
uses languagecarefully
and sparingly
official
use morewordsthannecessary
to describe
business,and neverletshimself
histhoughts
and deeds.Conversely,
he maintains
thatclever,contrived
languageis
forhisowngains:
thelanguageofa base manscheming
TheMaster
wordsandan ingratiating
haveanysaid,Artful
countenance,
theyscarcely
todo withtheGood.98
thing
withclapThemaster
Thosewhodownothers
said,Whatneedhetobe a goodtalker?
trapareseldompopular.99
is particularly
mindful
thathiscensure.of
should
LikePlato,Confucius
"multiplicity"
fora denialofbeauty.WhereasPlatocautionsthatsimplicity
is not
notbe mistaken
warns
his
of
his
denunciation
naive,Confucius
purplewith
pupilsagainstequating
To correct
ofbeautiful
sucha misunderstanding
an indiscriminate
rejection
patterns.
ofhisidea byJiZichekfT, he says,"Cultureis likesubstance;substanceis like
thatof a dog or
culture.Ifshornof hairs,theskinofa tigeror leopardresembles
he makesclearthathisdenunciation
ofartful
languagedoes
sheep."'ooInaddition,
To
the
extent
that
refined
notmeanan exclusionofrefined
languagehelps
language.
In
he endorsestheuse ofiteven in official
to conveymeanings
forcefully,
writings.
it
he says,itis bestto have revised,
embellished
a government
ordinance,
preparing
touchesby personslike his disciplesZiyu fEb and
and givenelegantfinishing
Zichan
, who havea specialtalentforlanguage.101
f-
Vertical
Patterns
ofHarmony:
Elevation
versusHorizontal
Expansion
first
to considerwhythereare so manysimilarities
In closing,itseemsappropriate
ofpoetry
ofPlatoand thoseofConfucius,
and thento setforth
betweenthetheories
difference
betweenthetwotheories.
theunderlying
As has been shownabove, Platoand Confuciusholdsimilarviewson poetry
withregardto itseducationalvalue,itssocialfunctions,
itsaestheticpower,and its
All
moral-aesthetic
these
similarities
stem
from
a commonoverriding
principles.
concern withharmony.Both Plato and Confuciushave harmonyin the forefront

of
theirmindswhen theyformulatetheirviews of poetry.They both acknowledge the
educational value of poetrybecause theyconsideritconducive to the development
of inwardharmonyin the young. They both assign to poetrya statusconsiderably
lowerthanothersubjectsof education because theyfindpoetic harmonyto be of a
334
East& West
Philosophy

or moralharmony
aboutbythose
kindthantheintellectual
lesssignificant
brought
aestheticexperiothersubjects.However,whentheytakenoteofthetransforming
in
certain
both
suchaesthetic
ence afforded
circumstances,
by poetry
they
identify
the
with
the
attainment
of
blessed
with
ultimate
harmony
experience
reality-the
Truthand thewillof Heaven.In judgingboththecontentand formsof particular
moral-aesthetic
standard
ofsimplicity,
poeticalworks,theybothadoptthestringent
leadsto harmony
and ordernotonlyinthemindofan
as theybelievethatsimplicity
butalso intheaffairs
ofhumansocietyat large.Moreover,
to ensurethat
individual,
to theenhancement
of inwardand outwardharmony,
poetrywill contribute
they
of
it
and
bothseekto exercisea rigorous
whatever
is
not
censorship
expunge
singly
good incontentand whatis excessiveoroverlyelaborateinform.
Whilethecommonconcernsof
Platoand Confucius
withharmony
giveriseto
all thesesimilarviews,theirdifferent
viewsof ultimate
lead themto pursue
reality
axes. Benjamin
harmonyand develop theirtheoriesof poetryalong different
Schwartzgivesan excellentanalysisof thefundamental
difference
betweentheir
viewsoftheultimate
reality.
In Platowe finda yawning
a truth
arrived
at through
theapodictic
abyssbetween
the
dialectic
of
and
of
mathematical
and
a
world
of "opinion"
necessity
reasoning
derived
an
from
observation
of
the
chaos
of
human
haphazardly
ordinary
experience.
thechaosoftheworldofparticulars
Confucius
doesnotrisefrom
toa realmofeternal
forms
linked
totheempirical
world.102
since,inhisview,thetaoremains
indissolubly
ForPlato,thetranscendental
Truthis to be arrivedat bypursuing
harmony
alonga
verticalaxis.103Indiscussing
Plato'ssystem
ofeducation,we havealreadycaughta
thatof poetryat the bottom,
glimpseof his ascendingscale of harmonies-from
those
of
and dialectic,to
mathematics,
through
gymnastics,
geometry,
astronomy,
thatof the divinesphereat the apex. In the Timaeus,Platodepictsthisscale of
harmonies
from
theoppositedirection,
as he tracestheoriginative
inGod,
harmony
its
in
manifestation
celestial
to
the
harmonies
of
movements,
through
sublunary
humanthought,
and
bodies.
sensations, physical
Confucius
believesthattheDao is to be realizedbyextending
harBycontrast,
a
horizontal
axis.104
Unlike
he
not
does
conceive
the
Dao
to
be
a
Plato,
monyalong
transcendental
like
Plato's
is
to
be
transmitted
a
vertical
that,
God,
entity
through
chainof beingsbythepurethinking
of a philosopher-king.
the
Instead,he regards
Dao as an "immanent"
principleof ideal humanorderto be realizedin themidst
of one's privateand social life.Forhim,the realization
of the Dao meansfirst
to
achieveperfect
inwardharmony
oftheselfand thento establishperfect
harmony
withall otherpeopleat homeand abroadina mannerappropriate
to one's statusin
a hierarchical
inwardand outwardharmony,
society.Ifone achievessuch perfect
Confuciusbelieves,one will attainthe ideal of ren and become one withthe
Dao at work in all human relationships.When such a person becomes a ruler,he

