The document discusses various techniques for encoding digital data for transmission, including both digital and analog signal encoding. It begins by explaining the different combinations of digital data and signal types. It then focuses on digital data with digital signals, covering encoding schemes like Return to Zero (RZ), Non-Return to Zero (NRZ), and differential Manchester encoding. Next, it discusses digital data with analog signals, explaining modulation techniques like Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK), Frequency Shift Keying (FSK), and Phase Shift Keying (PSK) used to convert digital data to analog signals. It concludes by comparing various encoding schemes in terms of their pros, cons, and applications.
The document discusses various techniques for encoding digital data for transmission, including both digital and analog signal encoding. It begins by explaining the different combinations of digital data and signal types. It then focuses on digital data with digital signals, covering encoding schemes like Return to Zero (RZ), Non-Return to Zero (NRZ), and differential Manchester encoding. Next, it discusses digital data with analog signals, explaining modulation techniques like Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK), Frequency Shift Keying (FSK), and Phase Shift Keying (PSK) used to convert digital data to analog signals. It concludes by comparing various encoding schemes in terms of their pros, cons, and applications.
The document discusses various techniques for encoding digital data for transmission, including both digital and analog signal encoding. It begins by explaining the different combinations of digital data and signal types. It then focuses on digital data with digital signals, covering encoding schemes like Return to Zero (RZ), Non-Return to Zero (NRZ), and differential Manchester encoding. Next, it discusses digital data with analog signals, explaining modulation techniques like Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK), Frequency Shift Keying (FSK), and Phase Shift Keying (PSK) used to convert digital data to analog signals. It concludes by comparing various encoding schemes in terms of their pros, cons, and applications.
The document discusses various techniques for encoding digital data for transmission, including both digital and analog signal encoding. It begins by explaining the different combinations of digital data and signal types. It then focuses on digital data with digital signals, covering encoding schemes like Return to Zero (RZ), Non-Return to Zero (NRZ), and differential Manchester encoding. Next, it discusses digital data with analog signals, explaining modulation techniques like Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK), Frequency Shift Keying (FSK), and Phase Shift Keying (PSK) used to convert digital data to analog signals. It concludes by comparing various encoding schemes in terms of their pros, cons, and applications.
Computer Networks Lecture 5 Signal Encoding Techniques
Fall 2007
Agenda
Digital Data, Digital Signals
Digital Data, Analog Signals Home Exercises
ACOE312 Signal Encoding Techniques
Encoding Techniques There are a number of transmission options available today, depending on the encoding technique There are four possible combinations of encoding techniques Digital data, digital signal Digital data, analog signal Analog data, digital signal Analog data, analog signal
We shall examine only the first two techniques
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Digital Data Digital Signals
ACOE312 Signal Encoding Techniques
1. Digital Data, Digital Signals
Digital signal Discrete, discontinuous voltage pulses Each pulse is a signal element Binary data encoded into signal elements
Terms (1) Unipolar All signal elements have same sign, i.e. all positive or all negative
Polar One logic state represented by positive voltage the other by negative voltage
Data rate Rate of data transmission in bits per second
Duration or length of a bit
Time taken for transmitter to emit the bit eg. For a data rate R, the bit duration is 1/R 6
ACOE312 Signal Encoding Techniques
Terms (2) Modulation rate Rate at which the signal level changes Modulation rate is measured in baud = signal elements per second
Mark and Space
Mark is Binary 1, Space is Binary 0
Interpreting Signals Receiver needs to know Timing of bits - when they start and end Signal levels
What factors determine how successful the
receiver will be interpreting the incoming signal? Signal to noise ratio Data rate Bandwidth Encoding Scheme
ACOE312 Signal Encoding Techniques
Encoding Schemes considerations (1) Signal Spectrum Lack of high frequencies reduces required bandwidth Lack of dc component also desirable since it allows ac coupling via transformer, providing electrical isolation Concentrate tx power in the middle of tx bandwidth
Clocking Synchronizing transmitter and receiver External clock Sync mechanism based on tx signal with suitable encoding 9
Encoding Schemes considerations (2) Error detection Can be built in to signal encoding
Signal interference and noise immunity
Some codes are better than others
Cost and complexity
