Why Do IKEA's Products

Have Different Prices in

Different Countries?
Authors: Mengling Chen
2NA00E Independent Project
(Degree Project)
Xin Huang
2NA00E Independent Project
(Degree Project)

Tutor:
Examiner:
Subject:
Level and semester:

Thomas Ericson
Dominique Anxo
Economics
Bachelor's Thesis, Spr 2012

Abstract
During the past decade, the law of one price and purchasing power parity
theories have been empirically tested for their validity. IKEA, as a world famous
furnishing company, sells identical products in different countries with different prices.
The main emphasis of this paper is placed on the problem of if and why IKEAs
pricing actually departs from the law of one price and purchasing power parity. We
focus on the following three main explaining factors: the existence of trade cost, the
influences of non-traded parts cost of the goods, and other possible pricing behaviors
of the firms. To be able to fulfill our objectives, a regression model combined with the
theoretical framework and the institutional framework of IKEA have been used in this
paper. The remarkable outcomes are gotten as below: () The price variation still
exist after removing the influences of transportation cost, trade barriers, taxes. ()
Higher productivity contributes to higher national prices, but higher labor cost has no
significant effect on price variation. () Price discrimination and special market
strategies in specific areas do play a role in the price variation.

Key words: IKEA, identical products, price differentials, the law of one price,
purchasing power parity

Content
Abstract ............................................................................................................................................1
1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................3
1.1 Background ........................................................................................................................3
1.2 Objective ............................................................................................................................4
1.3 Limitations .........................................................................................................................5
2 Theoretical Framework ...............................................................................................................5
2.1 About LOP and its implication..................................................................................... 6
2.1.1 The law of one price .................................................................................................6
2.1.2 Purchasing power parity ...........................................................................................8
2.1.2.1 Absolute PPP .........................................................................................................8
2.1.2.2 Relative PPP ........................................................................................................12
2.1.3 Nominal exchange rate and real exchange rate ......................................................12
2.2 Why does LOP not hold? ................................................................................................14
2.2.1 Transportation cost .................................................................................................16
2.2.2 Trade barriers .........................................................................................................17
2.2.3 Productivity ............................................................................................................20
2.2.4 Labor cost ...............................................................................................................21
2.2.5 Value-added tax ......................................................................................................21
3 The Institutional Framework of IKEA ....................................................................................23
3.1 Price setting strategies ....................................................................................................23
3.2 Market environment .......................................................................................................26
3.3 Logistics process ..............................................................................................................28
4 Methodology ...............................................................................................................................29
4.1 Data collection .................................................................................................................29
4.2 Empirical model ..............................................................................................................34
5 Results .........................................................................................................................................37
5.1 Empirical results .............................................................................................................37
5.2 Sensitivity analysis ..........................................................................................................39
6 Conclusion...................................................................................................................................42
Appendix ........................................................................................................................................44
References ......................................................................................................................................48

1 Introduction
1.1 Background
The law of one price (LOP) states each truly homogenous product should be
sold with only one price in all markets. Purchasing power parity (PPP) also supports
that the price levels in different countries should be described as the same in a
common currency. Both of these theories serve as the foundations of international
economics, and the basis for price setting determinations in international markets.
However, prices of many IKEA products in Sweden are strongly different
from IKEA prices in Beijing, China, when they are converted to a common currency.
Further investigation shows that IKEAs products ubiquitously have different prices in
different countries. This phenomenon actually departs from the theories of LOP and
PPP. Since then, it is of great interest and motivation to study on why the products of
IKEA have different prices in different countries.
IKEA is founded in 1943 in lmhult, Sweden. During the past 70 years,
IKEA gradually developed to one of the largest and most famous furniture companies
in the world. It sells identical products all over the world in a range of approximately
9,500 different kinds of products in an identical shopping environment. Presently,
IKEA owns over 280 stores in 26 countries. 1 Its products are divided into several
categories, mainly including the categories of living room, bedroom, kitchen,
childrens IKEA, and textiles.
The above-mentioned characteristics provide an overview and useful
information of IKEA, for approaching if and why IKEAs pricing departs from LOP
and PPP theories. Hassink and Schettkat(2001) firstly use the data from IKEAs
products to continue formers researches on LOP and PPP. They collected the data of
222 products from IKEA in 10 EU countries, which can help avoid all formal
trade-barriers. The conclusion in their paper is LOP definitely does not hold in EU.

Data source: IKEA Welcome Inside 2011

3

The explanation they have given is price discrimination and incomplete information
may show some responsibility on this reality. However, there still have about 75% on
price variation of identical products which cannot be explained.
Moreover, according to Haskel and Wolf(2001)s research, the price pattern
that IKEA holds can be hardly explained by local distribution costs, local taxes and
probably tariffs. Baxter and Landry(2010) examined all of the items catalog prices
for 6 different countries from Europe and North America, from 1994-2010, finding
that deviation from LOP is large and typical in both aggregate and micro field.
However, it still can be hardly explained.
In this paper, we focus on the data of 5 individual products from all 5
categories. They are chosen as the representatives to compare their prices within 10
different countries from both Europe and Asia. In order to illustrate the general
explanations of the price variations in different regions, this paper limits to five
identical products prices in two areas, to make the processing and findings more
manageable. The Asian market is chosen as an unique character of this paper, since
former researches pay more attention to European and North American markets.

1.2 Objective
In this paper, we will try to continue the study on LOP and PPP, to find the
possible explanations why IKEAs identical products show different prices in different
countries.
To summarize the objective, this paper aims at:

Describing the macro market environment of IKEA in 10 different countries

which are chosen from IKEAs website, the locations including Western Europe,
northern Europe and Asia area.

Identifying whether there is an LOP or PPP on IKEAs products.

Pointing out in which markets are IKEA goods relatively more expensive and
in which markets are cheaper.

Explaining the differential of IKEA products prices among different countries.

Based on the objective, this research will be presented as the following outline:
The next section illustrates the theories related to LOP and describes the possible
reasons why IKEA holds different prices in different countries. Thereafter section 3
provides the problems in IKEAs price-setting strategies by explicitly considering the
market environment and logistics process. Section 4 and section 5 contain a
quantitative analysis about the regression relationship between value-added tax,
productivity and labor cost in different countries, and the price differentials of IKEAs
identical products. Finally, conclusion and future work is summarized in section 6.

1.3 Limitations
In this paper, the identical products of IKEA will be strictly defined as the
same products which have the same color, the same name in the same series, the same
dimensions including width, depth and height, and also own the same package
measurement and weight. We consider the stores of IKEA all over the world have an
identical shopping environment, based on their design and management strategies.
In addition, this paper will give the theoretical explanations on the law of one
price (LOP), absolute purchasing power parity (absolute PPP) and relative purchasing
power parity (relative PPP). The institutional framework of IKEAs pricing strategies
will be given as well.
However, since IKEA is a private company, it is hard to collect the information
and data from IKEA. IKEA does not show any information about the production
location for the specific products in the catalogues, which makes it difficult to study
about the transportation cost and other relative aspects in a limit period.

2 Theoretical Framework
In the following chapter, the fundamental theories of LOP and its implication
will be reviewed, which include the PPP and the exchange rate theories. This
theoretical framework can help to unveil the possible explanations toward why LOP

does not hold better.

2.1 About LOP and its implication

2.1.1 The law of one price
The law of one price, (LOP), was put forward by Milton Friedman (1953). The
LOP theory can be formulated as follows: Abstracting from complicating factors
such as transportation costs, taxes, and tariffs, the law of one price states that any
good that is traded on world markets will sell for the same price in every country
engaged in trade, when prices are expressed in a common currency. [Pakko and
Pollard (2003)]
The theory exists due to arbitrage behaviors. If the prices of an identical
goods are different in two different markets, then an arbitrageur will purchase the
product in the relatively cheaper market and sell it in the other market. For example, if
the price of a ton of timber in Malmo is lower than that in Stockholm, arbitrageurs
will buy the timber in Malmo and sell it in Stockholm for seeking profits. Then, the
demand of timber in Malmo will increase; meanwhile the supply in Stockholm will
increase, too. Obviously, the increasing demand will lead to a rise in the price of
timber in Malmo, impelling prices in the two cities to converge. This kind of analysis
is based on two different locations in one country.
There are four preconditions of the law of one price:
1) The comparison countries have implemented the same level of freely convertible
currency; currencies, commodities, services and capital flow is completely free; 2)
Information is complete; 3) Transaction cost is equal to zero; 4) Tariffs are zero.
According to this theory, in an open economy, the value of any kinds of
identical goods between countries should be consistent , which means the price after
converting to a common currency is the same. If not, international trade will occur
until the spread is eliminated. Then the market reaches the equilibrium state. In fact,
exchange rate plays an important role in observing price differential in an open

economy. Lets take the price of timber in Sweden and China as an example. The law
of one price can be expressed as:
(1)

