Data Mining:
Principles and Algorithms
Chapter 10.1
Spatiotemporal Data Mining
Jiawei Han
Department of Computer Science
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
www.cs.uiuc.edu/~hanj
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Data Mining: Principles and Algorithms
Generalizing Spatial and Multimedia Data
Spatial data:
Generalize detailed geographic points into clustered regions, such
as business, residential, industrial, or agricultural areas,
according to land usage
Require the merge of a set of geographic areas by spatial
operations
Image data:
Extracted by aggregation and/or approximation
Size, color, shape, texture, orientation, and relative positions and
structures of the contained objects or regions in the image
Music data:
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Summarize its melody: based on the approximate patterns that
repeatedly occur in the segment
Summarized its style: based on its tone, tempo, or the major
musical instruments played
Data Mining: Principles and Algorithms
What Is a Spatial Database System?
Geometric, geographic or spatial data: space-related data
Example: Geographic space (2-D abstraction of earth surface),
VLSI design, model of human brain, 3-D space representing the
arrangement of chains of protein molecule.
Spatial database system vs. image database systems.
Image database system: handling digital raster image (e.g.,
satellite sensing, computer tomography), may also contain
techniques for object analysis and extraction from images and
some spatial database functionality.
Spatial (geometric, geographic) database system: handling
objects in space that have identity and well-defined extents,
locations, and relationships.
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GIS (Geographic Information System)
GIS (Geographic Information System)
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Analysis and visualization of geographic data
Common analysis functions of GIS
Search (thematic search, search by region)
Location analysis (buffer, corridor, overlay)
Terrain analysis (slope/aspect, drainage network)
Flow analysis (connectivity, shortest path)
Distribution (nearest neighbor, proximity, change detection)
Spatial analysis/statistics (pattern, centrality, similarity, topology)
Measurements (distance, perimeter, shape, adjacency, direction)
Data Mining: Principles and Algorithms
Spatial DBMS (SDBMS)
SDBMS is a software system that
supports spatial data models, spatial ADTs,
and a query language supporting them
supports spatial indexing, spatial operations
efficiently, and query optimization
can work with an underlying DBMS
Examples
Oracle Spatial Data Catridge
ESRI Spatial Data Engine
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Modeling Spatial Objects
What needs to be represented?
Two important alternative views
Single objects: distinct entities arranged in space each
of which has its own geometric description
modeling cities, forests, rivers
Spatially related collection of objects: describe space
itself (about every point in space)
modeling land use, partition of a country into
districts
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Modeling Single Objects: Point, Line and Region
Point: location only but not extent
Line (or a curve usually represented by a polyline, a
sequence of line segment):
moving through space, or connections in space (roads,
rivers, cables, etc.)
Region:
Something having extent in 2D-space (country, lake,
park). It may have a hole or consist of several disjoint
pieces.
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Representations of spatial features (Chang, 2008)
Discrete features are individually distinguishable
features that do not exist between observations
include points (e.g schools), lines (e.g roads and rivers),
and polygons (e.g land use).
Continuous features are features that exist spatially
between observations
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E.g. elevation and precipitation
Representations of spatial features (Chang, 2008)
Discrete features
Continuous feature
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Spatial Dataset and Spatial Relationship
In spatial data mining, a spatial relationship is
essential because it makes spatial data mining
algorithms differ from non-spatial data mining
algorithms.
Spatial relationships are usually stored implicitly in
spatial databases.
Three groups of relations between a spatial object
and its neighborhood (Ester et al., 1997):
Topological-relations, e.g. meet, overlap, coveredby, contains, inside, equal
Metric-relation, e.g. distance < d
Direction-relation, e.g. north, south, west, east.
Spatial Dataset and Spatial Relationship
The eight topological relations between two spatial
regions and their corresponding 9-intersection matrices
(Clementini et al., 1994)
A0 B 0
9 ( A, B ) A B 0
A B 0
A0 B
A B
A B
A0 B
A B
A B
As boundary (A), As interior
(Ao), As exterior (A-), Bs
boundary (B), Bs interior
(Bo) and Bs exterior (B-)
Modeling Spatially Related Collection of Objects
Modeling spatially related collection of objects: plane partitions and
networks.
A partition: a set of region objects that are required to be disjoint
(e.g., a thematic map). There exist often pairs of objects with a
common boundary (adjacency relationship).
A network: a graph embedded into the plane, consisting of a set of
point objects, forming its nodes, and a set of line objects describing
the geometry of the edges, e.g., highways. rivers, power supply
lines.
Other interested spatially related collection of objects: nested
partitions, or a digital terrain (elevation) model.
