Practical Manual

Agro. 3209 Sustainable agriculture and organic farming (1+1)

Prepared by
Dr. L. Girija devi, Associate Professor (Agronomy)
Dr. Sheela, K.R., Professor (Agronomy)
Dr. M.Meerabai, Professor (Agronomy)

Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani

Contents

Excercise
Topic
Page
No.
Number
1.
Average nutrient content of fertilizers and 3-7
manures
2.

Composting and preparation of enriched compost

8-9

3.

Vermicomposting and coir pith composting

10-12

4.

Azolla cultivation

13-15

5.

Crop response study

16-17

6.

8.

Preparation of permitted fungicides for organic 18-19

farming
Preparation of permitted botanicals/ pesticides 20-21
for organic farming
Green manuring and green manure crops
22-23

9.

Biofertilizers

10.

Visit to bio-control lab

11.

Visit to micro-biology lab

12.

Visit to certified organic farm

13.

Visit to farmers field (organic)

14.

Analysis of nutrient content of manures and

composts prepared
Raising of vegetable crops organically through
nutrient, disease and pest management

7.

15-17.

24-26

Ex.No:1

AVERAGE NUTRIENT CONTENT OF IMPORTANT MANURES & FERTILIZERS

Name of fertilizer/manure

Nutrient content (%)

N

P2O5

K2O

Nitrogenous fertilizers
Ammonium Sulphate

20.5

Ammonium Nitrate

32-35

Calcium
Nitrate

Ammonium 25
46

Urea

20

20

Factomphos
Phosphatic Fertilizers
Single Super Phosphate

16-20

Double Super Phosphate

30-35

Triple Super Phosphate

45-50

Massoorie Phosphate

23-24

Rajphos

18-20

Potassic fertilizers
Muriate of Potash

50-60

Nutrient content of manures (%)

Manure

P2O5

K2O

(i)Cowdung

0.3-0.4

0.1-0.2

0.1-0.3

(ii)FYM

0.5-1.5

0.4-0.8

0.5-1.9

(iii)Compost

0.5

0.4

0.8

(iv) Coir pith

0.26

0.01

0.78

(v)Coir pith compost

(vi)Vermicompost

1.24

0.06

1.2

1.8

1.9

1.6

Nutrient content of concentrated manures

Bone Meal

3.0-4.0

20-25

Blood Meal

10-12

1.0-1.5

1.0

Fish Manure

4-10

3-4

0.3-1.5

Poultry manure

1-1.8

1.4-1.8

0.8-0.9

Sheep dung

0.5-0.7

0.4-0.6

0.3-1.0

Ash

0.5-1.9

1.6-4.2

2.3-12

Neem Cake

5.2

1.0

1.4

Groundnut cake

7-7.3

1.5-1.6

1.3-1.4

Castor cake

4.3

1.8

1.3

Coconut cake

3-3.2

1.9-2

1.7-1.8

Mahua cake

2.5

0.8

1.8

Sunhemp

0.43

Daincha

0.43

Cowpea

0.49

Oil cakes

Green manure crops

Nutrient content of agro-wastes (%)

Agro-waste

% (dry basis)
N

P2O5

K2O

Paddy straw

1.59

1.34

3.37

Sugarcane trash

2.73

1.81

1.31

Pressmud

1.2

3.8

1.42

Cotton waste

1.62

1.04

1.26

Water hyacinth compost

2.0

1.0

2.30

Banana pseudostem

0.47

0.06

3.84

Tea waste

2.8-3.6

0.3-0.4

1-1.9

Tobacco Waste

0.5-1

0.8

0.8

P2O5

K2O

Cattle urine

0.9-1.2

trace

0.5-1.0

Vermi wash (ppm)

500-1000

300-500

450

Biogas
slurry(residual 1.4-1.8
sludge in dry state)

1.1-2.0

0.8-1.2

Fish emulsion

4.1

3.9

0.3-1.5

Kelp meal

1.0

2.0

Compost tea

High

Nutrient content of liquid manures

Liquid manure

% nutrients

Vermiwash contains Ca -650 ppm Mg-5000 ppm, Fe-1010 ppm

Average nutrient composition of biofertilizers
Azolla:

Azolla pinnata

Composition: 90 -95 % moisture

Decomposed Azolla contains the following nutrients
Nitrogen

- 4-6 %

(Protein 25-37%)

Phosphorus - 0.5-0.9 %
Potassium - 2-6 %
Calcium

- 0.4-1 %

Magnesium - 0.5 %
Iron

- 0.06-0.16 %

Manganese - 0.11-0.16 %
5

Total ash

- 9-10 %

List of nitrogen fixing micro-organisms in arable soils

Type of association

Micro-organisms involved

I. Assymbiotic/ associative symbiotic

A close but casual interaction between two dissimilar organisms or biological systems. The
association may be mutually beneficial but is not required for accomplishing the specific function.
Bacteria
1. Aerobic