= ,

Where and represent the prices of timber in Sweden and China respectively,
and represents the nominal exchange rate ( = SEK/CNY). Assuming that each
timber cost 2,000 per ton in China and that exchange rate ( = SEK/CNY) is equal
to 1.1, then according to the law of one price, the price of timber in Sweden is 2,200
kr. In this case, no matter if the product in China (or Sweden) is overvalued or
undervalued, the product will move between two markets until the prices are exactly
the same. This activity is what we have mentioned as arbitrage. Figure 1 sketches the
arbitrage behavior.
Figure 1

According to the figure, in the timber market, if the price in Sweden is lower
than that in China, arbitrageurs will buy timbers in Sweden and sell it in China. It will
lead to an increase in both the demand of timber in Sweden and supply of Swedish
timber in China. Consequently Ps will increase and Pc will decrease, so that the prices
of timber in these two markets will finally reach a new equilibrium. Obviously, this
kind of transaction has a strong connection with the foreign exchange market. For
example, a Swedish purchases a ton of timber in Sweden and sell it in China, so that he
or she needs to go to the foreign exchange market for transferring Chinese Yuan to
Swedish kronor. The demand of Swedish kronor will increase, which makes the
Chinese Yuan depreciate (the nominal exchange rate decrease). Following this paper
7

will simply introduce the definitions of the nominal exchange rate and the real
exchange rate.

2.1.2 Purchasing power parity

The law of one price is the foundation of purchasing power parity. Purchasing
power parity (PPP) is a theory which states that exchange rates between currencies are
in equilibrium when their purchasing power is the same in each of the two countries. 2
The demand of foreign currency is based on the fact that foreign currency can
buy foreign goods and services and foreigners need their own currency for the same
reason. Therefore, the exchange rate is determined by the ratio of purchasing power,
which is the ratio of the two countries' price levels in a fixed basket of goods and
services. Briefly speaking, one Swedish krona must have the same purchasing power
in the world. The purchasing powe parity describes that if one Swedish krona can buy
less quantity of timber in Sweden than in China, it would be profitable to buy timbers
in China and to sell them in Sweden until the purchasing power in different countries
is equalized. Generally, economists always divide Purchasing Power Parity into two
versions: absolute PPP and relative PPP.

2.1.2.1 Absolute PPP

Absolute PPP is discussed in Moffatt (2003). Specifically, it implies that "a
bundle of goods should cost the same in Canada and the United States once you take
the exchange rate into account". Any deviations will be eliminated until up to level at
which the basket of goods have the same price in the two countries.
However, absolute PPP has two presuppositions:
1) For any tradable goods, the law of one price holds continuously;
2) During the constructing of price index between two countries, the tradable goods
should share the equal weight in these countries.
The absolute PPP refers to the equilibrium of the exchange rate between
2

Source: http://fx.sauder.ubc.ca/PPP.html
8

domestic currency and foreign currency equal to the ratio between these two countries
purchasing power of currency or the price level. Identically, the purchasing power
parity can be expressed as follows:
(2)

= / , or =

Where refers to the domestic price index, such as the price index in Sweden,
represents the price index in a foreign country, such as in China, and is the
exchange rate between two countries.
Also, and can be described as :
(3)

=1

and =

=1

where and represent the tradable goods weight and price of item i in domestic
economy respectively, while and are foreign countries weight and price of item
i. These equations show that the price level in different countries should be equal after
adjusting the exchange rate.
An interesting example can be used to help us understand the theory. The
Economist, an international magazine, collected the data of the prices of McDonalds
Big Mac hamburger in different countries. According to the PPP theory, the price of a
Big Mac should be the same after we adjust the price into a common currency with
the nominal exchange rate.
The following table can help to predict the nominal exchange rate based on the
theory of PPP. The third column shows the price of a Big Mac in different countries and
the fourth column represents the predicted exchange rate, which is equal to Big Macs
domestic price divided by the price in United States. In the last column, The Economist
collected the actual exchange rate to compare with the predicted exchange rate.
As shown in table 1, if the price of a Big Mac in domestic currency is higher,
the exchange rate (domestic currency per dollar) should be higher. Take the Big Macs
price in United Kingdom as an example, the exchange rate between pound and dollar
is 2.29/3.57, that is, 0.63 pound per dollar. At this exchange rate, the Big Macs price
should be the same in United Kingdom and in U.S. Apparently, a Big Mac is more
expensive in the UK than in the US. According to Table 1, similar situations
significant exist in Hungary, Czech Republic, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Argentina,
9

Brazil, Switzerland, Turkey, New Zealand, Canada and Euro area. The nominal
exchange rate actually differs from the actual exchange rate. It is a perfect evidence
which can show the fact that the prices in different countries are different, which
departs from the theory of PPP.

10

Table 1: Exchange Rate (per US dollar) 3

Country
Indonesia
South Korea
Chile
Hungary

Currency
Rupiah
Won
Peso
Forint

Price of a Big Mac

18700.00
3200.00
1550.00
670.00

Predicted
5238
896
434
188

Actual
9152
1018
494
144

Japan

Yen

280.00

78.4

106.8

Taiwan
Czech republic
Thailand

Dollar
Korunna
Baht

75.00
66.10
62.00

21.0
18.5
17.4

30.4
14.5
33.4

Russia

Ruble

59.00

16.5

23.2

Norway
Sweden

Kroner
Krona

40.00
38.00

11.2
10.6

5.08
5.96

Mexico

Peso

32.00

8.96

10.20

Denmark
South Africa
Hong Kong

Krona
Rand
Dollar

28.00
16.90
13.30

7.84
4.75
3.73

4.70
7.56
7.80

Egypt

Pound

13.00

3.64

5.31

China
Argentina

Yuan
Peso

12.50
11.00

3.50
3.08

6.83
3.02

Saudi Arabia
UAE 4

Riyal
Dirham

10.00
10.00

2.80
2.80

3.75
3.67

Brazil
Poland

Real
Zloty

7.50
7.00

2.10
1.96

1.58
2.03

Switzerland
Malaysia

Franc
Ringgit

6.50
5.50

1.82
1.54

1.02
3.20

Turkey

Lire

5.15

1.44

1.19

New Zealand

Dollar

4.90

1.37

1.32

Canada

Dollar

4.09

1.15

1.00

Singapore

Dollar

3.95

1.11

1.35

United States
Australia

Dollar
Dollar

3.57
3.45

1.00
0.97

1.00
1.03

Euro area

Euro

3.37

0.94

0.63

United Kingdom
Pound
2.29
0.63
0.50
Note: The predicted exchange rate is the real exchange rate that would make the price of
a Big Mac in that country equals to its price in the United States.

3
4

Source: The Economist, July 24, 2008

UAE: United Arab Emirates
11

2.1.2.2 Relative PPP

Relative PPP theory states that changes in inflation rate (the price level) in
different countries are related to the movement in exchange rate.
In other words, the relative PPP refers to the percentage change of the inflation
rates between two countries. For example, supposing inflation rate in China is higher
than that in Sweden, it will lead to a rise of the overall price level in China. According
to the theory of PPP, the basket should have the same price in each country, indicating
that the Chinese Yuan must depreciate comparing to the Swedish kronor. Then the
main factors causing the exchange rate change are the purchasing power of currency
or the relative change in price level. It is described as the inflation rate between
different countries. Furthermore the relationship can be expressed as follows:
(4) % = % %
Equation (4) states clearly that the percentage changes in the value of the
currency (exchange rate) equal to the difference in the inflation rates between two
countries. For example, if the inflation rate in Sweden is 2% while it is 5% in China,
then the Chinese Yuan will depreciate against the Swedish kronor by 3% per year.

2.1.3 Nominal exchange rate and real exchange rate

Following in this section, the concepts of nominal exchange rate and real
exchange rate will be given. It will be developed from the view of the relationship
between the nominal exchange rate and the real exchange rate. The paper will also
illustrate the connections between exchange rates and the theories of the law of one
price and PPP.
The nominal exchange rate is the relative price of two countries currencies. For
example, if the exchange rate is 0.9 Swedish kronor per Chinese Yuan, then people can
exchange one Yuan for 0.9 kr.
The real exchange rate is the relative price of the goods between two countries.
The relationship between the nominal exchange and the real exchange rate can be

12

depicted as in the following equation:

(5) =
where is the real exchange rate; is the nominal exchange rate ( = SEK/CNY);
represents the price level in China, and is the price level in Sweden (following it
is treated as the domestic price level).
Equation (5) has two layers of meanings. First, real exchange rate implies that
how many quantities of domestic products (Swedish goods) we can gain from one unit
of foreign goods (Chinese goods). If the real exchange rate increases, it will show that
one unit of foreign goods can exchange more domestic goods, which implies the
domestic currency depreciation. On the contrary, if the real exchange rate decreases,
domestic currency will appreciate. Second, the exchange rate reflects the deviation of
the nominal exchange rate that is corresponding to the absolute PPP and the nominal
exchange rate in the economy. According to absolute PPP, equals to 1/ ,
representing the nominal exchange rate. Thus, the real exchange rate can be expressed
as:
(6)

= /
If = 1 , we can say that absolute PPP hold continuously; otherwise,

absolute PPP cannot hold.

