Remote Sensing-Remote Sensing Applications

Environmental monitoring

MODULE 8 LECTURE NOTES 6

REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS IN ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING
1. Introduction
Remote sensing satellite images together with the Geographic Information System tools have
been now extensively used for environmental monitoring. Water quality monitoring, soil
salinity mapping, detection of oil spills, assessment and monitoring of land degradation,
wetland mapping etc. are some of the applications in which the remote sensing data have
been widely used. This lecture covers the remote sensing applications in environmental
monitoring, with special reference to water quality and land degradation problems.
2. Remote sensing in water quality monitoring
The term water quality indicates the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of
water. Temperature, chlorophyll content, turbidity, clarity, total suspended solids (TSS),
nutrients, colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM), tripton, dissolved oxygen, pH,
biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total organic carbon,
and bacteria content are some of the commonly used water quality parameters.
In remote sensing, water quality parameters are estimated by measuring changes in the
optical properties of water caused by the presence of the contaminants. Therefore, optical
remote sensing has been commonly used for estimating the water quality parameters.
Fig. 1 shows the Landsat TM image of the Fitzroy Estuary and Keppal Bay in Australia. The
image taken on May 2003 shows the color difference of the water near the estuary mouth,
which is due to the presence of suspended sediments.

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Fig.1 Landsat TM image of the Fitzroy Estuary and Keppal Bay in Australia in May 2003
Source : http://www.ozcoasts.gov.au/indicators/turbidity.jsp
Water quality parameters that have been successfully extracted using remote sensing
techniques include chlorophyll content, turbidity, secchi depth, total suspended solids,
colored dissolved organic matter and tripton. Thermal pollution in lakes and estuaries is
monitored using thermal remote sensing techniques.
2.1 Algorithms for the estimation of water quality parameters from remote sensing data
Estimation of water quality parameters using remote sensing data is based on the relationship
between the concentration of the pollutant in the water and the consequent changes in the
optical properties as observed in the satellite image.
Wavelengths or bands used for water quality monitoring
Optimum wavelength for monitoring water quality parameter through remote sensing
depends on the substance that is measured.
Based on several in-situ analyses, the VIS and NIR portions of the EMR spectrum with
wavelengths ranging from 0.7 to 0.8 m have been considered to be the most useful bands for
monitoring suspended sediments in water.

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Optical remote sensing using the VIS and NIR bands has been preferred for measuring
Chlorophyl content, turbidity, CDOM, Tripton etc.
Algorithms used for the estimation of water quality parameters
Algorithms or models used for the estimation of water quality parameters can be classified
into Empirical relationships, Radiative transfer models or Physical models.
Empirical models use the relationship between the water quality parameter and the spectral
records. General forms of such relationships are the following (Schmugge et al., 2002).
Y= A+ BX

or

Y = ABx

(1)

where Y is the measurement obtained using the remote sensors and X is the water quality
parameter of interest, and A and B are the empirical factors.
For example, an empirical relationship for estimating Chlorophyl content in water was given
as follows (Harding et al., 1995)
Log10 [Chlorophyll] = A + B (-Log10 G)

(2)

R2 2

(3)

R1 .R3

where A and B are empirical constants derived from in situ measurements, R1, R2 and R3 are
the radiances at 460 nm, 490 nm and 520 nm, respectively.

Similarly, Eq. 4 shows the empirical relationship for TSS. The algorithm is used to detect the
TSS in water using the MODIS data. It is also known as TSM Clark algorithm.
(4)

where nLw1 and nLw2 and nLw4 are the normalized water-leaving radiances on the dark
blue band, second blue band and green band, respectively. These are related to the subsurface
irradiance reflectance R (For more details refer Brando and Decker, 2003). It is to be noted
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that TSS stands for Total Suspended Solids and TSM is an acronym for Total Suspended
Matter. The equation (4) represents one of the TSM models which are empirical in nature.
Relations such as equation (4) can also be developed for TSS using bands of MODIS
imageries.
Such relationships, based on field observations of the water quality parameters and the
corresponding measurements obtained using the sensor, are controlled by the properties of
water such as density, temperature etc. Therefore, the relationship derived for one field
condition may not be valid for the other areas.

