Chapter 1

Matter, Measurement,
and Problem Solving

Learning Objectives and Outcomes

Approach Scientific Questions
Determine physical and chemical
properties and changes
Convert temperature on different scales
Calculating density
Reporting scientific measurements
Using conversion factors
Solving problems with equations

What is Chemistry?

Merriam-Webster

What is Chemistry?

Chemistry is the science that seeks to

understand the behavior of matter by
studying the behavior of atoms and
molecules.

What is Chemistry?

The properties of matter are determined by

the properties of molecules and atoms.
If we want to understand the substances around
us, we must understand the atoms and
molecules that compose themthis is the central
goal of chemistry.

What is Chemistry?
Atoms and molecules determine how matter
behaves; if they were different, matter would
be different.
The properties of water molecules determine how
water behaves; the properties of sugar molecules
determine how sugar behaves.

The understanding of matter at the molecular

level gives us control over that matter.

Atoms and Molecules

Matter

Atoms and Molecules

Matter is anything that occupies space and
has mass.
Atoms are the submicroscopic particles that
constitute the fundamental building blocks of
ordinary matter.
Free atoms are rare in nature!

Molecules are atoms that are bound in

specific geometrical arrangements

Atoms and Molecules

The air contains carbon monoxide pollutant.

Carbon monoxide gas is composed of carbon
monoxide molecules.
Each molecule contains a carbon atom and an
oxygen atom held together by a chemical bond.

The Scientific Approach to Knowledge

The approach to scientific knowledge is empirical
it is based on observation and experiment.

The scientific method is a process for understanding

nature by observing nature and its behavior, and by
conducting experiments to test our ideas.
Key characteristics of the scientific method include
observation, formulation of hypotheses,
experimentation, and formulation of laws and
theories.

Observations
Observations are also known as data.
They are the descriptions about the
characteristics or behavior of nature.
Antoine Lavoisier (17431794) noticed that there
was no change in the total mass of material within
the container during combustion.

Observations often lead scientists to

formulate a hypothesis.

Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a tentative interpretation or
explanation of the observations.
For example, Lavoisier explained his observations on
combustion by hypothesizing that when a substance burns, it
combines with a component of air.

A good hypothesis is falsifiable.

The results of an experiment may support a hypothesis or
prove it wrongin which case the scientist must modify or
discard the hypothesis.

A Scientific Law
A brief statement that summarizes past
observations and predicts future ones
Law of conservation of mass In a chemical
reaction matter is neither created nor destroyed.

Allows you to predict future observations

So you can test the law with experiments

Unlike civil laws, you cannot choose to violate

a scientific law.

Theory
One or more well-established hypotheses may
form the basis for a scientific theory.
A scientific theory is a model for the way nature is
and tries to explain not merely what nature does,
but why.

Theories are validated by experiments.

Theories can never be conclusively proven
because some new observation or experiment
always has the potential to reveal a flaw.

The Scientific Approach to Knowledge

Good Hypotheses Why or Why not??

1. Dark chocolate could lead to increased longevity and
quality of life.
2. Peanut better cookies are more delicious than
chocolate chip cookies.
3. Ultraviolet (UV) light exposure may lead to changes
in pH of skin cells.
4. UV light from tanning beds are good for you.
5. The Red Sox are the best baseball team ever.
After further investigation, the original hypothesis may
be rejected, revised, or elevated to the status of a
scientific principle.

The Sun Also Rises

Monsterpiece Theater

Question:
Which statement best explains the difference
between a law and a theory?

(a)

A law is truth whereas a theory is a mere

speculation.

(b)

A law summarizes a series of related

observations, while a theory gives the
underlying reasons for them.

(c)

A theory describes what nature does; a

law describes why nature does it.

Answer:
Which statement best explains the difference
between a law and a theory?

(a)

A law is truth whereas a theory is a mere

speculation.

(b)

A law summarizes a series of related

observations, while a theory gives the
underlying reasons for them.

(c)

A theory describes what nature does; a

law describes why nature does it.

20## Pearson Education, Inc.

The Classification of Matter

Matter is anything that occupies space and
has mass.
Your textbook, your desk, your chair, and even
your body are all composed of matter.

We can classify matter according to its state

(its physical form) and its composition (the
basic components that make it up).