Hence, the nominal and real exchange rates have a close relationship with the
law of one price and the absolute PPP.
However, following in this essay, the nominal exchange rate is still chosen
rather than real exchange rate. It makes sense that real exchange rate would be
appropriate if we want to study the prices over several time periods, since the real
exchange rate reflects both changes of nominal exchange rate e and price levels P and
P*. Since in the present study, P and P* are both given and fixed, it turns to use the
nominal exchange rate.
Many economists have tried to use nominal exchange rate to analyze different
issues in former papers. Beckmann (2011) used the nominal exchange rate to state the
relationship between the purchasing power parity and nominal exchange rate. It shows

13

that nominal exchange rate is more suitable when trying to adopt the theory of PPP. In
addition, Hassink (2001) used the nominal exchange rate to analyze the price
differential in IKEA products, either. Thus, this paper will follow the earlier researches
and use the nominal exchange rate.

2.2 Why does LOP not hold?

Although the theories of LOP and PPP are the theoretical foundations of
international economics, neither of them has been proved empirically so far. Since
there are lots of limitations to hold the theories of LOP and PPP. Former researches
[Goldberg and Verboven (1998), Goldberg and Knetter (1997), Kim and Rogoff
(1995), Kravis and Lipsey (1977), etc.] have tried to discover the deviations of LOP
using the data of car market and daily products. The limitation is, however, these
goods from narrowly defined industries and highly significant complex products can
hardly be defined as homogenous products, based on the raw materials or parts they
used in different countries.
Subsequently, some other researches focused on identical products from
specific firms, but sold in various countries. Ghosh and Wolf (1994) applied the data
of the price of a magazine--The Economist to prove that departures of the
common-currency price are the effect of exchange rate variations rather than
intentional price discrimination. Knetter (1997) used the same products data finding
that in Europe and Scandinavia, the price differentials are small, while comparing the
price in UK and the US, the price of the magazine vary a lot between these areas. This
phenomenon can be explained as the language barriers leading different market
demands, which implies that this magazines price differentials can be still related to
pricing-to-market. Both of these two researches show that some deviations on prices
can be traced to menu costs and price discriminations.
Moreover, another famous research is the Big-Max-Index from The Economist.
Pakko and Pollard (2003) used the theory of purchasing power parity (PPP) as the
basic theory to analyze whether there is PPP for truly homogenous product--Big

14

Mac burger in McDonald's restaurants in different countries. In their articles, the

authors reviewed the definition of the theory of PPP firstly and then illustrate some
reasons why the theory of PPP does not hold. In their paper, they mentioned the
explanations toward price differentials from three aspects, which are trade goods,
non-trade goods and pricing to market, improving the theories of the law of one price
and purchasing power parity.
However, both of the researches on The Economist and Big-Max-Index show a
limitation that either of their researches included only one specific product, which
makes researchers consider whether they can study several identical products to try to
explain the deviations of LOP. In this research, we are trying to overcome this
limitation on the study of LOP and PPP by analyzing five identical products prices
from IKEA, among ten countries from different regions, to built a more
comprehensive level for explanations of the deviations of LOP.
Following Pakko and Pollard (2003)s study aspects will be continued and
improved when it comes to figure out why LOP doesnt hold for IKEAs products.
According to what former researchers have found on the researches about Big Macs
price and the Economists prices, various costs will affect products price differentials.
And it is a common sense that it is costly to transport goods across different countries
boundaries. So without doubt, transportation cost and tariff will take a great
responsibility to explain why the prices actually depart from the theories. In addition,
abstracting the effects from complicating factors such as transportation cost and all
kinds of trade barriers such as tariff, according to the theory of PPP, a certain goods
price should be the same in different countries. For non-tradable goods, trade barriers
are not the main reason why price differential exists. So given the price of one product
in IKEA, it is necessary to capture more than the tradable components cost, such as
productivity, labor cost, rent, tax, etc., to see if we still find the differences of the price
across countries. The explanations for this paper will be specified as transportation
cost and trade barriers from the aspect of trade goods, productivity, labor cost and
value added tax from the aspect of non-trade goods. In addition, price discrimination
and special pricing strategies are another aspect of the explanations.
15

2.2.1 Transportation cost

When it comes to transportation cost, IKEA shows a strong transport-sensitive
since its products range is in the category of furnishing. It implies that if IKEA choose
to produce some kinds of products only in those countries which have the lower labor
cost, such as Vietnam, India and other Asian countries, it could be a big issue to
consider the high transportation cost. Since those countries are far away from the
main market in Europe. From the interview with Mr. Karlsson, the logics manager in
IKEA Gavle, Li (2010) contributed that the price of goods is decided by the cost of all
logistics process. Moreover, the pricing strategies are set by the managers in different
countries, based on the production and transportation cost. This point provides an
aspect to explain the reason why IKEAs products have different prices in different
countries.
The transportation cost can be divided into following three main parts: The
transportation cost occurs during the raw materials being transported from the
purchasing places to the production places, during the products being transported
from production locations to distribution centers and local stores, and finally during
the products being transported from local stores to customers home. From the
viewpoint of IKEA, what will influence their products different prices in different
countries are those transportation costs occur in the former two steps, since they will
charge an extra fee if they take on the task to transport their products from stores to
customers home.
This paper considers the transportation cost is affecting the price differentials
from the following main aspects: Because IKEA, as it states on its website, is a
product-oriented company, which treats cost and quality as its advantages in the
competition. The differentials on transportation cost sometimes depend on the balance
between cost and quality. Baraldi (2003) mentioned that, IKEA pushes its suppliers all
over the world to make use of a specific raw material when its purchasing
departments have found the material as an advantageous material. The special raw
materials are encouraged to be used even its suppliers come from different areas. That
16

is, for instance, when IKEA have found the larch wood as a special source in China,
they quickly recognized it and encouraged all suppliers to use this kind of source from
China. It may lead to two possible results. One is, because of the specificity of the raw
materials, IKEA has to produce these kinds of products in China, and then try to
delivery them to different market areas. Thus, it will come up with a large amount of
transportation cost, especially on the way from suppliers to stores, so that the prices in
China can be much lower than mean levels. And different countries can hold different
prices for these products. The other result is, since the specific and unique raw
material has to be used, other suppliers from all kinds of countries may compete for
this raw material. Then this raw material will be transferred to the suppliers in
different countries for production. It may cause a large amount of transportation cost
during the process from the raw materials purchasing place to the suppliers. The final
products will be distributed to the nearby markets. However, both of these above
situations can lead to a large variation on transportation cost, and finally contributes to
the different prices in different countries for identical products.

2.2.2 Trade barriers

If the transportation cost can be considered as kind of natural barriers to trade,
tariff will be the trade barrier imposed by the government. In fact, tariff is one of the
government-induced restrictions in international trade. There are many other
government restrictions, such as import licenses, export licenses, import quotas,
subsidies, etc. Tariff is treated as a typical trade restriction because it has played an
important role in the price. Governments always tend to use a protectionist trade policy
or a protective tariff. Thus they can protect domestic industries from the competitions
of foreign industries. In brief, tariff represents a tax on imported products, causing a
raise in the price of the imported good.
We collect the tariff data from the World Bank in 2011, which is related to the
average tariff levels in different countries.
Table 2: The Tariff Levels in Ten Countries

17

Country

Tariff (%)

