CORE MATHS for Advanced LevelText © L. Bostock and S. Chandler 1990, 1994, 2000 Original ilustretions © Nelson Thornes Lid 1960, 1984, 2000 ‘The right of L. Bostock and S. Chandler to be identiied as authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Al rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reprocuced or transmitted in ‘ny form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, incliding photocopy, recording Cor any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher oF under licence from the Copyeght Licensing Agency Limited, of 90 Totterham Court Road, London WIT ALP, ‘Any person who commits any unauthorised actin relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. First published in 1990 by: Stanley Thornes (Publichers) Lid ‘Second euition 1984 Third edition published in 2000 by: Nelson Thornes Lte Datta Placo. 27 Bath Road (GHELTENHAM GL53 7TH United Kingdom 03 04 05/ 1098765 ‘A catalogue record for this book is available from the Baitish Library ISBN 0 7487 5509 8 Page make-up by Tech Sot Lid Printed and bound in Spain by Graticas Estella S.A.Ceo Introduction v “Chapter 1 Algebra 1 1 Multiplying, adding and subtracting algebraic expressions. Expanding brackets. Pascal's triangle. Factor theorem. Multiplying, dividing, adding and subtractin, Chapter 2 Surds, indices and logarithms 20 juare, cube and other roots. Rational and irrational numbers. Surds. Rationalising a denominator. Laws of indices. Definition of logarithms including natural logarithms. Laws of k ithms. ‘Chapter 3 Equations 1 _ 33 Solving a quadratic equation by factorisation, by completing the square and by the formula. Factor theorem. Solving cubic equations by using the factor theorem. Solution of simultaneous equations; three linear equations and one linear and one quadratic equation. Chapter 4 Equations 2 44 ‘The nature of the roots of a quadratic equation. Solving equations containing x as.a power. Solving equations containing logarithms. Summary A 51 Examination Questions AD Chapter 5 Reasoning and proof 56 The need for proof. Mathematical reasoning and deduction. Chapter 6 _ Coordinate geometry 1 60 Cartesian coordinates. The length, midpoint and gradient of a line joining two. points. Parallel and perpendicular lines. Chapter 7 Triangles 68 ‘Trigonometric ratios of acute and obtuse angles. The sine rule and its use including the ambiguous case. The cosine rule. The area of a triangle. ‘Chapter 8 Coordinate geometry 2 84 jation of a straight line in the form y = mx +c and in the form ax +by +c = 0. Finding the equation of a straight line. The angle between a line and the x-axis. Reduction of a relationship to a linear law. ee __.__.Chapter 9 Circles 7 Parts of a circle. Relationships between angles in circles. Tangents to circles and their properties. Chapter 10 Circular measure 104 Radians. The length of an arc of a circle. The area of a sector of a circle, Summary B Examination Questions B ac Chapter 11 Functions 1 Definition of a function. Domain and range. Quadratic, cubic, jomial, rational and exponential functions. Transformations of curves. Inverse functions. Compound functions. Function of a function. R Chapter 12 Inequalities 142 Solving inequalities involving linear, quadratic and rational functions. Chapter 13 Differentiation 1 150 ‘The gradient of a curve. Differentiation from first principles. Differentiation of constant, of a multiple of x, of x", and of their sums and differences. Gradients of tangents and normals. Chapter 14 Tangents, normals and stationary values 160 Equations of tangents and normals, Stationary values. Turning points and their Sauer ame Chapter 15 Trigonometric functions 172 General definition of an angle. Trig ratios of 30°, 45° and 60°. The sine, cosine and tangent functions, their properties and relationships. One-way stretches of curves. The reciprocal trig functions. Graphical solution of trig equations, Chapter 16 nom 1 184 ‘The identity cos? @+sin*@ = 1 and its equivalents. Solving trig equations. Summary C 191 Examination Questions C 196 Chapter 17 and rithmic functions 206 nential and decay. The exponential function. Changing the base of a logarithm. The logarithmic function. The derivative of e* and of Inx. ee |Chapter 18 Chapter 19 Chapter 20 Chapter 22 Chapter 23 Chapter 24 Chapter 25 Functions 2 215 Curve sketching using transformations. Even, odd and periodic functions. The modulus function, Equations and inequalities. Sequences 227 ‘Sequences. The behaviour of a sequence. Recurrence relationships. Arithmetic progressions. Geometric progressions. Integration 1 244 Integration as the reverse of differentiation. Integration as a process of summation, Finding areas by integration. Definite integration. Integration of 1, The trapezium rule, the mid-ordinate rule and Simpson’s rule. x Summary D 259 Examination Questions D 264 Differentiation 2... === CSC‘ Differentiating a function of a function (the chain rule), a product of two functions and a quotient of two functions. Trigonometry 2 283 Compound angle identities. Double angle identities. General solutions of trig equations. Trigonometry 3 293 Expressing acos0+bsin? as rcos(#+2) and equivalent forms. Inverse trigonometric functions. Differentiation3 2 Differentiating trigonometric functions. Extending the chain rule. Differentiation 42227 Differentiating implicit functions. Using logarithms to simplify differentiation, Differentiating a*. Parametric equations. Finding the gradient of a curve given parametrically. Differentiation 5 8 ‘Small increments. Small percentage increases. Comparative rates of change. Summary E 324 Examination Questions E 327 WmChapter 27 Chapter 28 Chapter 29 Chapter 30 Chapter 31 Chapter 32 Chapter 33 Chapter 34 Chapter 35 Method of Proof Proof by contradiction. Use of a counter example. Coordinate geometry 3 Loci. The equation of a circle. Finding equations of tangents to circles. Parametric equations of a circle and of an ellipse. Integration 2 Standard integrals. Integration by recognition and by change of variable. Integration by parts. Indefinite integrals. Algebra 2 Partial fractions. Dividing one polynomial by another. Using partial fractions to simplify differentiation. The remainder theorem. Intersection of curves and coincident points of intersection. Integration 3 Integrating fractions by recognition, by substitution and by using partial fractions, Integrating compound trigonometric functions. Integration 4 Classifying an integral, Solving first order differential equations with separable variables. Integration 5 Rates of increase. Forming and solving naturally occurring differential equations. Finding areas and volumes of revolution, ‘The expansion of (1 +x)" when 1 is a positive integer and when n has an) value (the binomial theorem). Using the binomial theorem to find ‘approximations. Maclaurin’s theorem. uations 3 Methods for solving trigonometric equations. Polynomial equations with a sated root. Equations involving square roots. Locating an interval in which the root of an equation lies. Iterative methods for finding an approximate solution: interval bisection, x,.1 = (%,), Newton-Raphson. 336 347 363 376 385 394 411 ——— SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSsSChapter 36 Vectors 449 Definition of a vector. Equal and parallel vectors. Multiplying a vector by a scalar. Adding vectors. The angle between two vectors. The position vector of the midpoint of a line. Cartesian coordinates in three dimensions. The cartesian unit vectors i, j and k. Scalar product. The cartesian and vector equations of a line. Intersecting, parallel and skew lines. The cartesian and vector equations of a plane. Summary G 475 Examination Questions GB Amswers 0 Sinecurve 022 8B Syllabus map 531 Index BBBAlgebra 1 ‘Skill in manipulating algebraic expressions is essential in any mathematics course beyond GCSE and needs to be almost as instinctive as the ability to manipulate simple numbers. This and the next two chapters present the facts and provide practice necessary for the development of these skills. Multiplication of Algebraic Expressions ‘The multiplication sign is usually omitted, so that, for example, 2g means 2x q and x xy can be simplified toxy Remember also that if a string of numbers and letters are multiplied, the multiplication can be done in any order, for example 2px 3q =2xpx3xq 64 Powers can be used to simplify expressions such as x x, ie. xxxcat and xxdoxxexrssd But remember that a power refers only to the number or letter it is written above, for example 2x? means that x is squared, but 2 is not, Simpify a (Spy)? a (4pqh x5 = 4pq x 4pq x 5 = 80p2q? ax? ox _ ax¥ ay® yay SERSSSEN simplity 13x 5x 15 (pq)? x (2p)? dex dr 16 240 3 (2x) 1b 4 5p x2q 17 Bax? S4rx 2x 3x 6 299 x Spr 1s 35 7 (3a)? 14 25x2y + Sx 18y ||aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EN sgeora Difference of Two Squares Consider the expansion of (x 4)(x+4), (x4) (44) =x? ae 4 de 16 =x?-16 Expand and simplify 1 (@-2)(x+2) 3 (x+3)(x-3) 5 (x+8)(x-8) 2 (5—x)(5+x) 4 (2r-1)(2r+1) 6 (x-a)(x+a) Questions 1 to 6 show clearly that an expansion of the form (ax +b)(ax—b) can be written down directly, ie (ax +b) (ax —b) = ax? —b? Use this result to expand the following brackets. 7 (e—1)@ 41) 9 (2y —3)(2y +3) 1 (Sx-+1)(Sx—1) 8 (3b +4)(3b- 4) 10 (ab + 6)(ab — 6) 12 (ay +4)(xy—4) Squares (2c+3)? means (2x +3)(2x+3) (+3)? = (2 +3)(2e+3) = (2x) +(2)(2)(3)+ BF = 4741 +9 In general, (ax+b)* = ax? + (2)(ax)(b) +B? = ax? + abr +b? and (ax —b)? = 07x? — Dabx +b? [SENSSSA Use the results above to expand 1a@+4y 6-17 1 3t-7) 2(x+2P 7-3) 12 (x+y) 3 (2x41) 8 (2x-1)° 13 (2p +9) 4 (3x45)? 9 (4x-3)? 14 (3qg-11)° 5 (2x47)7 10 (5x— 2)? 15 (2x — 5p)?Algebra 1 FEDER Important Expansions The results from the last two section should be memorised. They are summarised here. (ax +b)? = ax? + 2abx +b? (ax - b)? = a?x? — 2abx + b? (ax +b) (ax—b) = ax? - b? ‘The next exercise contains a variety of expansions including some of the forms given above. SS) Expana (4p + 5)(3-2p) (4p +5)(3— 2p) = (5+ 4p) —2p) = 1542p -8p? Exped 1 (2x-3)(4-x) 8 (41 -1)(3 21) 15 (7a + 2b)(Ta — 2b) 2 (@-7)@+7) 9+) 16 (3a + 5b)” 3 (6—x)(1—4x) 10 (4x — 3)(4x+3) 17 Write down the 2 coefficients of x? and x 4 (ip +2)(2p— 1) AL Gee 7) in the expansion of 5 (3p-1) 12 (R +3)(5-2R) a (2x—4)(3x-5) = ane b (5x+2)Gr+5) 6 (5t-+2)(3t- 1) 13 (a -36) © (2x—3)(7x—5) 7 (4-py 14 (2x5)? d (9x41) Harder Expansions Consider the product (x —2)(x?-x +5) Expansions like this should be done in a systematic way. First multiply each term of the quadratic by x, writing down the separate results as they are found. Then multiply each term of the quadratic by —2. Do not attempt to simplify at this stage. (e-2) (x? -x+5) =x wx? 45x —2e? + 2x — 10 Now simplify =x 3x2 + Tr -10 Expand (x +2)(2e~1)(x+4) Fi expand the two brackets, (&+2)2x- DC (&+2)(2x? + Te - 4) 2x3 + Tx? — dnt 4x? + 14x —8 = 2e3 + 11x? + 10x -8 Nee |Pascal's Triangle & Expand and simplify 1 (v-2)(a? 4x41) 1S (2x + 1)(x+2)(3x-1) 2 (3x -2)(x?-x-1) 16 (x+1)° 3 (2x - 1)(2x? —3x +5) 17 (2) +2)0+1) 4 (1)? -x-1) 18 (x +3)(2x+3)(e-1) 5 (2x + 3)(x?— 6x —3) 19 (3x — 2)(2x + $)(4x —1) 6 (w+ 1) +2) +3) 20 2(x ~7)(2x+3)(x—5) 7(xe+4)@-D)EF+D 21 Expand and simplify Be 2)6-29e+0 ST Ml 9 +1) + 1) +2) 22 Find the coefficients of x3 and x? in 10 (x +2)(e +1)? the expansion of 1 (2x17 (+2) Re) Gr 12 Gx-1 23 Expand and simplify (x +)’. ay < eeu sRRELA) 24 Expand and simplify (x+y). 14 (= 1) (2x 1)(2x+ 1) We sometimes need to expand expressions such as (x +y)* but the multiplication is tedious when the power is three or more. We now describe a far quicker way of obtaining such expansions. Consider the following expansions, (ety) =xty (ety) =x dy ty? (e4+yy = 84 3ry 43? +y3 (at yy) = x8 4 dedy + Oxy? + day yt The first thing to notice is that the powers of x and y in the terms of each expansion form a pattern. Looking at the expansion of (x +y)* we see that the first term is x* and then the power of x decreases by 1 in each succeeding term while the power of y increases by 1. For all the terms, the sum of the powers of x andy is 4 and the expansion ends with y‘. There is a similar pattern in the other expansions. Now consider just the coefficients of the terms. Writing these as a triangular array givesAlgebra ETE This array is called Pascal’s Triangle and it has a pattern, Each row starts and ends with 1 and each other number is the sum of the two numbers in the row above it, as shown. When the pattem is known, Pascal’s triangle can be written down to as many rows as needed. Using Pascal’s triangle to expand (x +y)*, for example, we go as far as row 6: 1 6 1s 2001S 6 1 ‘We then use our knowledge of the pattern of the powers, together with row 6 of the array, to fill in the coefficients, ie. (ety) = x8 + 6r5y + 15x4y? + 20x4y3 + 15x2y4 + Oxy + y® The following worked examples show how expansions of other brackets can be found, SST 1 Expand (x +5) From Pascal's triangle (x+y Replacing y by Sgives (x +3) 3xty + Bay? +99 (5) + 3x(5Y° + (5) + 75x-+ 125 2 Expand (2x 3)* From Pascal's triangle, (x+y)! = x1 +4a°y + Oxy? + 4ay® +y! Replacing x by 2x and y by ives (2x — 3)' = (2x)* + 4(2x)5(—3) + 6(2e)°(—-3)7 +.4(2x)( 3)? + (3) = 16r4 —96x9 + 216r2 — 216x +81 Saress Expand 1@43y 4 (2x41) 7 (2x43) 10 (1 +5a)* 2 (x-2)* 5 (x—3) 8 (x—4)° 11 (2a—by* 3 +1) 6 (p—q)* 9 (3x—1)* 12 (2x—5) Factorising Quadratic Expressions An expression of the form ax +, where a and b are numbers, is called a linear expression in x. ‘When two linear expressions in.x are multiplied, the result usually contains three terms: a term inx, a term in x and a number. Expressions of this form, i.e. ax*+bx+c where a, b and c are numbers and a £0, are called quadratic expressions in x. Eeene Since the product of two linear brackets is quadratic, we might expect to be able to reverse this process. For instance, given a quadratic such as x? — Sx +6, we could try to find two linear expressions inx whose product is x? — Sx-+ 6. To be able to do this we need to appreciate the relationship between what is inside the brackets and the resulting quadratic. Consider the examples (2e+1)@+5) = W445 w (Br —2)(@—4) = 3x? - 14x +8 2 (x 5)(4x-42) = 4x? — 18x — 10 B) ‘The first thing to notice about the quadratic in each example is that the coefficient of x? is the product of the coefficients of x in the two brackets, the number is the product of the numbers in the two brackets, wwe get the coefficient of x by adding the coefficients formed by multiplying thex term in one bracket by the number term in the other bracket. The next thing to notice is the relationship beeen the signs. Positive signs throughout the quadratic come from positive signs in both brackets, as in [1] A positive number term and a negative coefficient of x in the quadratic ‘come from a negative sign in each bracket, as in [2]. A negative number term in the quadratic comes from a negative sign in one bracket and a positive sign in the other, as in [3] 1 Factorise x? — Sx +6. The x tem in each bracket is x as x® can only be x x x The sign in each bracket is —,s0 x*-& +6 = (x- )(x— ) The numbers in the trackote could be 6 and 1 or 2and 3. Checking the middle term tes us that the numbers must be 2 and 3. ¥~Sr+6 = (r= 2)(r-3) Mentally expanding the brackets checks that they are correct. 2 Factorise x7 — ar —10. ‘Thex tem ineach bracket is x so x? - &%x— 10 = k — Ji +) The numbers could be 10 and 1 or 5 and 2, Checking the middle term shows that they are 5 and 2. x? 3-10 = (x -5)(« +2) Mentally expanding the brackets confirms that they are correct. pyaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Substituting a for x in [1] we get 3a? 47a — 10 = (0) x (quadratic) ie. a? 3a? +7a—10 =0 The same argument can be applied to any expression containing powers of x and it ‘means that if («—a) is a factor of an expression containing powers of x, when we substitute a for x in that expression the result is zero. Conversely, if the result is not zero, x—a is not a factor. This result is called the factor theorem and we can use it to help find factors of cubic and higher order expressions. Consider again x? — 3x? + 7x - 10. ‘The possible factors of this expression are (x +1), (x+2) and (x+5). We can try each of these in turn using the factor theorem. ‘Try (x — 1): substitute 1 for x inx? — 3x? + 7x— 10 => (1) -3(1)* +7(1)-10 = -5 40 so (x ~ 1) is not a factor. Try (x +1): substitute —1 for x in x3 - 3x? +7x-10 > (-1 = 3(-1? +7(-1) = 10 = -21 40 so (x + 1) is not a factor. ‘Try (x —2): substitute 2 for x in x? — 3x? + 7x—10 => (2) —3(2)? + 7(2) -10 = 0 so (x ~ 2) is a factor. Now we know that x3 - 3x? + 7x - 10 = (x - 2)(ax? +b +c) The values of a and can be written down directly from observation; 3x2 47x — 10 (e— 2)(ax? +bx +e) x® comes from the product ofx and ax?, soa = 1 ~10 comes from the product of ~2 and ¢, soc = 5 The value of b is found by checking the pairs of products that give 7x (or — 3x?) ee Paes ie. x3 — 32? 47x - 10 = (-2)(@?+bx +5) shows that 7x = 5x—2bx so b=~1. 3x? 4+.7x—10 = (x-2)(x?-x+5) SSSThe Factors of a7 — b? and a? +b? +—b' =0 when a = 6, so a—b isa factor of a?—b? therefore a3—b3 = (a—b)(a? + ab +b?) (1) a?+b? =0 when a = -b, so a+b isa factor of a? +b? therefore a+b? =(atb)(é ib + b*) [2] These two facts can be used to factorise similar forms, x°—8 =2°—2, so replacing a byx and b by 2 in [1] gives 8 = (e—2)(x? +2 +4) (TSS) «1 Find the value of a for which 2x—1 is afactor of 4x3 — 2x? +ax—4. Using the factor theorem we know that the value of the expression is zero when x=+ (the vale of x for which 2x-1 = 0). As 2x—1 isa factor of 4x3 — 2x? +ax-4, 44) - 25 +a(4)-4=0 ie. $-44+40-4=0 a=8 2 Factorise x* — 16. Using the factor theorem will find factors if they exist, but itis not always the quickest method. Look for forms that can be recognised. In this case we see that x*— 16 isthe difference of two squares. x4 16 = (x7 -4)(x7 +4) = (x-2)(r+2)(x? +4) (SSS «1 Find whether x1 isa factor of 6 Factorise fully bse TET fe a 42x?-2-2 2s x41 afactor of x3 —2x7+1? bP ax?--2 e 2x3-x?42x-1 3 Show that 2x~1 is a factor of 2xt—x3 46x? -x-1. a x¢-81 4 Determine whether x-3 and/or e 3427 2x+1 are factors of 4x3—7r-+9. fot ged 3x2 5 Show that x—3 isa factor of 3 Tx—6, PU7x-4 isa factor of x3 - ar +16. 