Azotobacter, Beijerinkia, Derxia, Achromobacter

Acetococcus,Azomonas, Methanosinus

2. Microphyllic

Azospirillum, Herbaspirillum, Corynebacterium

Thiobacillus

3. Facultative

Klebsiella, Bacillus, Enterobacter, Pseudomonas

4. Anaerobic

Clostredium, Rhodospirillum, Rhodopseudomonas

Algae
1. Blue green algae

Anabeana, Nostoc, Calothrix, Tolypothrix,

II. Symbiotic association

Bacteria

Rhizobium with legumes

Actinomycetes

Frankia with woody plants

Algae

Anabaena+ Azolla

Bio control agents/ biopesticides/Pesticides of microbial origin

1. Fungal Biopesticides
Trichoderma viridae
Beauvaria bassiana

- against soil borne pathogen

- against lepidopteran caterpillars

Metarhizium anisopilae - active against white grubs and beetles

Verticillium lecanii
Chetomium globosum
6

active against sucking pest

- active against soil borne pathogens

II. Bacterial biopesticides

Bacillus subtilis

-active against soil borne pathogens

Pseudomonas fluorescence --active against root and stem rot caused by

Rhizoctonia species

III. Viral biopesicides

Nuclear polyhedrosis virus of Spodoptera litura
Nuclear polyhedrosis virus of Helicoverpa armigera
Commonly available organic liquid organic manures
Evergreen, Folirich, Parker, Dlog, California, Choism

Ex.No:2

COMPOSTING AND PREPARATION OF ENRICHED COMPOST

Composting is a method of solid waste management where organic components of solid

wastes are biologically degraded under controlled condition to a state which can be easy to handle, store
for a longer period, used for cultivation without adversely affecting environment. Main objective is to
reduce the CN ratio and produce a uniform slow release organic fertilizer which stimulates soil life and
7

improves soil structure and helps in pest and disease resistance. During the process of composting
unwanted weed seeds and pathogens are destroyed.
Bangalore Method
Pioneering work in preparation of manure in pits was carried out by Acharya (1939), particularly
on the utilization of town residues and night soil. This process is otherwise called as hot fermentation
method of manure production. In this method, the compost production depot is located on the city
outskirts to transport town refuse and night soil to the pits. The depots normally accommodate about 200
trenches with a spacing of 1- 5 m between trenches. First the refuse is to make 15 cm height layer. Then
night soil is discharged over this and spread to a layer of 5 cm. After filling the pit with refuse and night
soil in alternate layers, the pit is filled to 15 cm above ground level with a final layer of refuse of 15 cm
on the top. This may be dome shaped and covered with the thin layer of soil with red earth or mud to
prevent moisture loss and breeding of flies. Sullage water, if collected in carts as in some towns, may be
emptied over the layer of refuse. This system provides a method of disposal of any kind of waste,
including slaughter house waste, carcasses of animals, sewage, etc.
The materials are allowed to remain as such without any turning and pot watering for about three
months. The decomposition of dumped materials in pits takes place largely in the absence of sufficient air
except in the surface layer. Though the decomposition is comparatively slow, high temperature is not
developed in the lower layers. Since the material does not receive any turnings, decomposition into a
homogenous mass of manure does not take place. Even then, the C/N ratio is reduced to less than 20:1 in
about six months and the manure is ready for use. As there is no watering and turning, it is suitable to
areas having low water availability and with scarce labour. When pits or trenches are not available for
composting, town refuse and night soils can be composted in above ground heaps of 1 m height, 1m
width and of any convenient length by placing refuse and night soil in alternate layers as in trenches and
adding the final refuse on the top. In this method, the material decomposes more quickly than in pits and
can be used after 3-4 months. The compost obtained by this method would contain 1.5 per cent N, 1.0 per
cent P and 1.5 per cent K2O.
Windrow composting (leaf compost)
Windows are prepared as they allow efficient material handling, provide good aeration and allow
sufficient absorption of water. First, windrows of 2.5-4m width at the base, 2.5-3 m height and of any
convenient length based on the availability of leafy materials are formed. It is better to use higher
windrows for better composition of leaves at the base resulting in aerobic conditions. When the moisture
content of incoming leaves is low, it is desirable to add sufficient quantity of water to maintain 40-60 per
cent moisture. If the C/N ratio of the leaves is high (30), amending with sewage sludge, urea or grass
clippings may be done. Periodical mixing may be given for good aeration. The leaf compost with a
neutral pH (6-7) will be ready within 6-9 months under optimum environmental conditions. The use of
finished compost (leaf mold) as covering material (10-15 cm) in the subsequent preparations of leaf
compost is good to supply a heavy inoculam of microorganisms as in the case of activated compost.
Enriched FYM (EFYM)

