You Are

Not So

Smart
Why Your Memory Is Mostly Fiction,
Why You Have Too Many Friends on Facebook,
and 46 Other Ways Youre Deluding Yourself

David McRaney

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A Oneworld Book
First published in Great Britain and the Commonwealth
by Oneworld Publications 2012
First published in the USA by Gotham Books,
a member of Penguin Group (USA) Inc., 2012
This ebook edition published by Oneworld Publications in 2012
Copyright 2011, 2012 David McRaney
The moral right of David McRaney to be identified as the
Author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance
with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988
All rights reserved
Copyright under Berne Convention
A CIP record for this title is available
from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-85168-939-2
ebook ISBN 978-1-78074-104-8
Set in Granjon
Designed by Elke Sigal
Cover design by Nathan Burton Design
Oneworld Publications
185 Banbury Road
Oxford
OX2 7AR
England

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Contents
Introduction You

xi

1 Priming
2 Confabulation
3
Confirmation Bias
4
Hindsight Bias
5
The Texas Sharpshooter Fallacy
6 Procrastination
7
Normalcy Bias
8 Introspection
9
The Availability Heuristic
10
The Bystander Effect
11
The Dunning-Kruger Effect
12 Apophenia
13
Brand Loyalty
14
The Argument from Authority
15
The Argument from Ignorance
16
The Straw Man Fallacy
17
The Ad Hominem Fallacy
18
The Just-World Fallacy
19
The Public Goods Game
20
The Ultimatum Game
21
Subjective Validation
22
Cult Indoctrination
23 Groupthink

vii

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14
27
32
36
44
53
64
69
73
78
82
87
93
97
100
103
107
112
116
119
124
127

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contents

24
Supernormal Releasers
25
The Affect Heuristic
26
Dunbars Number
27
Selling Out
28
Self-Serving Bias
29
The Spotlight Effect
30
The Third Person Effect
31 Catharsis
32
The Misinformation Effect
33 Conformity
34
Extinction Burst
35
Social Loafing
36
The Illusion of Transparency
37
Learned Helplessness
38
Embodied Cognition
39
The Anchoring Effect
40 Attention
41 Self-Handicapping
42
Self-Fulfilling Prophecies
43
The Moment
44
Consistency Bias
45
The Representativeness Heuristic
46 Expectation
47
The Illusion of Control
48
The Fundamental Attribution Error
Acknowledgments
Bibliography

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131
136
146
151
157
162
166
170
175
183
190
196
199
205
210
214
220
227
231
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246
251
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264
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279

You Are Not So Smart

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Introd uc tion

You
THE MISCONCEPTION: You are a rational, logical being

who sees the world as it really is.

OK, it keeps you sane.

You hold in your hands a compendium of information about selfdelusion and the wonderful ways we all succumb to it.
You think you know how the world works, but you really dont.
You move through life forming opinions and cobbling together a
story about who you are and why you did the things you did leading
up to reading this sentence, and taken as a whole it seems real.
The truth is, there is a growing body of work coming out of
psychology and cognitive science that says you have no clue why
you act the way you do, choose the things you choose, or think the
thoughts you think. Instead, you create narratives, little stories to
explain away why you gave up on that diet, why you prefer Apple
over Microsoft, why you clearly remember it was Beth who told you
the story about the clown with the peg leg made of soup cans when
it was really Adam, and it wasnt a clown.
xi

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introduction

Take a moment to look around the room in which you are reading this. Just for a second, see the effort that went into not only what
you see, but the centuries of progress leading to the inventions surrounding you.
Start with your shoes, and then move to the book in your hands,
then look to the machines and devices grinding and beeping in every corner of your lifethe toaster, the computer, the ambulance
wailing down a street far away. Contemplate, before we get down
to business, how amazing it is humans have solved so many problems, constructed so much in all the places where people linger.
Buildings and cars, electricity and languagewhat a piece of
work is man, right? What triumphs of rationality, you know? If
you really take it all in, you can become enamored with a smug belief about how smart you and the rest of the human race have become.
Yet you lock your keys in the car. You forget what it was you
were about to say. You get fat. You go broke. Others do it too. From
bank crises to sexual escapades, we can all be really stupid sometimes.
From the greatest scientist to the most humble artisan, every
brain within every body is infested with preconceived notions and
patterns of thought that lead it astray without the brain knowing it.
So you are in good company. No matter who your idols and mentors are, they too are prone to spurious speculation.
Take the Wason Selection Task as our first example. Imagine a
scientist deals four cards out in front of you. Unlike normal playing
cards, these have single numbers on one side and single colors on
the other. You see from left to right a three, an eight, a red card, and
a brown card. The shifty psychologist allows you to take in the peculiar cards for a moment and poses a question. Suppose the psy-