UK

1.61

Germany

1.61

France

1.61

Ireland

1.61

Sweden

1.61

Norway

0.44

Finland

1.61

Japan

1.6

China

4.04

Singapore

United Kingdom, Germany, France, Ireland, Sweden and Finland are the
members of the European Union. They actually build a single market which contains a
customs union to impose a common external tariff on all goods entering the union. Thus,
tariff in these six countries has the same level, which has shown in Table 2 as 1.61%. If
tariff data is included into a regression model, it will be difficult to explain why the
products prices are different in the chosen ten countries. In other word, tariff is not the
main factor affecting the price differential in the European Union. In this case, the data
can be used will only include Norway, Japan, China and Singapore, to find how the
tariffs influence the prices. Since the data range is too small, the qualitative analysis
will hereby be given instead of the quantitative way.
Some research studies have been carried out on this topic. Cassel (1921)
investigated the influences of trade restrictions. It stated that, If trade between two
countries is more hampered in one direction than in the other, the value of the money of
the country whose export is relatively more restricted will fall, in the other country,
beneath the purchasing power parity. The author indicates that import and export
restrictions have opposite effects on purchasing power parity. In other words, if
government imposes fewer restrictions on imports, the currency in this country will be
undervalued. The article adopted different tariffs of beef in Korea and Japan, finding
that tariff is a partial explanation of the beef differential between these two countries.
It is efficient if study the impact of tariff using economical analyzing. As is known,
tariff will raise the price of imported goods. Thus, we use the following figure to

18

illustrate the effects of world trade without tariff. In Figure 2, DD refers to domestic
demand and DS represents domestic demand. Demand and supply at home determine
the price, P, while the world price is P*, lower than native price. Under this situation,
domestic consumers will consume goods, while producers will just produce .
So, the country will import worth of goods.
Figure 2: Effects of World Trade without Tariff

However, when the government decides to impose a tariff on import goods and
price will increase and the volume of imports will decrease. From this figure, price
increases to P, and because of the prices raising, producers are stimulated to produce
more goods, moves to right. At the same time, demand will decrease to left.
Eventually, the imports will be reduced.
Figure 3: Effects of world trade with tariff

Thus, we can conclude that tariff will affect price differentials, which departs
from the theory of PPP. However, as shown in Table 2, China has the highest tariff level,
while the prices of the most of the IKEA goods are lower than they are in other
19

countries. Since these kinds of products may be produced local. So we can not use
tariff to analyze the price differentials in different countries directly in the regression
model. Therefore, productivity, labor cost and value-added tax should be taken into
account. It is also the contribution for the study on IKEAs price differentials in this
paper.

2.2.3 Productivity
A wealth information is to be found in the literatures regarding the impact of
productivity differentials to price variations. Samuelson (1964) and Balassa (1964)
proved that productivity differences across countries or industries would affect the
theory of PPP deviations of non-traded goods. They also stated that high-income
country would have overvalued currency relative to low-income country. In addition,
higher GDP per capita represents higher income and higher labor productivity.
Gross domestic product (GDP) is the total value of all market goods and
services produced within a country. Then GDP per capita can be treated as an indicator
of a nations prosperity, while GDP per employed person and GDP per working hour
may therefore show a countrys productivity from different viewpoints.
Gutsalyuk (2004) adopted the principle of Balassa-Samuelson (B-S) theory,
trying to find the relationship between productivity and price. It points out that about
9-16 percent of change in the price level can be explained by relative productivity
changes. Pellnyi (2007) also use Harrod-Balsssa-Samuelson theory to look for the
relationship. His paper organized a panel database of relative price levels of 34
product groups in 29 European countries during 1996-2005, suggesting that
productivity growth leads to increasing price.
According to the definitions, GDP per capita and GDP per person employed can
indicate the development level in different economies. In other words, higher GDP per
person employed or productivity will cause higher price of goods. It is the reason why
high labor productivity is associated with high level of human capital, determining the
rise of wages in the society. For example, each year China keep a pace of 8 persent

20

increase on GDP. Increasing with the development of productivity, the price of

haircut for man in 1980s was about 0.5Yuan each time in China. However, in 1990s, the
price increased to 2 Yuan. The present situation is every man has to pay 15 Yuan in
average for the haircut service. Thus, productivity can partially explain price
differentials in different countries.

2.2.4 Labor cost

Labor cost is the sum of wages, taxes and extra cost, such as health insurance
that companies have to pay to employees each accounting period, usually one month.
Former researchers have tried to investigate the relationship between the labor
cost and the price. Samuelson (1964) and Balassa (1964) contributed that wages are
higher in high-income economies, which are closely related to high labor productivity
in all sectors. Also, they emphasize that wages in the service sector are higher in
high-income country, causing a higher price in these kinds of countries and the currency
of high-income country will be overvalued compared to the currency in low-income
country. Josheski et al. (2011) tested the issue of causality between wages and prices in
UK, finding that prices and wages are positive, while productivity is not significant in
determination of prices through using the OLS method. They have drawn the
conclusion as it would induce a 5.24 percent increase in the price for every percent
increase in wages. The published information that is relevant to this paper expects a
positive relationship between price level and wages, or labor costs.
In a market economy, monthly wage should be paid no matter the company is
profitable or not. So, labors wage will influence the goods price through changing the
cost of products. If the labor cost is higher, the cost of goods will increase, which
further increase goods prices.

2.2.5 Value-added tax

Based on the relevant researches, value-added tax (VAT) is still a relatively
new tax on consumption of goods and services in the world. It was first introduced 40
21

years ago in France5 [Thuronyi, (1996)] . In the book of Ebrill, etc. (2001), the
authors state that the birth of VAT is probably the most important tax development in
latter twentieth century. Now VAT is a primary source of government revenue, which
rises about one-quarter of all government revenue. They developed VAT as:
A broad-based tax levied on commodity sales up to and including, at least, the
manufacturing stages, with systematic offsetting of tax charged on commodities
purchased as inputsexcept perhaps on capital goodsagainst that due on outputs.
It means VAT is always levied on the value added at every stage of production
and distribution of goods and services. This is a key feature of the value-added tax:
the tax is charged throughout the production process, with taxes on inputs credited
against taxes on output. For example, a timber company sells timbersone of main
raw materials for furniturefor a price of 100 SEK (excluding tax) to a furniture
company, which in turn sells its output to final consumers for 400 SEK (again
excluding tax). Assume that VAT rate is 10%. The timber company will charge
furniture company 110 SEK, remitting 10 SEK to the government in tax, while
Furniture Company will charge the consumer 440 SEK which contains the
value-added tax for 40 SEK. However, the taxable person is entitled to deduct the tax
already paid at the preceding stage. It means the furniture company only needs to pay
the government 30 SEK. In this situation, the output tax is 40 SEK and minus a credit
for 10 SEK of tax charged on its inputs. The total government revenue is 40 SEK. The
tax has been partially shifted forward to the buyers from the sellers. Moreover, Viren
(2007) deals with the question of how VAT affects consumption prices, finding that all
analysis support more than one half of a tax incidence shifts to prices. It proves that
the final consumer, who will use the final goods or services for non-taxable purpose,
absorbs VAT as part of the purchasing price. The above-mentioned procedure
indicates that the tax actually is shared between the buyers and the sellers.
From the statements above, VAT is a key factor in determining products cost,
which further influences the final price of goods. Ruebling (1973) mention that VAT
has been a concern of Europeans since VAT is rated to the possibility of increase in
5

The taxe sur la valeur ajoute was introduced in 1954

22

average price of goods and services. Sellers were always able to raise prices to cover
the VAT they pay, leading to an increase in goods price. Sekwati and Malema (2011)
advanced that it is possible for suppliers to raise their products prices immediately in
anticipation of increase in VAT since they take VAT as a hidden tax and goods cost.
National Audit Office of the Republic of LithuaniaPublic Audit Report, (2006)
investigated a research project-- On the application of reduced value-added tax rates
and concluded that a reduced VAT rate have direct benefits to consumers owning to
the fact that prices for relevant goods and services will go down, the supply of and
demand for such goods/services will increase. These researches reflect that
value-added taxes do play an important role in products prices.

3 The Institutional Framework of IKEA

It is hard to get more information about the reasons why IKEAs identical
products have different prices in different countries, since IKEA is a private company
who doesnt show enough data and details in public. It means that the price
differentials may be related to some factors regarding special pricing and management
strategies. In this chapter, some kinds of specific characteristics of IKEA will be given
as the basis to help understand the price differentials of IKEAs identical products. It
will be described from the following three main views: The price setting strategies,
market environment and logistic process.