9 (x41) and (x+2) are both factors Find a. of 2x3 +bx?— Sx +0. 8 Find one factor of 2x3 +x? + 9x —5. Find ihe valies of bande: Hence express 2x3 +x?+9x—5 in the form (ax +b)(px? +qx-+r) giving the values of a, b, p, q and r. 10 x — 4x?— 25 has a factor (x—a). Find the value of a. Simplification of Fractions The value of a fraction is unaltered if we multiply or divide both the numerator and the denominator by the same number, eg. _3e_ (a+b) _ 3y (ab) A fraction can be simplified by multiplying or dividing top and bottom by a factor which is common to both. and ‘Sometimes the numerator and/or the denominator of a fraction themselves contain fractions. If they do, get rid of these fractions first, then factorise the numerator and denominator, remembering to look for common factors. j 1 Sinity 28 = 20b First factorise top and bottom, 2a?-2ab _ 2ala—by 28 2 Simplify ie phe Remove fractions from top and bottom.(GIES Aetra 1 Simplify where possible 15 G=DE+D x+n-2 16 2025) a?—25 7 — 2490 P? + 6pq+ 9q? at+2a+4 8 tas 10 9 4 2e41 3x? +12 +9) 4-3) G+D@- Multiplication and Division Fractions are multiplied by taking the product of the numerators and the product of the denominators, x,y axy yy eg. Z,22De 2 e a*b axb ab To divide by a fraction, we multiply by the reciprocal of that fraction, for example Zid ab, ab” ay | : NSIT. sinpty 202 sae Think of an a 4%ERISA simplify 2 ‘a iiss, © x (2) a9 4° = 8 3 (= "xe —1) Addition and Subtraction of Fractions Before fractions can be added or subtracted, they must be expressed with the same Si we have to find a common denominator. Then the numerators can be SUN simplity x1 x x (= 1)@+1) SESE simpiity a22 T2»-1 ab eS Lia 1 x x4l ated sx+t piyttt 1 ny gill ott 94-1) +h+1) oa ar + iaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Sener Weasel Divide 2x3-1+5 by x4+3 7 1x +5 1x+51 46 x into 2x3 goes 2x? times, Multiply 2x? by x +3 and subtract Bring down —x. x into —6x? goes —6x times. ‘The quotient is 21? —6x+17 and the remainder is —46. Carry out each of the following divisions, giving the quotient and the remainder. 1 (2x? +5x-3)+ (+2) 2 (2-244) +041) 1 Find the coefficient of x in the expansion of (3x —7)(Sx +4). 2 Expand 5(3x -2)(3 - 7x). 3 Write down the coefficient of y? in the expansion of (2y +9)*. 4 Factorise 3x? — 92 +6. § Write down the coefficient of x? in the expansion of (x —5)°. 6 Factorise 4x? — 36. 7 Expand x(2x— 8 Find the factors of 25 +.x? — 10x. 9 Find the coefficient of.x in the expansion of (x —4)(3 —x). 10 Expand (3a —2b)(5a +36). 11 Expand (x 2)(? 5x +3). 12 Expand (2x +1)(x +3)(3x — 2), 13 (2x— 3)(x? +ax-2) 2x9 — 13x? + 11x +6. Find the value of a 14 Show that x—3 is a factor of 2x3 — 9x? + 10x —3. 3 (4x) 42-1) (28-1) 4 (2-7 +2)2@-2) 15 Factorise 2x? —x?—2x +1. 16 Show that x3 — 2x? —9x +4 = (x—4)(ax?-+bx-+e) and find the values of a, b and ¢ 17 Find the value of k given that x 2 is afactor of x3 —x? +x +8, 18 Factorise x4 ~ 6x? + 7x? + 6x ~ 8. 19 Factorise ar-1 bxty? © 8427 20 Given that (x—1) and (x+2) are factors of x? + ax? + bx — 6, find the values of a and b. 21 Simplify ea) 2-6 22 Simplify ay\? a (2) > rr} ps 23 Simplify Mm24 Simplify a 4-25 4x? + 20x +25 2 fa +1 +1 25 Simplify + (eiuwn 1 iit b tists abe 26 Divide 2x7 +3x+4 by x-2, giving the quotient and the remainder. oo 27 Express seat expression plus a proper fraction. as alinear 28 Divide x3 —4x?+5 by x-1, giving the quotient and the remainder. Hence express. quadratic expression plus a proper fraction.Surds, indices and logarithms Square Roots ‘When we express a number as the product of two equal factors, that factor is called the square root of the number, for example 4=2x2 + is the square root of 4. This is writen 2 = V4 -2x-2 but we donot write v4 Now —2 is also a square root of 4, as 4 ‘The symbol is used only for the positive square root. So, although x2 = 4 = x = +2, the only value of V4 is 2. ‘The negative square root of 4 would be written as —/4 and, when both square roots are wanted, we write +V/4, Cube Roots ‘When a number can be expressed as the product of three equal factors, that factor is called the cube root of the number. eg. 27 =3x3%3 803 isthe cube root of 27. This is written Y27 = 3. Other Roots ‘The notation used for square and cube roots can be extended to represent fourth roots, fifth roots, etc, eg. 16=2x2x2x2 =» VYie=2 and U3 =3x3x3x3x3 3 VHB=3 In general, if a number, n, can be expressed as the product of p equal factors then each factor is called the pth root of n and is written ¢/i. Rational and Irrational Numbers A number which is either an integer, or a fraction whose numerator and denominator are both integers, is called a rational number. The square roots of certain numbers are rational, eg. W=3, VB=5, fea mtSimplifying Surds Serena Multiplying Surds This is not true of all square roots however, V2, v5 and v1II, for example, are not rational numbers. Such square roots can be given to as many decimal places as are required, for example v3 = 1.73 correct to 2 d.p. V3 =1.73205 correct to Sd.p. but they can never be expressed exactly as a decimal. They are called irrational numbers, and cannot be written as : where a and b are integers. The only way to give an exact answer when such irrational numbers are involved is to leave them in the form 72, V7 etc; in this form they are called surds. At this level of mathematics answers should be given exactly unless an approximate answer is asked for, e.g. give your answer correct to 3 sf. ‘Surds arise in many topics and you need to be able to manipulate them. Consider 18. One of the factors of 18 is 9, and 9 has an exact square root, ie. VIB = (OX?) = V9x v2 But V9 = 3, therefore V18 = 3V2 32 is the simplest possible surd form for 18. i 2_ v2 _ v2 Similarly vz ae 4 Express in terms of the simplest possible surd. 1 viz 4 ¥50 7 VI62 10 V48 2 V32 5 200 8 288 11. 500 3 v27 6 V7 9 V5 12 ¥20 Consider (4 — V5)(3 + V2). ‘The multiplication is carried out in the same way and order as when multiplying two linear brackets. ie (4— V5)(3 + V2) = (4)(3) + (4)(/2) — 3)(V5) — (V5)(VD) 124 4V2-3V5 - v5v2 = 1244¥2—3V5 - V0 In this example there are no like terms to collect but when the same surd occurs in each bracket the expansion can be simplified. SSS(ESSE surds, indices and togarithms 1 Expand and simplify (2+ 2V7)(5~ V7). (2+2V7)(S— v7) = (2)(5) — (2)(V7) + (5)(2V7) — V7) (V7) = 10-2V7 + 10V7 - 14 =8v7-4 2 Expand and simplify (4— v3)(4 + V3). (@-V3)4+ V3) ‘The example above is a special case because the result is a rational number. This is because the two given brackets are of the form (x—a)(x+a), ie. the factors of x?-a?. The product of any two brackets of the type (p- /@)(p+ vq) is, similarly, p? —(\/q)? =p?—q, which is always rational. This property has an important application later on, [SERSSSEZY Expand and simplify where this is possible. 1 V3(2- V3) 7 (V5-1)(V5 +1) 2 V5 +4v2) 8 (2V2—1)(v2-1) 3 v5(2+ V7) 9 (V5 -3)(2V5 - 4) 4 V2 32 — vB) 10 (44. V7)(4- V7) 5 (V3+1)(v2-1) at (v6 - 2) 6 (V3 +2)(V3+5) 12 (2+3V3)* Multiply by a bracket which will make the product rational. 13 (4~ v5) 16 (v6 ~ V5) 14 (VI1+3) 17 (3 -2V3) 15 (2V3—4) 18 (2V5 — v2) Rationalising a Denominator AA fraction whose denominator contains a surd is more awkward to deal with than one where a surd occurs only in the numerator. ‘There is a technique for transferring the surd expression from the denominator to the numerator; it is called rationalising the denominator (i.e. making the denominator into a rational number). eeeaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Law3 Law4 (@y' = (@xay (a xa) x (axa) x(a xa) =a® ie, (a2) = a? In general (a”)* = a” This law explains the meaning of a fractional index. From the first law we have ai qi? = git = glag ie. a =a? x gi? But a= Vax Ja Therefore a'/? means a, ie. the positive square root of a 1s1D+1B = @ Similarly a? x a1 x ql3 = But YaxYaxy Therefore a!/3 means a, a the cube root of a. In general a'/? = Ya, Le. the pth root of a. For a more general fraction index, £, the third law shows that aP/4 = (ar) or (a9 For example a34 = (a3)! or (allt = Ve or (Way ic. a3/4 represents either ‘the fourth root of a or ‘the cube of the fourth root of a’. Alll the gencral laws can be applied to simplify a wide range of expressions containing indices provided that the terms all have the same base. BxP e 1 Simplify a bx?) xx? e Vath xb 3 /a a | Fist ne express al the terms toa base2, | 7 © ab x PE = (at) 6") = (a#8-1) (B53) = ap? a SSSFSFSFSFSSSSSSsSwototnat (2) o 25, 2 | much bigger numbers. MRL sinpiity eS pit xp Rx soe 2 4'2 x23 6 (vi) x (VB) 33°)? x oN 102% xy? 4/3 = 8 (16) + 843 x Evaluate »() 15 (8) 21 (0.64)-1? 1 1 os as (16)* » ( ) er 7 ) 23 (121)? 1/3 4 (3) 2 9 eit a 10x? xx 5-02 16 5 y-28 uvxy ya 12 (2) x 8 + ye 25 18! x 242 26 3-3 x 20 x 42 BN? x 3212 (ie)* 28 513 259 x 2513 29.27" x 314 x (V3)? M3 27-12 ae"Logarithms Consider the statement 10? 100 We can read this as the base 10 raised to the power 2 gives 100 Now this relationship can be rearranged to give the same information, but with a different emphasis, ic. 2 is the power to which the base 10 must be raised to give 100. In this form the power is called a logarithm (log). ‘The whole relationship can then be abbreviated to read 2 is the logarithm to the base 10 of 100 or 2 = logy, 100 In the sameway, 23 = 8 and 34 = 81 3 = log,8 4 = log,81 25 = 5? and log3=4 = 3=917 es Similarly logs 25 = 2 4 Although we have so far used only certain bases, the base of a logarithm can be any positive number, or even an unspecified number represented by a letter, for example b <> log,b=c Note that the symbol <=> means that each of these facts implies the other. Natural Logarithms ‘We saw on page 21 that some numbers, such as v2, can never be expressed as exact ecimals and are called irrational numbers. ‘The constant x is a well known irrational number: it is equal to 3.141592 ‘There is another constant which by the end of this course will be as familiar as x. It is, like x, an irrational number, i.e. a non-repeating and never-ending decimal. It is denoted by ¢ and is equal to 2.71828 .. Later in this course we find that the number ¢ plays a vital role in the modelling of population growth and decay. Because e appears in many other unrelated areas of mathematics, it is called a natural number. ‘This constant was first named e by Euler who showed that, asx gets larger and larger, (0 +4) approaches the value e. x Another interesting appearance of e was discovered by Newton who found that the 1 1 1 1 sum 14 +t aeaxa Tedagcd to ApProwches © as more and more terms are added. a ee[RQISEE sures inatces and togarithms When e is used as the base for logarithms, they are called nanural logarithms. To avoid confusion with other bases, log, x is written as Inx. Inx means log, x so Inx=y e> e” =x ‘The power of a positive number always gives a positive result, eg. 42 = 16, S27 = 5 be ‘This means that, if log,b = c, ie. b = a‘, then b must be positive, so logs of positive numbers exist, but the logarithm of a negative number does not exist. GESTS Sa Write og, 64 = 6 in index form. b Write 5? = 125 in logarithmic form. ¢ Complete the statement 2-> = ? and then write it in logarithmic form, d Write Inx = 2 inindex form. and the power (ie, the fog) is 6. ait og,64 = 6 tenthe log,64=6 = 64 bb [5% = 125 then the hase is 5 he lo (ie the power Is 8 and the number is 125, S515 3 3=k e at base is 2, the power (log) is ~3 and the number is = 4-3 =log,(4) d_ Inx means that the base is e Inx=2 > & (SSSA Convert each of the following facts to logarithmic form. 1 10° = 1000 65? = 25 112921 We=4 224 = 16 710°? = 0.01 1287 =2 We=y 310% = 10000 gor = 3 Bet =b 43250 9501 ay =2 542 = 16 10.412 = 2 1S pt =r —Convert each of the following facts to index form. 19 log; 100000 = 5 24 log, 1000 = 3 29 logy6 =4 © 34 Inx =4 20 log, 64 = 3 25 log, 1 = 0 30 log,1=0 — 351In0S =a 21 logis 10 = 1 26 log, 9 = 2 31 logy =2 36 Ina =b 22 log, 4 27 log, 16 = 2 32 log,5 =b 23 log, 32 = 5 28 log, 27 = 3 33 log,q =r Evaluating Logarithms It is generally easier to solve a simple equation in index form than in log form so we often use an index equation in order to evaluate a logarithm, For example to evaluate Jogyg7 we can say if xX = logy7 then 49% =7 = x= therefore logg7 = 4 In particular, for any base b, if x =logyl then b*=1 + x=0 ie. the logarithm of 1 to any base is zero. Using a Calculator A scientific calculator can be used to find the values of logarithms with a base of e or with a base of 10. ‘The value of In x for various values of x can be obtained by using the button marked The button marked gives the value of a logarithm with a base of 10. Powers of e, such as e”, e”-, can also be obtained from a calculator using ‘e” which is usually above the In button. BisSi Evaluate 1 log, 4 6 log, 64 11 logs 1 16 log, a> 2 logio1000000 7 log, 3 12 log, 2 The 3 log, 64 8 logy. 4 13 Logg, 4 18 Ine? 4 log, 81 9 logyo0-1 14 logey 1 19 log, b3 5 logy 64 10 logy, 11 15 logy,3 20 In el 21 Use a calculator to find, correct to 3 significant figures, the value of ae b els ce? d eos 22 Use a calculator to evaluate, correct to 3 significant figures, a In3 b In24 © In0.201 d In173 e logy56 f logy250 Sieaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.1 Simplify a V8 ob 300 2 Expand and simplify a (3+¥2)(4-2v2) b (v5- v2) c V5 3 Multiply by a bracket that will make the product rational a (7-V3) b&b Qv3+1) ¢ (v7- v5) 4 Rationalise the denominator and simplify where possible a — vi3—2 v3-1 a . V3+1 5 Simplify x4? b @)? x2) 2 6 Evaluate a (64) b (2) ” 16. © (8 27, 7 Simplify a 815 x 20 2-12 b (V5)? x 7502 x 25-04 8 Evaluate a logy 128 b logas5 © logis! dine’ 9 Express in terms of log a, log b and log ¢ @’ a oe Gey tow ab © log @ logavi+b 10 Simplify a 3loga —logb b log++tog1 a 11 Express as a single logarithm a Inx-iny b 2+In(x+1) © A+inx a inx—Inay+iny? *12 You borrow £1 from a loan company. The company charges interest at the rate of 100% per annum. After one year, when this interest is added yearly, you owe 200% of £1 = £2, when the interest is added half yearly, you owe 150% of 150% of £1 = £(1.5)* = £2.25, when the interest is added each quarter (three monthly), you owe 125% of 125% of 125% of 125% of £1 = £(1.25)* = £2.44 a If the interest could be added continuously, have a guess at what you would owe after one year. Work out what you would owe if the interest is added i daily if hourly © Now repeat part a. iii by the second. niEquations 1 Expressions, Identities and Equations tis important to know the difference between expressions, identities and equations. 2x—4 isan expression; it is not linked to anything else. 2x—4 = 2(x—2) isan identity, 2(¢—2) is just a different form of the expression 2x—4, The symbol ‘=’ means ‘is identical to’, and 2x—4 = 2(x-2) is true for all values of x. In general, an identity is the relationship between two different forms of the same expression. 2x—4 =x isan equation; the equality is true when x = 4, but not true for any other value of x. In general, an equation is the equality of two different expressions. This equality is true only for a number of distinct values (or none) of the unknown quantity. The process of finding these values is called solving the equation. 1,2 xtT -1 2x29; (x—3)(e +3) 7 log? +log3x; log6x gtectia t x xtl 24K 8 Inx—In2; In(x-2) 4p? + 2-3; 3-2 -p? gy-1;4 y 5 (@ty)(e-y)s x? -y? Quadratic Equations ‘When a quadratic expression has a particular value we have a quadratic equation, for example 2? 5x41 =0 Using a, b and c to stand for any numbers, any quadratic equation can be written in the general form ax? +bx+e=0 piSolution by Factorising EXAMPLE 3B EXERCISE 3B Consider the quadratic equation x? —3x +2 = 0 ‘The quadratic expression on the left-hand side can be factorised, ie. x?-3r+3 =(@-2)@-1) ‘Therefore the given equation becomes @-2)@-1) =0 16} Now if the product of two quantities is zero then one, or both, of those quantities must be zero. Applying this fact to equation [1] gives x-2 0 orx-1=0 ie. x=20r x=1 This is the solution of the given equation, ‘The values 2 and 1 are called the rooss of that equation. This method of solution can be used for any quadratic equation in which the quadratic expression factorises. Find the roots of the equation x? + 6 — 6x-7=0 > (x-1)@+7) = 0 1=00rx+7=0 x=1 ose -7 The roots of the equation are 1 and —7. Solve the equations. 1x?45x+6=0 Sx? 4x43 9x +4 2 4+x-6=0 6x? +2x-3=0 10 x? +x —72 3x2-x-6=0 72x? +3x+1=0 4x +or+8 =0 8 4x7 -9x+2=0 Find the roots of the equations. Mx?-2x-3=0 Bx -6x+5=0 18 x7 -Sx-14=0 2x7 45x4+4-0 14.x74+3x-10 = 0 16x? 9x4 14 =—0 iiRearranging the Equation Losing a Solution EXERCISE 3C ‘The terms in a quadratic equation are not always given in the order ax? +br +c = 0. When they are given in « different order they should be rearranged into the standard form, For example x?—x = 4 becomes x? 3x7=1 = 2e becomes 3x? — 2 ° x(%-1) = 2 becomes x?-x=2 = x?-x-2=0 -s-4 Itis usually best to collect the terms on the side where the x? term is posi 2-x? = Sx becomes 0=x? +5x-2 , for example ie. x?4+5r-2=0 Solve the equation 4x —x? = x? dr 43 05 (@-3)@-1) 0 or x-1=0 > xe9 or ea] Quadratic equations sometimes have a common factor containing the unknown quantity. It is very tempting in such cases to divide by the common factor, but doing this results in the loss of part of the solution, as the following example shows. Correct solution Faulty solution x?-5x=0 Sx =0 x(x-5) =0 245 2 0 1 xs > x=00r5 The solution x = 0 has been lost. (Dividing by x.) x=0 or x-5 Although dividing an equation by a numerical common factor is correct and nsible, dividing by a common factor containing the unknown quantity results in the loss of a solution. Solve each equation, making sure that you give all the roots. 1x°+10-% =0 8 x(4r+5) = -1 15 x(3x—2) = 8 215-x?-2x=0 92-x = 3x7 16 x? -x(2x-1)+2=0 3x-3x=4 10 Gx? +3 = 0 W7x(@@t1) = 2 412-Tr4x?=0 Ux? +6r=0 18 442? = 242) § 2r-143x7=0 12x? = 10x 19 r(x-2) =3 6 x(x+7)+6=0 13 x(4x4+1) = 3x 72x? 4x =0 14 20 +x(1 x) i” KEE Equations 1 Solution by Completing the Square When there are no obvious factors, another method is needed to solve the equation. One such method involves adding a constant 10 the x? term and the x term, to make a perfect square. This technique is called completing the square. Consider x7 ~ 2 Adding | gives x? -2r+1 Now x?