mustof necessitybringabout the realizationof the Dao in all levels of humanexistence and hence achieve a long-lasting
peace and prosperityin his state.Although
Confuciushimselfdoes not expound his concept of harmonyin these terms,he is
Zong-qiCai

335
believedby Zhu Xi to have setforth

a processofextending
theconcentric
circles
ofharmony
fromwithin
one's heartto theentireworld:
Thingsbeinginvestigated,
knowledgebecamecomplete.Theirknowledge
beingcomweresincere.Theirthoughts
their
werethen
hearts
sincere,
plete,theirthoughts
being
rectified.
Theirheartsbeingrectified,
theirpersonswerecultivated.
Theirpersonsbeing
theirfamilies
wereregulated.
Theirfamilies
theirStateswere
cultivated,
beingregulated,
Their
States
the
whole
rightly
governed.
beingrightly
governed,
kingdomwas made
andhappy.105
tranquil
ThispassagecomesfromtheGreatLearning
a chapterfrom
(Daxue)SI), originally
the Book of Rites(LijiAE) and latermade one ofthefourConfuciancanonical
themouthof
booksbyZhuXi.Although
thispassageis notlikelyto havecomefrom
06
Confucius'horizontal
Confuciusas Zhu Xi argues, itdoes presentin a nutshell
of
which
his
educational
and
as well
upon
sociopolitical
pattern harmony,
programs
ofpoetry
arefounded.
as histheory
Plato'svertical
and Confucius'horizontal
ofharmony
revealtwodifferpatterns
Plato's
verticalpattern
entpathsleadingto theattainment
oftheultimate
harmony.
For
to
climb
the
of harmonies
betokensan epistemological
scale
up
process. him,
ofknowledgeuntilone enters
and rarefied
forms
meansto gainevermoreabstract
ofpurethinking
and thereality
ofbeing.Within
thisvertical
of
thethreshold
pattern
it
07-action
is
as
calls
to
be
exact,
harmony" Spariosu
harmony-or,
"logo-rational
As David L. Hall and RogerT. Amespointout,Platoand
ofsecondaryimportance.
in accordancewiththenormative
his idealistfollowers
interpret
"praxisas activity
lifemainlyservesthese
ofknowledge."108ForPlato,activesociopolitical
principles
on thecharacter
of
ofsuchepistemological
twopurposes:to testtheeffects
pursuits
the
human
on
the
model
of
absolute
and
to
society
reorganize
youngerlearners,
knowledge.109
For
In contrast,
tracesan existential
pattern
process.110
live
a
moral
of
means
to
to
the
concentric
circles
Confucius, expand
harmony
priinone's family,
to conductsocialand
and othervirtues
vatelife,to practicefiliality
to bringorderto thestateand peace to the
and thereby
properly,
politicalaffairs
world.Withinthishorizontalpatternof harmony,
pursuitis of
epistemological
in
Zhu
and
the Great
It
is
true
that
Xi, editing elucidating
secondaryimportance.
totheacquisition
ofknowledge
thananyother
attachesmoreimportance
Learning,
himself.
He
chooses
to
Confucius
Confucian,
glossgewu tVO as
major
including
as
and
zhizhi
"to
extend
"to investigate
one's
knowledge"and totake
things"
R~
of
inthe
setforth
thesetwoinitialstepsas thecoreofthehorizontal
pattern harmony
GreatLearning.
Still,Zhu's idea ofinvestigating
knowledgeis
thingsand extending
While
Plato
believesthat
like
Plato's
idea
of
pursuit.
pureepistemological
nothing
of absolute knowledgeis in and of itselfthe end and rewardof episthe attainment