3.1 Price setting strategies

As a cost oriented furnishing company, IKEA created its business idea as To
offer a wide range of well designed, functional home furnishing products at prices so
low that as many people as possible will be able to afford them. It means reaching out to
as many people as possible and helping them achieve their dream home at the lowest
possible cost, mentioned by IKEA welcome inside (2011).
From the viewpoint of the whole IKEA Group Company, IKEA holds variety

23

pricing strategies based on their lower prices aim. One of them is that IKEA sets the
prices of their products before their research and development. It means IKEA designs
the price tag as a basis, and then develops the products to suit that price. Usually, the
price tag comes from IKEAs product managers searching. The development and
research department of IKEA builds a price matrix to find opportunities in the
companys product lineup, and decides how much will the new product charge for,
stated by Magonelly (2002). In order to provide lower price, product managers will
consider the mainly market locations for their primary new product, find out the price
of similar products produced by their rivals, and finally set their price of target products
30-50% below them. The designer of IKEA will then get the final products prices, and
try to consider the details of these products to control the sale prices. This price priority
strategy has been shown on the website of IKEA as their business idea. Based on the
information from the website, IKEA provides a possibility to let the product developers,
designers and suppliers work together, trying to come up with the best design. In the
process of designing, the designers usually keep contact with the production
department and the logistics department, to get more information about the selection of
materials and the product specifications. At the same time of designing, they will also
look for the suitable supplier based on the produce prices, the quality of products, the
productivity, the geographical locations, etc. Thus they can guarantee to provide a
well-designed, practical product with an acceptable price.
However, according to the comprehension about IKEAs different prices for
identical products in different countries, there may exist some special strategies in
specific area. That is, from the viewpoint of IKEAs local stores, in some regions, the
attitude that they constantly pursue the lower prices motivates IKEA to set different
specific pricing strategies in different countries. This idea can help IKEAs variety
products fit the different economic and cultural environments as fast as possible. It
implies the price-setting tries to fit not only the market forms but also customer
behaviors including their consumption habit and level in some points of view. Take
what IKEA stores have done in China as an example. Since IKEA builds its first store
in China later than its competitors such as B&Q from the UK, it can hardly promote
24

their brand popularity at the beginning. In addition, based on the differences on

average wage, living standard and other factors between Sweden and China, the
potential customers in China thought the prices of IKEAs products are not that cheap,
and in some points, IKEA was beyond the average level on how much people would
like to spend on furniture or household articles, instead of a common brand for
everyone. This reality at that period made IKEA have to push lowest price strategy in
China. According to this strategy, the prices for more than 120 kinds of products with
the signboard of The Lowest Price in Beijing in IKEA is about 20% cheaper than
any other furniture market .6 This local strategy can help IKEA rebuild its brand
image in China, and make a lot of contribution on its sales and profits performance in
total, although the profits per promoting products decreased. Generally IKEA will try
to raise some other products prices to cover the deficit of these chosen products
profits decrease. Through this special strategy, IKEA may try to set a much lower price
towards Chinese market. Pointed out that even if remove the influence of the
transportation costs, productivity, labor costs, value-added tax and any other factors
which lead to different prices in different countries, the prices can be still different
between different countries, even the profit they can get will be strongly different. To
analyze the reasons why IKEA holds different prices for identical products in different
countries, this differentiation strategy is one of the factors that we should be aware of.
Considering this special strategy in China with the traditional strategy
regarding the priority of pricing, this pricing behavior emphasizes that IKEA intend to
set different prices in different countries. Further up, this information presents IKEA
does not price at least some special kinds of products based on the law of one price
initially. However, this possible explanation only exist when it comes to some kinds
of products IKEA has owned, for these kinds of products are priced using the special
pricing strategy to fit the demand of specific markets.

Data sources: www,.ikea.com

25

3.2 Market environment

IKEA stores are facing up to variety market forms in different countries. It
provides an essential aspect when it comes to discuss the price deviations. As an
international furnishing company, IKEA has to face up to complex and variable
competitive environment. Though it is rare to be a monopoly in a specific local market,
monopoly competition is still the market form which is relatively easy to get in the
majority markets of European zone, especially in Northern Europe. There could be
some small-sized companies study on IKEAs operation model and imitate the products
design style, however, since it is hard to own the production and sales scale like IKEA
has, they cannot cut down their cost to own the competitive force at the similar price
and quality level as IKEA has. So IKEA still has the power to influence the market
prices. It may come up with the price discrimination to explain the different prices in
different countries.
The price discrimination, however, describes a situation that transactions occur
with different prices on an identical product from the same provider, regardless the
transaction costs. The price discrimination can only be a feature of monopolistic or
oligopolistic market, and it needs a guarantee that there are market segmentation and
some method to avoid any kinds of arbitrage, so that the discount customers cant
purchase it in a lower price and sell it in a higher price. For IKEA the price
discriminations in some area are possible to be achieved.
First of all, this private company is developing in a monopolistic or oligopolistic
market in some countries in Europe. For instance, in Sweden the customers are the
price takers. To reach the profit-maximizing output level; IKEA can make some
difference in the pricing strategy, if they can get approximate perfect information from
the stores where they can keep contact with their customers directly.
Second, the price differentials among Europe are not that worth to purchase
products in one country and sell them in another country, taking transportation cost and
risks into account. Moreover, the most of IKEAs products have their patent right and
selling right, which means the goods in IKEA stores are designed by IKEA, made in
26

IKEA owned factories, and can be only sold in IKEA stores. This measure is a constant,
valid barrier to make sure the arbitrage can hardly occur. Another important reason to
avoid arbitrage is that the products of IKEA are daily consumption goods and furniture,
it will depreciate when it becomes to a second-hand goods.

Figure 4: Demand Curve

However, when it comes to other market forms, to meet the point of

profit-maximizing, pricing towards the market tends to be more suitable to explain the
prices deviations. That is, setting different prices to identical products towards different
kinds of market demand they will meet in different countries. For example, the pricing
decisions may depend on how responsive demand is to the price change. If the
demand curve in a market is inelastic, IKEA will be more possible to set higher price
in this market. The demand change will not drop a lot so that IKEA can still get
revenue. Conversely, if the consumers are sensitive to the price changes, which
implies the market is elastic, it will be profitable to lower the price. This concept is
illustrated in Figure 4(a) . As shown in the Welcome Inside 2011(IKEA), IKEA
decides to cut the price of sofa EKTORP, according to the increasing in demand .. It
demonstrates this sofa market has high elasticity.
The price setting will be decided by the market performance. If an identical
product shows weak demand in one country, IKEA will first lower the price in their
newest annual catalog, in order to stimulate the demand. The motivation of the price
decrease is different from what its statement mentioned about. IKEAs statement
implies that they have lowered the cost on particular products because it is their

27

responsibility to win the benefits of cost saving with their customers. However, this
kind of statement is more likely a public relation skill instead of the truth of their
pricing variation reasons.

3.3 Logistics process

According to IKEAs words, the logistics cost is one of their most essential
pricing factors. Thus, if we want to figure out the factors which can make some
contribution to the deviations on prices in different countries, one of our priority tasks
is collecting the data about transportation cost of IKEAs identical products. The
problem is, it is the lower logistics cost that makes IKEA succeed on cost controlling
meanwhile the lower prices for its products. So, it is definitely a business secret, no
one can get the real transportation cost. Under this condition, this paper only shows
the outline of IKEA logistics process to help understand how the transportation cost is
related to price variations.
IKEA has three main delivery ways. For the first type of delivery measures,
IKEA will first transport the products from the production factory to the logistics
centre or known as the distribution center all over the world. Then, based on the
different demands on the products categories, the specific products will be carried to
the stores nearly and finally face up to the customers. For the second type of delivery
measures, the product will not be produced by only one supplier. In some situations,
one product may be divided into several parts, and each suppliers produce one or
several parts of this products. Then all of the parts of this product will be delivered to
the distribution centre. In there, the final products will be assembled and transported
to the stores. On the other hand, to cut down the logistics cost, one identical product
may have different suppliers when they are sold in different countries. For the third
transport measure, to save the cost, IKEA may choose to skip the procedure of
distribution part; the products will be directly delivered from suppliers to the stores.
However, this is still not as widespread as other two ways. The choice between these
three different delivery ways will be decided by the cost, and the different

28

transportation costs can be considered in the pricing process. However general

reflection is that transportation costs do not necessarily need to be carried by the
products with longer and more expensive transportation. IKEA can redistribute the
costs, so that other products finance the increased transportation costs. This point can
explain the huge differentials of prices for the relatively expensive products.
After the products have been transferred to the distribution centre, the staff
there will distribute all kinds of products to the stores selectively. For a given store,
what kinds of products and how many products will be transported, are based on the
sales and marketing performance. For instance, if an IKEA store is near a university, it
will not purchase too many products which are under the category of Childrens
IKEA.
The different delivery ways give us some ideas about how to assess the
transportation costs effect towards the price deviations in different countries. It is also
helpful to come up with the way this research are using to figure out productivity and
labor costs contribution in the price deviations as well.

4 Methodology
In this chapter, we are going to collect the data to analyze whether IKEAs
identical products hold different prices in different countries, then present the
empirical model we built in this research; finally discuss the expected result and
hypothesis for empirical model analysis.