— 2x41 (x1) which is a perfect square. Adding the number 1 was not a guess, it was found by using the fact that x?42ar+(Ca?) = (x +a)? We see from this that the number to be added is always (half the coefficient of x)?. Hence x? +6x requires # to be added to make a perfect square, ie. x? 46x49 = (x+3) To complete the square when the coefficient of x? is not 1, we first take out the coefficient of x? asa factor, eg. 2x? tx = 2c? +44) Now we add (4x4)? inside the bracket, giving (tty Take extra care when the coefficient of x? is negative 2@? +4244) eg. ax? $ 4x = —(e? — ax) Then -W@- 4544) = 29, 2 -a? 4-4 = -G@-2)7 ESET 1 Soe the equation 2? vode-2=0 4 4x—2 = 0, giving the solution in surd form, 4x =2 No factors can be found so we isolate the two terms with x in, Add {4x (—4)}” to both sides, ie. 7-444 = +4 6, ie. x-2 = v6 or x =2-V6 2 Find in surd form the roots of the equation 2x? — 3r—3 = 0. = £8 = 41V3 ‘The roots of the equations are 4 (3 +aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EXERCISE 3F It is important to realise that not all cubic equations can be solved by factorisation; some may have no linear factors with rational coefficients and others may have only ‘one such linear factor. The ideas demonstrated here can be applied also to equations containing x* or higher powers of x. Use the factor theorem to show that 2x—3 isa factor of 2x3 - Sx? +x+3. Hence find all the roots of the equation 2x? ~ 5x7+x+3 = 0, giving your answers in surd form. To show that 2x—3 is a factor, we naed to substitute into the cubic expression the value of x that makes 2-3 zero, 3)? =x ~1) = (%-3)(?-x-1) =0 14+ Via V5 ge 1nv5 2 Solve the equations, giving the roots in surd form where necessary. 1 @—3)(Q-5)QGr+1) =0 Tx —w42=0 2 (2x +5)(e? +3x—4) = 0 Bx) +62 + 10r+5 = 0 3x)- 6741-6 =0 9 One root of the equation x} —ar+2 = 0 is 1. Find the value of a and hence find the other roots of the equation, 430° - 2217 +37x- 10 = 5 203 - Sx? 14 +8 = 6x47 +8 =0 Simultaneous Equations When only one unknown quantity has to be found, only one equation is needed for a solution, If two unknown quantities are involved in a problem we need two equations connecting them. Then, between the two equations we can eliminate one of the unknowns, producing just one equation containing just one unknown which we can find. SSS(EEE auations 1 Solution of Three Linear Equations For three unknown quantities we need three connections, i.e. three equations. Then one unknown at a time can be eliminated. One way to eliminate an unknown quantity is to add or subtract two of the equations and then go on to eliminate the second unknown in a similar way. rty-z=4 SEAURESES 1 Solve the equations ¢ 2r-+2 =7 3x-2y =5 xty-z=4 ] de+2=7 1 3x-2y = 5 BI ‘As 2 appears only in equations [1] and [2] we can eliminate 2 from these two equations — in this case by adding, [I] +2] gives 3e+y = 11 ra} Now bring in (3). |] 3x-3 BI ]-[lgives y= 6 ~y=2 Use y = 2 in [3} ox-4=5 > ux =9 = 133 Now use x= 3 in [2] 642=7 9 221 Therefore the solution of the three simultaneous equations is xe3yaR2=1 It is not always easy to eliminate the first of the unknown quantities. If all three unknowns occur in all three equations it is necessary to eliminate the same unknown from each of two different pairs of equations. |, OTx-y+22=6 2 Solve the equations | 2x +y +z =3 3x-y+2=6 22 =6 t 2=3 PI 3x-ytz=6 BI The easiest letter to eliminate from two pairs of equations is y. (1) + 2] gives 3x4+32=9 Dividing by 3gives x42 =3 4] [2] +B] gives Sx+22=9 [5] Now we eliminate either x or 2 from [4] and {5} 5 x (4]— [5] gives a= 6 Using z = 2 in [4] gives x +2 = 3 Seed Then using x =1 and z = 2 in [2] gives 2ty+2=3 ‘Therefore the solution is x [STSHSNSEEI Solve the following sets of equations, Remember first to look for a letter which occurs in only two equations because it can be eliminated completely in one step. Ix+2y=4 Bxty+3z 8 xty+4z x43z 2x-y xaytz 2y-z=1 4x-z x+2y—3z 2 y-z=3 42x-y-z=5 6 2x—3y tz x-dytz— -4 dy 432 = 5 x+y—22 xt+y=i x+2y=7 3x-y+2z =17 Solution of One Linear and One Quadratic Equation Another way to eliminate an unknown quantity from two equations is by substitution, From the linear equation we can express one unknown in terms of the other, and then substitute in the quadratic equation. ——FFFFFSFSSSSSSSSsE[SZUEESEDN) Solve the equations x -y = 2 2x? —3y? = 15 x-y t] 2x? —3y? = 15 P) [ Equation (1) s inear so we use it for the substitution, | y+2 Substituting y +2 for x in [2] gives yf — Sy? = 15 > 207 +4y +4) —3y? > 2y? + 8y +8 —3y? = 15 Collecting terms on the side where y? is positive gives O=y?—+7 > 0=—0-70-1), y=Torl Now we use x = y+2 to find corresponding values of x. id 9 either x=9 andy=7 or x=3 and y=1 ‘Note that the values of x and y must be given in corresponding pairs. It is incorrect to write the | y=7 wih x y=1 wih x=9 enoveras y= Tort and x= 9019 becasse { are rot solutions RES SRSESELD | sone the following pairs of equations. Irty=5 13 x7+4y?=2 19 1+3y yoxsl 2+x+2=0 x+6y=1 zy =8 14 x+3y=0 9 20x7-1y = 0 xty=2 2x 4+3xy =1 xtysl 3 3x? -, 9 y-x=4 1S 3x—4y = 1 Uxyty? =2 v-y=1 y? Sx? = 20 oxy = 1 ty =3 4 y= 4x7 Wxty? = 10 16 x? +4y? =2 2 xytx y+oe = 2 x—2y = 2 x+2y=2 2+ 5y Syttxy =3 UW 4xt¢y=1 Woe Qwe+y = 1 4xt+y = 0 xt =3 Way-x=0 18 arty =2 x+3y=2 dxty? = 8 Wmirrational roots in surd form. 5x-6 =0 6x-5 =0 3 2x7 +3x=1 45—3x? = 4x 5 x(2-x) QESEISERTSSEY In questions 1 to 10 use any method to find the roots of the equations, giving any 6 4x23 = My 7 (@-1)@+2)=1 Bxr+dy44 = 16 9xt 42x =2 10 2(x? +2) = x(x—4) In questions 11 to 16, solve the equations giving all possible solutions. MW x(x-2) = 0 12 x(x+3) =4 13 (©—4)(2 +5 +6) =0 14 x? 45x42 = 22x41) 15 x(x-5) = (+5) 16x) -1 17 (e+ 3)(x—5)(4e +1) 18x} 447-11 +10 = 0 In questions 19 and 20 solve the pair of equations, (Choose your substitution carefully to keep the amount of squaring to a minimum.) 19 2x? -y? xty=9 21 Use the formula to solve the equation 3x? — 17x + 10 20 2x =y-1 x —3y+ll=0 a Are the roots of the equation rational or irrational? b- What does your answer to part a tell you about the LHS of the equation?aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EES equations 2 [EERESSELY Without solving the equation, write down the sum of its roots. 1x?-4x-7=0 43x? 4x2 23x? +5r+1=0 5x743x+1=0 324+x-P =0 6 74 2x —5x? Without solving the equation, determine the nature of its roots. Tx ~6x+4=0 12 ax? +12r+9 = 0 Bax? +4x+2=0 13x? +4x-8=0 9 2x? -Sx+3=0 142 +ax+a?=0 10 x? -6x+9 = 0 15 x? -ax-a? M1 4x? -12r-9 = 0 16 x? +2ax+a' 17 If the roots of 3x? +-kx+ 12 = O are equal, find k. 18 If x? —3x+a = 0 has equal roots, find a, 19 The roots of x? +px+ (p—1) = 0 are equal. Find p. 20 Prove that the roots of the equation kx? + (2k-+4)x+8 = 0 are real for all values of k. 21 Show that the equation ax? +(a +b)x+b = 0 has real roots for all values ofa and b. 22 Find the relationship between p and q if the roots of the equation px? +qx+1=0 are equal. Summary Methods for solving quadratic equations 1 Collect the terms in the order ax?+bx+c = 0, then factorise the left-hand side. 2 Arrange in the form ax? +bx = —c, then complete the square on the left-hand side, adding the appropriate number to boih sides. —b + Vb? — dae 2a Note Roots that are not rational should be given in surd form (i.e. the exact form) unless an approximate form (such as correct to 3 s.f.) is specifically asked for. 3 Use the formula x Properties of Roots The nature of the roots depends on the value of the discriminant, ie, on the value of b? — 4ac. b?—4ac>0 => real different roots b?—4ac =0 = real equal roots b?-dac>0 > b2—dac<0 > real roots no real roots Sum of roots = ~= ———| Equations 2 EEE Equations containing Logarithms or x as a Power ‘When x forms part of an index, first look to see if the value of x is obvious, for example, when 4* = 16, it isclear that x since 4? — 16. Slightly less obvious is the equation 4* = 32, in this case, 4 and 32 can both be expressed as powers of 2; ie. 32 > Ga, ie 24 = 25, from which we have 2x = 5, ic. x = 25. ‘When the value of the unknown is not so obvious, taking logs will often transform the index into a factor. For example, when 5* = 10, taking logs of both sides gives xing = into x = 8! 1.43 correct to3 sf. ‘When an equation contains logs involving x, first look to sce if there is an obvious solution, for example, when log, x = log,4, it is clear that x = 4. ‘When the solution is not so obvious, the best policy is to express the log terms as a single log and then remove the logarithms. For example, when 2log,x—log,8 = 1, 2 using the laws of logs gives lossy =1 2 then removing the logs gives > P= + 1=4 (x= ~4 is not a solution because log, (~4) does not exist.) This shows that it is essential, when solving equations involving logs or indices, that all roots are checked in the original equation. ENENSZEN Solve the equations. Give answers that are not exact correct to 3 significant figures. 13"=9 52*= 9 logyx = log, (2 —1) 23'=4 10 log,x = 2 3% =27 11 logs = 2log(x- 2) 4 =6 12 In2+2Inx = In (x+3) —————— SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSFSFsSsFsSsS13 Express log, 5 —2log,3 as a single log term. Hence find the value ofx when log, 5—2log,3 = 2. 14 Solve the equation In4~2In(x +1) = Inx. 15 Express logy ~ 2log,x as a single logarithm. Hence express y in terms of x when log,y — 2logyx 16 Given that y = 2", express 2* in terms of y. By substituting y for 2, solve the equation 22* —2*— 2 = 0. Disguised Quadratic Equations Some equations do not, at first sight, appear to be quadratic but can be reduced to a quadratic equation. The most obvious are those with two terms containing x where one involves the square of the other: eg B42=0 > (YP -30)42=0 so replacing x by y gives y?—3y+2=0 = (Y-2)-1I)=0 > y= lord. % w=1or2 + x=lory2 Similarly, x?-31x-32=0 = (tf-31@4)-32=0 > y?—3ly —32 = 0 where y = x4, and e+3e'-4=0 = (ec) +3(e)-4 = 0 => = y?+3y—4 = 0 where y = e*, and 2Inx = In(2r+3) + Inx? = In(2x+3) + x? = 2x43 Another type involves fractions whose denominators containx, eg. x +4 = Multiplying by the common denominator to eliminate fractions may result in a quadratic equation which we can solve provided that we exclude any solutions for Which the common denominator is zer0, For ast 3, multiplying by x, provided x #0 (if x = 0 then is meaningless), ight es ye Fe, 2 gives x7 41=3x > When an equation contains a square root involving x, the square root needs to be eliminated by squaring, However, when both sides of an equation are squared an extra equation, and hence extra solutions, are introduced. For example, if x = Vx+2, then squaring gives x? = x+2 = r=2ox=-1 But when x = —1, ¥z+2 =1 so x=~1 docs not satisfy the equation, so x =2 is the only solution. This example illustrates again that it is essential that, when solving any equation, all roots are checked in the original equation. _— —SEXSSSLT) Solve the equations, giving answers in exact form. Maes 1x" 3135-32 = 0 eh 94° 42°-6=0 x41 x 2e*+3e'-4=0 6 VE = 2x-1 10x¢-x$-2=0 3 2inx = In(2x +3) 4 xt 12x 427 = 1 For each equation, first find the value then use any method to find the roots of the equation and finally find the sum of the roots and check that it is equal to 8 a x7 6r+8=0 b 4x2 45x =3 2 Determine the nature of the roots of the equations a x43r+7=0 b 3x7-x-5=0 © ar? +2er¢a = d 2+9%-17 =0 3 For what values of p does the equation pr? +4r + (p—3) = have equal roots? 4 Show that the equation 2c? +20 + Ie tp = always has real roots. 5 The equation x? +kr +k = 1 has equal roots. Find k. 20 Express log, (x - 1) — Hlogyy as a single when log, (r~ 1) —Hlogyy = —4 Given also that y Tx#3 57344 =0 uM y2x¢1=4-1 12% +203") +1=0 6 Show that, when x = 4, x —3x?-3x-4 = 0. Hence show that the equation x3 3x? 3-4 =0 has only one root. 7 Show that x—2 isa factor of xt— 28-242, Hence show that the equation x'-28-x+2=0 has only two roots and give the other one. In questions 8 to 19, solve the equations. 8 5* = 125 9 In2x = In(x +2) 10 3° = 10 1 In2~2In(x~1) = Inx e*-2 13x27 -3x1342=0 14 38 1 x—1 ist a 1- x+1 16 2In(e +1) = In(e +2) 174 = 25412 18 2+! ~5(2") +2 = 0 19 3**! — 26(34)-9 = 0 logarithm, Hence express y in terms of x 2x, find the values of x and y. ——SSS SS SS(ESE equations 2 21 Solve the equations log,y = 2 and xy = 8 simultaneously. 2 Solve the equations 2in y = In2+Inx and 2° = 4* simultaneously. 23 Find the values of x and y when.xy = 16 and log,x—2log,y =Summary A TERMS AND COEFFICIENTS In an algebraic expression, terms are separated by plus or minus signs. An individual term is identified by the combination of letters involved. The coefficient of a term is the number in the term, eg. Ory. EXPANSION OF BRACKETS Important results are (ax+b) = ax? + 2abx +b? (ax —b)? = ax? — 2abx +b? (ax-+b)(ax—b) = ax? —b? PASCAL’S TRIANGLE 1 1 1 2 1 1 3 3 1 1 4 6 4 1 The Ast, 2nd, 3rd, ... rows in this array give the coefficients in the expansion of (1 +x)', (1 +x)’, (4x)... FACTOR THEOREM (x-a) is a factor of an expression if and only if the expression is equal to zero when a is substituted for x. INDICES a"xa" =a" a" sa" =a" (atym = am va = ain a=1 LOGARITHMS logb=c <> af log, b + log, c = log, be og, b — log, c = log, b/e log, b" = nlog, b Inx means log,x where e = 2.71... QUADRATIC EQUATIONS ‘The general quadratic equation is ax? tbe te = 0. ‘The roots of this equation can be found by factorising when this is possible, or completing the square, or by using the formula + vb 4ac 2a When b?—4ac >0, the roots are real and different. x= When b?~4ac = 0, the roots are real and equal. When b?—4ac <0, the roots are not real. In questions 1 to 19 write the letter or letters corresponding to a correct answer. 1 The roots of the equation x -3r+2=0 are 3 The value of logs 0.04 is A4 BS C4 D-2E 025 A 21 C -3,2 E notreal B -2,-1 D 0,3 is equal to 2 The coefficient of xy in the expansion Al Cc 3-v2 of (x—3y)(2r-+y) is wei a ive Al B6 C5 DO E-S a| Summary A 5 Expanding (1+ v2)’ gives A 343v2 D 3+Vv6 B 74+5v2 E 1+2v2 C 14+3v2 6 x3 7x14 Ix 415 has a factor Ax+1 Cc u-1 Bx+15 Da-3 7 848 hasa factor Ax-2 Cx-8 Bxt+2 Dxr42+4 8 If x? +px+6 = 0 has equal roots and p >0, pis A VB CV EVM BO D3 9 If xP +4xtp = tq) +1, the values of p and q are A p=5,q=2 Dp=-1,q=5 Bp=1q=-2 Ep -1 Cp=%q=5 12 x pv 19 2 _*? "simplifies to pe ka cp Epi? Bp’? Dp 11 In the expansion of (a— 2b)" the coefficient of b? is A -2a? C 124 E -12 B-8a D —~4a 12 If logy = 2 then Ax=2% Cxt=y Ey= ve Bx=y? Dy=2x 13 2Iinx+4Iny = aA in C In( yg xx?) xy BInx?+Inyy D In2v+indy 14 logy 5 —2logig2 +} logy 16 is equal to A. logi980 D. 2logiy 12 B 10 E 1+ logi8 co 15 When (3—5x)* is expanded A. the coefficient of x* is 1. B the coefficient of x is —$40. there are four terms after all simplification. 16 y = Inx—In4 Aye] Bam de) C y= In 17 27 -%w+2= A (1841 C @-1)? B Owhenx = 1 18 Hog, 16-1 A is equal to zero, B is equal to log,7. 2v5-2 2W3+2 A. can be expressed as a fraction with a rational denominator. 19 B is an irrational number. C is equal to -1. In questions 20 to 23, write T if the statement is true and F if the statement is false. 20 If x—a isa factor of x? +pr+q, the equation x? +px+q = 0 hasa root equal to a. 2 3logx+1 = log Ie? is an equation. 22 In the expansion of (1+x)® the coefficient of xis 6. 23 As Ve = 4 gives x7 = 16, the equation / = 4 has two solutions. Wmaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.27y = 2x) + Sx? — & -15. a. Show that when x = -3, y = 0. b_ Hence factorise 2x° + Sx? — & ~ 15, © Find, to 2 decimal places, the two other values of x for which y = 0. (Edexcel) 28 Prove thatx? + px +q is a perfect square if, and only if, p> = 4q. (Edexcel) 29 Use the factor theorem to find one of the factors of the cubic 23-7 +e +6. Hence factorise the cubic into its linear factors. (WJEC) 30 Given that for all values of x, B24 1e+5 = peta) +n a ffind the values of p, g and r. b_ Hence, or otherwise, find the minimum value of 3x? + 12 +5. € Solve the equation 3x? + 12x +5 = 0, giving your answers to one decimal place. _(Edexce) 31a Given that a and 6 are positive numbers, show that In(ab) = Ina +Inb. b_ Express In6 ~In4+In8 ~ in3 asa single logarithm. (R04) 32 Express (2x + 1)(v —2) — 3 as a product of linear factors. (ock) 33 Solve the simultaneous equations xty=2, +3? =11 (ocr) 34 Given that & is a real constant such that 0 0, prove that In(a") = nina b Find, correct to three decimal places, the value of y given that Det = 3x57 (wseC)Reasoning and proof The Need for Proof Reasoning ‘You may have accepted many results in mathematics on the basis of a demonstration that they are true in a few particular cases. For example, acceptance of the fact that the sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 180° may be based on the measured angles of some particular triangles having this property. This may be reinforced by not being able to find a triangle whose angles have a different sum but that does not rule out the possibility that such a triangle exists. However, it is not satisfactory to assume that a fact is always true without proving that it is, because one fact can be used to produce another and results deduced from an assumption cannot be reliable. In mathematics, results are accepted because they are deduced by logical steps from already accepted facts. For example, the law that states that log, be = log, b +log, ¢ is accepted as the truth because it is deduced from previously accepted facts about the behaviour of indices. Later in this chapter and further on in this book we look at some of the ways in which results can be proved, but first we look at some of the concepts and symbols that can be used in a proof. Consider the two statements x = 3 and x? = 9 where x can be any real number. We do not know whether either of these statements is truc, but we can say that if x =3 then x? =9, This is an implication which, from our knowledge of numbers, we know is correct and which we can write symbolically as 9 x=3 3 92? There are other ways of writing this implication, cg. x =3 implies that x? = 9, therefore x? = 9, is a sufficient condition for only if x? = 9. ‘An implication is untrue when a false conclusion is drawn from the first statement, e.g. it is obviously not true that x= 3 => x= 2. If we swap the order of the statements in an implication, we get the converse, eg. startingwith rt+1=4 = x=3, the converse is x=3 => x4+1= eeBoss We also get the converse by reversing the arrow, eg. starting with = x+1 > 2a3 the converse is x4+1=4 © x=3 which can be read as. x+1 = 4 is implied by x = 3 or xt1=4 if x=3 or x+1=4 because x =3 or x+1=4 is a necessary condition for x = 3. Note that x+1=4 => x=3 and x+1=4 © x=3 are bothtrue. This is not always the case, however, eg. x=3 = x? =9 istrue, but x= 3 © x? =9 isnot, because x can also be equal to —3. When an implication and its converse are both true, we use the symbol + to link them, eg. xtl=4 @ 453 Other ways of writing this are X+1 = 4 implies and is implied by x = 3 x+1=4 ifand only if x = 3 x+1 = 4 isa necessary and sufficient condition for In this exercise, x can take any value unless it is stated otherwise. In questions 1 to 10, determine whether the implication is true. For those that are not, give a reason, 1(e+1)@-2)=0 4 r=-1 of x=2 2ax?