FYM is bulky and low in major plant nutrients such as N, P and K. Hence there is a need to
improve its quality. EFYM is recommended to rain fed crops which require available P for their root
proliferation to withstand the initial growth stages under dry land conditions. First, 750 kg of well
decomposed FYM is taken. After sieving, the recommended dose of P and K 2O for the crops to be grown
is mixed with the sieved FYM. The mixture is spread in the form of heap and plastering is done with redearth paste. This anaerobic process is maintained for 30 days. Then, the nitrogenous fertilizer
recommended for basal dose of the crop to be grown is mixed and it should be applied immediately
before sowing.
Phospho-compost
Phospho-compost can be prepared by mixing farm wastes/crop residues, cattle dung, soil,
compost, chopped grasses and tree leaves with mussoorie rock phosphate at the rate of 30 per cent of the
compostable material. This mixture Is made into slurry so as to provide adequate moisture and after
uniform mixing, the slurry is allowed to decompose in a compost pit for about 60 to 90 days. Moisture is
maintained at 70 per cent throughout the period of composing and the compost will be ready for use in
60-90 days. Normally, this phosphor-compost is prepared by mixing organic wastes and mussoorie rock
phosphate is prepared by mixing organic wastes and mussoorie rock phosphate in the ratio of 7 to 7.5: 2.5
to 3.0.

Ex.No.3

VERMICOMPOSTING AND COIR PITH COMPOSTING

Composting is largely a biological process in which microorganisms of both aerobic and

anaerobic nature decompose organic matter and lower the CN ratio of the substrate
9

Vermi composting
Vermicomposting is better than ordinary composting in many aspects e.g. it takes 3 months for
the complete decomposition of wastes whereas other takes 5 6 months, Foul smell is not there in
vermicompost.
Requirements of vermicomposting
1. Selection of proper species: Usually we select Eudrillus euginae because it has certain
peculiarities like short life cycle, high rate of production and growth, conversion rate is high.
2. Temperature and moisture
For Eudrillus euginae species the moisture content requires is 60 70 % at 27 2 oC. Also water
logging is not desirable for its growth and development.
3. Shelter
Cannot be practiced in open ground, have to be protected from excess

moisture and direct

sunlight.
4. Aeration
Earthworms require good aeration for their growth, reproduction and composting activities since
vermicomposting is chiefly an aerobic process.
5. PH and feeding materials
Earthworms are very sensitive to acidic, alkaline soils and strong odour, pungent materials etc.
So avoid materials like chilly, spicy and other acidic food materials such as lemon, garlic, greasy/
waxy / oily food etc.
6. Enemies: Rodents, ants, lizards, birds, snakes, centipedes etc cut the worms. So various
precautions against these enemies should be taken.
Types of Culture
Earthworms could be cultured in earthen flowerpots or in pits or cement tanks, well rings or
plastic or wooden crates.
Vermicomposting of household wastes
Select a wooden/ plastic box / basin of abroad base and drainage holes. Keep plastic sheet with
small holes at the bottom of the box. Add a layer of soil of 3 cm depth and a layer of coconut fiber of 5
cm depth above it for draining of excess moisture. Add a thin layer of compost and worms above it.
10

About 250 worms are sufficient for this box. Spread daily vegetable waste in layers. Cover the top of
the box with a piece of sac to provide dim light inside the box. When the box is full keep the box
without disturbance for a week. When the compost is ready, keep the box outside for 2 3 hours so that
the worms come down to the lower fiber layer. Remove compost from the top dry and sieve. The
vermicompost produced has an average nutrient status of 1.8 % N, 1.9 % P 2O5 and 1.6 % K2O, but
composition varies with the substrate used.
Pit Method of vermicomposting
Pits of size 2.5 m length, 1.0 m breadth and 0.3 m depth are taken in thatched sheds with sides
left open. The bottom and sides of the pit are hardened by compacting with a wooden mallet. At the
bottom of the pit, a layer of coconut husk is spread with the concave side facing upwards to ensure
drainage of excess water and for proper aeration. The husk is moistened and above this bio waste and
cow dung in the ratio of 8: 1 is spread up to a height of 30 cm above the ground level and water is
sprinkled daily. After partial decomposition of waste for 7 to 10 days the worms are introduced @ 500 to
1000 numbers per pit. The pit is covered with coconut fronds. Moisture is maintained at 40- 50 % .When
the compost is ready, it is removed from the pit along with the worms and heaped in shade with ample
light. The worms will move to the bottom of the heap. After one or two days, the compost from the top
of the heap is removed and return back the un-decomposed residues and worms to the pit for further
composting as described above. The vermicompost produced has an average nutrient status of 1.8 % N,
1.9 % P2O5 and 1.6 % K2O. But composition will vary with the substrate used.
Coir- pith compost
Coir- pith, one of the agricultural wastes is produced and heaped in large quantities from the coir
industry. Approximately 2.5 lakh tonnes of coir pith accumulate in Kerala as waste. Coir pith has wide
C: N ratio and its lignin rich nature does not permit natural composting process as in other agricultural
wastes. Pleurotus spp has the capacity to degrade part of the cellulose and lignin present in coir pith by
production of enzymes like cellulases and lactases. The CN ratio of coir pith is reduced from 112:1 to
24.1 as a result of composting. The lignin content is also reduced considerably.
Method of composting
Materials required
- Coir pith 1 ton, urea 5 kg and Pleurotus spawn 1.5 kg.