Radiative transfer models use a more general approach. Simplified solutions of the radiative
transfer equations (RTEs) are used to relate the water surface reflectance (Rrs) to the
controlling physical factors.
A sample RTE to relate the reflectance measured using remote sensing techniques to the
suspended particulate matter is given below (Volpe et al., 2011)
Rrs

0.5 rrs
1 1.5 rrs

rrs rrsdp 1 e Kd Ku H
C

(5)

b K
e

KuB H

(6)

where
rrs

= subsurface remote sensing reflectance

rrsdp

= rrs for optically deep waters = (0.084 + 0.17 u)u

= bb / (a + bb), where bb is the backscattering coefficient and a is the absorption

coefficient

Kd

= Vertically averaged diffuse attenuation coefficient for downwelling irradiance =Dd

Dd

= 1/cos(w), where w is the subsurface solar zenith angle

Ku C

= Vertically averaged diffuse attenuation coefficient for upwelling radiance from

water column scattering = DuC

Ku B

= Vertically averaged diffuse attenuation coefficient for upwelling radiance from

bottom reflectance = DuB

= a + bb

DuC

= 1.03 (1+2.4u)0.5

DuB

= 1.03 (1+5.4u)0.5

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= Bottom albedo

= water depth

Environmental monitoring

The backscattering and the absorption coefficients were determined by calibration.

2.3 Satellites and sensors used for water quality monitoring
Remote sensing of the water quality parameter in the earlier days employed fine resolution
optical images from the satellites e.g., Landsat TM. However, poor temporal coverage of the
images (once in 16 days) was a major limitation in such studies. With the development of
new satellites and sensors, the spatial, temporal and radiometric resolutions have improved
significantly. Using sensors such as MODIS (with 36 spectral bands) and MERIS (with 15
spectral bands) better accuracy in the estimation of water quality parameters is now possible.
A recent development in the remote sensing application in water quality monitoring is the use
of hyper-spectral images in monitoring the water quality parameters. The large number of
narrow spectral bands used in the hyper-spectral sensors help in improved detection of the
contaminants and the organic matters present in water. Use of hyper-spectral images to
monitor the tropic status of lakes and estuaries, assessment of total suspended matter and
chlorophyll content in the surface water and bathymetric surveys are a few examples.
For more details on the hyperspectral remote sensing data application in water quality
monitoring, refer Koponen et al., 2002; Thiemann and Kaufmann, 2002; Hakvoort et al.,
2002; Lesser and Mobley, 2007.
Table 1 gives a brief summary of some of the works wherein the remote sensing data have
been used for estimating the water quality parameters.

Fig. 2, 3 and 4 show the application of remote sensing data for monitoring various water
quality parameters.

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Table 1. Important water quality parameters estimated and the characteristics of the sensors used
(Source: Nagesh Kumar and Reshmidevi, 2013)
Parameter
Sensor type
Chlorophyll MSS

Sensor / data
MERIS

Landsat TM
SeaWiFS,
MODIS
Hyperspectral

Hyperion

CODM,
Tripton

Hyperspectral

Hyperion

Secchi
depth,
Turbidity

MSS

MERIS

Remote sensing data characteristics

15 spectral bands,
300 m spatial resolution,
poor temporal coverage
7 spectral bands, 30 m spatial
resolution, poor temporal coverage
More number of spectral bands, 2501000 m spatial resolution, better
temporal coverage,
Better spectral resolution, 30 m spatial
resolution, poor temporal coverage
Better spectral resolution, 30 m spatial
resolution, poor temporal coverage
15 spectral bands, 300 m spatial
resolution, poor temporal coverage

Landsat TM

TSS

MSS

Surface
Thermal
temperature

Acronyms
LST: Land surface Temperature

D Nagesh Kumar, IISc, Bangalore

7 spectral bands, 30 m spatial

resolution, poor temporal coverage
MERIS
15 spectral bands, 300 m spatial
resolution, poor temporal coverage
Landsat TM 7 spectral bands, 30 m spatial
resolution, poor temporal coverage
MODIS LST Better temporal coverage, 250-1000 m
spatial resolution
AVHRR
5 bands (3 thermal bands), good
temporal coverage, 1000-2000 m spatial
resolution

Algorithm used
Spectral curves were calibrated using
field observations
ESA BEAM tool box
Empirical relation

Reference
Koponen et al., 2002

Band ratio algorithm

Lesht et al., 2013

Analytical method,
Numerical radiative transfer model
Bio-optical model
Analytical method,
Numerical radiative transfer model
Bio-optical model
Spectral curves were calibrated using
field observations
ESA BASE toolbox
Empirical relation

Brando et al., 2003

ESA BASE tool box

Giardino et al., 2010

Empirical relation

Brezonik et al., 2005

MODIS Level-2 temperature data

Santini et al., 2010

Brando et al., 2003
Santini et al., 2010
Schmugge et al., 1992
Koponen et al., 2002
Brezonik et al., 2005