+bx+e=0 has real roots «+ b?—4ac>0 3 In(x+y) > Inx+iny =1 4x=4exr=16 SxA40ex=1 6 InAABC, AB = AC 4 InAABC, /B = /C Tx=l @ a1 8 xis an even integer => x? isan even integer 9 (c+a) isafactorofx3+1 + (a) +1=0 10 In AABC, /A = 90° ¢ BC? = AB?+ AC? In questions 11 to 20, insert the symbol =>, + or + which fully represents the link between the two statements. 11 ‘xis rational’ ‘x? is rational’ 16 x 2442=8 &=2 wee 13 ‘P(x, y) is any point on the line atl through the origin with gradient 1’ 18 “(a, 6) isa pointon y = 2x — gar ‘b= 20-1 432 >0 x>0 19 ‘In ABCD, /A = /B = /C = /D. 15 ‘In an octagon, all the interior angles “ABCD fs 8 square. are equal.” Wx>V ‘2x>2 ‘An octagon is regular.’ ——————Proving a Result by Direct Deduction Bass This is the most familiar form of proof; we use correct implications from the starting point using known (and proved) facts to arrive at the required result. 1 Prove that x? 4-4x-+p = 0 has two distinct real roots if and only if p < 4. We start with x7 +4x +p = 0 > (+2) +p—4 = 0 (completing the square) => (+2) =4-p > x+2 > e: x has wo distinct values. = /4—p exists and is not zero, @ 4-p>0, ie p<4. 2 Prove that the line bisecting an angle of any triangle di that angle in the ratio of the sides containing the angle. In SABC, AD bisects /A, so we have to prove that CD : DB = CA: AB. Drawing BE parallel to DA to cut CA produced at E, we have the side opposite to BEA = /DAC (corresponding angles) EBA = /BAD (alternate angles) ABEA isisosceles => EA = AB and As CAD and CEB are similar (equiangular) > CD:CB=CA:CE + CD:DB=CA:AE CD: DB = CA: AB. This result is called the angle bisector theorem and it should be known. Straight Line Geometry Definitions noe —=——_, ‘The following definitions and theorems should be known; they may be needed in the following exercise and elsewhere in the course. A point P divides a line AB internally in the ratio p :q => P is between A and Band AP: PB = p:q. ‘A point P divides a line AB exiemnally in the ratio p :q (p > 4) = Pis on AB produced and AP: PB = p:a. An altitude of a triangle is a line drawn from a vertex to the opposite side and perpendicular to that side. In the diagram, AD is the altitude through A and BE is the altitude through B.Berenae Reasoning and proot [USE ‘A median of a triangle is a line drawn from a vertex to the midpoint of the opposite side. In the diagram, XP is the median through X and YQ is the median through Y. An exterior angle of any triangle is equal to the sum of the two interior opposite angles, ie. in the diagram, {CBD = /A+/C Pythagoras’ theorem and its converse state that, ABC is any triangle in which /B = 90° < AC? = AB?+BC? Similar triangles (i.e. one triangle is an enlargement of the other) ‘Two triangles are similar <2 The three angles of one triangle are equal to the three angles of the other triangle. and ‘Two triangles are similar <> The corresponding sides of two triangles are in the same ratio. (To prove that two triangles are similar, we need to show either that they are equiangular or that their corresponding sides are in the same ratio.) 1 Prove that if x?— 3x +2 =0 then 5 Prove that log,x +log,y = log, xy. 6 Prove that ifn is an odd integer, then 2 x 1? ig also an odd integer. (Start with ‘nis an odd integer = n = 2k-+1 where k is any integer’.) “ * 7 Prove that x? +bx +c is a perfect Use a copy of this diagram to prove square if and only if b? — 4c = 0. that the sum of the angles in any triangle is 180°. 8 Show that if a and b are positive numbers where a >b, then 3 Prove that if x = v2 then a >b?. (Start with “a>b = a-b>0° ye =342V2. and mm ‘a>0andb>0 = atb>0') % z w Dy = ard +b? per+d Prove that y =0 when x= 1 if and only if (x —1) isa factor of ¥ I ar} +bx? +ox +d. XYZ is a triangle with /X = 90° XW is an altitude of AXYZ. Show that triangles XYZ, XWZ and XYW are all similar. 10 Prove that Inx—Iny = In*, yaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.[EQS coorainate geometry 1 The Midpoint of the Line Joining Two Given Points Consider the line joining the points A(1, 1) and B(5, 3). Using the intercept theorem, we see that if M is the midpoint of AB then S is the midpoint of CD. Therefore the x-coordinate of M is given by OS, where 08 = OC +!CD = 14+4(5-1) =3 Similarly, T is the midpoint of BF, so the y-coordinate of M is given by SM (= DT), where DT = DF+}FB =144(3-1) = Therefore M is the point (3, 2). In general, if A(x1,y1) and B(x, y2) are two points, then the coordinates of M, the midpoint of AB, can be found in the same way. , Mey) AtM, x= OS =OR+4}RU =x th@2—m1) = Fr +22) and y = SM = UT = UV+!BV = +302-N) = The coordinates of the midpoint of the line joining A(x,, ys) and B(x2, y2) re [3(%1 +X2)) 3M +¥2)] These coordinates are easy to remember as the average of the coordinates of A and B. The next worked example shows that this formula holds when some of the coordinates are negative, 7) 2 Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the line joining A(-3, -2) and B(1, 3). aay The coordinates of Mare [}(1 +2), (-3+1), $(-243)] = Alternatively, from the diagram, M is half-way from A to B horizontally and vertically, =344(4) This confirms that the formula works when some of the coordinates are negative. and y = -24+4(5) =4The Coordinates of a Point Dividing a Line in a Given Ratio | Coordinate geomevy 1 RSTGIES To find the coordinates of a point that divides the line joining two points in a given ratio, a clear diagram together with some simple mental arithmetic is all that is needed. P is between A and B As AP: PB P is the point ( 1 Find the length of the line joining a A(1,2) and B(4, 6) b (3,1) and D(2, 0) © J(4,2) and K(2, 5) 2 Find the coordinates of the midpoints of the lines joining the points in Question 1. 3 Find (i) the length, (ii) the coordinates of the midpoint, of the line joining a A(-1, 4), B(2, 6) b S(0,0), T(-1, -2) © E(-1,-4), F(-3, -2) 4 Find the distance from the origin to the point (7, 4). 2:1, AM: MN=NR: RB= 3 Find the coordinates of the point which divides the line joining A(—2, 5) and B(4,2) in the ratio 2: 1 (a) internally at P (b) externally at O. Qis on AB produced, where AQ: BO = 2:1 Qiss the point (10, —1) 5 Find the length of the line joining the point (—3, 2) to the origin. 6 Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the line from the point (4, ~8) to the origin. 7 Show, by using Pythagoras’ Theorem, that the lines joining A(1, 6), B(-1, 4) and C(2, 1) form a right- angled triangle. 8 A, B and Care the points (7, 3), (-4, 1) and (—3, —2) respectively. a Show that AABC is isosceles. b Find the midpoint of BC. ¢ Find the area of ABC. ——S—S—S—SSSansmanasasaSaSa—EXE coordinate geometry 1 ” 42.3) (6.0) 9 The vertices of a triangle are A(0,2), 11 M is the midpoint of the line joining B(1, 5) and C(—1, 4). Find Ato B. The coordinates of A and M 5, 7) and (0, 2) respectively. a the perimeter of the triangle we Sand (2) ns ty b_ the coordinates of D such that AD iva medion 6& AABC 12 Find the coordinates of the point that divides the line joining A(2, 4) to ¢ the length of AD. ‘B(—3, 9) internally in the ratio 1:4. 10 Show that the lines OA and OB are —_13 Find the coordinates of the point that perpendicular where A and B are the divides the line joining L(—3, —4) to points (4, 3) and (3, —4) respectively. M(3, 5) externally in the ratio 3:1. ‘The gradient of a straight line is a measure of its slope with respect to the x-axis. Gradient is defined as the increase in y divided by the Increase in x between one point and another point on the line. Consider the line passing through A(1, 2) and B(4, 3). the increase in y is 1, the increase in x is 3. From A to B, ‘Therefore the gradient of AB is The gradient of a line may be found from any two points on the line. Now consider the line through the points A(2, 3) and B(6, 1). Moving from A to B merense O. increase in x Alternatively, moving from B to A P&tCESe AY increase in x ‘This shows that it does not matter in which order the two points are considered, provided that they are considered in the same order when calculating the increases in x and iny. From these two examples we see that the gradient of a line may be positive or negative,Coordinate geometry 1 SETS A positive gradient indicates an ‘uphill’ slope with respect to the positive direction of the x-axis, ie. the line makes an acute angle with the positive sense of the x-axis. A negative gradient indicates a ‘downhill’ slope with respect to the positive direction of the x-axis, i.e. the line makes an obtuse angle with the positive sense of the x-axis. In general, the gradient of the line passing through A(x, y;) and B(x2, yz) is the increase in y _ Yo~¥s the increase in x 2 4 As the gradient of a straight line is the increase in y divided by the increase in x from ‘one point on the line to another, gradient measures the increase in y per unit increase in x, ie. the rate of increase of y with respect to x. If and / are parallel lines, they are equally inclined to the positive direction of the x-axis, ie. parallel lines have equal gradients. Perpendicular lines Consider the perpendicular lines AB and CD whose gradients are m, and m respectively. If AB makes an angle 0 with the x-axis then CD makes an angle @ with the y-axis. ‘Therefore triangles POR and PST are similar. Now the gradient of AB is = =m, and the gradient of CD is ST_OR - But 557 po. (4S POR and PST are similar) therefore m, The product of the gradients of perpendicular lines is —1, ie. if one line has gradient m, any perpendicular line has gradient — mSTU Determine, by comparing gradients, whether the following three points are collinear (ie. lie on the same straight line). AG, 1), BU, 4), C2, -1) The gradient of AB is The gradient of BC is 2 xc@-1) As the gradients of AB and BC are the same, A, B and C are collinear. j The diagram, alihough not stiely necessary, gives a check tha the answer's reasonable. ‘| SSS) 1 Find the gradient of the line through 3 Determine whether AB and CD are the pair of points. parallel, perpendicular or neither. a (0,0), (1,3) a A(0,—1), BC, 1), » (444(37) (1, 5), D(-1, 1) (5.4), (23) b AGL, 1), BG, 2), © €(-1, 1), D(O, -1) 4 (-1,4),(3,7) « AGS BC, D, e (-1,-3),(-2.1) (-1, =1), DA, -7) f (-1, -6), (0,0) d A(2, —5), B(O, 1), (BIR te (2,2), DG, -7) © (2,6). B(-1, -9), G, -2), (-1, 4) (2, 11), D(O, 1) i (Hk), (0,0) 8 h 2 Determine whether the given points are collinear, a (0,1), (1, 1), (2,3) b (0, 2), (2,5), (3,7) © (-1,4), (2, 1), (-2.5) Problems in Coordinate Geometry This chapter ends with a miscellaneous selection of problems on coordinate geometry. ‘A clear and reasonably accurate diagram showing all the given information will often suggest the most direct method for solving a particular problem. Wmaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Tranges EU In each question from 8 to 10, use sinX = 3. 8 Find cos X and hence calculate cos?xX —sin?X. Use a calculator to determine the value of angle X and hence find cos 2X correct to 2 sf. ‘What conclusion can you draw? Trigonometric Ratios of Obtuse Angles The Cosine of an Obtuse Angie 9 Find cos?X + sin? X. 10 Evaluate 2sin X cos: X as a decimal. Find correct to 2 s.f. the value of sin 2X and draw any conclusion that you can. Although the definition of the cosine that we have used so far applies only to an acute angle, larger angles do have cosines. These values are stored in calculators, for example: @ 0 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 135" 150° 180° cosd(to2dp.) | 1 087 0.71 050 0 -050 -0.71 -087 -1 Plotting a graph of these figures gives a shape that is called a cosine curve. The symbol Gis the most commonly used symbol for a varying angle. co 10 ns 10} The table of values and the graph show clearly that an acute angle has a positive cosine while the cosine of an obtuse angle is negative. From the graph or the table it can be seen that cos 60° and cos 120° ie. cos 120° = —cos 60° (120° + 60° = 180°) also cos45° = 0.71 and cos 135° = -0.71 ie. cos 135° = —cos 45° (135° +45° = 180°) ‘You can find more pairs of angles which suggest the relationship cos @ = —cos (180°- 4) It also appears that the graph has rotational symmetry about the point (90, 0). a SSFSFSFSFFSSSFSSSSSSSThe Sine of an Obtuse Angle as Fa TPR As we saw in the case of cosines, sine ratios are not limited to acute angles. The sines of larger angles are given by a calculator, e.g. for angles from 0 to 180° we have 0 0 30° 45° 60 90° 120° 135° 150° 180° sin6(to2dp.) | 0 05 071 087 1 087 O71 05 0 Plotting these values gives this graph which is called a sine curve. Again relationships can be seen between the sines of pairs of angles, for example sin30° = 0.5 and sin 150° = 0.5 ie. sin 150° = sin30° (150° + 30° = 180°) also sin 60° = 0.87 and sin 120° = 0.87 ie. sin 120° = sin 60° (120°+ 60° = 180°) This time it looks as if sin(180°-0) = sind and it looks as though the curve is symmetrical about the line @ = 90°. Similar reasoning shows that tan(180°- 0) = -tan@ 1 If sin@ = 1 find wo possible values for 0. As given by a calculator, the angle with a sine of 0.2 is 115°. But sind = sin(180°— 9) so sin 115° = sin(180° — 11.5°), therefore when sind = 4, twovalues of @ are 11.5° and 16% 2 Use the information in the diagram to find cos 0. In AOPA OP? = 4425 = 29 (Pythagoras) and AOP = (180° ~ 8) OA _ 5 os (180° — 0) — QA _ 28 EO 8) a cos) = —cos (180° — 6) = — In cach question from 1 to 4, find sin 0, cos 0 and tan9, giving unknown lengths in surd form when necessary. 1In each question from 5 to 12, find X where X is an angle from 0 to 180°, 5 sin X = sin 80° 9 sin.X = sind” 6 cos. X = —cos75° 7 sin X = sin 128° 1 sin90° = sinX 8 cos30° = —cosX 12 cos91° = —cosX ‘The unknown angles in questions 13 to 17 are in the range 0 to 180°. 13 If cos X = ~42 find sin x. 16 Is there an angle X for which a cosX = 0 and sinX 14 If sin = find, to the nearest bo sieX =00'and cx degree, two possible values of 0. © cosX¥=0 and sinX = -1? 15 Given that sin = 0.5 and 17 If cos.A = —cos B, what is the cos.A = -0.8660, find /A. relationship between /A and /B? Finding Unknown Sides and Angles in a Triangle The Sine Rule Triangles are involved in many practical measurements (e.g. surveying) so it is important to be able to make calculations from limited data about a triangle. Although a triangle has three sides and three angles, it is not necessary to know all of these in order to define a particular triangle. If enough information about a triangle is known, the remaining sides and angles can be calculated by using a suitable formula. This is called solving the triangle. The two relationships that are used most frequently are the sine rule and the cosine tule. When working with a triangle ABC the side opposite to /A is denoted by a, the side opposite to /B by b and so on. a b Inatriangle ABC, —"— = ——_ = sind sinB~ sinc This rule applies whether or not one of the angles is obtuse. arr —— riUsing the Sine Rule Eames Proof Consider a triangle ABC in which there is no right angle. © ¢ Z < 2 ls 4 bb X 1 DB oA A line drawn from C, perpendicular to AB produced if necessary, divides triangle ABC into two right-angled triangles, CDA and CDB. InACDA sinA=h/b = h=bsinA — (sin(180—A) = sin A) InACDB sinB=h/a + h=asinB Therefore asin B =bsin A ie. #___b - sind Sin B We can equally well divide A ABC into two right-angled triangles by drawing the perpendicular from A to BC (or from B to AC). This gives a similar result, 5 b c ie. =e sinB~ sinC By combining the two results we produce the sine rule, a _b_e¢ sind sinB ‘The sine rule is made up of three separate fractions, only two of which can be used at a time. We select the two which contain three known quantities and only one unknown. It follows that, to use the sine rule, we must know the values of either ‘two sides and the angle opposite one of them or ‘two angles and a side, Note that, when the sine rule is being used to find an unknown angle, we can use it in the form S84 _ sinB _ sinc @ b c 1 In AABC, BC = Sem, A 43° and B = 61°. Find the length of AC. A, (Band a are known and D is required, so the twTranges KEIR 5 b sin43° ~ sin61 = b = Ssin6l” _ 6.412 sin 43 Therefore AC = 641cm correct to 35.6 © 2 In ABC, AC = 17cm, /A = 105° and /B = 33°. Find AB. oan The two sides involved are b and c, 80 before the sine rule can be used we must find C. From the sine rule sinB sin C = 7 Lc, 2 _ I xsind2 _ 59 9¢ sin33' sin 42 sin33 Therefore AB = 20.9cm correct to 3s.f. (SSS: IN AABC, AB = 9em, /A = 51° 6 In AXYZ, XY = 92cm, /X = 59° and /C = 39°. Find BC. and 2Y = 81° Find XZ. 2 In APQR, /R = 52°, (Q = 79° 7 In APQR, /P = 78°, JR = 38° and and PR = 12.7cm. Find PQ. PR = 15cm. Find QR. 3 In ADEF, DE = 174cm, /D = 48° 8 In AABC, AB = 10cm, and /F = 56°. Find EF. 4 In AXYZ, (X = 130°, /Y = 21° and XZ = S3em. Find YZ. 5 In APQR, /Q = 37°, /R = 101° and PR = 43cm. Find PQ. BC = 9.1cm and AC = 17cm. Can you use the sine rule to find / A? If you answer YES, write down the two arts of the sine rule that you would use. If you answer NO, give your reason. The Ambiguous Case Consider a triaugle specified by two sides and one angle. If the angle is between the two sides there is only one possible triangle. I, however, the angle is not between the two given sides it is sometimes possible to raw two triangles from the given data Consider, for example, a triangle ABC in which 2A = 20°,b = 10 anda = 8. ‘The two triangles with this specification are shown in the diagram; in one of them B is an acute angle, while in the other one B is obtuse. Do not assume that there are always two possible triangles however, e.g. if A = 20°, b = 6 anda = 8, only one triangle fits the given data. So, when using the sine rule to find an angle in a triangle, it is essential to check whether the obtuse angle is possible.