temologicalpursuit,Zhu Xi holds thatthe extensionof knowledgeto the utmostnamely the grasp of li #I, the absolute principleof all things-marks only the
beginningof an eminentlyethicalway of livingthatpromisesto bringabout perfect
harmonyin ever broadeningrealmsof human life.The factthatZhu Xi,the greatest
336
East& West
Philosophy

stillholdsepistemology
in subordination
to the
Confucianadvocateofknowledge,
in
ofepistemological
tothesecondary
act oflivingis a testimony
pursuit
importance
of
pattern harmony.
builton theirverticaland horiThe theoriesof poetryof Platoand Confucius,
betweenan
exhibita fundamental
difference
ofharmony,
zontalpatterns
inevitably
of
All
of
Plato's
viewson
an
existential
and
understandingpoetry.
epistemological
of
and
usefulness
on
the
in
comments
effectiveness,
validity,
poetryare, essence,
of
in
Book
truth.
denunciation
the
absolute
His
as a meansofknowing
poetry
poetry
ofitsfalse,invalidpresentation
ofthetruth.
His
10 oftheRepublicis an indictment
conditionalacceptanceof poetryin Books2 and 3 of the Republicand in the
inpreparing
theyoungfor
TimaeusandtheLawsis a tacitadmissionofitsusefulness
of knowledge.His praiseof poetryin the Phaedrus
theacquisitionof higherforms
ofitsdirectcontactwithabsolutebeauty
is an acknowledgment
and theSymposium
of"simplicity"
is an indication
ofhisconcernover
and truth.
His aestheticstandard
or
caused
of
absolute
erroneousperceptions truth,
otherwise,
bythe"multiplicity"
ofhisfearof
in poeticcontentand style.His censorship
ofpoetryis an expression
its
of the epistemological
of
the
untruthful
the ruination
capability
youngby
preofreality.
sentation
viewsofpoetry
areassessments
oftheapplicability
all ofConfucius'
Conversely,
as Platoalwaysaskshimself
to reallifeas a modelforethicalliving.
ofthePoetry
Just
can be usefulinthecognition
thequestionofwhether
and howpoetry
ofthetruth,
of
concerns
himself
with
the
how
the
can
Confucius
always
question
Poetry be used
toguidevariousaspectsofone's innerand outerlife.Indefining
thefunctions
ofthe
the
it
can
he
focuses
on
effects
on
an
individuPoetry,
exclusively
positive
produce
on his socioal's emotionaland ethicallife(theevocationof moralsentiments),
of good and bad customs),on his relationships
with
politicallife(thedistinction
and equals (thekeepingof good company),on his familylife(theproper
friends
skills(themastery
ofdiplomatic
serviceto parents),
on hiscommunicative
protocol),
withrulers
of
He takesthe
and on hisinteraction
(theproperexpression grievances).
ofthestateofnon-purposive
attainment
yetmoralexistence,notthedirectintuition
as does Plato,to be thegreatest
ofthetruth,
possibleeffect
poetrycan produceon
themoral-aesthetic
standard
ofsimplicity,
notforan episone's life.He introduces
oflifein a
temologicalreason,as does Plato,butoutofconcernfortheorderliness
hierarchical
feudalsociety.WhereasPlatoimposesthemoral-aesthetic
standardof
oftruth
as an antidoteto distortions
fromunethical,
simplicity
stemming
"multiple"
in poetryand thearts,Confuciusenactsthesame as a safemodesofpresentation
oftheorderofsociopolitical
liferesulting
theartful
from
guardagainsttheusurpation
use oflanguage.
in dissimThe presentdiscussioncan be considereda studyof "similarities
ilarity."I have examined many similaritiesbetween the theoriesof poetryof Plato
and Confucius that arise fromtheircommon overridingconcern with harmony.
in which all these simiMeanwhile, I have identifiedthe fundamentaldissimilarity
laritiesare found.This dissimilarity
is none otherthan the contrastbetween Plato's
verticalpatternof abstractintellectualharmonyand Confucius'horizontalpatternof
Zong-qiCai