Alcntara et al., 2010;

Giardino et al., 2010
Multi-Channel SST estimation algorithm Politi et al., 2012
(MCSST)

MERIS: MEdium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer

Giardino et al., 2010

Brezonik et al., 2005

WiFS: Wide Field Sensor

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Fig 2: Chlorophyll concentration in the off-coast of California estimated using the SeaWiFS
and MODIS sensors. Bright red indicates high concentration and blues indicate low
concentrations
(Source: http://science.nasa.gov/earth-science/oceanography/living-ocean/remote-sensing/)

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(a)

(b)

Fig. 3 (a) Landsat TM image of the Keppal Bay in Australia in May 2003 (b) TSS
concentrations in Keppel Bay, Australia inferred from MERIS image of September, 2003.
TSS concentrations over the southern part of the bay around the estuary mouth at this time
were mostly in excess of 5 gm-3
Source: Australian Online Coastal Information
http://www.ozcoasts.gov.au/indicators/turbidity.jsp

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(b)

(a)

(c)

Fig. 4. ASTER images of the San Francisco Bay area (a) From SWIR bands (b) A composite
using thermal data and visible bands (c) Thermal data showing temperature variations only in
water. Land areas are masked out.
Source: FAS Remote Sensing Tutorials
https://www.fas.org/irp/imint/docs/rst/Sect16/Sect16_10.html

In Fig. 4(c), colour varies from red for the warmest to blue for the coolest areas. The warmest
temperatures are found in San Francisco and across the Bay in the Oakland group of cities,
which may be mostly due to the thermal pollution from the large number of industries located
in the area.

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3. Remote sensing application in monitoring land degradation

Land degradation is the deterioration of the land or soil properties that negatively affect the
effective functioning of the land based ecosystems. From the agricultural perspective it may
be defined as the reduction in soil capacity to produce crops. From the ecological perspective,
land degradation causes damage to the healthy functioning of the land based ecosystems.
Land degradation may be either due to natural factors such as floods, drought, earthquake, or
due to the human induced factors like over exploitation of land and water resources, or
unscientific land use. The following are considered to be some of the major factors causing
land degradation (Ravishankar and Sreenivas, 2010).

Water erosion: Displacement of soil material by water

Wind erosion: Displacement of top soil by wind

Water logging: Extensive ponding for a long time affecting the productivity of the
land

Salinization: Chemical imbalance in the soil causing desiccation of the plants or nonavailability of essential nutrients to plants

Acidification: Increase in the hydrogen cations in the soil affecting the plant health

Anthropogenic: Mining, industries leading to decreased productivity of the land

Others: Barren areas, rocky waste areas, riverine sand areas, sea ingression areas etc.

Vast areas in the world are currently affected by land degradation. According to the
Department of Land Resources, in 2005 around 55.27 million hectares of land in India is
affected due to some sort of degradation ((http://slusi.dacnet.nic.in/ldm.htm). Scientific
information about the degraded land, or rate of land degradation is necessary for land
reclamation and management.

3.1 Remote sensing applications

Satellite remote sensing when combined with ground validation makes a potential means for
land degradation monitoring. Capability of the remote sensing system to survey land areas,
and good spatial and temporal resolutions are the major advantages of remote sensing
technique compared to the land based surveying.

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Table below summarizes the role of remote sensing and GIS in land degradation mapping
(Ravishankar and Sreenivas, 2010)
Table 2. Role of remote sensing and GIS in land degradation mappling

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Using remote sensing techniques, degraded land areas are mapped by detecting the
differences in the satellite images taken at different time periods by using appropriate change
detection method. Image arithmetic, transformation, classification, and visual analysis are
some of the commonly used change detection methods for identifying degraded land areas.
(Lu et. al, 2003).
The change detection is done by two approaches. In the first the satellite images of multiple
time periods are first classified into different land classes, representative of the severity or
kind of degradation. Further a post-classification comparison is performed. The method thus
shows the difference between the classified images of two different time periods. Another
approach is the direct use of satellite image to detect the differences between two time
periods. Differences between the satellite images of multiple time periods are first identified
and these differences are visually interpreted to arrive at the rate of degradation.

Land degradation mapping by SLUSI

Soil and Land Use Survey of India (SLUSI) under the Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. India has
been using the remote sensing data to generate scientific information on degraded lands at district
level, at 1:50,000 scale. A four-tier approach including the kind of degradation, severity of
degradation, degradation under major land use and major landforms has been adopted by the
SLUSI.
Tables 3-5 show the details of the land degradation classes, land use types and the landform types
defined for the SLUSI land degradation analysis.