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.oy fa & Z 4 2 fal, Proof a | 7 JN eh Let ABC be a non-right-angled triangle in which BD is drawn perpendicular to AC produced if necessary. Taking x as the length of AD, the length of CD is (b—x) or (c—b). Then, using A as the length of BD, we can use Pythagoras’ theorem to find h in each of the right-angled triangles BDA and BDC, ie. 2 = c?—x? and h? = a? -(b-x)° (or h? = a?—(x—b)*) ~ (6-37 > ¢? =x? = a? — b? + bx —x? o b? 402 — tbe But x = ccosA Therefore a? =b? +c? — 2becos.A ‘When the altitude is drawn from A or from C similar expressions for the other sides of a triangle are obtained, i.e. b? =c?+a?—2cacosB and c? =a*+b?-2abcosC 1 In SABC, BC = 7em, AC = 9cm and C = 61°. Find AB. Using the cosine rule, starting with c?, we have | 2ab cos C 92 — (2)(7)(9) cos 61 © = 8301 Hence AB = 8.30cm correct to 3 s.f. 2 XYZis a triangle in which /Y = 121°, XY = 14cm and YZ = 26.9om. Find XZ. Using y? = = (14)? + (26.9)' — (2)(14)(269) cos 121 ‘ 1307.53 => y= 36.15 — 2excos ¥_ gives Hence Therefore XZ = 36,2cm correct to 3 sf. |EXERCISE 7E Tranges EXGSEA In each question use the data given for APOR to find the length of the third side. OR RP Q R 1 Bem —4.6em 30° 2° 11.7em 92cm 75° 3 29cm = 37cm 109° 4 21cm 32cm or 5 135cm 98cm 48° 6 47cm 81cm 138° 7 44cm 62cm Te 8 126cem 167° Using the Cosine Rule to Find an Angle Eee So far the cosine rule has been used to find an unknown side of a triangle. The formula can be rearranged when we want to find an unknown angle, e.g. abc? ab c? = a?+b? ~2abcosC can be written cosC = with similar expressions for cos A and cos B. This form is fairly easy to remember, as the side opposite to the angle being found appears only once in the formula and that is in the last term. On the other hand you may prefer to work from the basic cosine formula for all calculations. 1 If, in ABC, a = 9,b = 16 and c = 11, find, to the nearest degree, the largest angle in the triangle. The largest angle in a triangle is opposite to the longest side, so in this queston we are looking for angle B and we use cos B _ 121+ 81-256 (2) (9) = -0.2727. The negative sign shows that /B is obtuse. | Hence B = 106° and this is the largest angle in AABC.2 The sides a, b, ¢ ofa triangle ABC are in the ratio 3:6:5. Find the smallest angle in the triangle. | The actual lengths of the sides are not necessariy 3, 6and § units so we represent them by x 8x, Gx and 5x. The smallest angle is A (opooste to the smallest side). be+e cos A 60 ‘Therefore the smallest angle in AABC is 29.9 1 In AXYZ, XY = 34cm, 5 In AABC, a = 13, b YZ = 29cm and ZX = 2icm. Find ¢ = 7. What is the size of the smallest angle in the triangle. a the smallest angle b the largest angle? 18 and 2 In APOR, PQ = 13cm, QR = 18cm and RP = 15cm. 6 In APQR the sides PQ, QR and RP Find 2Q. are in the ratio 2: 1:2. Find 2P. 3 In AABC, AB = Slcm, z AnD is a quadrilateral in which BC = 37cm and CA = 44cm, = Sem, BC = 8cm, Find ¢A. & tem, DA = 9cm and angle ABC = 120°. Find the length of AC 4 Find the largest angle in AXYZ and the size of the angle ADC. given that x = 91,y = 77and = 43. General Triangle Calculations If three independent facts are given about the sides and/or angles of a triangle and further facts are required, a choice must be made between using the sine rule or the cosine rule for the first step. As the sine rule is casicr to work out, use it whenever the given facts make this possible, i.e. whenever an angle and the opposite side are known. (Remember that if two angles are given, then the third angle is also known.) The cosine rule is used only when the sine rule is not suitable and it is never necessary to use it more than once in solving a triangle. Suppose, for example, that the triangle POR is to be solved. ‘ Only one angle is known and the side opposite to it is not given. We must therefore use the cosine rule first to find the length of PR. > Once we know g as well as /Q, the sine rule can be used to find either of the remaining angles, the third angle then follows from the sum of the angles in the triangle.Each of the following questions refers to a triangle ABC. Fill in the blank spaces in the table. c a b os 1 80° 50° 68cm 2 iz | 15.7em | 13cm 3 4I° oe 12.3cm 4 58° 1Bicm | 87cm 5 49° sae 206 cm 6 15° 31° 21em 7 59° 78° Tem 8 4g 80° | 3130 | 9 7 19cm | 24cm 10 125° 14cm 20cm 11 A tower stands on level ground. From a point P on the ground, the angle of elevation of the top of the tower is 26°. Another point Q is 3m vertically above P and from this point the angle of elevation of the top of the tower is 21°. Find the height of the tower. 12 A survey of a triangular field, bounded by straight fences, found the three sides to be of lengths 100m, 80m and 65m. Find the angles between the boundary fences. The Area of a Triangle The simplest way to find the area of a triangle is to use the formula base x perpendicular height If the perpendicular height is not known we can use the formula area of triangle ABC = }bcsinA with similar expressions for angles B and C, ie. area = 4absinC = LacsinB Each of these formulae can be expressed in the ‘easy to remember’ form area = + product of two sides x sine of included angle SSSSES) Find the area of triangle POR, given that P = 65°,Q = 79° and PQ = 30cm. Problems The given facts do not involve two sides and the included angle so we must first find another side. To do this the sine rule can be used and we need angle R, R = 180° — 65° - 79° = 36 D r From the sine rule, P= 1 sinP sink 30 x sin65' 36 ) 46.25. ie. QR = 463cm (correct to 3 4prsin79° = 681.1. So the area of triangle POR is 681 em? (correct to 3 sf.) Now we can use area POR Find the area of each triangle given in Questions 1 to 5. 1 AXYZ; XY = 18cm, 7 APQRis such that /P = 60°, Z = 45cm, /Y = 70°. 2R = 50° and QR = 12am. Find PQ and the area of the triangle. 2 AABC: AB = 75cm, AC = 66cm, LA = 62°, 8 In AXYZ, XY = 150cm, ‘Z = 185em and the area is 3 APOR; OR = 69cm, PR = 49cm, 11000 cm? Find /Y¥ and XZ. LR = 85°. 9 The area of triangle ABC is 36.4cm?. 4 OXYZ; x = 3,y = 40, (Z = 49". Given that AC = 14cm and ZA = 98°, find AB. 5 APOR; p = 9,r = Il, /Q = 120°. 10 In ABC, BD is perpendicular to 6 In triangle ABC, AB = 6cm, AC. Using ft as the length of BD, find BC = 7em and CA = 9cm. Find an expression for hin AABD. Hence ZAand the area of the triangle. prove that the area of ABC is Sbcsin A. EXAMPLES 71 Many practical problems which involve distances and angles can be illustrated by a diagram. Often, however, this diagram contains too many lines, dimensions, etc. to be clear enough to work from. In these cases we can draw a second figure by extracting a triangle (or triangles) in which three facts about sides and/or angles are known, The various methods given in this chapter can then be used in this triangle. 1 Two boats, P and Q, are 300m apart. The base, A, of a lighthouse is in line with PQ. From the top, B, of the lighthouse the angles of depression of P and Q are found to be 35° and 48°. Write down the values of the angles BOA, PBO and BPQ and find, correct to the nearest metre, the height of the lighthouse. eeeaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Sees esas 1 Find the value of /A, if is between O° and 180°, when a cosA = —cos64” b sin94” = sina, 2 If /X is acute and sinX = J, find cos (180° — X). 3 Given that sin A = {, find tan 4 in surd form if a /Aisacute b /A is obtuse. 4 Find, in surd form, sin @ and cos 0, given a 7 5 Given that sin X obtuse, find cos X. 6 In AABC, BC = Ilem, /B = 53° and (A = 76°, find AC. 7 In POR, p = 3,q = 5 and R = 69°, find r. 8 In AXYZ, XY = 8em, YZ = 7cm and ZX = 10cm, find ZY. Triangles MEXTE 9 In AABC, AB = 7cm, BC = 6em and (A = 44°, find all possible values of £C. 10 Find the angles of a triangle whose sides are in the ratio 2:4:5. 11 Use the cosine formula, 24 eta g? cord = PFE 9 show that 2be a /Aisacute if a? b? + 12 In APOR, PQ = lem, R= 14cm and QPR = 100°. Find the area of the triangle. 13 The area of ABC is 9em?. If AB = AC = 6cm, find sin A. Are there two possible triangles? Give a reason for your answer. 16 5 “ L c fen the information in the diagram, a find /ABC b find the area of AABC © hence find the length of BD.Coordinate geometry 2 The Meaning of Equations ‘The Cartesian frame of reference provides a means of defining the position of any point in a plane. This plane is called the 2y-plane. In general x and y are independent variables. This means that they can each take any value independently of the value of the other unless some restriction is placed on them. If however, the value of x is restricted to 2, say, but the value ofy is not restricted, the condition gives a set of points which form a straight line parallel to the y-axis and passing through P, Q and R as shown. In the xy-plane, the equation x = 2 defines the line shown in the diagram; x = 2 is called the equation of this line and we can refer briefly to the line x = 2. Now consider the set of points for which the condition is x > 2. All the points to the right of the line x = 2 have an x-coordinate that is greater than 2, So the inequality x >2 defines the shaded region of the xy-plane shown. Similarly, the inequality x <2 defines the region left unshaded in the diagram. ‘Note that the region defined by x > 2 does not include the line x = 2. ‘When a region does not include a boundary line this is drawn as a broken line. When the points on a boundary are included in a region, this boundary is drawn as a solid line. The Equation of a Straight Line Peay), A straight line may be defined in many ways; for example, a line passes through the origin and has a gradient of 4. The point P(x,y) is on this line if and only if the gradient of OP is 4. In terms of x and y, the gradient of OP is ~, so the statement above can be written in * the form (x,y) is on the line if and only if 2 = 3 ies dpe i Therefore the coordinates of points on the line satisfy the relationship 2y = x, and the coordinates of points that are not on the line do not satisfy this relationship. 2y =x is called the equation of the line. The equation of a line (straight or curved) is a relationship between the x and y-coordinates of all points on the line and which is not satisfied by any other point in the plane.Coordinate geometry 2 ZEWIEEN (STEELY 1 Find the equation of the line through the points (1, —2) and (—2,4). » P(x.y) is on the line if and only if the gradient of PA is equal to the gradient of AB 2.4) (or PB). ren) The gradient of PA is The gradient of AB is acs) ‘Therefore the coordinates of P satisfy the equation ive y+2x=0 4 Consider the more general case of a line whose gradient is m and which cuts the y-axis fey) at a directed distance c from the origin. Note that c is called the intercept on the y-axis. Now P(x,y) is on this line if and only if the gradient of AP is m. ‘Therefore the coordinates of P satisfy the equation Aco, =m x-0 ie. yeomete. This is the standard form for the equation of a straight line. An equation of the form y = mx +c represents a straight line with gradient m and intercept c on the y-axis. Because the value of m ané/or c may be fractional, this equation can be rearranged and expressed as ar+by +c = 0, ie. ax +by+c =0 where a, b and c are constants, is the equation of a straight line. Note that in this form c is not the intercept. SET] 2 Write down the gradient of the line 3x~4y +2 = 0 and find the equation of the [E=)iine through the origin which is perpendicular to the given line. Rearranging 3x~ 4y +2 — 0 in the standard form gives y ~ $x paring with y = mx+¢ we can read off the gradient (m) and the intercept on the y-axs, a} + ‘The gradient of the line is The gradient of the perpendicular line is ~+, icc : and it passes through the origin so the intercept on the y-axis is 0. Therefore its equation is y= -4x+0 = 3y+4r=0Sane 0. 3 Sketch the line x ~2y+3 This line can be located accurately in the xy-plane when we know two points on the line. We will use the intercepis on the axes as these can be found easily (ie x=0 = 3), Notice that the diagrams in the worked examples are sketches, not accurate plots, but they show reasonably accurately the position of the lines in the plane. 1 Write down the equation of the line through the origin and with gradient a2 b-1 e4 fw Draw a skeich showing all these lines on the same set of axes. 2 Write down the equation of the line passing through the given point and with the given gradient. a (0,1), 5 b (0,0), ~ ce (-1,-4),4 Draw a sketch showing all these lines on the same set of axes. 3 Write down the equation of the line passing through the points a (0,0),(2,1) b (1,4),(3,0) © (-1,3),(-4,-3) 4 Write down the equation of the line passing through the origin and perpendicular to a y=2+3 b w+2y-4=0 € r-Wt+3=0 Finding the Equation of a Straight Line Straight lines play a major role in graphical analysis and it is important to be able to find their equations easily. This section gives two of the commonest ways in which the equation of a straight line can be found. Each leads to a formula that can then be used to write down the equation of a particular line. Wm 5 Write down the equation of the line passing through (2,1) and perpendicular to a w+y-2=0 b w—4y-1=0 Draw a sketch showing all four lines on the same set of axes, 6 Write down the equation of the line passing through (3,2) and parallel to a Sr-y4+3=0 b r+ -5=0 7 A(1,5) and B(4,9) are two adjacent vertices of a square. Find the equation of the line on which the BC of the square lies. How long are the sides of this square? leSse Coordinate geometry 2 MEIUEET ‘The equation of a line with gradient m and passing through the point (x,y1) P (x,y) is a point on the line if and only if the gradient of AP is m ie. rN Lm xm YW = M(K—x) a In a particular case it is often simpler to work from a diagram than to apply a formula. ‘The equation of the line passing through (x1,y1) and (x3,¥2) Ye wok In the equation y = mx +c, m isthe gradient of AB, ie. m = So the equation of the line through A and B is Yoh 2] 1 Find the equation of the line with gradient — 4 and passing through (2, —1). Using [1] with m = —1, x, = 2 and y; = -1 gives yo l= 36-2) «i x+3y41=0 Alternatively the equation of this ine can be found from the standard form of the equation of a straight line, Le. y = mx-+0 Using y = mx+c and m= —4 wehave y =—4r+e The point (2, ~1) lies on this line so its coordinates satisfy the equation, ie. -l=-1Q)+ce = c=-} Therefore y = xt+3y+1=0 2 Find the equation of the line through the points (1, —2), (3,5) Using formula [2] with xx, = 2, x2 =3 and y2 = 5 gives The worked examples in this book necessarily contain a lot of explanation but do not think that your solutions must be equally long. Avoid ‘overworking’ a problem, particularly in the case of problems that are basically simple. With practice, you can use any of the methods illustrated to write down the equation of a straight line directly. OOaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Besse A circle has radius 4 and its centre is the point C(5,3). a Show that the points A(5,~1) and B(1,3) are on the circumference of the circle. b Prove that the perpendicular bisector of AB goes through the centre of the circle. a From the diagram, BC = 4 Bis on the circumference. Similarly AC = 4, Ais on the circumference. b_ The midpoint, M, of AB is ‘The gradient of AB is If is the perper the equation of fis y In equation [1], when x y=3 the point (5,3) is on L 1=1@-3) 3 y lular bisector of AB, its gradient is 1 and it goes through (3,1). ul ie. the perpendicular bisector of AB goes through C. 1 Show that the triangle whose vertices are (1, 1), (3,2) and (2, ~1) is isosceles. 2 Find the area of the triangular region. enclosed by the.x and y axes and the line 2e—y-1=0. 3 Find the coordinates of the triangular region enclosed by the lines y = 0, y=x+5 and x+2y-6= 0. 4 Write down the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the points (2,~3) and (-4,34). 5 Find the equation of the line through (5,2) which is perpendicular to the line y = 3r—5. Hence find the coordinates of the foot of the perpendicular from A to the line. 6 Find, in terms of a and b, the coordinates of the foot of the perpendicular from the point (2,6) to the line x+2y—4 = 7 The coordinates of a point P are ((+1,2r—1). Sketch the position of Pwhen ¢ = —1,0,1 and 2. Show that these points are collinear and write down the equation of the line on which they lie. 8 Write down the equation of the line which goes through (7,3) and which is inclined at 45° to the positive direction of the x-axis. 9 Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the points (a,b) and (2a,-3b). 10 The centre of a cirele is at the point (3,7) and the point A(5,3) is on the circumference of the circle. Find a the radius of the circle, b the equation of the line through A that is perpendicular to AC. WE ___..=11 The equations of two sides of a 12 The lines y = 2x, 2 +y-12 = 0 square are y = 3x—1 and and y = 2 enclose a triangular x+3y—6 = 0. If(0,-1) is one region of the xy-plane. Find vertex of the square find the a_ the coordinates of the vertices of coordinates of the other vertices. this region, b the area of this region. Reduction of a Relationship to a Linear Law In this part of the chapter we look at a practical application of the equation y = mx +e. If it is thought that a certain relationship exists between two variable quantities, this hypothesis can be tested by experiment, i. by giving one variable certain values and measuring the corresponding values of the other variable. The experimental data collected can then be displayed graphically. If the graph shows points that lie approximately on a straight line (allowing for experimental error) then this indicates a linear relationship between the variables (ie. a relationship of the form Y = mX +c). Further, the gradient of the line (mz) and the vertical axis intercept (c) provide the values of the constants. 