337
moralharmony.
Inconsequenceofthis,theirtheories
ofpoetry
are similarin many
areas of specificconcernsbutfundamentally
different
in thebasic accountof the
natureof poetry.Poetryis presumedto be an epistemological
processin Plato's
and
an
existential
in
Confucius'.
These
two
different
theory
largely
process
preconstitute
thegroundsnotonlyforthetwothinkers'
variousclaimsabout
sumptions
butalso forthesubsequentdevelopment
ofmimetic
in
theories
of literature
poetry,
theWestand ofnon-mimetic
inChina.
theories
ofliterature
Notes
I wishto thankthetwoanonymous
Eastand WestreadersfortheirvalPhilosophy
on an earlierversionofthisarticle.
uable comments
1 - See, forinstance,BenjaminI. Schwartz,The Worldof Thought
in Ancient
China (Cambridge:BelknapPressof HarvardUniversity
Press,1985), and
David L. Hall and RogerT. Ames,Thinking
Confucius
Through
(Albany:State
ofNew YorkPress,1987).Theentry
"Plato"intheindexesofboth
University
booksgivesan idea ofthebroadrangeofPlato'sideasbeingcomparedwith
thoseofConfucius.
2 - On thedifferent
ofPlatonicand Chineseconceptsof
ontologicalimplications
in
see
Chinese
Owen,
poetry, Stephen
Literary
Thought
(Cambridge:
Readings
HarvardUniversity
Press,1992),pp. 26-29. Inthelastsectionofthisstudy,I
willcommentbriefly
on thedifferent
of Plato'sand
ontologicalimplications
oftheseontological
Confucius'conceptsof poetry.An in-depth
exploration
requiresmorespace thanallowed hereand mustbe leftto a
implications
future
occasion.
3 - EvenifConfucius'generalobservations
on wen: (culture),
wenxueitw
and yia (arts)are included,hisdiscussionis notofa
(cultureand learning),
scope comparableto thatofPlato.
4 - Thereare good philologicaland aestheticreasonsformakingthisidentification.
Beforeand duringConfucius'
time,shiwas alreadyused alternately
forthe Poetryand poetryin general.The latteruse aboundsin earlytexts,
A good exampleis "shiyanzhi""
thePoetry
itself.
("Poetry
including
,
the earlieststatement
on poetryattributed
to
expressesthe heart'sintent"),
times.After
the Han, thisuse of shi as a generalreference
pre-Confucian
becomesdominant
as thewriting
ofpoetry
belletristic
emergesas theprimary
the
In
literati.
addition
to
the
there
is also
reason,
pursuit
among
philological
an aestheticlicenseforpost-Hancriticsto identify
the Poetrywithpoetry.
to theissue
After
thePoetry,
Confucius
all, in discussing
paysclose attention
ofaesthetics
as he seldomdid indealingwithothersubjectsoflearning.
So, it
for
is quitejustifiable
forcriticsto draw out broad aestheticimplications
338
East& West
Philosophy

Followingthisestablishedinterpoetryin generalfromConfucius'remarks.
I willpresentConfucius'remarks
as comments
on boththe
pretivetradition,
and poetryingeneral.
ancientanthology
ofthebest"and comparesit
as "thegovernment
5 - Platoidentifies
aristocracy
with
other
forms
of
three
and
favorably
(timocracy,
democracy,
government
see
The
in
of
trans.
tyranny) Republic8:545-569;
Dialogues Plato,
Benjamin
(New York:RandomHouse,1937),vol. 1, pp. 803-828.
Jowett
ofthebestand
On Plato'sand Confucius'similaridealsofthegovernment
for
thedifferent
the
"best
see
Worldof
men," Schwartz,
proposals producing
96-97.
Thought,
pp.
6 - Republic3:404, inJowett,
Dialogues,1 :669.
7 - See Republic3:406-407, inJowett,
Dialogues,1 :670-671.
8 - Republic 3 :410, in Jowett,Dialogues, 1 :675.
Dialogues,1 :747.
Dialogues,1 :785.
Dialogues,1 : 786.
12 - See Republic7:531, inJowett,
Dialogues,1 : 790.
13 - See Republic7:531, 537, inJowett,
Dialogues,1 :791, 797.
Dialogues,1 :797.
Dialogues,1 : 799.
Dialogues,1 : 799.
17 - Ibid.
19 - To understand
how manydifferent
thetermrenencompasses,
one
meanings
translations
onlyneedsto takea lookat the listof itsdifferent
English
given
in Wing-tsit
(Princeton:
Chan, ed., A Source Book in ChinesePhilosophy
Princeton
Press,1963), p. 789. For moreon the interpretations
University
of ren,see Wing-tsit
of Jen
Chan, "Chinese and WesternInterpretations
of
Chinese
2
and
Tu
Journal
(1975):
Wei107-129,
(Humanity),"
Philosophy
a
as
in
the
Confucian
East
Analects,"Philosophy
ming,"Jen
LivingMetaphor
and West31 (1981):45-54.
20 - See Lunyuyinde
to theAnalects),
(Concordance
Harvard-Yenching
1
Institute
InstiSinological Index Series,suppl. 16 (Beijing: Harvard-Yenching
tute,1940) (hereafter
Lunyu),2/14,4/10,7/37,8/4,inConfucius,TheAnalects
of Confucius,trans.Arthur
Waley (New York:Macmillan,1938), 11.14,p. 91;
IV.10, p. 104; VI.16, p. 119; V11.36,p. 131; and VIII.4,p. 133. Note thatowing
Cai
Zong-qi