11

Select a shaded place of 5 x 3 m dimension and level it after removing weeds. First spread 100 kg
coir pith uniformly. Spread 300 g (1 bottle or packet) of Pleurotus spawn on this and cover this with a
second layer of 100 Kg coir pith. On the surface of the second layer spread 1 kg urea uniformly. Repeat
this sandwiching process of one layer of coir pith with spawn followed by another layer of coir pith
with urea up to 1 m height. Sprinkle water if necessary to keep the heap moist. Allow the heap to
decompose for 1 month. The coir pith is converted into good manure within 30- 40 days and lignin
content is reduced to 30- 40 %. Another change is lowering down of CN ratio of 112: 1 to 24:1. This
contains micro as well as macro nutrients.
Enriched coir pith compost
For enriching the coir pith out of the 10 layers first, third, fifth, seventh and ninth layers
are spread with 250 g each of Azospirillum and Phospho-bacteria along with Pleurotus and other layer
that is, on second, fourth, sixth, eighth and tenth with 2 Kg each bone meal and rock phosphate for
enriching the compost.

Ex.No:4

AZOLLA CULTIVATION

Azolla is an aquatic fern floating on the water surfaces of flooded rice fields,
small ponds and canals. Azolla belong to the family Azollaceae. The commonly cultivated species
12

is Azolla pinnata. Azolla can assimilate atmospheric nitrogen and fix it with the help of blue
green algae living in the cavities located the lower sides of leaves in the Azolla plants. This
cyanobacteria(Anabaena azollae) is responsible for the fixation and assimilation of atmospheric
nitrogen and the azolla in turn provides the carbon source and the favorable condition for the
algae. Azolla can fix 40- 60 kg nitrogen / ha. Generally azolla multiples vegetatively, but sexual
multiplication is also there.
Uses of Azolla
Azolla is a good manure.
It is rich in protein and contains 25- 30% on dry weight basis.
It is a nutritious food for animals like pig, fish, duck, rabbit, poultry and livestock.
Low lignin and high protein content enables easy digestion of Azolla by livestock.
1.5-2 kg Azolla/ day combined with regular feed will help to increase milk production in animals by
15%.
Azolla as a feed improves the weight of broiler chicken and enhance the egg production in layers.
Azolla acts as biological herbicides reducing the availability of sunlight to weeds there by reducing
their growth.
Azolla can be used in biogas production.
Azolla helps in nutrient assimilation and absorbs nutrients from water and make it available to crops.
Composition of Azolla
Azolla is rich in proteins, essential amino acids and vitamin A, vitamin B 12, beta carotene.
It also contains growth promoting substances and minerals like Ca, Fe, K, Cu and Mg. The
composition on dry weight basis is given below.
Proteins 25- 30 %, Minerals 10- 15 % , Amino acids and other bioactive substances -7-10 %, ,
Carbohydrates 4-10 %, Lipids 3-6 % , Cellulose 10-20 %, Carbon - 43%, N-5-30 %, P-0.5 %,
K-0.25-5% , Ca -0.45-1.25 %, Mg - 0.25 0.5 % , S- 0.2-75 %, Si - 0.15-3.5 %
Azolla in rice fields.
Azolla is considered as ideal organic manure for rice crop because of its fast decomposition.
There are two methods of azolla cultivation in rice fields.
1. Multiplication prior to rice crop
In this method, azolla can be applied in the rice field before planting rice crop. The field is
prepared by tillage operations and maintain water level to a height of 10 cm. Apply azolla @ 200-400
kg /ha along with 5-15 kg super phosphate and allow it to grow for 10-20 days. By this time azolla
multiplications has been effected and drain the field and incorporate azolla by ploughing to the field.
13