4.1 Data collection

We collected five identical products prices in ten different countries. All of
these data derived from the annual catalogues which are provided on IKEAs
websites.
Based on the information we present in this paper, IKEA divides its products
into several departments or categories, which including five main parts: living room,

29

bedroom, kitchen & appliances, childrens IKEA, and textiles & rugs. So this paper
selects one product from each category, thus five study objects in total are chosen.
These five identical products are picked from IKEAs website to guarantee that the
data has validity and representativeness. Five products are as below:
Table 3: Products Description7
Name and Series

Department

Width

Depth

Height

Two-seat sofa, KIVIK

Living Room

190cm

95cm

83cm

Bed frame high, MALM

Bedroom

211cm

197cm 38cm

Base cab f waste sorting, FAKTUM

Kitchen & Alliances

39.8cm

60cm

86cm

Cot, SUNDVIK

Childrens IKEA

126cm

66cm

88cm

Anti-slip Underlay, STOPP

Textiles & Rugs

165cm

235cm null

This paper will use the series name following to present the specialized
products, instead of both name and series for convenience.
We collect all of these five products prices in ten different countries; the
countries we have chosen to study are the UK, Germany, France, Ireland from Western
Europe, Norway, Sweden, Finland from Northern Europe, and Japan, China, Singapore
from Asia. The selections mainly based on their locations and their high share of IKEAs
total sales of final products, as well as IKEAs purchase of raw materials/products for
their production. Table 4 shows the countries that IKEA has its largest share of product
sales and supplier of final products.

Table 4: The Top 5 Selling and Supplier Countries8

Top 5 share of
total sales

Germany
15%

The U. S.
11%

France
10%

Italy
7%

Sweden
6%

Top 5 share of
supply of products

China
22%

Poland
18%

Italy
8%

Sweden
5%

Germany
4%

This table gives a brief description about the markets distribution of IKEA.
Table 5 lists the prices which are acquired from IKEAs catalogues:

7
8

Source: http://www.ikea.com/
Source: Li (2010), The competitive advantage of IKEA and IKEA in China .
30

Table 5: The Price List in Different Currencies9

Product
Country

KIVIK

MALM

FAKTUM

SUNDVIK

STOPP

UK

GBP325

GBP259

GBP88

GBP89.99

GBP7.99

Germany

EUR349

EUR 189

EUR 153

EUR 99

EUR 6.99

France

EUR 399

EUR 239

EUR 109

EUR 99

EUR 6.99

Ireland

EUR 364.94

EUR 283.61

EUR 107.75

EUR 102.64

EUR 10.16

Sweden

SEK3,495

SEK 2,295

SEK 1,355

SEK 995

SEK 59

Norway

NOK2,890

NOK1,795

NOK1,115

NOK795

NOK59

Finland

EUR 379

EUR 219

EUR 134

EUR 129

EUR 6.95

Japan

JPY39,900

JPY32,900

JPY23,200

JPY9,900

JPY899

China

CNY1,999

CNY1,499

CNY1,075

CNY999

CNY79

Singapore

SGD545

SGD539

SGD228

SGD249

SGD15.90

Since it is necessary to convert the prices into a common currency, the

exchange rates we used in this paper are shown as:

Table 6: Exchange Rate10

Currency

1 EUR

in EUR

British Pound (GBP)

0.81915

1.22078

Chinese Yuan (CNY)

8.2468

0.121259

Japanese Yen (JPY)

106.64

0.00937735

Norwegian Kroner (NOK)

7.5525

0.132406

Singapore Dollar (SGD)

1.6381

0.610462

Swedish Krona (SEK)

8.85

0.112994

This is the newest exchange rate information on April 18th 2012. The recent
published exchange rate information is used because it is more important to describe
the current situation about IKEA price deviations. Using the exchange rates in last year
is still another choice since the annual catalogues are more likely determined in last year.
However, it will have no influence on the research result if this years exchange rates are
used since the difference between this year and last year is very small.
Table 7 provides the prices which are converted into euro in different countries .
At the end of Table 7 is shown the average price of each product. As a result it is
9
10

Source: http://www.ikea.com/
Source: http://www.x-rates.com
31

obvious that for KIVIK, the prices in China, Singapore and Germany are lower than the
average price, while others are higher. For MALM, Germany, France, Norway, Finland
and China set prices below average price. For FAKTUM, the prices in United Kingdom,
France, Ireland, Finland and China are lower than the average price EUR 139.9. For
SUNDVIK, three out of five countries prices are lower than the average price and there
are United Kingdom, Germany, France, Ireland, Norway and Japan. In the last column,
STOPP shows the price below the average in Germany, France, Sweden, Norway and
Finland.
Table 7: The price list in a common currency (EUR)
Product
Country

KIVIK

MALM

FAKTUM

SUNDVIK

STOPP

UK

396.75

316.18

107.43

109.86

9.75

Germany

349.00

189.00

153.00

99.00

6.99

France

399.00

239.00

109.00

99.00

6.99

Ireland

364.94

283.61

107.75

102.64

10.16

Sweden

394.91

259.32

153.11

112.43

6.67

Norway

382.65

237.67

147.63

105.26

7.81

Finland

379.00

219.00

134.00

129.00

6.95

Japan

374.16

308.51

217.55

92.84

8.43

China

242.40

181.77

130.35

121.14

9.58

Singapore

332.70

329.04

139.19

152.01

9.71

Mean

361.551

256.31

139.901

112.318

8.304

Based on Table 7, Germany has the prices which are below average in 4 of 5
cases, while China is 3 of 5. This table shows strong deviations on the prices of IKEAs
products, which indicates that the law of one price may not hold on IKEAs products.
Since value-added tax play an important role in prices differentials among
different countries, it is essential to control the influence of VAT by the following
method:
(7)

= (1 )

where is the price without excluding VAT, and represents the

price that has excluded the influence of VAT.
The value of VAT in ten sample countries is illustrated in Figure 5.
32

Figure 5: VAT Distribution in Ten Countries11

30%
25%
20%

20%

23%

25%

25%

23%

19% 19.60%

17%

15%

VAT

10%

5%

5%

7%

UK
Ge
rm
an
y
Fr
an
ce
Ir
el
an
d
Sw
ed
en
No
rw
ay
Fi
nl
an
d
Ja
pa
n
Ch
in
Si
a
ng
ap
or
e

0%

This figure suggested that the standard VAT rate applied in seven European
countries varies from 19% to 25%. The minimum allowable standard VAT rate (19%) is
applied in Germany, while the maximum VAT rate (25%) is applied in Norway and
Sweden. In general, European countries VAT rates are higher than in other three Asia
countries. Among all of these ten countries, Japan has the minimum VAT rate, just 5%
and second is Singapore, 7%.
The prces after subtracting the value of VAT is presented in Table 8.

11

Source: http://www.uscib.org/index.asp?documentID=1676
33

Table 8: The price without VAT

Product
Country

KIVIK

MALM

FAKTUM

SUNDVIK

STOPP

UK

317.40

252.94

85.94

87.89

7.80

Germany

282.69

153.09

123.93

80.19

5.66

France

320.80

192.16

87.64

79.60

5.62

Ireland

281.00

218.38

82.97

79.03

7.82

Sweden

296.18

194.49

114.83

84.32

5.00

Norway

286.99

178.25

110.72

78.95

5.86

Finland

291.83

168.63

103.18

99.33

5.35

Japan

355.45

293.08

206.67

88.20

8.01

China

201.19

150.87

108.19

100.55

7.95

Singapore

309.41

306.00

129.45

141.37

9.03

Mean

294.294

210.789

115.352

91.943

6.81

Moreover, the individual price differentials for each of our observation

products are graphed. Take the price distribution of MALM as an example as is shown
in Figure 6. Other products price distribution will be placed in appendix. Mentionable,
all of these price differentials have been removed the influences of VAT among
different countries.

Figure 6: The price distribution of MALM

MALM
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0

Ch
in
a
Si
ng
ap
or
e

Ja
pa
n

Fi
nl
an
d

No
rw
ay

Ge
rm
an
y
Fr
an
ce
Ir
el
an
d
Sw
ed
en

UK

MALM

It is expected to find there is a general fall in the products price and now more
countries prices are below to the average price. Yet the most obvious changes are in
34

Sweden and Norway because there are four products prices below average, which
may be caused by their highest VAT. However, the situation in Germany and China
remains, since Germany still have four products price lowering than average price and
China has three. This new table with transformed price departs from the thory of LOP
as well.

