The document provides an overview of computer networks and networking concepts. It describes the layered architecture of networking protocols including the OSI and TCP/IP models. It also discusses common network applications and the protocols and transport layers used to facilitate communication between applications.
The document provides an overview of computer networks and networking concepts. It describes the layered architecture of networking protocols including the OSI and TCP/IP models. It also discusses common network applications and the protocols and transport layers used to facilitate communication between applications.
The document provides an overview of computer networks and networking concepts. It describes the layered architecture of networking protocols including the OSI and TCP/IP models. It also discusses common network applications and the protocols and transport layers used to facilitate communication between applications.
The document provides an overview of computer networks and networking concepts. It describes the layered architecture of networking protocols including the OSI and TCP/IP models. It also discusses common network applications and the protocols and transport layers used to facilitate communication between applications.
Give me names of all employees Who earn more than $100,000 intranet ISP
backbone
satellite link desktop computer: server: network link:
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Internet Connectivity
Figure from Wikipedia
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Issues
How do the request and response get transmitted between the
requestor and the server?
Protocols to facilitate communication
Moving the request and reply messages through the network
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What is a protocol?
A protocol defines the format and the order of messages sent
and received among network entities, and the actions taken on message transmission and receipt Human protocols:
Whats the time?
I have a question introductions
Network protocols:
machines rather than humans
all communication activity in Internet governed by protocols
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Human protocol
Computer protocol
Hi
TCP connection req.
Hi
TCP connection reply.
Got the time?
2:00
Gethttp://www.cs.uwaterloo.ca/ <index.html> time
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Layered Architecture
Can describe an airline system
sequentially
Lacks structure Any changes to one component requires re-describing the whole procedure
We can instead recognize that there
complementary functions at each end
Can divide the airline functionality
into layers Allows us to discuss a well-defined, specific part of a large and complex system. Example taken from Computer Networks A Top-Down Approach
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Layered Protocols
Divide functionality to different layers and let each layer provide one function. ISO OSI Layered network architecture (International Organization for Standardization, Open Systems Interconnections)
Function layers Interfaces Protocols at each layer
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From Tanenbaum and van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms Prentice-Hall, Inc. 2002
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OSI Protocol Summary
Layer Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data link Physical
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Description Protocols that are designed to meet the communication requirements of specific applications, often defining the interface to a service. Protocols at this level transmit data in a network representation that is independent of the representations used in individual computers, which may differ. Encryption is also performed in this layer, if required. At this level reliability and adaptation are performed, such as detection of failures and automatic recovery. This is the lowest level at which messages (rather than packets) are handled. Messages are addressed to communication ports attached to processes, Protocols in this layer may be connection-oriented or connectionless. Transfers data packets between computers in a specific network. In a WAN or an internetwork this involves the generation of a route passing through routers. In a single LAN no routing is required. Responsible for transmission of packets between nodes that are directly connected by a physical link. In a WAN transmission is between pairs of routers or between routers and hosts. In a LAN it is between any pair of hosts. The circuits and hardware that drive the network. It transmits sequences of binary data by analogue signalling, using amplitude or frequency modulation of electrical signals (on cable circuits), light signals (on fibre optic circuits) or other electromagnetic signals (on radio and microwave circuits).
From Coulouris, Dollimore and Kindberg, Distributed Systems: Concepts and Design, 3rd ed. Addison-Wesley Publishers 2000
From Tanenbaum and van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms Prentice-Hall, Inc. 2002
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Message Transmission (Assume only 3 layers)
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Internet Protocols FTP Telnet NFS SMTP HTTP
Application (7) Transport (4)
TCP
UDP
Network (3) Data Link (2) Physical (1)
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IP
X.25
Ethernet
Packet Radio
ATM
FDDI
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TCP/IP Layers Message
Layers Application Messages (UDP) or Streams (TCP) Transport UDP or TCP packets Internet
IP datagrams Network interface Network-specific frames
Underlying network
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From Coulouris, Dollimore and Kindberg, Distributed Systems: Concepts and Design, 3rd ed. Addison-Wesley Publishers 2000
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Internet Protocol Stack
Application: supporting network
applications
Transport: host-host data transfer
ip, routing protocols
Link: data transfer between
neighboring network elements
tcp, udp
Network: routing of datagrams
from source to destination
ftp, smtp, http
application
message
transport
segment
network
datagram
link
frame
physical
ppp, ethernet
Physical: bits on the wire
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Applications and ApplicationLayer Protocols
application transport network
Application: communicating, distributed
processes
data link physical
running in network hosts in user space
exchange messages to implement app e.g., email, file transfer, the Web
Application-layer protocols
one piece of an app
define messages exchanged by apps and actions taken use services provided by lower layer protocols
application
application
transport
transport
network
network
data link
data link
physical
physical
router
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server
workstation mobile
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Application-Layer Protocols (cont).
API: application programming interface
Defines interface between application and transport layer
socket: Internet API two
processes communicate by sending data into socket, reading data out
of socket
What transport services does an application need?