Higher signal rate (& thus data rate) lead to higher costs Some codes require signal rate greater than data rate
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ACOE312 Signal Encoding Techniques
Encoding Schemes
Return to Zero (RZ)
Nonreturn to Zero-Level (NRZ-L) Nonreturn to Zero Inverted (NRZI) Bipolar - AMI Pseudoternary Manchester Differential Manchester
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Return to zero (RZ)
Signal amplitude varies between a positive voltage, i.e. unipolar Binary 1: a constant positive voltage Binary 0: Absence of voltage (i.e. 0 Volts or Ground) Example: 1
1 +V 0 Volts 12
ACOE312 Signal Encoding Techniques
Non-return to Zero-Level (NRZ-L)
Two different voltages for 0 and 1 bits Negative voltage for one value and positive for the other, eg Binary 0 : Positive Binary 1 : Negative
Voltage constant during bit interval
no transition i.e. no return to zero voltage
Example: 0
0 +V 0 Volts -V 13
Non-return to Zero Inverted
(NRZI) Non-return to zero inverted on ones Constant voltage pulse for duration of bit time Data encoded as presence or absence of signal transition at beginning of bit time Transition (low-to-high or high-to-low) or denotes a binary 1 No transition denotes binary 0 NRZI is an example of differential encoding Example: 0
ACOE312 Signal Encoding Techniques
1 +V 0 Volts -V 14
NRZ-L and NRZI format
examples
0V
0V
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Differential Encoding Data represented by changes rather than levels Benefits More reliable detection of transition in the presence of noise rather than to compare a value to a threshold level In complex transmission layouts it is easy to loose sense of polarity of the signal
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ACOE312 Signal Encoding Techniques
NRZ pros and cons
Advantages Easy to engineer Make efficient use of bandwidth
Disadvantages DC component Lack of synchronization capability
Used for magnetic recording
Not often used for signal transmission 17
Multilevel Binary Uses more than two levels Bipolar-AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion) zero represented by no line signal one represented by positive or negative pulse Binary 1 pulses alternate in polarity
Benefits with respect to NRZ
No loss of sync if a long string of ones (zeros still a problem) No net DC component Lower bandwidth Easy error detection 18
ACOE312 Signal Encoding Techniques
Pseudoternary Binary 1 is represented by absence of line signal Binary 0 is represented by alternating positive and negative pulses No advantage or disadvantage over bipolar-AMI No loss of sync if a long string of zeros (ones still a problem)
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Bipolar-AMI and Pseudoternary
0
0V
0V
20
ACOE312 Signal Encoding Techniques
10
Disadvantages of Multilevel Binary Not as efficient as NRZ Each signal element only represents one bit The line signal may take on one of 3 levels Each signal element, which could represent log23 = 1.58 bits bears only one bit of information
Receiver must distinguish between three levels
(+A, 0, -A) instead of two in NRZ Requires approximately 3dB more signal power for same probability of bit error bit error for NRZ at a given SNR is much less than that for multilevel binary 21
Biphase Another set of coding techniques that overcomes NRZ limitations Biphase Manchester Differential Manchester
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ACOE312 Signal Encoding Techniques
11
Manchester Encoding
0V
Transition occurs at the middle of each bit period
Transition serves as clock and data Low to high represents binary 1 High to low represents binary 0 Used by IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet) 23
Differential Manchester Encoding
0V
Midbit transition occurs always and is used for clocking only
Transition at start of a bit period represents binary 0 No transition at start of a bit period represents binary 1 Note: this is a differential encoding scheme Used by IEEE 802.5 (token ring LAN) 24
ACOE312 Signal Encoding Techniques
12
Biphase Pros and Cons
Advantages Synchronization on mid bit transition (self clocking) No dc component Error detection Absence of expected transition can be used to detect errors
Disadvantages At least one transition per bit time and possibly two Maximum modulation rate is twice as that of NRZ Requires more bandwidth 25
Modulation Rate (1)
Data rate or bit rate is 1/Tb, where Tb = bit duration Modulation rate is the rate at which signal elements are generated Tb
Tb
D=
R R = L log2 M
where D = modulation rate in baud R = Data rate in bps M = number of different signal elements = 2L L = number of bits per signal element
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ACOE312 Signal Encoding Techniques
13
Modulation Rate (2)
For Manchester Encoding, the minimum size signal element is a pulse of the duration of a bit interval. Bit rate = 1/Tb
For a string of all
binary 0s or all 1s, a continuous stream of such pulses is generated. Hence maximum Modulation rate is 2/Tb 27
Digital Data Analog Signals
28
ACOE312 Signal Encoding Techniques
14
2. Digital Data, Analog Signals