4.2 Empirical model

In the following section, a regression model is developed for quantitative
analysis. It helps investigate if deviation from the mean prices of different products in
different countries is systematically different in our selection of countries. The
regression model is built using the method which provided by Hassink and Schettkat
(2001):
(8)

,
= 0 + 1 + 2 + + 10 + ,

This paper collects the data of 5 products in 10 countries which deducted VAT
value, so that this model contains 50 observations in total. We focus on the following
steps to establish the model: First, set variable as , , where index i refers to the five
products (i = 1, , 5) and c identify the 10 countries (c = 1, , 10). Second, calculate
the mean price for each product. Supposing this variable is . We calculated the
value of natural logarithm (ln) in the 50 prices and 5 mean prices. Finally, a new variable
has been given which is defined as

(9) ,
= ln , ln

This variable describes the relative deviation from the mean for product i in

country c. For example, if ,

= 0.05 , then the price is on average 5% higher than the

mean price for all countries. Now 50 observations of ,

are collected, this group of

data forms the dependent variable in this model. The independent variables are country
dummy variables, which is equal to one if the observation comes from country c and
in Model (8). In addition, Singapore will be treated as the reference country.
Model (8) is used to test whether is equal to zero or not. If is not equal to
zero, the PPP does not apply apparently. Based on the illustration in section two, this

35

paper treats the following factors as the explanations of the research question:
Transportation cost, tariff, labor cost and productivity. Considering the difficulties of
finding the data of transportation cost and the similarity of tariff in European area, the
regression method is only used to analyze the influences of labor cost and productivity.
So when investigating whether national differences in productivity and labor
costs can explain the price differences, these variables have to contained into the model.
In this case, the model can be expressed as follows:
(10)

,
= 0 + 1 + 2 + + 10 + 1 +

2 +
In this equation, labor cost and productivity will be regarded as dummy
variables by computer. There is only one value for each country, so there will be a
perfect linear correlation between the explaining variables. From the regression result,
we will observe the coefficient of labor cost and productivity, that is 1 and 2 . Based
on our analysis in theoretical part, we expect the sign of 1 and 2 are positive
because based on the mentioned studies; labor cost and productivity should be
positively related to price. At the same time, should be different from zero, too.
Based on the empirical model which has been explained, the collected data
of labor cost and productivity are as shown in Figure 7.
Labor cost is collected from the International Labor Organization. The data
contains hourly compensation costs for all employees in the manufacturing sector (US =
100) in 2009. Assuming that compensation cost is closely related to labor cost, although
it cant completely correspond to the definition of labor cost.

36

Figure 7: Labor Cost and Productivity in Ten Vountries

Labor Cost
productivity

U
Ge K
rm
an
y
Fr
an
Ir ce
el
an
d
Sw
ed
en
No
rw
Fi ay
nl
an
d
Ja
pa
n
Ch
Si in
ng a
ap
or
e

180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0

Productivity is the output per unit of labor input, such as capita contribution or
hours working. Economic growth of a country can be described as the increase in
effective work by those who are employed, that is, labor productivity. In this thesis, the
data of GDP per person employed (constant 1990 PPP $) is used, which equals the gross
domestic product (GDP) divided by total employment in the economy collected from
The World Bank, 2010.

5 Results
5.1 Empirical results
We process the data using the software EVIEWS. During the procedure, linear
regression method is used to analyze the relationship between two chosen variables
and the price differentials have been found in this paper for IKEAs identical products.
The data of productivity and labor cost are put in the built empirical model as
variables., Table 9 describes the regression result we have gained.

37

Table 9: Regression Result with Ten Countries

Model (8)12

Model (10)13

Dependent variable:

ln ,

Dependent variable:

ln

ln , ln

Coefficients
0.108617

t-values
3.299767

Coefficients
-0.106447

t-values
-2.267052

UK

-0.103910

-2.232179

-0.134987

-2.961544

Germany

-0.161606

-3.471613

-0.145759

-1.564158

France

-0.162231

-3.485023

-0.207510

-3.412322

Ireland

-0.139313

-2.992701

-0.197052

-3.470819

Sweden

-0.149799

-3.217961

-0.169190

-2.633403

Norway

-0.155206

-3.334121

-0.174441

-1.641119

Finland

-0.152662

-3.279461

-0.173345

-2.309251

Japan

-0.002452

-0.052672

China

-0.155051

-3.330798

Constant

Singapore

Labor cost

-9.84E-05

-0.081520

Productivity

0.004945

2.223774

Dummy variables
F-test
R-squared
Adj. R-squared
SSR
N

9
3.769219
0.458896
0.337148
0.216698
50

7
3.769219
0.458896
0.337148
0.216698
50

The reference country in model (8) is Singapore, which means the spread of
price between Singapore and the average is about 0.11. In other words, on average,
the price value of natural logarithm of Singapore is about 11 percent, higher than the
mean price. Compared with this, the price of other countries are lower than Singapore,
for example, the price differential in United Kingdom is lower than in Singapore by
about 10 percent.
The statistic data provides that Singapore has the highest price level (+11%)
and France has the lowest price level (-16.2%). The range of the country effects is
about 27 percent. R-squared suggests that the model (8) can explain about 45.9
percent of the price variation, which does not change if we include other variables

12
13

Model (8): , = 0 + 1 + 2 + + 10 + ,
Model (10): , = 0 + 1 + 2 + + 10 + 1 + 2 +
38

such as labor cost and productivity. And it is noticed that the country coefficients
change slightly, but the location of the highest and the lowest price remain as before.
It points out that labor cost and productivity may affect price setting.
The following purpose is to test whether these products have the same price or
not in every country. It can be completed through checking the coefficients for all
dummies whether are zero or not. Model (11) describes both the null hypothesis and
the alternative hypothesis in this model.
(11)

H 0 : ., c 0
H 1 : ., c 0
The null hypothesis indicates there is no difference on price in each country

and the alternative hypothesis postulates that the price differentials exist. F-statistic =
3.769 is larger than F (9, 40) = 2.12 at 5% level of significance. At this significance
level, we can reject the null hypothesis. From the empirical results obtained so far, it
states that pricing of IKEAs identical products actually departs from LOP. And we
have described some of the reasons why LOP might not be expected to hold as a
practical matter during the theoretical part.
After that, this paper tests whether price has a significant relationship with
labor cost and productivity. Thus, we added these two factors in model (10).
Through observing the coefficients in model (10), it is easy to find that price is
positively related to productivity and negatively related to labor cost. Conversely,
productivity has positive coefficient and the t-value is about 2.22, which is lager than t
(40) = 1.684 at 5% significance. That is, productivity has significant effect on price. In
other words, productivity can partially interpret why IKEA products have different
prices in different countries.
However, the negative coefficient of labor cost is hard to explain since it
violates the existing theories about how labor costs should influence the price level. In
addition, the low t-value indicates that labor costs have no statistically significant
effects on the price variation across countries. It is helpful to review the original data
in this paper when it comes to try to explain the above unexpected results
Figure 7 in this paper shows that Germany, Japan, China and Singapore have
39

productivity below mean, 459719. But Japan and Singapore have prices below
average only for one product. Thus, it should be explained the positive correlation
between price and productivity in China and Germany, as Germany have price below
mean for 4 products and China for 3 products.
Switch to labor cost, however, below-average countries are now UK, Japan,
China and Singapore. Consequently, the negative correlation between labor costs and
prices could be explained by the fact that Germany has a labor cost above average. In
fact, Hassink and Ronald (2001) also got the same result with ours. In their test model,
the coefficient of labor cost is negative as well, but they didnt explain why this
phenomenon exists.

5.2 Sensitivity analysis

It is helpful to try to make some changes of the data range, to study how it
influences the empirical results. This method can help understand how sensitive the
results are to the specification of the model. In the following, we exclude the prices in
Germany, in China and in both Germany and China respectively to see the sensitivit y
of the established empirical model.
Firstly, we skip the data of Germany, since it has 4 of 5 products lower than
average but higher labor cost. If the price data of Germany is excluded, we will have a

new . Consequently, we can calculate a new dependent variable ,

which is

based on 9 countries instead of 10.