Data loss some
apps (e.g., audio) can tolerate some loss
other apps (e.g., file transfer, telnet) require 100% reliable data transfer
Bandwidth some
apps (e.g., multimedia) require a minimum amount of bandwidth to
be effective other apps (elastic apps) make use of whatever bandwidth they get
Timing some
apps (e.g., Internet telephony, interactive games) require low delay to
be effective
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Transport Service Requirements of
Common Applications Data loss
Bandwidth
Time Sensitive
file transfer e-mail Web documents real-time audio/video
no loss no loss no loss loss-tolerant
no no no yes, 100s msec
stored audio/video interactive games financial apps
loss-tolerant loss-tolerant no loss
elastic elastic elastic audio: 5Kb-1Mb video:10Kb-5Mb same as above few Kbps up elastic
Application
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yes, few secs
yes, 100s msec yes and no
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Internet Transport Protocol
Services TCP service:
connection-oriented: setup required
between client, server reliable transport between sending and receiving process
Receipt of packets returned as
acknowledgements
flow control: sender wont
overwhelm receiver congestion control: throttle sender when network overloaded does not provide: timing, minimum bandwidth guarantees
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UDP service:
unreliable data transfer
between sending and receiving process does not provide: connection setup, reliability, flow control, congestion control, timing, or bandwidth guarantee
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Flow Control
Both flow control and congestion control affect the sending rate Flow control aims to eliminate the possibility of overflowing the receivers buffer. Receiver keeps track of two variables:
Notifies the sender of its receive window size (rwnd)
Sender keeps track of two variables
LastByteSent and LastByteAcked
Delays sending of packets to ensure that
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LastByteSent LastByteAcked <= rwnd
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Congestion Control
Traffic from multiple paths that share the same routers/links
can overwhelm capacity within the network. In TCP, senders limit the rate at which it sends traffic as a function of the perceived network congestion. If there is little to no perceived congestion
If there is congestion
Additive increase in sending rate
Multiplicative decrease in sending rate
Congestion is detected via:
Lost packets
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Internet Apps: Their Protocols and
Transport Protocols Application e-mail remote terminal access Web file transfer streaming multimedia
TCP TCP TCP TCP TCP or UDP TCP or UDP typically UDP
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TCP Message Encapsulation over
an Ethernet Application message TCP header
port
IP header TCP
Ethernet header IP Ethernet frame
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From Coulouris, Dollimore and Kindberg, Distributed Systems: Concepts and Design, 3rd ed. Addison-Wesley Publishers 2000
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The programmer's conceptual view
of a TCP/IP Internet Application
Application
TCP
UDP IP
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From Coulouris, Dollimore and Kindberg, Distributed Systems: Concepts and Design, 3rd ed. Addison-Wesley Publishers 2000
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Internet Address Structure
7 Class A:
Class B:
24
Network ID
1 0
Host ID 14
16
Network ID
Host ID 21
Class C:
1 1 0
Network ID
Host ID 28
Class D (multicast):
1 1 1 0
Multicast address 28
Class E (reserved):
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1 1 1 1
unused
From Coulouris, Dollimore and Kindberg, Distributed Systems: Concepts and Design, 3rd ed. Addison-Wesley Publishers 2000
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Decimal Representation of Internet
Addresses octet 1
octet 2
Network ID Class A:
1 to 127
octet 3 Host ID
0 to 255
0 to 255
1.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255
0 to 255
0 to 255
128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255
0 to 255
Host ID 1 to 254
0 to 255
Network ID Class B:
Class C:
Range of addresses
Host ID
128 to 191
0 to 255
192 to 223
Network ID 0 to 255
192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255
Multicast address Class D (multicast):
224 to 239
0 to 255
0 to 255
1 to 254
224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255
Class E (reserved):
240 to 255
0 to 255
0 to 255
1 to 254
240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255
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From Coulouris, Dollimore and Kindberg, Distributed Systems: Concepts and Design, 3rd ed. Addison-Wesley Publishers 2000
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Classless Interdomain Routing (CIDR)
Breaking the IP address space into fixed size classes is space
inefficient CIDR generalizes the notion of subnet addressing
32-bit address is divided into two parts
a.b.c.d/x, where x indicates the number of bits in the first part of the address The
x most significant bits signify the network portion (prefix)
The remaining bits are for identifying individual hosts
IP addresses are managed by ICANN (Internet Corporation for
Assigned Names and Numbers)
CIDR creates more subnets
Each subnet needs to be advertised for routing
We will see later that this increases the routing table size
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IP Packet Layout
header IP address of source
IP address of destination
data
up to 64 kilobytes
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From Coulouris, Dollimore and Kindberg, Distributed Systems: Concepts and Design, 3rd ed. Addison-Wesley Publishers 2000
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How to Transfer Data Through the
Network
Network is a mesh of interconnected routers Two ways of setting up a connection between two computers circuit switching: dedicated circuit per call: telephone net packet-switching: data sent thru net in discrete chunks
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Circuit Switching End-end resources reserved for call
resource piece idle if not used by owning call (no sharing) dividing link bandwidth into pieces frequency division
time
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Packet Switching
Each end-end data stream divided into packets
Resource contention:
User A, B packets share network resources
Each packet uses full link bandwidth Resources used as needed Aggregate resource demand can exceed amount available Congestion: packets queue, wait for link use
Store and forward: packets move one hop at a time
Transmit over link
Wait turn at next link
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Packet Switching 10 Mbs Ethernet
A B
statistical multiplexing 1.5 Mbs
queue of packets waiting for output link
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Message Switching
Message switching = Packet-switching without segmentation
Packet switching: Store and Forward Message remains intact as it traverses the network