339
totheuseofdifferent
versions
oftheAnalects,
thebookandchapternumbers
of
do notalwaysmatchthoseoftheLunyuand Lunyuyinde.
Waley'stranslation
21 - Lunyu7/38,inWaley,Analects,
p. 131.
V11.37,
22 - Lunyu15/21,13/23,in Waley,Analects,XV.21,p. 197, and XIII.23,p. 177.
For anotherdescription
of the harmonious
characterof a gentleman,
see
in
232.
Analects,
XX.2,
Lunyu20/2, Waley,
p.
23 - See Lunyu5/16,inWaley,Analects,
V.15,pp. 110-111.
24 - See Lunyu16/8,inWaley,Analects,
XVI.8,p. 206.
XII.5,pp. 163-164.
26 - Lunyu2/4,inWaley,Analects,11.4,p. 88.
27 - Republic3:401-402, in The Republicof Plato,trans.FrancisMacDonald
Cornford
(NewYorkand London:OxfordUniversity
Press,1941),p. 90. Here
I use Cornford's
translation
because itsmoreexplicitmeninsteadofJowett's
tionofpoetry
discussion.
and musicsuitsthepresent
Dialogues,1 :665.
Dialogues,p. 662.
Dialogues,1 :854.
31 - RichardKannicht,The AncientQuarrelbetweenPhilosophyand Poetry
NewZealand:University
ofCanterbury,
1988),p. 30.
(Christchurch,
Dialogues,1 :863.
33 - Of the copious citationsfromPlatoin Allan H. Gilbert,Literary
Criticism:
there
PlatotoDryden(Detroit:
State
Press,
3-62,
1940),
University
pp.
Wayne
W. J.
are veryfewpassageswherePlatodoes notsubjectpoetry
to criticism.
The
Texts
Brace
and
Criticism:
York:
(New
Harcourt,
Bate,ed.,
World,
Major
on poetryin Ion
1952), pp. 39-49, selectsonlyPlato'snegativecomments
we generally
and Book10 oftheRepublic.Inmorerecentcritical
anthologies,
finda morebalancedpresentation
ofPlato'sviewsofpoetry.
See, forinstance,
Alex Preminger,
B.
and
Kevin
Kerrane,
Hardison,
Jr.,
eds., Classicaland
O.
MedievalLiterary
Criticism:
Translations
and Interpretations
(New York:FrederickUngar,1974),pp. 21-96, and Robert
Con Davisand LaurieFinke,eds.,
and Theory:
Criticism
TheGreekstothePresent
(NewYork:Longman,
Literary
1989),pp. 44-59.
34 - See GeraldF. Else,PlatoandAristotle
ed. PeterBurian(ChapelHill:
on Poetry,
of NorthCarolina Press,1986), p. 4: "The shockthatSokratesthen

University
administeredto his [Plato's] soul broughtabout a violentreactionagainsthis
thatpoetryhad meantto
earlieridolatry,denyingand challengingeverything
himup to thattime.He foundhimselffaced by a choice betweentwo worlds,
two incompatibleways of life,and he chose 'philosophy.' But the choice
340
East& West
Philosophy

withit the banishment

of the poets,fortheybelonged
necessarily
brought
to theotherworld,theone he had rejected."
irredeemably
of thisdoublejourney,see Republic7:51435 - ForPlato'spoeticdescription
in
:773-779.
520, Jowett,
Dialogues,1
36 - Timaeus47, inJowett,
Dialogues,2:28.
HarvardStudiesin Classical
37 - WilliamC. Greene,"Plato's View of Poetry,"
29 (1918): 65. See also E. E. Sikes,TheGreekViewofPoetry
(New
Philology
York:Barnesand Noble,1931),pp. 83-90.
38 - Laws654, inJowett,
Dialogues,2:432.
39 - Laws660, 668, 700-701, inJowett,
Dialogues,2:438, 445-456, 474-476.
40 - Laws817, inJowett,
Dialogues,2 :571.
41 - Lunyu17/8;mytranslation.
Cf.Waley,Analects,
XVII.9,p. 212.
42 - Lunyujizhu
to theAnalects),SBBYediAr (Collectedcommentaries
tion,9.3b.
43 - Forinstance,
whenZi Xia -y relatesthedescription
ofa woman'sbeautiful
Confucius
endorseshismoralistic
modeof
appearanceto theissueofrituals,
and
him
considers
a
with
whom
it
is
fit
to
discuss
the
interpretation
disciple
See
in
95-96.
Poetry. Lunyu3/8, Waley,Analects,111.8,
pp.
44 - Quoted in He Yan {ijJ (190-249), Lunyujijie Aggg
ationsto theAnalects),
SBBYedition,17.4b.
(Collected explan-
45 - Lunyujizhu 9.13b.
46 - Lunyujijie yishu~i ~
to theCollectedcommen(Subcommentary
on
the
H
taries
NihonAshikagakanbon tI{JtJ~t edition,9.10b.
Analects),
47 - WangFuzhi,Lunyuxunyi
oftheAnalects),
WlI (Textualinterpretations
Chuanshan
21.10.
Taipingyangshuju
yishuedition,
48 - Lunyujijie 17.4b.
49 - Lunyujizhu9.13b.
50 - Lunyu15/17; mytranslation.Cf.Waley, Analects,XV.16, pp. 196-197.
51 - Confuciuscautionspeople againstaccusing heaven or layingblame on

