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Shiftwork and health

Katharine R. Parkes,
University of Oxford, UK

3995 words

KEY WORDS
Work hours; circadian rhythms; sleep; cardiovascular disease; accidents

Shiftwork and health

CURRENT TRENDS IN SHIFTWORK

Industrial and commercial activities that operate outside normal work hours have
become widespread in recent years; services such as banking, communications, transport,
catering, and retailing are routinely available during evening hours, and often round-theclock. Consequently, the work patterns of a substantial proportion of the population now
extend beyond regular day-work hours; variable schedules (often including evening or night
work) and rotating shifts are both widespread. In a recent European survey, 28% of the
workforce had variable work patterns, 10% had evening or night schedules, while 17%
worked two-shift or three-shift rotating schedules (Boisard et al., 2003). Further analyses
showed that the proportion of shift workers remained relatively constant up to age 45 years,
but fell sharply at higher ages, particularly over 55 years (European Foundation for the
Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2003), reflecting older workers difficulties
in adjusting to shiftwork.
Similarly, analyses of U.S. survey data showed that, in 1997, 27.6% of the workforce
had flexible work schedules, while 16.8% of full-time employees had alternative schedules
involving work outside normal day time hours (06.00-18.00 hrs), 6.4% of whom worked
night or rotating shifts (Beers, 2000). These proportions varied by occupation; rotating shifts
were particularly common in security services (16.3%), mining (12.5%), and catering (8.7%),
but infrequent among professionals and managers (1.7%). Night work was prevalent in
health care, manufacturing, and manual occupations. Global trends towards a 24-hour
society suggest that these proportions are likely to rise; thus, the implications of shiftwork
for physical and mental health is not only a matter of current concern but also one that is
likely to become increasingly important in the future (Costa, 2001; Rajaratnam & Arendt,
2001).

MECHANISMS UNDERLYING THE HEALTH EFFECTS OF SHIFTWORK

Shiftwork has been empirically linked to a variety of diseases although evidence does
not suggest an effect on all-cause mortality (Knutsson, 2003). Three pathways have been
implicated in associations between shiftwork and disease (Boggild & Knutsson, 1999;
Knutsson, 1989; Knutsson & Boggild, 2000): disruption of circadian rhythms (leading to
sleep/wake disturbances, desyncronisation of internal processes, and increased susceptibility
to disease); disturbed socio-temporal patterns (resulting from atypical work hours leading to
family problems, reduced social support, and stress); and unfavorable changes in health
behaviors (increased smoking, poor diet, and irregular meals). Moreover, there is evidence
that biomarkers, such as cholesterol and other lipids, plasminogen, blood pressure and
cardiac activity show changes related to shiftwork, and may act as mediators of disease
processes (Boggild & Knutsson, 1999).
The general pattern of findings is that shift workers, as compared with day workers,
show less favorable profiles of lifestyle, behavioral, and biological risk factors (e.g. Lac &
Chamoux, 2004; Morikawa et al., 1999; Parkes, 2002). Psychosocial factors are also
relevant; for instance, Smith et al. (1999) found that chronic fatigue and ineffective coping
behavior acted to mediate the process by which sleep loss and social disruption led to disease
endpoints. Shiftwork may also interact with individual and environmental factors (e.g. age,
personality, poor physical work conditions) to increase the risk of health problems (Smith et
al., 2003).

SHIFTWORK IN RELATION TO PARTICULAR HEALTH OUTCOMES

Findings relating shiftwork to particular health problems and diseases are summarized
in the sections below. In interpreting the findings reviewed, several methodological problems
of shiftwork research should be noted. Specifically, shift workers tend to differ from day
workers in factors such as age, socio-economic status, job demands, and physical/

psychosocial work environment characteristics, all of which may contribute to disease

outcomes. Moreover, those selected (either by self or employer) into, and survive in,
shiftwork may differ from day workers in age, personality and initial health status.
Comparisons of shift workers and day workers may therefore be confounded by pre-existing
differences between the groups and by environmental factors. Whilst statistical methods
potentially allow control of these effects, stronger evidence of the causal role of shiftwork in
relation to disease risk can be derived from prospective studies that assess baseline data prior
to exposure (e.g. van Amelsvoort et al., 2004).