The States of Matter

Matter can be classified as solid, liquid, or

gas based on what properties it exhibits.

The state of matter changes from solid to

liquid to gas with increasing temperature.
What else can determine the state of matter?

Summary of State Changes (Temperature)

Phase Diagram Example (CO2)

critical point

Triple point

Structure Determines Properties

The atoms or molecules have different structures
in solids, liquids, and gasesleading to different
properties.

Solid Matter
In solid matter, atoms or molecules pack
close to each other in fixed locations.
Although the atoms and molecules in a solid
vibrate, they do not move around or past
each other.
Consequently, a solid has a fixed volume and
rigid shape.
Ice, aluminum, and diamond are good examples
of solids.

Solid Matter
Solid matter may be
crystallinein which case its
atoms or molecules are in
patterns with long-range,
repeating order.
Table salt and diamond are
examples of solid matter.

Others may be amorphous, in

which case its atoms or
molecules do not have any
long-range order.
Examples of amorphous solids
include glass and plastic.

Liquid Matter
In liquid matter, atoms or molecules pack
about as closely as they do in solid matter,
but they are free to move relative to
each other.
Liquids have fixed volume but not a
fixed shape.
Liquids ability to flow makes them assume
the shape of their container.
Water, alcohol, and gasoline are all substances
that are liquids at room temperature.

Gaseous Matter
In gaseous matter, atoms
or molecules have a lot of
space between them.
They are free to move
relative to one another.

These qualities make

gases compressible.

Classification of Matter by Components

Matter can also be classified according to its
composition: elements, compounds, and mixtures.

Classification of Matter by Components

The first division in the classification of matter
is between a pure substance and a mixture.
A pure substance is made up of only one
component and its composition is invariant.

A mixture, by contrast, is a substance

composed of two or more components in
proportions that can vary from one sample to
another.

Classification of Pure Substances

Pure substances categorize into two types:
Elements
Compounds

This categorization depends on whether or not

they can be broken down (or decomposed)
into simpler substances.

Classification of Pure Substances

An element is a substance that cannot be
chemically broken down into simpler
substances.
Basic building blocks of matter
Composed of single type of atom, like helium

A compound is a substance composed of two

or more elements in fixed definite proportions.
Most elements are chemically reactive and
combine with other elements to form compounds
like water, sugar, etc.

Classification of Mixtures
Mixtures can be categorized into two types:
Heterogeneous mixtures
Homogeneous mixtures

This categorization of mixture depends on how

uniformly the substances within them mix.

Heterogeneous Mixture
A heterogeneous mixture is one in which
the composition varies from one region of the
mixture to another.
Made of multiple substances, whose presence can
be seen (Example: a salt and sand mixture)
Portions of a sample of heterogeneous mixture
have different composition and properties.

Homogeneous Mixture
A homogeneous mixture is one made of
multiple substances, but appears to be one
substance.
All portions of a sample have the same
composition and properties (like sweetened
tea).
Homogeneous mixtures have uniform
compositions because the atoms or molecules
that compose them mix uniformly.

The Classification of Matter by Components

Matter can also be classified according to its
composition: elements, compounds, and mixtures.

Separating Mixtures
Mixtures are separable because the different
components have different physical or
chemical properties.
Various techniques that exploit these
differences are used to achieve separation.
A mixture of sand and water can be
separated by decantingcarefully pouring
off the water into another container.

Separating Mixtures
A homogeneous mixture
of liquids can usually be
separated by distillation,
a process in which the
mixture is heated to boil
off the more volatile
(easily vaporizable) liquid.
The volatile liquid is then
re-condensed in a
condenser and collected
in a separate flask.

Separating Mixtures
A mixture of an insoluble
solid and a liquid can be
separated by filtration
process in which the
mixture is poured through
filter paper in a funnel.

Physical and Chemical Changes

Physical Change:
Changes that alter only the state or
appearance, but not composition, are
physical changes.
The atoms or molecules that compose a
substance do not change their identity during
a physical change.

Physical Change
When water boils, it
changes its state from
a liquid to a gas.
The gas remains
composed of water
molecules, so this is
a physical change.

Chemical Change
Changes that alter the
composition of matter are
chemical changes.
During a chemical
change, atoms rearrange,
transforming the original
substances into different
substances.
Rusting of iron is a
chemical change.