Table 3. Major Land Use Classes (http://slusi.dacnet.nic.in/)

S. No. Land Use Class
1.
Agriculture
2.
3.

Forest
Plantation

4.

Others (including open

scrub, pasture lands,
etc.)

D Nagesh Kumar, IISc, Bangalore

Remarks
All types of agriculture excepting
orchards/fruit crops, plantation, etc.
All types of forest shown on toposheets
All types of plantation crops, fruit crops,
tea, coffee, rubber and orchards etc.
All other lands under scrub.

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Table 4. Kinds of land degradation and the degrees of severity (http://slusi.dacnet.nic.in/)

S. No. Kind Degradation
1.
Water Erosion (We)

2.

Wind Activity (Wa)

3.

Waterlogging (W1)

4.

Salt Affliction (Sa)

5.

Shifting Cultivation (Sc)

6.
7.
8.

Mine dumps (Mn)

Rock Quarry (Rq)
Area affected by Industrial
Effluents (Ie)
City Waste/ Garbage dumps (Cw)

9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

Severity
Severe (Sheet, rill and few gullies)
Very severe (gullied land open scrub thin vegetation)
Very Severe (gullied land medium to thick vegetation)
Shallow ravines (Depth < 3m) Open scrub/Thin
vegetation
Shallow ravines (Depth < 3 m) Medium to thick
vegetation
Deep ravines (Depth > 3 m) Open scrub and thin
vegetation
Deep ravines (Depth > 3 m) Thick to medium vegetation
Severe (active plain and dune)
Very severe (active and shifting dunes and sand casting)
Coastal sand casting
Seasonal (affecting one crop; 4-6 months submergence)
Permanent (affecting two crops; more than 6 months
submergence)
Inland Marshes
Moderately Saline
Strongly Saline
Moderately Saline Alkali
Strongly Saline Alkali
Moderately Alkali
Strongly Alkali
Current Jhum land
Abandoned Jhum land

Land Slide/Slips (Ls)

Area affected by Brick Kiln (Bk)
Mud Flat (Mf)
Salt Pan/Salt Flat (Sp/ Sf)
Rockout Crop/ Rocky Waste/
Stony Waste (Rw)
Glacial Moraine (Gm)

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Table 5. Major landscape classes and percent slope range (http://slusi.dacnet.nic.in/)

S. No.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Class
Plain lands
(Level to Gently sloping)
Undulating lands
(Gently to Moderately slopping)
Rolling land
Hilly/Mountain

% slope
0-5
3-10
10-15
> 15

Multi-date images from the IRS LISS-II sensor have been used for the analysis.
Classification of the satellite images has been attained using the standard procedures i.e.,
recognition, identification, analysis and inferences have been followed for mapping purposes.
Further, a post-classification approach of change detection has been adopted to identify the
difference in the land characteristics over a time period and hence to identify the degraded
land areas.
Mapping of land degradation in Maharashtra by MRSAC
With the objective to generate reliable information on the degraded land areas and to generate
a digital database of the same, MRSAC (Maharashtra Remote Sensing Applications Centre),
(Department of Planning, Govt. of Maharashtra) had taken up a project to map the degraded
land areas in the state at 1:50,000 scale, using satellite remote sensing data for the base year
2005-2006. Satellite images from IRS LISS-III sensor were used for the analysis.
A deductive logic approach was used for delineating the degraded land areas with different
degrees of severity. In this approach, the areas having no scope for land degradation were
initially masked out. The other areas were marked in a step-by-step approach depending upon
the severity of the land degradation. Land areas with severe degradation, which are quite
evident in the image through visual interpretation, were delineated first, followed by less
evident areas and the areas requiring detailed logical analysis.
Standard image interpretation keys like tone, texture, size, pattern and association were used
for onscreen identification of the degraded land areas.
Details of the project can be found in the website of the MRSAC under in the following URL
(http://www.mrsac.gov.in/en/projects/agriculture-and-land-resources/mapping-landdegradation-using-multi-temporal-satellite-data).

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Fig. 5 shows the land degradation map of the Maharashtra state in 2005-2006, generated at
the MRSAC using IRS LISS-III images.

Fig. 5. Land degradation map of the Maharashtra state in 2005-2006, prepared by MRSAC
(Source: http://www.mrsac.gov.in/en/projects/agriculture-and-land-resources/mapping-landdegradation-using-multi-temporal-satellite-data)

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4. Conclusion
Satellite remote sensing images, with their good spectral resolution, capability to cover large
areas, and the ability to provide frequent sampling, find extensive applications in
environmental monitoring.