Sleep, fatigue, and mental health

Disturbed sleep is an almost inevitable outcome of the disruption to normal circadian
rhythms associated with shiftwork, particularly night work. The fundamental problem is the
mismatch between the need for wakefulness and work activity during night hours when
circadian rhythms are conducive to sleep, and for sleep during daylight hours, normally the
time of wakefulness and activity (Akerstedt, 1998; Akerstedt, 2003; Smith et al., 1999). This
reversal of the usual diurnal pattern underlies many of the sleep problems experienced by
shift workers; environmental conditions (e.g. domestic and traffic noise, presence of children,
normal social activities) may also contribute to disturb shift workers daytime sleep.
Consistent with the empirical evidence (e.g. Harma et al., 2002; Ohayon et al., 2002),
delayed onset of sleep, reduced sleep duration, and sleepiness and fatigue during working
hours are seen as characteristic sleep disturbances among night shift workers (Akerstedt,
1990). Adaptation to a new sleep/wake pattern occurs at a rate of ~1hr per day (Akerstedt,
2003). Thus, for rotating schedules, adaptation to one shift may not be complete before a
further shift change occurs; sleep disturbances and fatigue may also continue into rest days.
The nature and magnitude of shiftwork effects depend on the type of schedule, particularly
the direction and speed of rotation (Akerstedt, 2003). These factors combine to influence

sleep, fatigue and performance differently during morning, afternoon, and night shifts, but
productivity tends to be most adversely affected during night work (Folkard & Tucker,
2003).
The combination of chronic fatigue resulting from sleep disturbances, and the disruption
of family life and leisure activities associated with shiftwork, may give rise to social stress
and work-family conflict, and to psychological distress, particularly anxiety and depression
(e.g. Gordon et al., 1986; Jamal, 2004; Jansen et al., 2004; Parkes, 1999; Pisarski et al.,
2002). Impairment of psychological health often leads shift workers to change to day-work
jobs; Costa (1996) estimates that 20% of workers leave shiftwork after a relatively short time
because of its adverse effects, that only 10% do not complain about shiftwork, and that the
remaining 70% withstand shiftwork with varying degrees of tolerance.

Gastrointestinal disorders
Gastrointestinal complaints are among the most frequently reported health problems of shift
workers; these problems are estimated to be 2 to 5 times more common among night shift
workers as compared with those not working nights (Costa, 1996). Circadian disturbance
affecting the intake, digestion, and absorption of food, are thought to play a major
aetiological role, but sleep loss, fatigue, and the social stress of shiftwork may also be
implicated. Typically, shift workers have higher levels of gastric symptoms (e.g. indigestion,
heartburn, constipation, loss of appetite, and nausea) than day workers, even with control for
demographic, job, and lifestyle variables (e.g. Caruso et al., 2004; Costa et al., 2001; Parkes,
1999). Evidence also links shiftwork to peptic ulcers (Knutsson, 2003). In particular, in a
study based on endoscopic examination of suspected cases, the prevalence of gastric ulcers
among Japanese workers was 2.38% among current shift workers, 1.52% among past shift
workers, and 1.03% in day workers (Segawa et al., 1987). Duodenal ulcers also showed
higher prevalence among shift workers in this study.