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Spatial Data Types and Models
Field-based model: raster
data
framework: partitioning
of space
Object-based model: vector
model
point, line, polygon,
Objects, Attributes
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Spatial Query Language
Spatial query language
Spatial data types, e.g. point, line segment, polygon,
Spatial operations, e.g. overlap, distance, nearest neighbor,
Callable from a query language (e.g. SQL3) of underlying
DBMS
SELECT S.name
FROM Senator S
WHERE S.district.Area() > 300
Standards
SQL3 (a.k.a. SQL 1999) is a standard for query languages
OGIS is a standard for spatial data types and operators
Both standards enjoy wide support in industry
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Query Processing
Efficient algorithms to answer spatial queries
Common Strategy: filter and refine
Filter: Query Region overlaps with MBRs (minimum
bounding rectangles) of B, C, D
Refine: Query Region overlaps with B, C
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File Organization and Indices
Spatial Indexing
B-tree works on spatial data with space filling curve
R-tree: Heighted balanced extention of B+ tree
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Objects are represented as MBR
provides better performance
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Spatial Query Optimization
A spatial operation can be processed using
different strategies
Computation cost of each strategy depends on
many parameters
Query optimization is the process of
ordering operations in a query and
selecting efficient strategy for each operation
based on the details of a given dataset
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Spatial Data Warehousing
Spatial data warehouse: Integrated, subject-oriented, time-variant,
and nonvolatile spatial data repository
Spatial data integration: a big issue
Structure-specific formats (raster- vs. vector-based, OO vs.
relational models, different storage and indexing, etc.)
Vendor-specific formats (ESRI, MapInfo, Integraph, IDRISI, etc.)
Geo-specific formats (geographic vs. equal area projection, etc.)
Spatial data cube: multidimensional spatial database
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Both dimensions and measures may contain spatial components
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Dimensions and Measures in Spatial
Data Warehouse
Dimensions
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non-spatial
e.g. 25-30 degrees
generalizes tohot
(both are strings)
spatial-to-nonspatial
e.g. Seattle generalizes
to description Pacific
Northwest (as a string)
spatial-to-spatial
e.g. Seattle generalizes
to Pacific Northwest (as
a spatial region)
Measures
numerical (e.g. monthly revenue
of a region)
distributive (e.g. count, sum)
algebraic (e.g. average)
holistic (e.g. median, rank)
spatial
collection of spatial pointers
(e.g. pointers to all regions
with temperature of 25-30
degrees in July)
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Spatial-to-Spatial Generalization
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Generalize detailed
geographic points into
clustered regions, such as
businesses, residential,
industrial, or agricultural
areas, according to land
usage
Dissolve
Requires the merging of a
set of geographic areas by
spatial operations
Intersect
Merge
Clip
Union
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Example: British Columbia Weather
Pattern Analysis
Input
A map with about 3,000 weather probes scattered in B.C.
Daily data for temperature, precipitation, wind velocity, etc.
Data warehouse using star schema
Output
A map that reveals patterns: merged (similar) regions
Goals
Interactive analysis (drill-down, slice, dice, pivot, roll-up)
Fast response time
Minimizing storage space used
Challenge
A merged region may contain hundreds of primitive regions
(polygons)
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Star Schema of the BC Weather Warehouse
Spatial data warehouse
Dimensions
region_name
time
temperature
precipitation
Measurements
region_map
area
count
Dimension table
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Fact table
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Dynamic Merging of Spatial Objects
Materializing (precomputing) all?too
much storage space
On-line merge?slow, expensive
Precompute rough approximations?
accuracy trade off
A better way: object-based, selective
(partial) materialization
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Methods for Computing Spatial Data Cubes
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On-line aggregation: collect and store pointers to spatial
objects in a spatial data cube
expensive and slow, need efficient aggregation
techniques
Precompute and store all the possible combinations
huge space overhead
Precompute and store rough approximations in a spatial
data cube
accuracy trade-off
Selective computation: only materialize those which will
be accessed frequently
a reasonable choice
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Spatial Association Analysis
Spatial association rule: A B [s%, c%]
A and B are sets of spatial or non-spatial predicates
Topological relations: intersects, overlaps, disjoint, etc.
Spatial orientations: left_of, west_of, under, etc.
Distance information: close_to, within_distance, etc.
s% is the support and c% is the confidence of the rule
Examples
1) is_a(x, large_town) ^ intersect(x, highway) adjacent_to(x, water)
[7%, 85%]
2) What kinds of objects are typically located close to golf courses?