1 An elastic string is fixed at one end and a variable weight is hung on the other end. It is believed that the length of the string is related to the weight by a linear law. Use the following experimental data to confirm this belief and find the particular relationship between the length of the string and the weight. Weight (W) in newtons | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 Length (!) in metres [oss [ox] 04 |oss| 0s 0.53 | 0.56 | 0.6 It and W are related by a linear law then, allowing lor experimental error, we expect that the points will ie on a straigh! line, Platting / against W gives the following graph. These points do lie fairy close to a straight line. From the graph, and W are connected by a linear relationship, a relationship of the form I aW +b. Now we draw the line 0 ‘closest fit. This is the line thal has the points distbuted above and below it as evenly as possible; itis not necessarily the line which goes through the ‘most points, By measurement from the graph the gradient = 0.04 the intercept on the vertical axis eeSo comparing with aW +b mX +c } we have a = 0.04,b = 0.3 ie. within the limits of experimental and graphical accuracy 1 = 0.04W + 0.3. When the gradient of a line is found from a graph, the increase in a quantity is measured from the scale used for that quantity and it is worth noting that the scales used for the two quantities are not usually the same. The values of the constants found from calculating the gradient and intercept from a drawn graph are approximate. Apart from experimental error in the data, selecting the line of best fit is a personal judgement and so is subject to slight variations which affect the values obtained. regression lines and computer programs exist which will give these equations from the dats. Using such a program, the values of @ and 6 in the last example are given as @ = 0.039 and b = 0.291. e There are methods for calculating the equation of the line of best fit; these are called If the relationship is not of a linear form, the points on the graph will lie on a section. of a curve. It is very difficult to identify the equation of a curve from a section of it, so the form of a non-linear relationship can rarely be verified in this way. Non-linear relationships, however, can often be reduced to a linear form. The following examples illustrate some of the relationships that can be verified by plotting experimental data in a form which gives a straight line. Relationships of the Form y= ax” A relationship of the form y = ax" where a is a constant can be reduced to a linear relationship by taking logarithms, since ysa" <> Iny=ninx+ina (Although any base can be used, it is sensible to use either ¢ or 10 as these are built into most calculators.) Comparing Iny = ninx+Ina with Y=m¥+e we see that plotting values of In y against values of In x gives a straight line whose gradient is 1 and whose intercept on the vertical axis is In a. ee ————5) 2 The following data, collected from an experiment is believed to obey a law of the ernest) form p = ag". Verify this graphically and find the values ofa and n. Ii the relationship p = aq" is correct, then In p = nIng-+Ina comparing with yome+e we expect that In p and In q will be related by a linear law. First a table of values of In p end in q is needed ‘The points lie on a straight line confirming that there is a linear relationship between In q and In p. From the graph, the gradient of the line is0.34, = n = 034 and the intercept on the vertical axis is -0.69, so Ina=-069 + a=05 ‘Therefore the data does obey a law of the form p = aq", where a 05 and n= 0.34. (Using the tabulated values of in q and In p and a computer program, givas n= 0.297 and Ina = -0.687) gee Copyrighted matFEE coordinate geometry 2 Relationships of the Form y= ab” A relationship of the form y = ab* where a and b are constant can be reduced to a linear relationship by taking logs, since y=ab* <> logy = xlogh +loga Comparing log y = xlogb +loga with Y=mX te we see that plotting values of log y against corresponding values of x gives a straight line whose gradient is log b and whose intercept on the vertical axis is log a. 3 In an experiment, the mass, y grams, of a substance is measured at various times, x seconds. The results are shown in the table below. It is believed that x and y are related by a law of the form 2y+10 = ab*~>, a Confirm this graphically, showing that one result does not conform to this law. b Find approximate values of a and b. € Explain, with reasons, whether it is sensible to use these results to predict the mass when x = 30. a If 2y+10 = ab*~”, taking logs of both sides gives log (2y + 10) = (x-3)logb +loga which is of the form Y = m¥ +e where Y = log(2y+10), X =x—3 and m = logb, c = loga ie. log(2y+10)) and [x—3] obey a linear law So we need to tabulate corresponding values of (x—3) and log (2 +10) from the iven values of x and y, ‘Then plotting log (2y +10) against x—3 gives the graph. ‘The straight line shows that, except where x~3 = 21, there is a linear relationship between log (2y +10) and x—3, confirming that 2y+10 = ab*~* for values of x—3 from 7 to 18, ic. for values of x from 10 to 21. Wmaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Parts of a Circle Circles ‘We start this chapter with a reminder of the names used for parts of a circle. Part of the circumference is called an arc. If the arc is less than half the circumference it is called a minor arc; if it is greater than half the circumference it is called a major arc. re A straight line which cuts a circle in two distinct points is, D called a secant. The part of the line inside the circle is 8 called a chord. AB is a secant, CD is a chord. ‘The area enclosed by two radii and an arc is called a sector. ‘The area enclosed by a chord and an arc is called a segment. Ifthe segment is less than half a circle it is called a minor segment; if it is greater than half a circle it is called a major segment. QS © The Angle Subtended by an Arc c Ban Consider the points A, B and C on the circumference of a circle whose centre is O. ‘We say that /ACB stands on the minor are AB. The minor arc AB subtends the angle ACB at the circumference (and the angle is subtended by the arc). The arc AB also subtends the angle AOB at the centre of the circle. A cirde of radius 2 units which has its centre at the origin, cuts the x-axis at the points Aand B and cuts the y-axis at the point C. Prove that ZACB = 90°. ‘Al the information given in the question, and gleaned from the known properties o! the figue, ‘can be marked in the diagram as shown. The gradients we need can then be seer From the diagram, the gradient of AC is 5“ = and the gradient of BC is RS Set (gradient of AC) » (gradient of BC) ~ —1 ie. AC is perpendicular to BC > /ACB = 90)1 Name the angles subtended a_at the circumference by the minor are AE bat the circumference by the major are AE ¢ at the centre by the minor are AC dat the circumference by the major are AC © at the centre by the minor are CE fat the circumference by the minor are CD g at the circumference by the minor are BC. 2 AB is a chord of a circle, centre O, and M is midpoint. The radius from O is drawn through M. Prove that OM is perpendicular to AB. 3 C(5,3) is the centre of a circle of radius 5 units. a Show that this circle cuts the x-axis at A(1,0) and B(9,0).. b_ Prove that the radius that is perpendicular to AB goes through the midpoint of AB. ¢ Find the angle subtended at C by the minor are AB. 4 The point Dis on the major arc AB and DC is perpendicular to AB. Find the coordinates of D and hence find the angle subtended at D by the minor are AB. 4 A and B are two points on the circumference of a circle centre O. Cis a point on the major arc AB. Draw the lines AC, BC, AO, BO and CO, extending the last line to a point D inside the sector AOB. Prove that / AOD is twice /ACO and that ZBOD is twice angle /BCO. Hence show that the angle subtended by the minor arc AB at the centre of the circle is twice the angle that it subtends at the circumference of the circle. Angles in a Circle There are several important facts about circles that are useful in solving problems (some of them were used in the previous exercise). The perpendicular bisector of a chord of a circle goes through the centre of the circle. The angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an are, is twice the angle subtended at the circumference by the same are.Ewa 2 - All angles subtended at the circumference by the same are are equal. ‘An angle in a semicircle is 90°. If the four points P,Q, R and § all lie on a circle, PORS is called a cyclic quadrilateral. The opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary (i.e. add up to 180°). p+r = 180°,g+s = 180° A circle circumscribes triangle whose vertices are at the points A(0,4), B(2,3) and C(—2, =1). Find the centre of the circle. When acirce circumscribes a figure, it passes through the vertices of the figure. The centre of the circle lies atthe point of intersection o! the perpencicular bisectors cf two chords ‘The midpoint of AC is [2 and the gradient of AC is a the gradient of the perpendicular bisector of AC is and its equation is +H = 4r+1y-1=0 a Similarly the midpoint of AB is (1, 4) and its gradient is —4 . the gradient of the perpendicular bisector of AB is 2 and its equation is ys2rtd + 4x-2y43=0 2) Solving equations [1] and [2] simultaneously gives—— 1 Find the size of each marked angle, @ & @a @ 2 O isthe centre of a circle that passes through A, B, C i> and D. /A = xand /C = y. Write down the values of LT the obtuse angle DOB and the reflex angle DOB. Hence prove that the opposite angles of a cyclic | quadrilateral are supplementary. J 3 AB is a diameter of a circle centre O. C is a point on the circumference. D is a point on AC such that OD bisects / AOC. Prove that OD is parallel to BC. 19) 4 A triangle has its vertices at the points A(1,3), B(5, 1) and C(7,5). Prove that AABC is right-angled and hence find the coordinates of the centre of the circumeircle of AABC. 5 AB and CD are two chords of a circle that cut at E. (E is not the centre of the circle.) Show that As ACE and BDE are similar. 6 A circle with centre O circumscribes an equilateral triangle ABC. The radius drawn through O and the midpoint of AB meets the circumference at D. Prove that AADO is equilateral. 7 The line joining A(5,3) and B(4, ~2) is a diameter of a circle. If P(a,b) is a point on the circumference find a relationship between a and b. 8 ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral. The side CD circle. Show that “ABC = /ADE. 9 A triangle has its vertices at the points A(1,3), B(—2,5) and C(4,—2). Find the ‘coordinates of the centre and, correct to 3 s.f,, the radius of the circle that circumscribes AABC. produced to a point E outside the 10 In the diagram, O is the centre of the circle and CD is perpendicular to AB. If {CAB = 30° find the size of each marked angle.Crees (EE Tangents to Circles Ifa line and a circle are drawn in a plane then there are three possibilities for the position of the line in relation to the circle, The line can miss the circle, or it can cut the circle in two distinct points, or it can touch the circle at one point. In the last case the line is called a tangent and the point at which it touches the circle is called the point of contact. ‘The length of a tangent drawn from a point to a circle is the distance from that point to the point of contact. Tis the point of contact. PT is the length of the tangent from P. Properties of Fangents toa Circle ‘A tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius drawn from the point of contact, i. AB is perpendicular to OT. ‘Two tangents drawn to a circle from the same point P, are equal in length, ie. PS = PT. Also the line joining P to the centre O bisects the angle between the tangents, ie. SPO = /TPO. (ESTES 1 Acircle of radius 10 units is circumscribed by a right-angled isosceles triangle. Find the lengths of the sides of the triangle. A circle is circumscribed by a figure when all the sides cf t circle is nsenbed in the figure! CO bisects “ACB = OCT = 2; + TOC = 675 © INAOTC, TC = 10tan675 = 24.14 ar AT = 10 AC = 34.14... = AB in ABC, BC = V34.142 434.14? (Pythagoras) = 48.28 correct to 3 sf, the lengths of the sides of the triangle are 34.1 units, 34.1 units and 48.3 units.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.(ead i=iae Angle Units The Radian An angle is a measure of rotation and the units we have used up to now are the revolution and the degree. The reason why the number of degrees in a revolution is 360 is that the Babylonians believed that the length of the solar year was 360 days so they divided a complete revolution into 360 parts, one for each day as they thought. We now know they did not have the length of the year quite right but the number they used, 360, remains as the number of degrees in one revolution. Part of an angle smaller than a degree is given as a decimal part although some use is still made of a system that divides a degree into 60 minutes (60") and each minute into 60 seconds (60"), Now we consider a different unit of rotation. If O is the centre of a circle and an arc PQ is drawn so that its length is equal to the radius of the circle then the angle POO is called a radian (one radian is written 1 rad or I), An arc equal in length to the radius of a circle subtends an angle of 1 radian at the centre. It follows that the number of radians in a complete revolution is the number of times the radius divides into the circumference. Now the circumference of a circle is of length 2zr, so the number of radians in a revolution is 2zr-+r which is 2x, ie. 27 radians = 360° Further nradians = 180° and 47 radians = 90° (Note that }7 can be written as $37 as = and so on. Both ways of writing a fraction of x should be recognised.) When an angle is given in terms of x we usually omit the radian symbol, i.e. we write 180° = x (not 180° = x rad). If an angle is a simple fraction of 180°, it can easily be given in terms of x, cg 60 = fof 180° = fx = Sand 135° = } of 180° = 3x = 3 Conversely, 22 = Ex = j of 180° = 210° and $n =} of 180° = 120° MmBasar EXERCISE 10A Chreular measure RSTO Angles that are not simple fractions of 180°, or x, can be converted by using the relationship = 180°, taking the value of x from a calculator, eg. 73° = Bx n= 127 rad (correct to 3 sf.) and 2.36 rad = 736 180° © 135° (correct to the nearest degree) Now 1rad = 1x 1g0° = 57° (correct to 256), 7 ie. 1 radian is just a little less than 60°. This helps to visualise the size of a radian. 1. Express 75° in radians in terms of x. 180° = rradians + 1° = — radians; solo convert degrees to radians, multoly b 180 fal wit 180° x Sh 78° = 75 x —< radians = “© radians jap Tadians = 75 radian 2 Express x radians in degrees. rodians = 100° radans > 1° = 180. sotocomert radians to degrees, mutiny by 182 abr madians = 2 180 - 8 = yy 16 4 1 Express each of the following angles 2 Express each of the following angles in radians as a fraction of 7. in degrees. a 45° b 150° e¢ 30° a de br c tb” d 90° e 270° f 120 a z ein fr ake g 60° h 22.5° i 240° Tn 9% j 300° . . 22 nie iF j 300 k 315 1135 6 ‘ 9 m 210° n 225° idx ok loin 3n } onde 3 Express each of the following angles in radians correct to 2 decimal places. a 3b 47.2” & 93° d@ 233° e 140 of 117° 2 370° —— SSThe Length of an Arc 4 Express each of the following angles in degrees correct to 1 decimal place. a L7 rad b 332 rad © Trad d 209 rad e Srad {6.28319 rad 5 Write down the value of ® a b sin ¢ costa 6 di cos® e tania f tanx 3 a 8 hecose i tan 6 Write down, as a fraction of x, the possible values of x in the range 0 area of sector = — x mr’ 2n =4r0 The area of sector AOB = 3170aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.2 The diagram shows two discs that are fixed with their centres 18cm apart and connected by a drive belt. The radii of the discs are Sem and 8 cm. Find the length of the drive belt. The diagram is symmetrical about the line AB so we can draw a simpler diagram showing half the belt. The measurements are all in centimetres, so we will omt the units from the diagram and working. ‘The part of the belt between the two discs is a tangent to both circles, so LACE = / BEC = 90' B We need to find the lengths of the common tangent CE and the arcs FC, EG. Adding the line BD, drawn parallel to CE to cut AC extended at D, gives us the single triangle ADB to work with, This avoids having to consider the two sections of CE in two diferent triangles. In AABD, DB? = AB? — AD? = 182-13? = 15 . DB 12.449... so CE = 12.449... To find the length of arc FC, we need “FAC; / from AABD. — BAG and /BAC can be found In AABD, cos BAD = = (BAD = 0.7637... rad FAC = 2— 0.7637... rad = 2.3778... rad Hence are FC = 8 2.3778... = 19.0224 ZEBA = /BAC, ©. /EBG = {FAC = 2.3778... rad Hence are EG = § x 2.3778... = 11.8890 Are FC + are EG +CE = 19.022... + 11.889...+ 12.449... = 43.36... ‘Therefore the length of the drive belt is 2 x 43.36... cm = 86.7em correct to 3 sf. ee ee i Copyrighted materialee SERS) 1 A chord ofa circle subtends an angle of @ radians at the centre of the circle. The area of the minor segment cut off by the chord is one eighth of the area of the circle. Prove that 40 = 2+ 4sin 6. C7 2 ABis the diameter of a circle, centre O. C is a point on the circumference such / that {COB = 6 radians. The area of the minor segment cut off by AC is equal to , Ck 5 ice the area of the sector BOC. Show that 30 = x — sind. 3 The diagram shows a sector of a circle, centre O, containing an angle 0 radians. Find the area of the shaded region of the diagram, giving your answer in terms of a. 4 O is the centre of a circle of radius rem. A chord AB subtends an angle of 6 B radians at O. AN, a Show that the area of the minor segment cut off by AB is equal to 47°(0 — sin 0) b The area of the circle is twenty times the area of the minor segment. Show that sind = 0-4, 10 5 ABis a tangent to the circle centre O. /AOC = @ radians. Show that the perimeter of the section bounded by the lines AB, BC and the arc AC is given by L r 0+——+6-1 (woos 1540-1) 9. 