people and disapprovesof complaintsagainstfamilymembersor fellow
humanbeings.See Lunyu12/2,inWaley,Analects,XII.2,p. 162.
52 - Lunyuzhijie
oftheAnalects),Zhiinterpretations
FL (Straightforward
xue
17.6b.
edition,
jianyi
zhong
53 - Lunyu8/8; myown translation.Cf.Waley, Analects,VIII.8, p. 134.
54 - Lunyu7/25; Waley, Analects,VI.24, p. 128.
55 - Lunyu6/27, in Waley, Analects,VI.25, p. 121.
Cai
Zong-qi

341
56 - Lunyu7/6; myown translation.Cf.Waley, Analects,VII.6, pp. 123-124.

57 - For a comprehensivestudyof the developmentof Plato's views of poetry
throughhis earlydialogues, the Republic,and laterdialogues, see Else, Plato
and Aristotleon Poetry,chaps. 1-3. For English-languagestudies on Confucius'views of poetry,see Donald Holzman, "Confucius and AncientChinese Literary
Criticism,"in Adele AustinRickett,ed., Chinese Approaches to
fromConfuciusto Liang Ch'i-ch'ao (Princeton:PrincetonUniversity
Literature
Critic:A
Press,1978), pp. 3-41, and Yau-woon Ma, "Confuciusas a Literary
in
in
Chinese
with
the
collected
Studies
Greeks,"
Essays
Early
Comparison
Dedicated to Professorao Tsung-i,ed. JaoTsung-iJiaoshouNanyou Zengbie
Lunwenji Bianji Weiyuanhui (Hong Kong: Jao Tsung-i Jiaoshou Nanyou
Zengbie LunwenjiBianji Weiyuanhui,1970), pp. 13-45.
58 - Jowett,Dialogues, 1 :281.
59 - Ibid., 1 :330.
60 - Symposium211, in Jowett,Dialogues, 1 :335.
61 - Symposium196, in Jowett,Dialogues, 1 :322.
62 - Thomas Gould, TheAncientQuarrelbetween Poetryand Philosophy(Princeton: PrincetonUniversity
Press,1990), p. 222. In tracingthe Greek originsof
theconcept ofthe poet as the Makeror theCreator,S. K. Heninger,Jr.,singles
source: "The locus classicus forthe
out Plato's Timaeusas the mostimportant
maker
of
the
as
occurs
early in Plato's Timaeus,the one diaconcept
poet
a
that
enjoyed continuingreputationthroughoutthe middle ages and
logue
renaissance.... When Timaeus firstmentionsthe creatingdeityin this cosmogony,he refersto him withtwo epithets:'the poet and the fatherof this
Jr.,TouchesofSweetHarmony:
Cosmology
Pythagorean
all'" (S. K. Heninger,
and Renaissance Poetics [San Marino,California:HuntingtonLibrary,1974],
pp. 291-292).
63 - See Phaedrus 248, in Jowett,Dialogues, 1: 252-253. Cf. Else, Plato and
Aristotle
on Poetry,
pp. 54-55:
nuanced
245e did notbringa rehabilitation
of all poetrybuta carefully
[Phaedrus]
the
which
is
to
of
true
Muses'
equivalent philosophy....The
inspiration,
appraisal
without
claim
to real inspiration
mimetic
is
left
then,
any
by gods or
merely
poet,
at thisharshverdict.
MostreadersofthePhaiMuses.Thereis no reasonforsurprise
droshavebeenseducedbyPlato'smellowmoodand theexpansivetoneof245a into
as
thepoetsand renewedtheirold accreditation
thathe has now forgiven
thinking
still
all
that
term
embraces
Not
a
bit
of
it.
The
mimetic
creatures.
poet-and
inspired
themajorpoets,especiallyHomer-is as farfrom'thekingand thetruth'
(Republic,
thathe isorknowsordoes can lifthimoutofthesixthcircle
10.597e)as ever.Nothing
to equal rankwiththeloveror thephilosopher-unless
somedayhe shouldbeginto
Butthatclimbwould
to climbthe ladderof incarnations.
learn,and thengradually
warmedand guidedby
haveto be madewiththeburgeoning
'wing'of Philosophy,
roadtothetop.
Love.Thereis no literary
342
East& West
Philosophy