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Progressive Refinement Mining of
Spatial Association Rules
Hierarchy of spatial relationship:
g_close_to: near_by, touch, intersect, contain, etc.
First search for rough relationship and then refine it
Two-step mining of spatial association:
Step 1: Rough spatial computation (as a filter)
Step2: Detailed spatial algorithm (as refinement)
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Using MBR or R-tree for rough estimation
Apply only to those objects which have passed the rough spatial
association test (no less than min_support)
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Mining Spatial Co-location Rules
Co-location rule is similar to association rule but explore
more relying spatial auto-correlation
It leads to efficient processing
It can be integrated with progressive refinement to
further improve its performance
Spatial co-location mining idea can be applied to
clustering, classification, outlier analysis and other
potential mining tasks
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Associations, Spatial associations,
Co-location
Answers:
and
find patterns from the sample dataset?
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Spatial Autocorrelation
Spatial data tends to be highly self-correlated
Example: Neighborhood, Temperature
Items in a traditional data are independent of each
other, whereas properties of locations in a map are
often auto-correlated.
First law of geography:
Everything is related to everything, but nearby things are
more related than distant things.
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Spatial Autocorrelation (contd)
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Spatial Classification
Methods in classification
Decision-tree classification, Nave-Bayesian classifier +
boosting, neural network, logistic regression, etc.
Association-based multi-dimensional classification Example: classifying house value based on proximity
to lakes, highways, mountains, etc.
Assuming learning samples are independent of each
other
Spatial auto-correlation violates this assumption!
Popular spatial classification methods
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Spatial auto-regression (SAR)
Markov random field (MRF)
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Spatial Decision Tree
The works that apply the decision tree algorithms on
spatial data can be divided into two groups
Applications of conventional decision tree algorithms
(non-spatial algorithms) on spatial data.
Spatial data preprocessing steps need to be
performed to prepare task relevant data
Applications of spatial decision tree algorithms on
spatial data
Improvement of non-spatial algorithms is required
involving spatial relationships
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Spatial Decision Tree
Target layer
Spatial relationships
Spatial
decision tree
algorithms
Spatial
Dataset
Explanatory layers
Accuracy
Spatial
Decision tree
Validation set
Spatial Decision Tree
Algorithm
Type of spatial
features
Spatial relationship
Spatial Decision Tree Algorithm based on Point, line, and
the ID3 algorithm (Ester et al., 1997)
polygon
Distance
Spatial binary tree algorithm (Koperski
et al. 1998)
Point, line, and
polygon
Distance using buffer
SCART (Spatial Classification and
Regression Trees) as the extension of
the CART method (Chelghoum et al.,
2002)
Point, line, and
polygon
Topological and
distance relationships
applied in data preprocessing
Spatial Decision Tree based on the ID3
algorithm (Rinzivillo and Franco, 2004)
Polygon
Intersection
Spatial entropy-based decision tree
method (Li and Claramunt, 2006)
Point, polygon
Distance
Extended Spatial ID3 algorithm
(Sitanggang et al., 2011; Sitanggang et
al., 2013)
Point, line, and
polygon
Topological and
distance relationships
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Spatial Auto-Regression
Linear Regression
Y=X +
Spatial autoregressive regression (SAR)
Y = WY + X +
W: neighborhood matrix.
models strength of spatial dependencies
error vector
The estimates of and can be derived using maximum
likelihood theory or Bayesian statistics
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Markov Random Field Based Bayesian Classifiers
Bayesian classifiers
MRF
A set of random variables whose interdependency relationship is
represented by an undirected graph (i.e., a symmetric
neighborhood matrix) is called a Markov Random Field.
Pr(Ci | X, Li)
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Pr(X | Ci, Li) Pr(Ci | Li)
Pr (X)
Li denotes set of labels in the neighborhood of si excluding labels
at si
Pr(Ci | Li) can be estimated from training data by examine the
ratios of the frequencies of class labels to the total number of
locations
Pr(X|Ci, Li) can be estimated using kernel functions from the
observed values in the training dataset
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SAR v.s. MRF
Pr(X | Ci, Li) , Pr(Ci | Li)
Pr(Ci | X, Li)
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Pr(X | Ci, Li) , Pr(Ci | Li)
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Spatial Trend Analysis
Function
Study the trend of non-spatial or spatial data changing with
space
Application examples
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Detect changes and trends along a spatial dimension
Observe the trend of changes of the climate or vegetation with
increasing distance from an ocean
Crime rate or unemployment rate change with regard to city
geo-distribution
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Spatial Cluster Analysis
Mining clustersk-means, k-medoids,
hierarchical, density-based, etc.