6 The diagram shows two arcs, A and B. Are A is part of the circle, centre O and 1063, e radius OP. Arc B is part of the circle, centre M and radius PM, where M is the midpoint of PQ. a Write down the angle POQ in radians. 198 b Show that the area enclosed by the two arcs is equal to 3) em] 7 The diagram shows a sector of a circle of radius rem containing an angle 0 radians. The area of the sector is cm? and the perimeter of the sector is 50cm. P a Find 0 in terms of r. [Dr b Show that A = 25r—‘Circular measure (REXITEATN 8 A chord PQ of length 6cm is drawn in a circle of radius 10cm. The tangents to the (}* ore at P and Q meet at R. Find the area enclosed by PR, OR and the minor arc 9 Two discs are placed, in contact with each other, on a table. Their radii are 4cm and 9cm. An elastic band is stretched round the pair of discs. Calculate a the angle subtended at the centre of the smaller disc by the arc that is in contact with the elastic band the length of the part of the band that is in contact with the smaller disc © the length of the part of the band that is in contact with the larger disc 4. the total length of the stretched band. (Hint The straight parts of the stretched band are common tangents to the two circles.) » 10 The diagram shows a circle with radius 13cm whose centre is at the origin. The 412) points A(5, 12) and B( 12,5) are on the circumference of the circle. Find the length of the are AB. 502.) 11 The diagram shows a drive belt round two pulleys whose centres are 40.cm apart. The radius of the smaller pulley is 12cm and the radius of the larger pulley is 20cm. Find the length of the drive belt.Summary B PLANE GEOMETRY Pythagoras’ Theorem PN. In AABC, /B = 90° = AC = AB’ +BC* Similar Triangles LA = 11, /B = M/C = += AB: LM = BC: MN = AC:LN Angle Bisector Theorem ZA AD bisects (A <=> BD : DC = AB: AC Circle Theorem The perpendicular bisector of any chord goes through O, and conversely. BEIO GOO aaa ‘The ageatat perpen to OT TRIGONOMETRY sin = sin (18° — 0) wR cos = —cos (180 —0) tan@ = —tan (180° — 0) In any triangle ABC, s a 6 sind sinB si aa (sine rule) a? = b? +c? — 2becosA b? = a? +c? - 2accosB ? +b? — 2abcosC (cosine rule) @ The area of ABC is fabsinC, or 4bcsinA, or 4acsinB CIRCULAR MEASURE One radian (1°) is the size of the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc equal in length to the radius of the circle, The length of arc AB is r0. The area of sector AOB is 470.COORDINATE GEOMETRY ” Mas») Length of AB is. y/(x2—x1)?+ 02 —y1)" Midpoint, M, of AB is [5 (x1 +2); $04 +y2)] Gradient of AB is 22—2+ xm Parallel lines have equal gradients. When two lincs are perpendicular, the product of their gradient is —1. The standard equation of a straight line is y = mx-+c, where m is its gradient and c its intercept on the y- When a line with gradient m makes an angle with the positive x-axis, then m = tan 0. Hagasee answer. 1 A line AB is 10cm long. P divides AB externally in the ratio | Summary Bo Any equation of the form ax+by +c = 0. gives a straight linc. The equation of a line passing through (x,y1) and with gradient m is yoy = mom) Given a line with equation ax + by +c = 0, then any perpendicular line has equation be-ay+k = Reduction of Relationships to Linear Form When a non-linear law, containing two unknown constants, connects two variables, the relationship can often be reduced to linear form. The aim is to produce an equation in which one term is constant and another term does not contain a constant. The law can then be expressed in the form Y =mx+C ‘Some common conversions are y = ax*; take logs: Iny = Ina+ninx; use ¥ = Iny and.X = Inz y = ab‘; take logs: Iny = Ina+xIn 6; use ¥ = Iny and X In Questions 1 to 23 write down the letter or letters corresponding to a correct 3 In the diagram, O is the centre fv ‘The length of PB is, of the circle. (xa A Wem © 8em E 4em ABBE ES: B cm D 40cm 2 In AABC, a = 3cm,b = 4em and A 10? © 125° E 220° c= Sem, oe" Beas AA=9 DB=90° ee 4 120° in radians is c B=45° Ag Cdk Ee B2 Dsaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.ExamINATION Questions B 1a i Find the gradient of the straight line 2x +3y = -11. ii Find the equation of the line through (9,1) perpendicular to 2x +3y = —11. b Calculate the coordinates of the point where these two lines meet. (ocr, ‘The diagram shows a circle of centre O and of radius 2cm (not drawn to scale). The line AB is the tangent to the circle at A and the line OB cuts the circle at C. The angle AOB = 75°. Calculate the area of the shaded region correct to three significant figures. (aaa) 3 The points A, B and C have coordinates (5,—3), (7,8) and (3,4) respectively. The midpoint of BC isM. ‘a Write down the coordinates of M. b_ Find the equation of the straight line which passes through the points A and M. R04) ‘The diagram shows a semicircle APB on AB as diameter. The midpoint of AB is O. The point P on the semicircle is such that the area of the sector POB is equal to twice the area of the shaded segment. Given that angle POB is 0 radians, show that 30 = 2(n-sin 0). (ocr) 5 The vertices of the triangle ABC are A(—3,1),B(10, -8) and C(1,4). Find an equation of the line passing through A and B, giving your answer in the form px +gy +r = 0, where p, q and r are integers. Show by calculation that CA and CB are perpendicular. (ocr) 6 Intriangle ABC, angle A = 42°, AB = 6.0cm and BC = 4.5cm. Calculate the two possible values of angle C. (OCR) 7 The points A(—2,4), B (6, —2) and C (5,5) are the vertices of triangle ABC and D is the midpoint of AB. a Find the equation of the line passing through A and B in the formy = mx +c, where the constants m and ¢ are to be found. b Show that CD is perpendicular to AB. (Edexce) ee ______________*7aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Examination questions B 18 ashe ack There is a straight path of length 70m from the point A to the point B. The points are joined also bya railway track in the form of an arc of the circle whose centre is C and whose radius is 44m, as shown in the figure. ‘a Show that the size, to 2 decimal places, of / ACB is 1.84 radians. Calculate ‘b the length of the railway track ¢ the shortest distance from C to the path d_ the area of the region bounded by the railway track and the path. (Edexcel) 19 M B q A The diagram, not drawn to scale, shows a trapezium OABC with OA parallel to CB. Given that B is the point (4,3), C is the point (0,2) and the diagonal CA is parallel to the a-axis, calculate the coordinates of A. focr) In the diagram, ABC is an are of a circle with centre O and radius 5cm. The lines AD and CD are tangents to the circle at A and C respectively. Angle AOC = an radians. Calculate the area of the region enclosed by AD, DC and the arc ABC, giving your answer correct to 2 significant figures. (OCR) 21 The line L passes through the points A (1,3) and B(—19, -19). a Calculate the distance between A and B. b Find an equation of L in the form ax+ by +c = 0, where a, b and are integers. [Edexcel 22 a Find an equation of the straight line passing through the points with coordinates (~1,5) and (4,2), giving your answer in the form ax +by +c = 0, where a, b and c are integers. ‘The line crosses the x-axis at the point A and the y-axis at the point B, and O is the origin b Find the area of AOAB. (Edexcel) SSeS SSE23 © ad” Bi. In the triangle ABC, AC = 3cm, BC = 2cm, /BAC = 0 and ABC = 28. Calculate the value of 6 correct to the nearest tenth of a degree. Hence find the size of the angle ACB and, without further calculation, explain why the length of AB is greater than 2cm, (aaa) 24 Find the equation of the straight line that passes through the points (3, -1) and (~2,2), giving your answer in the form ax+by +c = 0. Hence find the coordinates of the point of intersection Of the line and the x-axis. (cr) 25 The diagram shows the cross-section of a tunnel. ‘The cross-section has the shape of a major segment of a circle, and the point O is the centre of the circle. ‘The radius of the circle is 4m, and the size of angle AOB is 1.5 radians. Calculate the perimeter of the cross-section. {OCR} 26 The points P, Q and R have coordinates (2, 4), (7, —2) and (6,2) respectively. Find the equation of the straight line which is perpendicular to the line PQ and which passes through the midpoint of PR. (aaa) 27 The points A and B have coordinates (8,7) and (—2,2) respectively. A straight line / passes through A and B and meets the coordinate axes at the points C and D. a. Find, in the formy = mx +c, the equation of /. b Find the length CD, giving your answer in the form p./@, where p and q are integers and q is prime. (Edexcel) 28 The line! has equation 2x —y—1 = 0. ‘The line m passes through the point A(0,4) and is perpendicular to the line /. a Find an equation of m and show that the lines / and m intersect at the point P (2,3). The line n passes through the point B (3,0) and is parallel to the line m. b Find an equation of n and hence find the coordinates of the point Q where the lines / and n intersect. ¢ Prove that AP = BQ = PQ. (Edexcel) 20 The figure shows a straight line graph of In y against In x. The line crosses the axes at A (0,3) and B(3.5,0). a Find an equation relating In y and In x. b Hence, or otherwise, express y in the form pr, giving the values of the constants p and q to 3 significant figures. (Edexcel) (Ih tkaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.2 If £(%) =5Sx—4 find £(0), f(-4). 4 If £(%) = the value of x correct to the nearest integer, find £(1.25), 3 If f() = 3x?+25 find £(0), £18). £(—3.5), £12.49). S If f() = sinx, find £(47), £(3x). Domain and Range We have assumed that we can use any real number as an input for a function unless some particular numbers have to be excluded because they do not give real numbers as output. The set of inputs for a function is called the domain of the function. ‘The domain does not have to contain all possible inputs; it ean be as wide, or as restricted, as we choose to make it. Hence to define a function fully, the domain must be stated. If the domain is not stated, we assume that it is the set of all real numbers (IR Consider the mapping x—+x? +3 ‘We can define a funetion f for this mapping over any domain we choose. Some examples, together with their graphs are given. wa 1 f(x) =2?+3 for xeR a mE toy 2 f(e) =27+3 for x30 / ‘Note that the point on the curve where * = 0 1s included and we denote this on the curve 4 : bya sold cree the domain were x > 0, then the point woule nat be part of the curve anc we indicate this ct by using an open circle may 3 f(r) =27+3 for x = 1,2,3,4,5 's tme the graphical jive discrete (i.e. separate) points.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4 The function f is such that f(x) =x for 05 a Find the value of £(0), £(2), £(4), £(5) and £(7). b Sketch the graph of the function. ¢ Give the range of the function. 5 In Utopia, the tax on earned income is calculated as follows. The first £20000 is tax free and remaining income is taxed at 20%. a Find the tax payable on an earned income of £15 000 and of £45000. b Taking x as the number of pounds earned income andy as the number of pounds of tax payable, define a function f such that _y = f(x). Draw a sketch of the function and state the domain and range. Curve Sketching When functions have similar definitions they usually have common properties and graphs of the same form. If the common characteristics of a group of functions are known, the graph of any one particular member of the group can be sketched without having to plot points, Quadratic Functions The general form of a quadratic function is f(x) = ax? +bx+e for x CIR where a, b and c are constants and a+ 0. functions for a variety of values of a, b and c, the basic shape of the curve is always the g When a graphics calculator, or a computer, is used to draw the graphs of quadratic same. This shape is called a parabola, Every parabola has an axis of symmetry which goes through the vertex, ie. the point where the curve turns back upon itself. If the coefficient of x? is positive, ie. a>0, then f(x) has a least value, and the parabola looks like this. If the coefficient of x? is negative, then f(x) has a greatest value and the curve is this way up.Funetons | EXIT ‘These properties of the graph of a quadratic function can be proved algebraically. For f(x) = ax?+bx+c, ‘completing the square’ on the RHS and simplifying, gives f(a) = "| volere] tu) ‘Now the first bracket is constant and, as the second bracket is squared, its value is zero when x = z and greater than zero for all other values of x. Hence when a is positive, 10x) x? +bx+c has a least value when x = -2 and when a is negative, 1(x) = ax?+ bx +¢ hasa greatest value when x = a2 b Further, taking values of x that are symmetrical about x = — exe sk, we see from [1] that 8) C-g)-f ic, the value of f(x) is symmetrical about x = 8 These properties can now be used to draw sketches of the graphs of quadratic functions, (STS) 1 Find the greatest or least value of the function given by f(x) = 2x7 -7r—4 and hence sketch the graph of f(x). f(x) = As a>0, f(x) hasa least vi the least value of f(r) is (3) = 2 We now have one point on the graph of f(x) and we know that the curve is symmetrical about this value of x. However, to locate the curve more accurately we need another point and we use (0) as itis easy to find, £(0) = -4 2° |2 Draw a quick sketch of the graph of f(r) = (1 — 2e)(x +3). The coefficient of x? is negative, so f(x) has a greatest value. The curve cuts the x-axis when f(x) = 0. When f(x) = 0, (1-2x)@+3)=0 3 x=tor-3 ‘The average of these values is ~ §, so the curve is symmetrical about x = We now have enough information to draw a quick sketch, but note that this method is Sullable only when the quadratic function factorises, SERSNSMNLS) 1 Find the greatest or least value of 3 Sketch the graph of each of the f(x) where f(x) is following quadratic functions, showing the grcatest or least value hase and the value of x at which it ocdurs. b dst 4e45 axti2e+S bo xt4dri8 @ 325524 © 2x2-6x+3 0 d 4—7x-x? 2 Find the range of f where f(x) is e x°-10 f 2-5x-Bx? a Thea 4 Draw a quick sketch of each of the b xt-2 following functions. © 2-2? a (x-1)(@-3) d (143)(2-x) b (x+2)(x-4) e€ 27-9 © (2x-1)(@—3) f 3x? Cubic Functions The general form of a cubic function is. f(x) = ax + bx? +ox4+d where a, b, ¢ and d, are constants and a 0. Investigating the curve y = ax} +bx?+cr+d_ for a variety of values of a, b, c andd shows that the shape of the curve is pl when a >0 and Ww a<0 Sometimes there are no turning points and the curve looks like this TOSaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.-uonoury oup jo ydesd oy) yoroys oouoy pure cof roys AIG T |, a x ude oun yprays o1 woneutrogu enous amy wou ay T= (x)J_ OF AmHUNE st SHIN Sy x paoge wos) — 0 7 (2-x)(x+4)>0 2 +3)(r-5) 20 85x? > 3r+2 3 (x-2)(r +4) <0 9 (3—2x)(x+5) <0 4 (2-1)(x+1)20 10 (x1 >9 S22 de>3 MW (e41)(x42) <4 6a <1 12 (1-x)(4-x) >x4 11 Rational Fractions in Inequalities Consider the inequality 33 We do not know whether x +5 is positive or negative, and this prevents the apparently obvious step of multiplying both sides by x +5. A number of different ways of solving inequalities of this type are demonstrated in the worked examples that follow. No one method is ideal in all cases and you should consider a variety of approaches before deciding how to solve a particular example. 1 Find the range of values of x for which ar >3 = Although we cannot muttiply both sides by x—5 because its sign is not known, we can | multiply bot sides by (x 5)* which cenno! be negative (e— 2)(x- 5) > 3(x—5)* = (x -5){(x-2)-3@r-5)} >0 [ Note that (5) must not be cancelled because we do nat know its sign > (x-5)(13 -2r) > 0 the required range is 5 yatB yatB)>yatB For a point of inflexion, e.g. at C yatC,yatC Collecting these conclusions we have: Maximum | Minimum Inflexion y values on each side both smaller] both larger of the stationary point one larger and one smaller Note that the points chosen on either side of the stationary point must be such that no other stationary point, nor any break in the graph, lies between them. Method 2 This method examines the sign of the gradient at points close to, and on either side of, For a maximum point, A dy . dy ae at A; is +ve, ae at Ap is ve For a minimum point, B Y ar, is—ve, Y at B,is tre dx dx For a point of inflexion, C YY acy iste, Y at cyis tre d: ix eeeaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.b The equation of the tangent at Ais y-1= -1(@@-2) => ytx=3 gee ¢ When x = 15,2 <0 and £% <0, ic, Mis decreasing so, as itis dx ae? dx e negative, it is becoming more n ” When x & <0 and ie. ©, which is still negative, is adc increasing, i.e. becoming less negative. SUSE) Find the stationary points on the following curves and distinguish between them. Ly =2x-x? Sy =x? 9y = (2x+I)e-3) 2y =3r-x? 9 sys THe 4y =x%(-5) Find the stationary value(s) of each of the following functions and determine their character. Bx+t 17847 x 14 3-x4x? 16 8—x3 18 x2(3x? — 2x—3) 19 Show that the curve with equation y = x5 +-x3 + 4x —3_ has no stationary points but does have a point of inflexion. Find the coordinates of this point and the equation of the tangent there. Applications SESE 1 An open bos is made from a square sheet of cardboard, with sides half a metre long, by cutting out a square from each comer, folding up the sides and joining the cut edges. Find the maximum capacity of the box. The capacity of the box depends on the unknown length of the side of the square cut from each comer so we denote this by x metres. The side of the cardboard sheet is $m, so we know that Using metres throughout, i ! the base of the box is a square of side (+ —2r) i i >and the height of the box is x, an Cm the’ capatity, C, of the best is given by — x(4- 2x)? = fx- 2x7 44x? for O Ly ay ae? dyaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.