Message
0 5
Message
10
Message Message
15 Time (sec.)
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Packet Switching vs Circuit Switching
Packet switching allows
more users to use network! 1 Mbit link; each user:
100Kbps when active
active 10% of time
N users
circuit-switching:
1 Mbps link
10 users
packet switching:
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35 users, probability > 10 active less than .004 2-33
Packet Switching vs Circuit Switching (2)
Packet switching is great for bursty data
resource sharing no call setup It incurs excessive congestion: packet delay and loss protocols needed for reliable data transfer, congestion control How to provide circuit-like behavior? bandwidth guarantees needed for audio/video apps still an unsolved problem, but solutions such as ATM have been developed
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Delays in Packet Switching
Packets experience delay on end-toend path
Sources of delay at each hop:
Nodal processing
check bit errors
determine output link
Queuing
time waiting at output link for
transmission; depends on congestion level of router
Transmission delay
R=link bandwidth (bps), L=packet
length (bits) time to send bits into link = L/R
A B
transmission
propagation
nodal processing queueing
Propagation delay
d = length of physical link, s =
propagation speed in medium (~2x108 m/sec) propagation delay = d/s CS454/654
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Routing
Goal: move packets among routers from source to destination
It is an issue in packet switched networks datagram network:
destination address determines next hop
routes may change during session analogy: driving, asking directions
virtual circuit network:
each packet carries tag (virtual circuit ID), tag determines next hop fixed path determined at call setup time, remains fixed thru call routers maintain per-call state
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Routing in a Wide Area Network
A Hosts or local networks
B 2
Links
C 5
E Routers
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From Coulouris, Dollimore and Kindberg, Distributed Systems: Concepts and Design, 3rd ed. Addison-Wesley Publishers 2000
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Routing Algorithms
End hosts are directly attached to a default router
Routers are responsible for forwarding packets from the source to the destination
How do routers know where to forward the packets?
Routers construct routing tables that map destinations to network links
Routes should provide good properties, such as low latency
Abstractly, the routes should minimize a cost metric
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Routing Algorithms
Two main classifications of routing algorithms
Global routing algorithm
e.g.
Link-state (LS) algorithm
Connectivity of all nodes and all link costs serve as inputs
Decentralized routing algorithms
e.g.
Distance-vector algorithm No node has complete information about the costs of all network links
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Link-State Routing
Network topology and all link costs are known
Each node broadcasts its link-state information to all other nodes in the network OSPF is an example of a link-state routing algorithm
Makes use of Dijkstras algorithm for finding least-cost paths
from one node to all other nodes in the network
Iterative algorithm After k iterations, the least-cost paths are known to k destinations These
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k paths will have the k smallest costs
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Link-State Routing
5 Z
2 1
D(v): cost of the least-cost path from the source node to destination v p(v): previous node along the current least-cost path from the source to v N: subset of nodes, where v is in N if the least-cost path from the source to v is definitively known
Step
D(v),p(v)
D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x)
D(y),p(y)
D(z),p(z)
2,u
5,u
inf
Inf
ux
2,u
4,x
2,x
Inf
uxy
2,u
3,y
4,y
uxyv
3,y
4,y
uxyvw
uxyvwz
1,u
4,y
Example taken from Computer Networks A Top-Down Approach
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Distance Vector Routing
The distance-vector algorithm is iterative, distributed, and asynchronous
Based on the Bellman-Ford equation
Each node receives some information from one or more directly attached neighbors (distributed) It exchanges information until the results converge (iterative) Messages are exchanged at different times between different nodes (asynchronous)
dx(y) = min v{c(x,v) + dv(y)}
dx(y) is the cost of the least-cost path from x to y
c(x,v) is the cost of the link between x and v, where v is one of xs neighbors
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Distance Vector Routing
Each node starts off with some estimate of its distance to every node that it knows of, which might only be a subset of all the nodes in the network.
Known as its distance-vector
Dx = [Dx(y): y in N]
Exchange its distance-vector with its neighbors
Update its own distance vector
Dx(y) = min v{c(x,v) + Dv(y)} for each node y in N
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Distance Vector Routing
Node z table
Node y table
Node x table
Inf
Inf
Inf
Inf
Inf
Inf
Inf
Inf
Inf
Inf
Inf
Inf
Inf
Inf
Inf
Inf
Inf
Inf
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Example taken from Computer Networks A Top-Down Approach