2. Dual Culture method

This is the practice of growing azolla along with rice crop. In this method azolla can be applied
to the field 7-10 days after transplanting rice crop @ 150 kg/ha. By 2-3 weeks azolla has been
multiplied and covered the entire field. Drain the field and incorporate azolla by ploughing in. This
method provides about 6-7 t of organic manure for usage and approximately 15-20 kg N. Because of the
beneficial effects of azolla in rice fields, it is known as soya bean of rice fields.
Mass production of Azolla in the farm
For this system select a suitable place, pre-treating a shaded area and taking pits of 2 x 2 x 0.2 m
length, breadth and depth. All the corners of the pits should be at the same level so that level of water
will be uniform in the pit. Cover the bottom of the pit with old gunny bags to prevent roots of nearby
trees piercing the silpaulin sheet over the gunny bags. Spread silpaulin sheet over the gunny bags
covering all the four sides. Silpaulin is a tarpaulin resistant to the UV radiation of sun and ideal for azolla
multiplication. Spread 15 kg fertile soil on the silpaulin sheet uniformly. Add 2 kg cow dung in 10 litres
of water over the soil along with 30 g super phosphate. Add more water to maintain 10 cm water level.
Put 500 g to 1.00 kg fresh and pure azolla culture. Allow it to grow for 10-15 days. By this time the
azolla will multiply and cover the entire field. Remove kg azolla every day to prevent over crowding.
Precautions
Avoid direct sunlight in azolla unit
Add 1 kg cow dung and 20 g super phosphate once in every 7 days.
Remove the portion of water and add fresh water once in every 10 days.
Remove 5 kg bed soil and add fresh soil once in every 30 days.
Dismantle the entire azolla unit once in 6 months and prepare new units using new soil, water etc.
If temperature is high, provide shade.
Remove azolla very alternate days to prevent over crowding.
Wash azolla thoroughly in fresh water before use.
Ideal conditions
The water level should be approximately 10 cm in the pit.
Strong winds reduce the growth of azolla.
Ideal temperature is 15 -30oc but optimum is 25oc
Light azolla prefers shady or cloudy weather.
Direct sunlight is harmful

14

Prefer slightly acidic pH.

Mineral nutrition - low in phosphorous, so water soluble phosphorous is necessary.

Ex.No:5

CROP RESPONSE STUDY

Objectives
To study the response of crops to different organic sources and the possibility of substituting
chemical fertilizers with different organic sources.
15

Design
Completely randomized design (CRD) as suited for pot culture experiment.
Replications: Three
Treatments
1. Source:
T1- FYM/ cow dung, T2- Vermicompost, T3- Coir pith compost
T4- Groundnut cake, T5- INM/ POP recommendation
2. Biofertilizers: B0. Without biofertilizer B1. With biofertilizer
Treatment combinations- 10
T1 without biofertilizer
T2 without biofertilizer
T3 without biofertilizer
T4 without biofertilizer
T5 without biofertilizer
T1 with biofertilizer
T2 with biofertilizer
T3 with biofertilizer
T4 with biofertilizer
T5 with biofertilizer
Test Crop- Bhindi
POP Recommendation- FYM- 12 t, 110:35:70 kg NPK/ ha
Recommendation in pot= Recommendation / ha x wt of soil in pot/ 2.2 x10 6
(Hectare farrow slice to a depth of 15 cm contains 2.2 million kg of soil)
General application of neem cake is given as a prophylactic measure for control of yellow vein mosaic
disease.
Observations
Biometric observations
16

Yield and yield characters

Inferences

Ex.No.6 PREPARATION OF PERMITTED FUNGICIDE FOR ORGANIC FARMING

1. Bordeaux mixture (1%)

17

Dissolve 1 kg of powdered copper sulphate crystals in 50 litres of water. In

another 50 litres of water, prepare milk of lime with 1 kg of quick lime. Pour the Cuso 4
solution into milk of lime slowly stirring the mixture all the while. Test the mixture
before use for the presence of free copper, which is harmful to the plants, by dipping a
polished knife in it. If the blade shows a reddish colour due to the deposits of copper, add
more lime till the blade is not stained on dipping. Always use wooden, earthen or copper
vessels for the preparation of bordeaux mixture. In order to confer sticking quality, rosin
washing soda mixture may be added.
2. Bordeaux paste
Dissolve 100 g of Cuso 4 and 100 g of quick lime each in 500 ml of water
separately. Mix together to make one litre of the paste.
3. Panchagavya
Ingredients required are cowdung -7 kg, cow ghee -1 kg, cow urine -10 liter,
water -10 liter, cow milk-3 litre, curd-2 litre, jaggery -3 kg, tender coconut water and
ripened poovan banana (12) is added as additions.
Procedure
First mix cowdung and ghee and stir during morning or evening hours and kept
under shade for 3 hours. After 3 days, cow urine 10 l and water 10 l are added .It is kept
for 15 days with regular mixing in morning and evening hours. After 15 days, add cow
milk -3l l, curd-2l l, then additions like tender coconut water-3 l and jaggery -3 kg and
well ripened poovan banana -12 nos can be added.
Precautions
1. Keep the container open under shade.
2. Stir the contents twice a day both in morning and evening.
3. Panchagavya stock solution will be ready after 30 days.
4. Do not mix buffalo products.
5. It is stored in shade and covered with wire net or plastic net to prevent houseflies from
laying eggs and formation of maggots in the solution.
6 Use as spray or along with irrigation and can keep for 6 months.
Dasagavya
Panchagavya + plant extracts
Plants: Azadirachta indica, Catotropis sp, Tephrosia purpurea, Vitex negundo,Datura
metel, Jatropha curcas, Adathoda vasica, Pongannia pinnata