Analysis of distinct features of the
clusters
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Constraints-Based Clustering
Constraints on individual objects
Clustering parameters as constraints
Sum of the profits in each cluster > $1 million
Constraints imposed by physical obstacles
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K-means, density-based: radius, min-# of points
Constraints specified on clusters using SQL
aggregates
Simple selection of relevant objects before clustering
Clustering with obstructed distance
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Constrained Clustering: Planning ATM
Locations
C2
C3
C1
River
Mountain
Spatial data with obstacles
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C4
Clustering without taking
obstacles into consideration
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Spatial Outlier Detection
Outlier
Global outliers: Observations which is inconsistent with
the rest of the data
Spatial outliers: A local instability of non-spatial attributes
Spatial outlier detection
Graphical tests
Variogram clouds
Moran scatterplots
Quantitative tests
Scatterplots
Spatial Statistic Z(S(x))
Quantitative tests are more accurate than Graphical tests
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Spatial Outlier DetectionVariogram Clouds
Graphical method
For each pair of locations, the
square-root of the absolute
difference between attribute
values at the locations versus
the Euclidean distance
between the locations are
plotted
Nearby locations with large
attribute difference indicate a
spatial outlier
Quantitative method
Compute spatial statistic
Z(S(x))
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Spatial Outlier DetectionMoran Scatterplots
Graphical tests
A plot of normalized
attribute value Z against the
neighborhood average of
normalized attribute values
(W Z)
Z [ f (i)]
f (i ) u f
The upper left and lower
right quadrants indicate a
spatial outlier
Computation method
Fit a linear regression line
Select points (e.g. P, Q, S)
which are from the
regression line greater than
specified residual error
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Mining Spatiotemporal Data
Spatiotemporal data
Data has spatial extensions and changes with
time
Ex: Forest fire, moving objects, hurricane &
earthquakes
Automatic anomaly detection in massive moving
objects
Moving objects are ubiquitous: GPS, radar, etc.
Ex: Maritime vessel surveillance
Problem: Automatic anomaly detection
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Analysis: Mining Anomaly in
Moving Objects
Raw analysis of collected data does not fully
convey anomaly information
More effective analysis relies on higher semantic
features
Examples:
A speed boat moving quickly in open water
A fishing boat moving slowly into the docks
A yacht circling slowly around landmark during
night hours
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Tools for conducting spatial data mining
Quantum GIS for spatial data analysis and visualization
(http://www.qgis.org/)
PostgreSQL as the database management system
(http://www.postgresql.org/)
PostGIS for spatial data analysis (http://postgis.net/)
Python for programming (http://www.python.org/)
R for statistical computation (http://www.r-project.org/)
Ilwis for satellite image processing (http://www.ilwis.org/)
The data mining tool kit Weka
(http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/ml/weka/)
Summary
Mining object data needs feature/attribute-based
generalization methods
Spatial, spatiotemporal and multimedia data mining is one
of important research frontiers in data mining with broad
applications
Spatial data warehousing, OLAP and mining facilitates
multidimensional spatial analysis and finding spatial
associations, classifications and trends
Multimedia data mining needs content-based retrieval and
similarity search integrated with mining methods
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References on Spatial Data Mining
H. Miller and J. Han (eds.), Geographic Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery, Taylor
and Francis, 2001.
Ester M., Frommelt A., Kriegel H.-P., Sander J.: Spatial Data Mining: Database
Primitives, Algorithms and Efficient DBMS Support, Data Mining and Knowledge
Discovery, 4: 193-216, 2000.
J. Han, M. Kamber, and A. K. H. Tung, "Spatial Clustering Methods in Data Mining: A
Survey", in H. Miller and J. Han (eds.), Geographic Data Mining and Knowledge
Discovery, Taylor and Francis, 2000.
Y. Bedard, T. Merrett, and J. Han, "Fundamentals of Geospatial Data Warehousing for
Geographic Knowledge Discovery", in H. Miller and J. Han (eds.), Geographic Data
Mining and Knowledge Discovery, Taylor and Francis, 2000
K. Koperski and J. Han. Discovery of spatial association rules in geographic information
databases. SSD'95.
Shashi Shekhar and Sanjay Chawla, Spatial Databases: A Tour , Prentice Hall, 2003
(ISBN 013-017480-7). Chapter 7.: Introduction to Spatial Data Mining
X. Li, J. Han, and S. Kim, Motion-Alert: Automatic Anomaly Detection in Massive Moving
Objects, IEEE Int. Conf. on Intelligence and Security Informatics (ISI'06).
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