‘The function e* is the only function which is unchanged when differentiated. We first met e in Chapter 2; eis irrational, ic. like x, V2, etc, it cannot be given an exact decimal value but, to 4 significant figures, © = 2.718, Summing up: for any value of a (a > 0), a* is an exponential function, for the base e (e ~ 2.718), e* is the exponential function de al? The following diagrams show sketches of y — e* and of some simple variations. [SUESEEZN Find the coordinates of the stationary point on the curve y = e —x, and determine its type. Sketch the curve showing the stationary point clearly. ie. When x =0, y =e"-0=1. Therefore (0, 1) is a stationary point. and this is positive when x = 0 dx? Therefore (0,1) is a minimum point, This curve is made up from separate sketches of y = ordinates. * and y = —x by adding their Mmaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.(EEE tegration 1 (EISTSSSSE integrate with respect tox 2 Evaluate ay 7 fe = 8 f hay Fi -1 Vy Find the areas specified in Questions 10 to 12. 10 Bounded by the x and y axes and the curve y = 1-2? 11 Bounded by the curve x = y?-4 and the y-axis. 12 The toral area between the curve y = (x—1)(x—2)(r—3) and the x-axis. 13 a Find an approximate value for the area between the x-axis and the curve y=(@-D-4), using the trapezium rule with 4 ordinates the mid-ordinate rule with 3 strips ‘ iii Simpson’s rule using 3 ordinates. b Evaluate [6 —1)¢e—4ar , 14 a Use the trapezium rule with 3 ordinates to estimate the value of j (G+x)dx b Find the value of j (G+x)dx. ¢ Explain the connection between the results of a and b. 15 A region of the ay plane is defined by the inequalities 0 xt42 6x? 42041 =0 Using the factor theorem gives (x - 1)(x = 1)(x? ++ 4x +1) = £¥3 Hence x = 1 (twice) and x = there are two equal roots and two distinct roots. ‘Therefore calculating the corresponding values of y from the equation xy = 1 the curves touch at (1, 1) and cut at (2 (2 +Vv3, sty) 3 Find the points of intersection of the line y = x +2 and the curve y =x4—2x) 43x41, showing that one of them is a point of inflexion on the curve. ‘The line and the curve meet at points whose x-coordinates are given by x82 +3rtl etd > x82 42 0 Using the factor theorem gives (x ~ 1)8(x-+ 1) =0 oe) So there are three coincident points where x = 1 and one point at x ey ‘Therefore the line cuts the curve at a point of inflexion (1, 3) and cuts it again at 7 (-1,1). Investigate the possible intersection of the following lines and curves giving the coordinates ‘of all common points. State clearly those cases where the line touches the curve, Sy =0; yar 45x? + 6x 0 6y = y= 1-2)?aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Integration 4 TIEETE Brae Use the substitution uv = 1+ 2x to find fea + 2x)"dx. ua l+e = dus2dv >. ddu = ...de rs 1 a £ Hence fra +2x)!"dr =| = dyu!2(12u— 13) +K ie. fra 420)"ar = Ap(1 + 2x)? (Q4x- 1) 4K [ESSRESSEEL Find the following integrals using the suggested substitution. 2x+1 dx; x-3=u «38 T](@+D@43)dxy xt+3 su 4 3-x 5 |2xV3x—4dr; 3x-4 xt1s Use a suitable substitution to find: 7, 6 | 2x(1—x)7dr 1 |\Gay* [XEXGSSELEY Use the flow chart to classify each of the following integrals. Then carry out the integration using an appropriate method. 1 |x(x- 1dr 8 fre dx 2 |= 2)(0) dx 9 | cosxsin?xdx 3 fe dx 10 Jue rau uf +9) sin2y az f—sin2y_ 2 | cosay 1 13 [4 6 [inxdx sat 7 | sin? 3xdx 14 | sin3xV1+ cos3xdx a SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSsSaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.2) During the initial stages of the growth of yeast cells in a culture, the number of cells present increases in proportion to the number already formed. ‘Thus, n, the number of cells at a particular time # is such that 2 ocn and can be found from the differential equation dn dr Note. In forming (and subsequently solving) differential equations from naturally occurring data, itis not actually necessary to understand the background of the situation or experiment. =kn FSERSSSELZN In Questions 1 to 4 form, but do not solve, the differential equations representing the given data, 1 A body moves with a velocity v which is inversely proportional to its displacement s from a fixed point. 2 The rate at which the height / of a certain plant increases is proportional to the natural logarithm of the difference between its present height and its final height H. 3 The manufacturers of a certain brand of soap powder are concerned that the number, 1, of people buying their product at any time t has remained constant for some months. They launch a major advertising programme which results in the number of customers increasing at a rate proportional to the square root of 7. Express as differential equations the progress of sales a before advertising after advertising. 4 In an isolated community, the number, n, of people suffering from an infectious disease is N; at a particular time. The disease then becomes epidemic and spreads so that the number of sick people increases at a rate proportional to 7, until the total number of sufferers is N>. The rate of increase then becomes inversely proportional to n until NV; people have the disease. After this, the total number of sick people decreases at a constant rate, Write down the differential equation ‘governing the incidence of the disease. a for N, <" Ns. Solving Naturally Occurring Differential Equations We have seen that when one naturally occurring quantity varies with another, the relationship between them often involves a constant of proportion. Consequently, a differential equation that represents the relationship contains a constant of proportion ‘whose value is not necessarily known. So the initial solution of the differential equation contains both this constant and the arbitrary constant. Extra given information may allow cither or both constants to be evaluated. iaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.If the equation of the rotated curve is given, this integral can be evaluated and the volume of the solid of revolution found, e.g. to find the volume generated when the area between part of curve y = e* and the x-axis is rotated about the x-axis, we use Jrtentar = 2 [ema When an area rotates about the y-axis we can use a similar method based on slices perpendicular to the y-axis, giving V = Jaray EXAMPLES 33D 1 Find the volume generated when the area bounded by the x and y-axes, the line x = 1 and the curve y = e* is rotated through one revolution about the reais, * The volume, 5, of the element shown y and thickness x, therefore 8V = approximately that of a cylinder of radius ye the total volume is V, where V ~ S“ay?3x mt ie. the specified volume of revolution is $x(e? 1) cubic units. 2 The area defined by the inequalities y>x? +1, x>0, y <2, is rotated completely about the y-axis. Find the volume of the solid generated. | Rotating the shaded area about ine y-axis gives the solid shown, This time we use horizontal | culs to form elements which are approximately cyinders wih radius x and thicknass By. ee 5aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.b) change of variable: suitable for f'(x)g{f(e)} du by v——dx = uv — ©) by parts: J ae J dr Integration by parts can be used also to integrate Inx. Integrating fractions can be done by a) recognition: in particular [ia = Inf(x) +K He) s{f(a)} b) change of variable: suitable for ©) using partial fractions. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS A first order linear differential equation is a relationship between x, y and dy/dr. It can be solved by collecting all the.x terms, along with dx, na SEXERCISE F 1 A point P moves so that it is equidistant from A and B. The locus of the set of points P is A acircle on AB as diameter aline parallel to AB B € the perpendicular bisector of AB D a parabola 2 The point P(x,y) lies on the curve whose equation is x2 +y? — 2x A Pis on acircle, centre the origin. B The curve is not a circle. C Pis always 1 unit from the point (1,0), ‘on one side, with all y terms and dy on the other side. Then each side is integrated with respect to its ‘own variable. A constant of integration called an arbitrary constant is introduced on one side only to give a general solution which is a family of lines or curves. If extra information provides the value of this constant we have a particular solution, ic. one member of the family. Volume by Integration When the area bounded by the x-axis, the ordinates ata and b, and part of the curve y = f(x) rotates completely about the x-axis, the volume generated is given by Jin, So y*ae = ff x2ax = and about the y-axis, by Jin, matey [ere In Questions 1 to 15 write down the letter or letters corresponding to a correct answer. 3 yoke ‘The volume formed when the shaded area is rotated about Ox can be found from A ff [f()P de 3 B rf. teotac +e teoar 3 0 c af (teyPar+s fireorer E 1 Dr) xdr D_ Tae origin is a possible position of P. 2 me _____aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.30a 1 2x43 the linex = 2 is rotated through an angle of 2x radians about the x-axis. Calculate the volume of the solid formed when the area between y = , the axes and b Use the substitution u = 2e +3 to find | —* dr. waa) (2x +3)? 31 Find a [sinayd, b fretdr ¢ Hence find the general solution of the differential equation dy ree x Da ncyck 7 ae” Gay cory’ SIS 5 (Edexcel) 32.a Obtain the general solution of the differential equation dy _ 2 San yoo qi > b_ Given also that y = 1 at x = 1 show that y 5 , -V3 F 4 (144)? ® ( 5 (34x)! x * Typd=m) 6 (1 +)" 2, 2 17 Expand (0 + 4) as a series of descending powers of p, as far as and including P. the term containing p~*. State the range of values of p for which the expansion is valid. (Hin Replace xby ~ in(. +7") SSS SSaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.‘Equations 3 REE Approximations a root of an equation to any degree of accuracy required. Those given below are & There are many ways in which successive numerical approximations can be used to find common methods. Whatever procedure is used we must first find an interval in which the required root lies. This can be done using the methods described in the last section, Method 1: The Interval Bisection Method ‘Suppose that we want to find the larger root of the equation eo -31 = 0. ‘The first step is to find «wo consecutive integer values of x between which the required Tod tis, the equation is written in the form e* = 3x. Simple sketches of the curve y = e and the line y = 3x can then be drawn and their points of intersection give the approximate location of the roots of the given equation. A graphics calculator can be used to draw the curves easily and to check results. We see that the given equation has two roots and that the larger is between | and 2. So if the required root is 2, we now know that 1 0, confirming that 1 0 showing that the graph crosses the x-axis between 1.5 and 2, ie. 150, £2)>0 4 1S0 > 15<4a< 165 £(15) <0, £(1.5625)>0 > 15 then use the expansions above with be replacing x. MACLAURIN'S THEOREM A function of x, f(x), can be expanded as a power series in.x using f(x) = £(0)+ rox+ 20, 2 +00r provided that it is possible to find all the derivatives of f(x) all the derivatives are defined when x = 0 the series obtained is convergent. tees SSS SSS SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS Trigonometric Equations Listed below are some of the trig identities useful in solving equations. cos +sin?@ = 1 tan?@+1 = sec?@ cot?0+1 = cosec?0 Use in an equation containing two ratios of one angle, at least one ratio being squared. ac cos 20 — 2sin?@ Use to express an equation in terms of trig ratios of @ only. asin +bcos0 = rsin(0 +2) and variations of this form Use to reduce asin +b cos 0 = to sin(@+a) =k. Exponential Equations If there is only one term on each side, take logs. If a sum oF difference of terms is involved, suspect a disguised quadratic equation, e.g. eX 28-3 =0 + y?-¥-3=0 where y = Polynomial Equations If f(a) = 0 and f(a) =0 then y = f(x) has a repeated root x = a Approximate Solutions Read solutions from a graph. Use f(t) = g(x) where the curves y = f(x) and y = g(x) cut. Use f(x) = 0 between two points on the x-axis where f(x) <0 and f(x) >0.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.15, ‘The figure shows the curve with equation y = x —Inx— 2. The curve crosses the x-axis at A and B, and C is the minimum point on the curve. a. Find the coordinates of point C. b Given the iteration up ,; = Inu, +2, and up = 3, find, to three significant figures, ws. (You are advised to show all stages of your working. ) ¢ Given the iteration v, 51 “2, and vp = 0.5, find, to three significant figures, v5. @ Given that uy uw asm — oo, show that u satisfies the equation x—Inx—2 = 0. Given that ¥, —» as — 00, show that y satisfies the equation x ~Inx 2 {Hence estimate the coordinates of points A and B, giving your answers to 3 significant figures. (Edexcel) 16 i Write down the expansion of (2—x)*. Find the first four terms in the expansion of (1+ 2x) in ascending powers of x. For what range of values of x is this expansion valid? fii When the expansion is valid, (@=x)* 2 = 16 bx? Gagnr = tart bats Find the values of a and b. fore) 17 A golden rectangle has one side of length 1 unit and a shorter side of length / units, where y is called the golden section. 1 ¥y can be found using the iterative formula Kear = VEn(L Xn). Choosing a suitable value for x, and showing intermediate values, use this iterative formula to obtain the value of y to 2 decimal places. (Aan) Waaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Answers to questions taken from past examination papers are the sole responsibility of the authors and have not been approved by the Examining Boards. Chapter 1 Exercise 1A - p.1 1 15x 2 2x7 3 4x7 4 10pq S$ 8x7 6 10p*qr 7 9a* 8 oud 9 2s? 10 80° Mf 12 3m 13° 4ab> Exercise 1B - p.2 1 3x 4x 2a-12 3 dy-yty 4 5pq—9p? S347 6 Poteet 7 8 9 ab— Tox 10 4x-9 AL 3x° + 18x -20 12 ab—2ae +eb 13. Me? — 2cT? - 55; 14 =P 47x? 78 15 —4y? + 24y—10 16 SRS+SRF— R° Exercise 1C - p3 e-1 © -3 Exercise 1D - p.3 1 2+6r4+8 2 P+8x+15 3 P4104 42 4 2415456 5 2417s +66 6 2s 1ir45 7 Sy? + 28y +15 8 ba? + 170+ 12 9 35124 861 +48, 10 9957 +495 +6 MP -Sx+6 12 P-Sy 44 13 4 15 16 7 18 9 20 =Ma+24 o-17b+ p= 15p +36 dy? — By +15 Br = Be +4 br? — 254 4 20x — 192 +3 6a? — Tab + 2b? a P-x—6 ? +a —56 y+ 2y- 63 24 245 —30 25 q?+8q-65 26 2? +31-20 27 4x 4 3 28 6q?—q—15 29 Pay -2y° 30 22 st 677 Exercise 1E - p.4 Exercise 1F - p.4 1 2+8r+16 2 +4x+4 3 42 44x41 4 9x + 30x +25 5 ar 4281449 6 e241 7 2-649 Boar —4r+1 9 162 —24r+9 10 25x? —20r+4 AL 97 441 +49 12 24294)? 13 4p +36p +81 14. 9g — 66g + 121 1S 4x — 20x + 25? Exercise 1G - p.5 1 Ur-22-12 22-49 3 6-25r44x 4 4p? — 3p -2 5 9p pit 6 15? +1-2 7 16-8 +9 8 14—3—8? 9 Ptdyt4y? 10 16-9 AL 9x 4420449 12 13—R—2R 13. a? — Gob +96? 14 4° — 20x +25 1S 492? — 45? 16 9a? + 30ab + 25b? 17 a 6,-22 b 15,31 e 14-31 d 81,18 Exercise 1H - p.6 #aaxt-x-2 3x8 5x2 x 42 4x — 8413 e-2F +1 2x3 — 9x2 — 24r P+Or+lr+6 e444 5 9 Saneeneaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.ae oe 45, Boop, 22 ct 66 ae Soe * 6 Bem i oem 7 8 4V3cm ie 7 4xcm 2) Scm 4 60 10 0.283 rad mca Ma 12cm? b 23.2em* 2 145mm, 139mm e 9 2a, Boa 152em bh 325em? a z= 14 19.6cm, 10.8cm? 7 9 0932 b 0939 a ie 11 1821mm © 9.89 @ 0.801 2 oostid 8 a 0284 b 0.929 Bs Sion © 0.644 4 0.0226 Exercise 10B — p.108 enero cei) > 1 4.19em" 1 2 2 75.4em* ae * 8 0979cem? 2 Bon a3 9 a 235rad = b 941m 2 acaseias © 354em — d 688em 3 24rad is 10 10.2cm 4 0692rad 5 5 em UH 182em ‘Summary B Multiple Choice Exercise B~ p.l15 1c 6c 1 AB 16 GD 2 AB 26 F 2E 7D DA 17 AB 2 GD 77 3 8B BD 18 B BAC BT aE oA 4D wy AC uF 9 T 5 ABC A 1s D 20 B 2 T 30 F Examination Questions B - p.118 1ai-} W3x—2y-29=0 12a 120m b 2.16 230 = 41.4", ACB > 0 b (5,-7) © 161.07 em* 24 3x 4Sy—4 =0,(4,0) 2 485en? 13 a 3r—2y-3=0 25 246m 3a (2,6) b 3xt+y-12=0 b G3) 26 Gy-Sr+2 5 94 By+14=0 44 © 43 — har? Bo ay=4x+3 pb 3y5 6 63.1°, 116.9% 1S x—2y = 8,(2,-3),4Vv5 28 a y=—het4 1 -ke+} 16 a 1-20 b 2r? +2r7cos20 by =—$e4h (41) 8 a 10cm b 0.7896 ¢ 6.7em? © 2reosd ® SRVGES 9b 2xty-1L was wt y+ § yy -B 3) 18 b 809m ¢ 267m d 847m by = 201x087 p 19 (8,2) 30a 3—9x/13 io Beam 20 W7em? ba =20,b =05 Ove ae4h 21 a 29.7 b Ir-10+19=0 31 m = 08, I2ke-13kg M1 a Sx+12y-2=0 22 a Ix+5y-18 32 bi33 b 2 © 26 b_ 162/35 sq units Womaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Exercise 18D — p.220 =a 1 a 6» Exercise 18B - p.218 1 a even, periodic \ 7 b odd, periodic 2aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Chapter 25 Exercise 254 - p.309 (4m) =2 ve Ga m) g d 1 2x+2yS2 =0 SY Lat Woe 4 9 Ga et Ina) 2 tty tesa =o 10 rete dh ey = ay 3 rrpehry = 2 4 Exercise 25C ~ p316 3 rat b -co © - 6 Ray 1 dy : 8 cosxcosy —sinxsiny®® = 9 dx 9 4x <1 ax b * 1s lt dx ee 16 a x -3y1 = 20+y1) b xQn ty) +yQn +n 18 3r+12y-7=0 Exercise 25B ~ p312 ¥In3 215) Ins (21n3)3** 3 (1+xin3) =3-"In3 Sa" Ina dy _ Inx=1 ax” (nx) MS aneune Chapter 26 6 (—4V3, 3V3), max; (4V3,—§ v3), min The 8 k+y4+2=0 9 by = 44+ 5V2,(-v2,- fh v2) Mixed Exercise 25 - p.316 ady 2 poy rr a eee eae vey Lay xdy ce a ys ay y SY e coy of oS 8Y cox -ysi ¢ Deosx-ysinx 4 (cosy ~ysiny) $* go ay 3-8 = gad 3x 5 3(11)'In(1) 6 -G=IGr+13) 43) 7 20+ DGr+2) x +1042) 8 3/2 Exercise 26A — p.320 1a 10,003332; 10.003332 b 2.083333; 2.080084 © 3979167; 3.979057 2 2 0857 b OSIS © 0719 x 3 y+ In +4) pbx; 0.75 {5+ aes} 4 (soe xix 1b 5 20125 6 bv fav2 0 eeeaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.CORE MATHS for Advanced Level THIRD EDITION This best-selling book from the most popular authors has been revised and updated to fully cover the latest requirements for Advanced Level Mathematics. It has these key features: ® It incorporates the latest Subject Criteria © It covers all awarding bodies’ specifications for Advanced Level. ® A two-colour layout has been used throughout to further support and enhance effective learning and understanding. It is suitable for all points of entry to Advanced Level with appropriate supporting material in the early sections of the book. ® Each chapter contains a substantial range and variety of exercises and questions. © Additional practice and preparation is provided in summary sections. These consolidate preceding work and contain a large number of past examination questions for thorough examination preparation. = ae TSBN 0-7487-s505-8 ne HN I sg" anrua 755097. www nelsantharnes cam