Bibliography/ Further reading

1.

Alcntara EH, Stech JL, Lorenzzetti JA, Bonnet MP, Casamitjana X, Assireu AT, Novo
EMLM (2010). Remote sensing of water surface temperature and heat flux over a
tropical hydroelectric reservoir Remote Sens. Environ., 114 (11), pp 2651-2665.

2.

Brando VE, Dekker AG (2003). Satellite hyperspectral remote sensing for estimating
estuarine and coastal water quality IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens., 41 (6), pp: 13781387.

3.

Brezonik P, Menken KD, Bauer M (2005). Landsat-based remote sensing of lake water
quality characteristics, including chlorophyll and colored dissolved organic matter
(CDOM) Lake and Reservoir Manage., 21 (4), pp 373-382.

4.

Giardino C, Bresciani M, Villa P, Martinelli A (2010). Application of remote sensing in

water resources management: The case study of Lake Trasimeno, Italy Water
Resour.Manage., 24, pp: 3885-3899. doi: 10.1007/s11269-010-9639-3.

5.

Hakvoort H, De Haan J, Jordans R, Vos R, Peters S, Rijkeboer M (2002). Towards

airborne remote sensing of water quality in the Netherlands-validation and error
analysis J. Photogr. Remote Sens. 57, pp 171-183.

6.

Harding LW, Itsweire EC, Esaias WE (1995). Algorithm development for recovering
chlorophyll concentrations in the Chesapeake Bay using aircraft remote sensing, 1989
91 Photogram..Eng.Remote Sens., 61(2), pp:177185.

7.

Koponen S, Pulliainen J, Kallio K, Hallikainen M (2002). Lake water quality

classification with airborne hyperspectral spectrometer and simulated MERIS data
Remote Sens. Environ., 79, pp 51 59.

8.

Lesht BM, Barbiero RP, Warren GJ (2013). A band-ratio algorithm for retrieving openlake chlorophyll values from satellite observations of the Great Lakes J. Great Lakes
Res., 39, pp: 138-152.

9.

Lesser MP, Mobley CD (2007). Bathymetry, water optical properties, and benthic
classification of coral reefs using hyperspectral remote sensing imagery Coral Reefs.
26, pp 819829. Doi: 10.1007/s00338-007-0271-5.

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10. Lu D, Mausel P, BrondiZio E, Moran E. (2003). Change detection techniques, Int. J.

Remote Sensing, 25( 12), 23652407.
11. Nagesh Kumar D and Reshmidevi TV (2013). Remote sensing applications in water
resources J. Indian Institute of Sci., 93(2), 163-188.
12. Politi E, Cutler MEJ, Rowan JS (2012). Using the NOAA Advanced Very High
Resolution Radiometer to characterise temporal and spatial trends in water temperature
of

large

European

lakes

Remote

Sens.

Environ.,

126,

pp:1-11.

doi:

/10.1016/j.rse.2012.08.004.
13. Ravishankar T and Sreenivas, K ( 2010) Soil and Land Degradation In Remote Sensing
Applications (Roy PS, Dwivedi RS, Vijayan D Eds.), National Remote Sensing Centre,
Hyderabad.
14. Santini F, Alberotanza L, Cavalli RM, Pignatti S (2010) A two-step optimization
procedure for assessing water constituent concentrations by hyperspectral remote sensing
techniques: An application to the highly turbid Venice lagoon waters Remote Sens.
Environ., 114, pp: 887-898. doi: 10.1016/j.rse.2009.12.001.
15. Schmugge T, Jackson TJ, Kustas WP, Wang JR (1992). Passive microwave remote
sensing of soil moistureResults from Hapex, Fife and Monsoon-90 ISPRS J.
Photogramm. Remote Sens., 47, pp 127143, doi:10.1016/0924-2716(92)90029-9.
16. Schmugge TJ, Kustas WP, Ritchie JC, Jackson TJ, Rango A (2002). Remote sensing in
hydrology Adv. Water Resour., 25, pp 13671385.
17. Thiemann S, Kaufmann H (2002). Lake water quality monitoring using hyperspectral
airborne data a semiempirical multisensor and multitemporal approach for the
Mecklenburg Lake District, Germany Remote Sens. Environ., 8, pp 228-237.
18. Volpe V, Silvestri S, Marani M (2011). Remote sensing retrieval of suspended sediment
concentration in shallow waters Remote Sens. Environ., 115, pp:44-54. doi:
10.1016/j.rse.2010.07.013.

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