Cardiovascular disease
Evidence accumulated over the past two decades suggests that shiftwork is a significant
risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Thus, a recent review by Knutsson (2003) concluded
To summarize, there is rather strong evidence in favour of an association between shiftwork
and coronary heart disease (p.105). Findings from a meta-analysis of 17 studies of
cardiovascular disease in relation to shiftwork (Boggild & Knutsson, 1999) support this
view. Overall, shift workers were found to have a 40% excess risk for cardiovascular disease
relative to day workers, although there was wide variation across studies. Findings of two
major studies included in this analysis are outlined below.
In a 6-year prospective study of cardiovascular (CHD) risk, Tenkanen et al. (1997)
followed up 1806 industrial workers, assessing life-style factors, blood pressure and serum
lipid levels, and identifying CHD cases from official health records. Overall, the relative risk
of CHD among shift workers as compared with day workers was 1.5 (CI 1.1- 2.1),
decreasing to 1.4 (CI 1.0-1.9) with control for physiological and lifestyle variables. Among
blue-collar employees, day workers, 2-shift, and 3-shift workers had relative risks of 1.3 (CI
0.8-2.0), 1.9 (CI 1.1-3.4), and 1.7 (CI 1.1-2.7) respectively. Shiftwork was also found to
interact with smoking and obesity to increase CHD risk (Tenkanen et al., 1998).
Kawachi et al. (1995) examined the incidence of CHD over a four-year period among
79,109 female nurses in relation to the total years of rotating night shiftwork. The ageadjusted relative risk was 1.38 (95% CI, 1.08 -1.76) in women who reported ever doing
shiftwork compared with those who had never done so. This excess risk remained significant
after adjustment for cigarette smoking and other cardiovascular risk factors. The analyses
also demonstrated a dose-response relationship between CHD risk and duration of shiftwork
(greater risk being associated with longer durations), consistent with earlier findings
(Knutsson et al., 1986).

Cancer
Empirical studies demonstrate associations between night work and elevated risk of
breast cancer (e.g. Hansen, 2001; Tynes et al., 1996). In each of these studies, shiftwork was
associated with an overall risk ratio for breast cancer of 1.5, but the risk increased with age
and length of exposure to night work. Similarly, in a prospective study of nurses, positive
associations were found between breast cancer and extended periods (>30 years) of
intermittent night work (Schernhammer et al., 2001); among postmenopausal women, the
risk ratio also increased for 1-14 years and 15-29 years of rotating night work. One
mechanism by which shiftwork may lead to breast cancer is that the normal production of
melatonin during hours of darkness is disrupted by working at night; suppression of
melatonin is thought to lead to an increase in reproductive hormones (particularly oestrogen),
acting to increase hormone-sensitive cells in the breast (Schernhammer & Schulmeister,
2004). However, other pathways may also exist; for instance, Bovbjerg (2003) suggests that
alterations in immune function associated with circadian disruption may be implicated.
Evidence linking night work and cancer is largely specific to breast cancer; little is
known about other types of cancer in this context, or about the possible mechanisms
involved. Although Taylor and Pocock (1972) reported an increased incidence of cancer
among shift workers, Tynes et al. (1996) found that cancer incidence among female shift
workers was not different from that of the general female population. However, increased
risk of colorectal cancer among female nurses working rotating night shifts for >15 years has
recently been reported (Schernhammer et al., 2003).

Pregnancy and reproductive disorders

Two review articles (Costa, 1996; Scott, 2000) summarize evidence linking shiftwork to
adverse pregnancy outcomes (e.g. premature births, miscarriages, and low birth weight). For
instance, a meta-analysis of 29 studies identified shiftwork as a significant risk factor (OR

1.24) for pre-term birth (Mozurkewich et al., 2000). In the light of the evidence, Knutsson
(2003) recommended that women should avoid shiftwork during pregnancy. Recent studies
(using data from the Danish National Birth Cohort) also indicate that shiftwork, especially
fixed night work, is associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes (e.g. Zhu et al., 2004).
Other aspects of reproductive dysfunction (e.g. irregular menstruation) have also been
linked to shiftwork (e.g. Hatch et al., 1999; Labyak et al., 2002). Disruption of circadian
rhythms, and the resulting desyncronisation of cyclic physiological functions (including
hormonal activity), is thought to be the most likely cause of menstrual problems among shift
workers (Costa, 1996; Smith et al., 2003).