40

Table 10: Exclude Germany

Model (8)

Model (10)

Dependent variable:

ln ,

Dependent variable:

ln

ln , ln

Coefficients
0.103515

t-values
3.119508

Coefficients
-0.111548

t-values
-2.356588

UK

-0.103910

-2.214229

-0.134987

-2.937729

France

-0.162231

-3.456998

-0.207510

-3.384882

Ireland

-0.139313

-2.968636

-0.197052

-3.442909

Sweden

-0.149799

-3.192083

-0.169190

-2.612226

Norway

-0.155206

-3.307310

-0.174441

-1.627922

Finland

-0.152662

-3.253089

-0.173345

-2.290681

Japan

-0.002452

-0.052248

China

-0.155051

-3.304013

Labor cost

-9.84E-05

-0.080864

Productivity

0.004945

2.205891

Constant

Singapore

Dummy variables
F-test
R-squared
Adj. R-squared
SSR
N

8
3.935049
0.466512
0.347959
0.198203
45

6
3.935049
0.466512
0.347959
0.198203
45

The signs of these country dummy variables are consistent compared with
former result. However, the t-value did not change significantly. In this model,
Singapore is also treated as the reference country and the spread of price between
Singapore and the average is about 10.4 percent, lower than 11 percent. The
coefficients of other dummy variables remain as before. The highest price level
(+10.4%) belongs to Singapore as well and France has the lowest price level
(-16.2%).
Obviously, if the models data range excludes the data of Germany, R-squared
will increase to about 46.7%. This point suggests that now the price variation can be
explained on the level of about 46.7%. Whats more, the F-statistic (about 3.935) is
larger than 3.769. The higher the F-statistic is, the more significant the model can be
shown. From the discussion above, one may conclude that if we skip the price data of
Germany, the result will be better. Moreover, Model (10) shows all of the absolute
41

value of t is larger than 1.684 except Norway. Also prove that it can be considered as a
better result.

As shown in Figure 7, it is obvious that China has the lowest labor cost and
productivity, which has a large gap with others. This is the motivation why the result
which excludes the data of China is wanted. According to the method which removes

the data of Germany, firstly we will get the new , and ,

can be recaptured by

using 9 countries price and the new average price.

Table 11: Exclude China
Model (8)

Model (10)

Dependent variable:

ln ,
Coefficients

Dependent variable:

ln

ln , ln

t-values

Coefficients

t-values

Constant

0.104857

3.438711

1.365318

2.338894

UK

-0.103910

-2.409581

0.092031

1.132760

Germany

-0.161606

-3.747518

-0.215895

-1.950458

France

-0.162231

-3.761994

0.127387

1.261114

Ireland

-0.139313

-3.230546

0.220350

1.591458

Sweden

-0.149799

-3.473707

-0.009676

-0.229053

Norway

-0.155206

-3.599099

0.001865

0.034519

Finland

-0.152662

-3.540095

Japan

-0.002452

-0.056858

Labor cost

0.000142

0.118177

Productivity

-0.028475

-1.952297

Singapore

Dummy variables
F-test
R-squared
Adj. R-squared
SSR
N

8
4.738562
0.512911
0.404669
0.167368
45

6
4.738562
0.512911
0.404669
0.167368
45

As the result shown above, the values and the signs of these country dummy
variables still keep consistent with former results. However, if we exclude the data of
China, the R-squared will continually increase to about 51.3%, so that the price
variation can be explained on the level of about 51.3%. Whats more, the F-statistic
equals to about 4.74, larger than 3.769 and 3.935. In a word, if the price data of China
42

can be skipped, the result will be better than both the model with ten countries and the
one excluded the data of Germany. However, if labor cost and productivity are added
into the model, as models (10) shown, most of the t-value is not significance now. In
this situation, maybe both of labor cost and productivity are not suitable to explain
why the pricing actually departs from the theory of LOP.

Finally, the price both in Germany and China will be excluded followed the same
way we dealt with Germany and China.
Table 12: Exclude Germany and China
Model (8)

Model (10)

Dependent variable:

ln ,

Dependent variable:

ln

ln , ln

Coefficients
0.098727

t-values
3.251523

Coefficients
1.359189

t-values
2.338330

UK

-0.103910

-2.419863

0.092031

1.137594

France

-0.162231

-3.778048

0.127387

1.266496

Ireland

-0.139313

-3.244332

0.220350

1.598249

Sweden

-0.149799

-3.488531

-0.009676

-0.230030

Norway

-0.155206

-3.614458

0.001865

0.034666

Finland

-0.152662

-3.555202

2.338330

Japan

-0.002452

-0.057101

Labor cost

0.000142

0.118682

Productivity

-0.028475

-1.960628

Constant

Singapore

Dummy variables
F-test
R-squared
Adj. R-squared
SSR
N

7
5.068908
0.525802
0.422071
0.147510
40

5
5.068908
0.525802
0.422071
0.147510
40

Above mentioned two results show a strong possibility that skipping the data
for both Germany and China can advance the result of the regression model in this
paper. In fact, after eliminated the data of Germany and China at the same time, the
coefficients remain the same as before, but the price variation of Singapore continues
to decrease until about 9.8 percent. Not only the R-squared but also F-statistic are
higher than the results presented before. It implies that this kind of model is more

43

significant than others.

6 Conclusion
This paper aims at looking for the possible explanations regarding why do
IKEAs products have different prices in different countries. Given existing theories of
the law of one price and purchasing power parity, the price variations of IKEAs
products across countries need to be explained. We analyzed this puzzle by using
previous researches and data collection, and the empirical model we built in this paper.
In this paper, the explanations of the price differentials which exist in IKEA
have been divided into following three parts: (i) the existence of trade cost which
includes VAT, transportation cost and tarrif, (ii) the influence of non-traded parts cost
of the goods, which contains productivity and labor cost, (iii) other possible pricing
behaviors of the firms, such as price discriminations and special strategies in specific
regions.
According to our analysis and discussion, we draw the conclusion as follow:
First of all, IKEA holds different prices in different countries for its identical products.
And the price variation still exists after removing the influences of transportation cost,
trade barriers, taxes. It actually departs from the theories of LOP and PPP. () Price
discrimination and special market strategies in specific areas do play a role in the
price variation.
Second, transportation cost and tariff do play a role in the prices differentials;
however they are difficult to be analyzed in quantitative ways. Third, there is a linear
relationship between countrys productivity and the price variations across countries.
We found statistical significant evidence that higher productivity contributes to higher
national prices. On the other hand, higher labor cost had no significant effect on the
price variation. There are other factors which are influencing the pricing of IKEA, such
as price discrimination and special strategies in specific market areas. Future research
should further analyze how different local market influences the price setting of global
companies like IKEA.
44

Appendix
Figure 8: The price distribution of KIVIK
KIVIK
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0

UK
Ge
rm
an
y
Fr
an
ce
Ir
el
an
d
Sw
ed
en
No
rw
ay
Fi
nl
an
d
Ja
pa
n
Ch
in
a
Si
ng
ap
or
e

KIVIK

Figure 9: The price distribution of FAKTUM

FAKTUM
250
200
150
100

FAKTUM

Ch
in
a
Si
ng
ap
or
e

Ja
pa
n

Fi
nl
an
d

No
rw
ay

UK
Ge
rm
an
y
Fr
an
ce
Ir
el
an
d
Sw
ed
en

50
0

45

Figure 10: The price distribution of FAKTUM

SUNDVIK
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Ch
in
a
Si
ng
ap
or
e

Ja
pa
n

Fi
nl
an
d

No
rw
ay

UK
Ge
rm
an
y
Fr
an
ce
Ir
el
an
d
Sw
ed
en

SUNDVIK

Figure 11: The price distribution of FAKTUM

STOPP
10
8
6
4

STOPP

Si
ng
ap
or
e

Ch
in
a

Ja
pa
n

Fi
nl
an
d

No
rw
ay

Sw
ed
en

Ir
el
an
d

Fr
an
ce

Ge
rm
an
y

UK

2
0

Figure 12: Empirical results with ten countries

46

Figure 13: Empirical results added labor cost and productivity

Figure 14: Empirical results without Germany

47

Figure 15: Empirical results without Germany (including labor cost and productivity)

Figure 16: Empirical result without China

48

Figure 17: Empirical result without China (including labor cost and productivity)

Figure 18: Empirical result without Germany and China

49

Figure 19: Empirical results without Germany and China (including labor cost and
productivity)

50

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Mankiw, N. G. (2009), Macroeconomics, New York, Worth Publishers, International edition.

Mankiw, N. G. (2009), Principles of Microeconomics, Page 381.

Thuronyi, Victor (1996), Tax Law Design and Drafting, International Monetary Fund, volume 1,
chapter 6, Value-Added Tax.

54

Linnaeus University a firm focus on quality and competence

On 1 January 2010 Vxj University and the University of Kalmar merged to form Linnaeus University. This new
university is the product of a will to improve the quality, enhance the appeal and boost the development potential of
teaching and research, at the same time as it plays a prominent role in working closely together with local society.
Linnaeus University offers an attractive knowledge environment characterised by high quality and a competitive
portfolio of skills.
Linnaeus University is a modern, international university with the emphasis on the desire for knowledge, creative
thinking and practical innovations. For us, the focus is on proximity to our students, but also on the world around us
and the future ahead.

Linnus University
SE-39182 Kalmar/SE-35195 Vxj
Telefon 0772-288000