18

Plant extracts are prepared by separately soaking the foliage in cow

urine in 1:1 ratio for 10 days. The filtered extract of all plants are then added 1 l each to 5
liters of panchagavya solution. Then the mixture is kept for 25 days and stirred well to
ensure thorough mixing of panchagavya and plant extracts and used as foliar spray.
Amritha Kurraisal
Ingredients-cowdung of a local breed -10 kg ,cow urine -10 l, jaggery -1 kg, soil
from low land -1 handful, green gram / blackgram/ horsegram /cowpea-2 kg. Germinate
cowpea /other seeds, grind it and mix it thoroughly with other ingredients with 200 litres
of water in a plastic bucket. Cover it properly; stir it once in a while or in 2-3 days.
Preparation will be ready in 1 week. Sieve it and use it as a spray or with irrigation water.

EX.NO.7

PERMITTED BOTANICALS/PESTICIDES FOR ORGANIC FARMING

Usually tropical plants are rich sources of bioactive organic chemicals which act as a defense
weapon against plant pest. The biological activities of plant extract are either by virtue of their direct
toxicity or by the presence of secondary metabolites which act adversely on insects. Based on their mode
of action biological pesticides can be attractants, repellents, anti-feedants, ovipositor deterrents etc.
19

Unlike synthetic pesticides botanicals will not cause insect resistance as they contain a number of
bioactive compounds. They are safe to the environment. They will be easily degraded and harmless to non
target organisms. For safe use the following botanicals can be used
1. Tobacco decoction
This is very effective for aphids and other soft bodied insects. It can be prepared by
steeping 500 g tobacco in 4 l of water for 24 hrs. Dissolve 120 g of ordinary bar soap
separately in another vessel in 0.5 l of water. The soap solution is mixed with tobacco decoction
under violent agitation. This forms stock solution and it can be diluted to 6-7 times for full
strength.
2. Neem oil garlic emulsion
To prepare 10 l of 2 % neem oil garlic emulsion we require neem oil 200 ml, garlic-200
g, bar soap 50 g. Slice the bar soap and dissolve in 500 ml luke warm water. Grind 200 g garlic
and take extract in about 300 ml water. Pour soap solution to 200 ml neem oil and stir vigorously.
Mix garlic extract with neem soap emulsion. Make it to 10 l by adding water and this can be used.
3. Neem seed kernel extract(NSKE)
Neem seed has to be crushed to a coarse powder and 50 g of material is taken in a cloth
bag and immerse it in l of water for 24 hrs. After that squeeze cloth bag repeatedly till entire
juice is extracted. Dissolve 5 g of ordinary bar soap in l of water and add soap solution to neem
seed kernel extract. Stir it thoroughly and spray it.
4. Cashew nut shell liquid
To prepare 10 l of 5 % cashew nut shell liquid extract, we require 500 ml cashew nut shell liquid
and 50 g bar soap. Slice the bar soap and dissolve it in 500 ml water. Pour 500 ml of cashew nut
shell liquid to this 500 ml solution and stir it vigorously. Dilute it with water to make it into 10 l
solution.
5. Kerosene emulsion
It can be represented as a contact insecticide against sucking pest. Slice 500 g of ordinary bar
soap and dissolve in 4 l water. Add 9 l of kerosene under violent agitation till it is fully
emulsified. It is a stock solution and has to be diluted with 15 20 times water before spraying.
6. Plant or leaf extract
Several plants are reported to have insecticidal property and following are found to be important.
Here whole plant or leaf can be macerated to get extract which can be diluted with water for
spraying against insects. Usually leaves are soaked in water for 24-48 hrs. Then macerated in a
mixer grinder and juice is strained and diluted for spraying. Crops having insecticidal property
are Neem, Anona squamosa, Andrographis paniculata, Hyptis suaveolens, Chromolaena
odorata,Lantana camera, Thevetia nerrifolia, Ocimum. In addition to plant leaf extract used at 5
10 % concentration. Several combinations of botanicals can also be prepared. Eg: - 10 % Leaf
extract of A. paniculata and 10 % cows urine + 10 g bird chilly extract is very ideal for control of
caterpillar pests.
Use of synthetic hormones or synthetic nitrogenous fertilizers and human excreta are
prohibited under organic farming. Materials like gypsum, MgSo4, Nacl are permitted under
organic farming. Rock phosphate, ash, potassium sulphate are categorized under restricted use
under organic farming.