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chologist says, I have a deck full of these strange cards, and there is
one rule at play. If a card has an even number on one side, then it
must be red on the opposite side. Now, which card or cards must
you flip to prove Im telling the truth?
Rememberthree, eight, red, brownwhich do you flip?
As psychological experiments go, this is one of the absolute simplest. As a game of logic, this too should be a cinch to figure out.
When psychologist Peter Wason conducted this experiment in
1977, less than 10 percent of the people he asked got the correct
answer. His cards had vowels instead of colors, but in repetitions of
the test where colors were used, about the same number of people
got totally confused when asked to solve the riddle.
So what was your answer? If you said the three or the red card,
or said only the eight or only the brown, you are among the 90 percent of people whose minds get boggled by this task. If you turn
over the three and see either red or brown, it does not prove anything. You learn nothing new. If you turn over the red card and find
an odd number, it doesnt violate the rule. The only answer is to
turn over both the eight card and the brown card. If the other side
of the eight is red, youve only confirmed the rule, but not proven if
it is broken elsewhere. If the brown has an odd number, you learn
nothing, but if it has an even number you have falsified the claims
of the psychologist. Those two cards are the only ones which provide answers. Once you know the solution, it seems obvious.
What could be simpler than four cards and one rule? If 90 percent of people cant figure this out, how did humans build Rome
and cure polio? This is the subject of this bookyou are naturally
hindered into thinking in certain ways and not others, and the
world around you is the product of dealing with these biases, not
overcoming them.

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introduction

If you replace the numbers and colors on the cards with a social
situation, the test becomes much easier. Pretend the psychologist
returns, and this time he says, You are at a bar, and the law says
you must be over eighteen years old to drink alcohol. On each of
these four cards a beverage is written on one side and the age of the
person drinking it on the other. Which of these four cards must you
turn over to see if the owner is obeying the law? He then deals four
cards which read:
23beerCoke17
Now it seems much easier. Coke tells you nothing, and 23 tells
you nothing. If the seventeen-year-old is drinking alcohol, the
owner is breaking the law, but if the seventeen-year-old isnt, you
must check the age of the beer drinker. Now the two cards stick
outbeer and 17. Your brain is better at seeing the world in some
ways, like social situations, and not so good in others, like logic
puzzles with numbered cards.
This is the sort of thing you will find throughout this book, with
explanations and musings to boot. The Wason Selection Task is an
example of how lousy you are at logic, but you are also filled with
beliefs that look good on paper but fall apart in practice. When
those beliefs fall apart, you tend not to notice. You have a deep desire to be right all of the time and a deeper desire to see yourself in a
positive light both morally and behaviorally. You can stretch your
mind pretty far to achieve these goals.
The three main subjects in this book are cognitive biases, heuristics, and logical fallacies. These are components of your mind,
like organs in your body, which under the best conditions serve
you well. Life, unfortunately, isnt always lived under the best

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conditions. Their predictability and dependability have kept confidence men, magicians, advertisers, psychics, and peddlers of all
manner of pseudoscientific remedies in business for centuries. It
wasnt until psychology applied rigorous scientific method to human behavior that these self-deceptions became categorized and
quantified.
Cognitive biases are predicable patterns of thought and behavior that lead you to draw incorrect conclusions. You and everyone
else come into the world preloaded with these pesky and completely
wrong ways of seeing things, and you rarely notice them. Many of
them serve to keep you confident in your own perceptions or to inhibit you from seeing yourself as a buffoon. The maintenance of a
positive self-image seems to be so important to the human mind you
have evolved mental mechanisms designed to make you feel awesome about yourself. Cognitive biases lead to poor choices, bad
judgments, and wacky insights that are often totally incorrect. For
example, you tend to look for information that confirms your beliefs and ignore information that challenges them. This is called
confirmation bias. The contents of your bookshelf and the bookmarks in your Web browser are a direct result of it.
Heuristics are mental shortcuts you use to solve common problems. They speed up processing in the brain, but sometimes make
you think so fast you miss what is important. Instead of taking the
long way around and deeply contemplating the best course of action
or the most logical train of thought, you use heuristics to arrive at a
conclusion in record time. Some heuristics are learned, and others
come free with every copy of the human brain. When they work,
they help your mind stay frugal. When they dont, you see the world
as a much simpler place than it really is. For example, if you notice
a rise in reports about shark attacks on the news, you start to believe

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introduction

sharks are out of control, when the only thing you know for sure is
the news is delivering more stories about sharks than usual.
Logical fallacies are like maths problems involving language, in
which you skip a step or get turned around without realizing it.
They are arguments in your mind where you reach a conclusion
without all the facts because you dont care to hear them or have no
idea how limited your information is. You become a bumbling detective. Logical fallacies can also be the result of wishful thinking.
Sometimes you apply good logic to false premises; at other times
you apply bad logic to the truth. For instance, if you hear Albert
Einstein refused to eat scrambled eggs, you might assume scrambled eggs are probably bad for you. This is called the argument
from authority. You assume if someone is super-smart, then all of
that persons decisions must be good ones, but maybe Einstein just
had peculiar taste.
With each new subject in these pages you will start to see yourself in a new way. You will soon realize you are not so smart, and
thanks to a plethora of cognitive biases, faulty heuristics, and common fallacies of thought, you are probably deluding yourself minute by minute just to cope with reality.
Dont fret. This will be fun.

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