64 - Gould,TheAncientQuarrel,p. 222.
on the Renaissanceconceptof the poet,see note62
65 - On Plato'sinfluence
see E. Douka Kabitoon theEnglishRomantics,
above. On Plato'sinfluence
Romantics
Plato
and
the
1990).
(London:Routledge,
English
glou,
66 - Greene,"Plato'sViewofPoetry,"
p. 75.
Cf.Waley,Analects,
p. 125.
V11.13,
68 - The SuccessionDance thatmimesthe peacefulaccessionof the legendary
Shun.
Emperor
Cf.Waley,Analects,111.25,
p. 101.
Cf.Waley,Analects,
VIII.19,p. 136.
moralconsciousness
71 - On thefusionofspontaneous
and aestheticexperience
inthisand otherpassagesoftheAnalects,see Xu Fuguan ,'f,, , Zhongguo
ti f',#(ThespiritoftheChinesearts)(Taizhong:Shili
yishujingshenrKit
Daxue,
1966),
pp. 1-44.
Donghai
72 - Lunyu11/24,inWaley,Analects,XI.25,p. 160.
73 - Chan, Source Book, p. 38.
Dialogues,1 :780.
75 - ComparePlato'sand Confucius'descriptions
oftheiridealgovernments
bya
and
a
Plato
"Whereas
the
truth
is
that
the
says,
philosopher-king by sage-king.
to ruleis alwaysthebestand the
Stateinwhichtherulersare mostreluctant
mostquietlygoverned,
and thestateinwhichtheyare mosteager,theworst"
(Republic7:520, in Jowett,
Dialogues,1: 779). Confuciussays, "Among
thosethatare 'ruledby inactivity'
surelyShun maybe counted.Forwhat
withhis
actiondid he take?He merelyplaced himself
and reverently
gravely
facedue south;thatwas all" (Lunyu15/5,inWaley,Analects,XV.4,p. 193).
76 - Xu Fuguan,Zhongguoyishujingshen,
pp. 18-19.
77 - Republic2 :377, inJowett,
Dialogues,1 :641.
78 - MihailI. Spariosu,God ofManyNames:Play,Poetry,
and Powerin Hellenic
from
Homer
to
Aristotle
Duke
(Durham:
Press,1991),
Thought
University
p. 150.
Dialogues,1 :664.
Dialogues,1 :665.
Dialogues,1 :658.
82 - Ibid.
83 - Republic3:398, in Jowett,Dialogues, 1 :661.
84 - Republic 3:399, in Jowett,Dialogues, 1:663.
Cai
Zong-qi

343
85 - Ibid.
86 - Republic3:399-400, inJowett,
Dialogues,1 :663. See Else,Platoand Arisis notmerelytrying
32:
"He
to limitmimesisto
totleon Poetry,
[Plato]
p.
he
is
limit
it
it
to
because
meansvariousness
worthy
objects,
trying
altogether,
and multiplicity
are bad. He is outto breed
and multiplicity,
and variousness
kind
of
men
and
is
and traina uniform,
thatmight
simple
excludinganything
defeatthatpurpose."
offofitsthree
87 - Another
derivedfrom
therounding
nameoftheBookofPoetry,
ofthreehundred.
hundred
and fivepoemsto thewholenumber
Cf.Waley,Analects,11.2,p. 88.
p. 99.
inmusic:"WhentheMasterwentto
offormal
excessiveness
90 - See thiscriticism
The
instruments
and singing.
thetownofWu, he heardthesoundofstringed
with
'To
kill
chicken
does
use
Mastersaid
a subtlesmile,
a
an ox-knife'"
translation.
Cf.
trans.,
Analects,
XVII.4,
17/3;
my
Waley,
pp. 209(Lunyu
210).
p. 101.
Cf.Waley,Analects,XV.10,pp. 195-196.
Cf.Waley,Analects,XV11.18,
93 - Lunyu17.16; mytranslation.
p. 214.
Cf.Waley,Analects,IX.14,pp. 141-142.
95 - Lunyu13/3,inWaley,Analects,XIII.3,pp. 171-172.
96 - Lunyu14/27,inWaley,Analects,XIV.29,p. 187.
97 - Lunyu15/41,inWaley,Analects,XV.40,p. 201.
Cf.Waley,Analects,1.3,p. 84.
V.4, p. 107.
Cf.Waley,Analects,X11.8,
pp. 164-165.
101 - See Lunyu14/8,inWaley,Analects,XIV.9,pp. 181-182.
WorldofThought,
102 - Schwartz,
p. 94.
truth
describesthisquestoftranscendental
103 - In hisdialogues,Platorepeatedly
of thesoul. See, forinstance,hisfamousFableof
as an upwardmovement
theCave in Republic7:514-523 (inJowett,
Dialogues,1 :773-782). On the
ofthisverticalascent,see Paul
and
implications
ontological epistemological
Friedlander,Plato: An Introduction(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,
1958), p. 227: "Plato's allegoryof the cave is characterizedby the dual
meaning of the hierarchicalascent: the ascent of being and the ascent of
knowledge,bothexactlyrelatedto each other."
344
East& West
Philosophy