Transmission of digital data with analog signals Example: Public telephone system (PSTN) Voice frequency range of 300Hz to 3400Hz Digital devices are attached to the network via a modem (modulator-demodulator), which converts digital data to analog signals and vice-versa Modem Corporate Network Residence
PSTN network
Server Modem Access Router 29
Modulation techniques We will examine three basic modulation techniques Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
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ACOE312 Signal Encoding Techniques
15
Modulation Techniques
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Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Values represented by different amplitudes of carrier Usually, one amplitude is zero i.e. presence and absence of carrier is used
s(t) = A cos(2fct) s(t) = 0
binary 1 binary 0
where fc is the carrier frequency
Susceptible to sudden gain changes
Inefficient Up to 1200bps on voice grade lines Used over optical fiber 32
ACOE312 Signal Encoding Techniques
16
Binary Frequency Shift Keying
Most common form is binary FSK (BFSK) Two binary values represented by two different frequencies (near carrier) s(t) = A cos(2f1t) binary 1 s(t) = A cos(2f2t) binary 0 where f1, f2 are offset from carrier frequency fc by equal but opposite amounts
Less susceptible to errors than ASK
Up to 1200bps on voice grade lines High frequency (HF) radio (3-30MHz) Even higher frequency on LANs using co-axial cable 33
Multiple FSK
More than two frequencies used
More bandwidth efficient More prone to error Each signalling element represents more than one bit si(t)=A cos(2fit), 1<i<M
where, fi=fc+(2i-1-M)fd fc = carrier frequency fd = difference frequency M = number of different signal elements = 2L L = number of bits per signal element
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ACOE312 Signal Encoding Techniques
17
BFSK example on Voice Grade
Line
1170 Hz
2125 Hz
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Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Phase of carrier signal is shifted to represent data Binary PSK Two phases represent two binary digits s(t) = A cos(2fct) s(t) = A cos(2fct+) = -A cos(2fct)
binary 1 binary 0
Differential PSK (DPSK)
Phase shifted relative to previous transmission rather than some reference signal 36
ACOE312 Signal Encoding Techniques
18
DPSK
Binary 0: signal of same phase as previous signal sent
Binary 1: signal of opposite phase to the preceding one 37
Quadrature PSK (QPSK)
Quadrature means a 4-level scheme More efficient use by each signal element representing more than one bit e.g. shifts of /2 (90o) Each element represents two bits Can use 8 phase angles and have more than one amplitude 9600bps modem use 12 angles, four of which have two amplitudes
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ACOE312 Signal Encoding Techniques
19
QPSK equation Each signal element represents than one s(t)=A cos(2fct+/4) s(t)=A cos(2fct+3/4) s(t)=A cos(2fct-3/4) s(t)=A cos(2fct-/4)
two bits rather
11 01 00 10
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Quadrature Amplitude Modulation QAM used on asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) and some wireless standards Combination of ASK and PSK Can also be considered a logical extension of QPSK Send two different signals simultaneously on same carrier frequency Use two copies of carrier, one shifted by 90 with respect to the other Each carrier is ASK modulated Two independent signals over same medium At the receiver the two signals are demodulated and combined to produce the original binary signal 40
ACOE312 Signal Encoding Techniques
20
QAM Levels Two-level ASK Each of two streams in one of two states Four state system Essentially QPSK
Four-level ASK, i.e. 4 different amplitude
levels Combined stream in one of 16 states
64 and 256 state systems have been
implemented Improved data rate for given bandwidth Increased potential error rate 41
Required Reading Stallings chapter 5
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ACOE312 Signal Encoding Techniques
21
Home Exercises
43
Review Questions List and briefly define important factors that can be used in evaluating or comparing the various digital-to-digital encoding techniques What is differential encoding? Contrast all digital encoding schemes listed in this lecture (NRZL, NRZI, Bipolar AMI, Pseudoternary, Manchester, Differential Manchester), outlining their advantages and disadvantages Define the modulation rate and write an expression which relates it with the bit rate. Explain the difference between ASK, FSK and PSK modulation techniques What is the difference between Binary PSK, DPSK and QPSK? 44
ACOE312 Signal Encoding Techniques
22
Exercises (1) 1. For the bit stream 01001110, sketch the waveforms for the following codes a) b) c) d) e) f)
NRZ-L NRZI Bipolar-AMI Pseudoternary Manchester Differential Manchester
Assume that: the most recent preceding 1 bit (AMI) has a negative voltage the most recent preceding 0 bit (pseudoternary) has a negative voltage. 45
Exercises (2) 2.
The bipolar-AMI waveform representing the binary sequence
0100101011 is transmitted over a noisy channel. The received waveform, which contains a single error, is shown in the following figure. Locate the position of this error and explain your answer.