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EX.NO.8

GREEN MANURING AND GREEN MANURE CROPS

Objective:To study various green manures used for in-situ and ex-situ green manuring and
calculation of amount of crop residues for manuring available in Kerala.
Green manuring
Green manuring is the ploughing under or soil incorporation of any green manure crops
while they are green or soon after they flower. Advantages of green manuring: Improves the soil fertility
Add nutrients and OM
Improves soil structure
Improves soil aeration
Increase soil biodiversity by stimulating the growth of beneficial microbes and other soil
organisms.
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Suppress weeds.

Criteria for the selection of green manure crops:

Fast growing
Produce abundant and succulent tops.
Deep root system
May decompose at faster rate
Good affinity to mycorrhiza inoculation
Efficient water use
Non-host of crop related pests and diseases
Easy to propagate easy and abundant seed production
Nitrogen fixing capacity
Should control pests and diseases
Production of useful by products

Incorporation of green manuring materials

Insitu
Raising plants where it is to be incorporated
Sun hemp (Crotalaria juncea, C.striata),
Daincha
(S.aculeata)
Horse
gram/cowpea/cluster bean.
Note:

Exsitu
Raised elsewhere and brought to the field
to be incorporated. Glyricidia maculata
G.sepium, subabul etc.

Sun hemp is a green manure crop well suited for uplands. Daincha is suitable for lowlands. Green
manure crops are sown generally during May-June. They come up without much care. Harvesting
is done in September at flowering. They are uprooted and incorporated.

Nutrient Content
Green manure crop

N content
(%)

Yield/ha

0.49
0.43
0.42
0.34

Quantity of N
added(approximate
value)
56 kg
89 kg
77 kg
62 kg

Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata)

Sunhemp (Crotolaria juncea)
Daincha (Sesbania aculeata)
Cluster
bean (Cyamopsis
tetragonoloba)
Lathyrus ( Rabi crop)
Berseem (Rabi crop)

0.54
0.43

61 kg
61 kg

9t
11 t

Quantity of crop residue available for manuring

Rice-Straw
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11 t
15 t
14 t
14 t

Total area under rice = 228938 ha

Straw produced =2 t/ha (average straw yield)
Total straw available for manuring annually = 457876 t.
NB: (rice Straw rich in Si prevent lodging)
Banana waste = 25- 30 kg/ plant
Area under banana = 110708 ha, spacing 2x2m.
Number of plants/ha = 10,000 = 2500
2x2
Waste = 25x110708x2500/1000
= 6919250 t
Rubber
Litter available = 4500 kg/ha
Total area under rubber = 512045 ha
Total litter available annually = 512045x4500/1000
= 2304202.5 t

ExNo.9

BIOFERTILIZERS

The use of biofertilizers is quite important while practicing the concepts of integrated plant nutrient
management and organic farming.
1. Rhizobium (Bradyrhizobium & Azorhizobium)
It induces better root nodulation and stem nodulation (Azorhizobium) in inoculated plants and thereby
brings down the requirement of nitrogen fertilizer for the cultivation of pulses, oil seeds and legume and
green manures. Commercially it is available as carrier based inoculation.
2. Azotobacter
Suitable only for upland crops like vegetables, tapioca plantation and orchard crops. It is available as
carrier based inoculums. It fixes N about 13 20 kg/ha under ideal upland conditions and thereby reduces
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the requirement of nitrogen fertilizers by 10 20 %. Methods of application are seed treatments,

seedlings dip and direct soil application in organic manure.
3. Azospirillum
It is suitable for both upland and wetland conditions and is available as carrier based inoculums. It fixes N
about 20 25 kg per ha under ideal conditions thereby effecting a reduction of 25 % in the quantity of N
fertilizers required. Treatment with Azospirillum also induces better root formation in inoculated plants.
Hence this biofertilizer is also recommended for root induction in poly bag raised seedlings of plantation
and orchard crops and also for vegetables. The isolates of Azospirillum brasilliense strains AZR15 &
AZR37 from Kuttanad soils are highly effective for rice, vegetables and nursery plants. The strains AZ1
and AZ2 are effective in vegetables and nursery plants. In sequential rice rice cropping system,
inorganic nitrogen fertilizer can be substituted up to 20 - 50 % through seedling dip or field application of
Azospirillum at 2.5 kg/ha.
Method of application
Seed treatment
For treating 5-10 kg seeds, 500 g culture is required. Moist the seeds by sprinkling water or rice gruel
water. Take 500 g culture in a plastic tray / basin, add moistened seeds, mix well and dry in shade for 30
minutes. This may be sown immediately.
Seedling root dip (for transplanted crops): slurry of the culture is prepared by mixing 500 g
culture with 750 ml of water and the roots are dipped in the slurry for 15 -20 minutes before
transplanting.
Soil application Mix the culture with FYM or compost in the ratio 1:25 and apply directly in the soil.
Inoculation for paddy Mix 2 kg of culture in 60 l of water and soak the seeds required for 1 ha (60 kg)
for 24 hrs before sowing. At the time of transplanting dip the roots of seedlings for 15 20 minutes in the
culture slurry prepared by mixing 2 kg inoculam with 40 l of water. This slurry can be used for treating
seedlings required for 1 ha. Another 2 kg culture may be applied to the field along with FYM or compost.
4. Blue green algae (BGA)
Mainly recommended for wetland rice cultivation. However the use of this bio fertilizer is not feasible in
acidic soils with pH below 6. It is available as carrier based inoculam and it fixes N about 25-30 kg/ha
under ideal conditions.
Method of application Direct broad casting in the rice fields at 10 kg/ha one week before transplanting
the seedlings.
5. Azolla
It is suitable for wetland rice cultivation. The required quantity of azolla will have to be raised in the
farmers field itself. Fixes N about 25 to 30 Kg/ha.
Method of application Apply fresh azolla at 10 t/ ha before transplanting the rice seedlings at the time of
ploughing.
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6. Phosphorous solubilising bacteria and fungi