ofthisepistemological
on Western
On theinfluence
philosophical
thinking
Arthur
tendency,
Lovejoy,in TheGreatChainofBeing:A StudyoftheHistory
HarvardUniversity
of Ideas (Cambridge:
Press,1936), p. 59, writes:"down
menwereto acceptwithout
most
educated
to the lateeighteenth
century,
questionthe conceptionof the universeas a 'GreatChainof Being,'comin hierarchical
or ... infinite,
numberof linksranging
posedofan immense,
... through
kindofexistents
orderfromthemeagerest
'everypossible'grade
The titleof thisclassic book is a fitting
up to the ens perfectissimum."
of the enduringinfluenceof the "vertical"structure
of
acknowledgment
Plato'sepistemology.
in comparison
withPlato'sunambigu104 - HereI describethisaxis as horizontal
ouslyverticalaxis,and do notmeanto ignoreConfucius'concernswiththe
Forsure,theConfucianaxis of harmony
is
verticalsociopoliticalhierarchy.
as
the
one
is
not
notexclusively
horizontal
Platonic
vertical.
just
exclusively
to the "immanent"
These two axes are undoubtedly
concomitant
thrust
of
of Platonicthought.
thrust
Here I
Confucianthought
and thetranscendental
ofthe
mustemphasizetheword"thrust,"
because I do notwantmycontrast
to be mistaken
as an overoveralltendenciesof thesetwothought
systems
(or
simplified
applicationoftheWesternconceptuallabels"transcendental"
in
and
a
"immanent"
cross-cultural
con(or
"this-worldly")
"otherworldly")
is usefulfordescribing
theoveralltendency
text.Whiletheterm"immanent"
of the Confucianand some otherChinesethoughtsystems,it necessarily
containsphilosophical
and theologicalimplications,
such as the indwelling
that
to theChinesetradior
are
alien
principle pantheistic
divinity,
intelligent
tions.So, I have puttheterminsidequotationmarkswhenusingitin reference to theChinesetraditions.
in TheFourBooks,trans.James
105 - Daxue,SBBYedition,2a; TheGreatLearning,
Taipei:Chengwen,1971),chap. 3, pp. 358-359.
Legge(reprint,
106 - Daxue 2a; Legge,TheFourBooks,chap. 3, p. 360.
107 - Spariosu,God ofManyNames,p. 172.
108 - Hall and Ames,Thinking
Confucius,
p. 132.
Through
109 - See Republic7:540-542, inJowett,
is used hereto denotethatwhichpertains
110 - Theterm"existential"
to existence
to do withtheWestern
ortheactofliving,
and has nothing
existentialism.
Zong-qi Cai

345

Plato and Confucius On Poetry

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In Quest of Harmony: Plato and Confucius on Poetry

Author(s): Zong-qi Cai

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IN QUEST OF HARMONY: PLATO AND

Plato(427?-347? B.C.)and Confucius(ca. 551-479 B.C.)livedonlyabout halfa

PhilosophyEast & West Volume 49, Number3 July1999 317-345

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in termsnotonlyof ideas expressedbut

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Ifwe place thisand otherpassagescitedabove alongsidewhatwe have readinthe

arouse in the young a healthyaversionto the inharmoniousand the ugly.Second,

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the poemsand typesof musicsuitableforthe young,he particularly

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hasdone intheearlybooksoftheRepublic.Once more,he sees fitto acknowledge

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stateand thesocialdiscordofan ill-governed

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last."Set yourmindon theWay,base yourself

She answersme as follows:"Thereis poetry,

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greatestmaster-fall farshortof the ideal of a truepoet. None of theirworksmeasthe ideal

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ever since. Of the countlessinterpretations

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of the Ideas (divineharmony),

tentof poetry.As Mihail I. Spariosupointsout, Plato believes thatpoetrycan "affect

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This content downloaded from 161.116.100.129 on Thu, 2 Oct 2014 17:22:45 PM

Thisbeingthecase, we shouldconpoem'sformand styleas well as itscontent.90

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Confuciusbelieves,therecannotbe orderand harmony

concern withharmony.Both Plato and Confuciushave harmonyin the forefront

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Dao at work in all human relationships.When such a person becomes a ruler,he

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believedby Zhu Xi to have setforth

of absolute knowledgeis in and of itselfthe end and rewardof episthe attainment

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This content downloaded from 161.116.100.129 on Thu, 2 Oct 2014 17:22:45 PM

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of NorthCarolina Press,1986), p. 4: "The shockthatSokratesthen

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withit the banishment

51 - Confuciuscautionspeople againstaccusing heaven or layingblame on

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56 - Lunyu7/6; myown translation.Cf.Waley, Analects,VII.6, pp. 123-124.

63 - See Phaedrus 248, in Jowett,Dialogues, 1: 252-253. Cf. Else, Plato and

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