Accidents and injuries

Sleep loss and fatigue associated with circadian disruption impairs cognitive
performance, particularly in tasks requiring vigilance, concentration, and decision-making
(e.g. Meijman et al., 1993); this impairment potentially increases the risk of accident and
injury incidents. However, in many work situations, the number of personnel exposed, the
nature of the work done, the level of supervision, and the likelihood of an accident being
reported, differ across the 24 hour workday; thus, incident rates cannot be directly compared
across shifts (Folkard & Tucker, 2003). Nonetheless, a few studies in which confounding
factors are adequately controlled do allow such comparisons.
Smith et al. (1994) found that, relative to the morning shift, the overall risk of an injury
incident during the night shift was 1.23 (CI 1.14-1.31), with a higher risk for self-paced work
at night, 1.82 (CI 1.30-2.34). Folkard & Tucker (2003), combining five data sets, found that
risk increased approximately linearly across the three shifts. Relative to the morning shift,
the increase was 18.3% for afternoon shifts, and 30.4% for night shifts. More generally,
Smith et al. (2003) note that the disasters of Three Mile Island, Chernobyl, and the
Challenger space shuttle all occurred during the night.

Use of statistical methods to estimate risk from large-scale exposure data provides an
alternative (although less precise) method of studying accidents in relation to shift patterns.
For instance, Williamson and Feyer (1995) examined 1020 work-related fatalities in
Australia over a two-year period, deriving exposure rates from national survey data; 25% of
the fatalities occurred to the 11.2% of the employed population estimated to work at night,
while 75% occurred to the 88.8% working during the day. Thus, work-related fatalities were
more than twice as likely at night as during the day. However, Laundry and Lees (1991)
found no evidence of elevated rates of minor accidents during night work, although they did
find a circadian pattern of accident frequency with morning (0800-1000 hrs) and afternoon
(1400-1600 hrs) peak periods. Using more complex statistical methods, Hanecke et al.
(1998) found that, beyond the 8th or 9th hour of work, there was a marked increase in relative
risk particularly for afternoon and night shifts.

TOLERANCE TO SHIFTWORK, AND INTERVENTION STRATEGIES

Shiftwork tolerance
Individual variation in the ability to adjust to shiftwork has been widely noted (e.g.
Costa, 2003; Smith et al., 2003). Age is a particularly important factor. Individuals older than
~45 years experience increasing difficulty in adjusting to altered sleep-wake cycles; reduced
fitness, decreased restorative powers of sleep, and greater proneness to internal
desynchronization of circadian rhythms, all contribute to decreased shiftwork tolerance.
However, other individual factors, including circadian type (morningness versus
eveningness), and personality traits (e.g. extraversion) also affect shiftwork adaptation. These
traits are related to circadian cycle characteristics that influence preferences for morning or
evening activities (Tankova et al., 1994); however, in the absence of validation data, Smith et
al. (2003) caution against the use of such measures for selection purposes.

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Interventions to facilitate shiftwork adaptation

Several types of interventions can be effective in facilitating shiftwork adaptation (for
reviews, see Knauth & Hornberger, 2003; Smith et al., 2003). At the organizational level,
shift schedule design is particularly important; although there are no ideal shift patterns,
factors such as shift duration, direction of rotation, changeover times, and work/rest
sequences all affect adaptation. Other recommended strategies include worker participation
in the design and implementation of shift schedules, and attention to work conditions (e.g.
staffing levels, workload, rest breaks, and the physical environment, especially lighting
levels) that may accentuate or mitigate the effects of shiftwork.
At the individual level, recommendations for favorable adaptation include sleep
hygiene (e.g. regular sleep routine, quiet bedroom, curtains or blinds to eliminate sunlight
during sleep hours, avoidance of caffeine or alcohol prior to sleep); healthy diet, and fixed
meal times; active coping; and ensuring a balance between sleep and family time (Knauth &
Hornberger, 2003). Exposure to bright light during specific circadian phases has also been
found to speed adaptation (e.g. Bjorvatn et al., 1999), but use of melatonin as a sleep
medication to aid adjustment to shift changes, whilst potentially effective, is subject to some
safety concerns (Smith et al., 2003).

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