Recommended mainly for upland crops raised in neutral and slightly alkaline soils. Available as carrier
based inoculam. Enables the efficient utilization of cheaper sources of phosphatic fertilizer such as rock
phosphate by crop plant in neutral and alkaline soils.
Method of application Seed treatment and direct application in organic manure.
Application techniques of biofertilizer

Seed treatment:
500 g commercially available inoculam will be required for treatment of seeds for 1 ha
area. For this thick slurry of carrier based inoculam is initially prepared by mixing 500 g of
inoculam in 1.25 l of water. Stickiness of seed surface can be improved by using 10 % jaggery
solution or 5 % sugar solution supplemented with 40 % boiled and cooled gum Arabic or rice
gruel water. Seeds are then mixed with this slurry without damaging seed coat. They are dried in
shade and sown immediately in moist soil. They are not exposed to direct sunlight since UV rays
will reduce the population of inoculated bacteria on seed surface.
Soil application:
Recommended for all type of biofertilizer except Rhizobium, Bradyrhizobium and
Azorhizobium. It is applied after mixing with dried FYM, compost or vermicompost @ 1:25 for
crops of 6 month duration, the quantity needed is 1 2 kg/ha and can be increased to 2- 4kg/ha
for crops having duration more than 6 months. For perennial crops 10 25 g in the root zone in
1st year and 25 50 g in subsequent years. This can be done during sowing, transplanting or inter
cultivation.

Factors affecting efficiency of biofertilizers in Kerala:

Use adequate quantity of organic manure along with biofertilizers, and this helps to
ensure better survival, growth and activity of inoculated microbes in acidic soils.
Liming if pH < 6, in moderately acidic soil 250 kg/ha of lime along with biofertilizer
treatment is recommended.
Irrigation is essential in summer months after biofertilizer application to ensure survival
of inoculated microbes.
Since N biofertilizers can supplement part of the nitrogen requirement of the inoculated
plant, low dose of N and full dose of P and K as per recommendation is applied. It is
essential to enable better plant growth and yield. Similarly in the case of P biofertilizers
full doses of N and K should be applied as organic manures.
Use only biofertilizers which are manufactured as per quality parameter prescribed by
Bureau of Indian Standards. In the case of bacterial biofertilizers the prescribed standard
is that in the final product, the population of the desired bacterium should not be less than
10 million/ gm of carrier material and there will not be any contamination with other
microorganisms when examined at 1:100000 dilution and have shelf life at least 6
months.
Bio fertilizers should always be used before expiry date.
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 Top dressing with rock phosphate 25 kg/ha 10 days after inoculation of BGA will
enhance its growth under field conditions.
The occurrence of green algae in rice filed can affect normal growth and proliferation of
BGA, the population of green algae should be controlled by applying CuSO 4 at 4 kg/ha
In moderately acidic soils of pH around 6.5, root nodulation by Rhizobium and
Bradyrhizobium can be improved by pelleting with finely powdered calcium carbonate.
Application of P2O5 @ 1 kg/ha as rock phosphate is recommended once in 4 days in P 2O5
deficient soils to ensure good growth of azolla. The reddish purple colour of azolla is
typical symptom of P2O5 deficiency.
Since floating population of azolla can release its bound nutrients only during decay, it is
essential to incorporate azolla prior to transplanting of rice seedlings.

EX.No.10

Visit to bio-control lab

Ex.No.11

Visit to Microbiology lab

Ex.No.12

Visit to certified organic farm

Ex.No.13

Visit to farmers field (organic)

Ex.No.14

Analysis of nutrient content of composts prepared

Ex.No.15-17

Raising of vegetable crops organically through nutrient, disease and pest

management

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