Physical or Chemical Change?

Sublimation
of Dry Ice

Dissolving
Sugar in
Water

Burning of
Propane Gas

Physical vs. Chemical Properties

A physical property
is a property that a
substance displays
without changing its
composition.
The smell of gasoline is a
physical property.
Odor, taste, color,
appearance, melting
point, boiling point, and
density are all physical
properties.

A chemical property
is a property that a
substance displays
only by changing its
composition via a
chemical change (or
chemical reaction).
The flammability of
gasoline, in contrast, is a
chemical property.
Chemical properties
include corrosiveness,
acidity, and toxicity.

Energy: A Fundamental Part of Physical and

Chemical Change
Energy is the capacity
to do work.
Work is defined as the
action of a force through
a distance.

When you push a box across the floor or pedal your

bicycle across the street, you have done work.

Energy
Kinetic energy is the energy
associated with the motion of
an object.
Potential energy is the energy
associated with the position or
composition of an object.
Thermal energy is the energy
associated with the temperature
of an object.
Thermal energy is actually a type of
kinetic energy because it arises from
the motion of the individual atoms or
molecules that make up an object.

Summarizing Energy

Energy is always conserved in a physical or

chemical change; it is neither created nor
destroyed (law of conservation of energy).
Systems with high potential energy tend to
change in a direction that lowers their potential
energy, releasing energy into the surroundings.

The Units of Measurement

Map by ZME Science

The Units of Measurement

In chemistry, unitsstandard quantities used to
specify measurementsare critical.

The two most common unit systems are as

follows:
Metric system, used in most of the world
English system, used in the United States

Scientists use the International System of

Units (SI), which is based on the metric system.
The abbreviation SI comes from the French, phrase Systme
International dUnits.

The Standard Units

Metric Units

The Meter: A Measure of Length

The meter (m) is slightly longer than a yard (1 yard
is 36 inches, while 1 meter is 39.37 inches).

1 meter = 1/10,000,000 of the distance from the

equator to the North Pole (through Paris).
The International Bureau of Weights and Measures now defines it
more precisely as the distance light travels through a vacuum in a
certain period of time, 1/299,792,458 second.

The Kilogram: A Measure of Mass

The mass of an object is a
measure of the quantity of matter
within it.
The SI unit of mass = kilogram (kg).
1 kg = 2 lb 3 oz

A second common unit of mass is

the gram (g).
One gram is 1/1000 kg.

Weight of an object is a measure of

the gravitational pull on its matter.

The Second: A Measure of Time

Measure of the duration of an event
SI units = second (s)
1 s is defined as the period of time it takes for a
specific number of radiation events of a
specific transition from cesium-133.

The Kelvin: A Measure of Temperature

The Kelvin (K) is the SI unit of temperature.
The temperature is a measure of the average
amount of kinetic energy of the atoms or
molecules that compose the matter.

Temperature also determines the direction of

thermal energy transfer, or what we commonly
call heat.
Thermal energy transfers from hot to cold
objects.

The Kelvin: A Measure of Temperature

Kelvin scale (absolute
scale) assigns 0 K
(absolute zero) to the
coldest temperature
possible.
Absolute zero (273
C or
459
F) is the temperature
at which molecular motion
virtually stops. Lower
temperatures do not exist.

A Measure of Temperature
The Fahrenheit
degree is five-ninths
the size of a Celsius
degree.
The Celsius degree
and the Kelvin degree
are the same size.

Temperature scale
conversion is done
with these formulas:

Prefix Multipliers
The International System of Units uses the
prefix multipliers (Table 1.2).

These multipliers change the value of the unit by

the powers of 10 (just like an exponent does in
scientific notation).
For example, the kilometer has the prefix kilo
meaning 1000 or 103.

Prefix Multipliers
The following table lists the common prefixes used
in the metric system:

Measurements -- Precision and Accuracy

What is an measurement?
Accuracy refers to how close the
measured value is to the actual value.
Precision refers to how close a series of
measurements are to one another or how
reproducible they are.

Counting Significant Figures

Significant figures deal with writing
numbers to reflect precision.
What are they? all the certain digits and the
1st uncertain digit gained from a measurement

The precision of a measurement depends

on the instrument used to make the
measurement.
The preservation of this precision during
calculations can be accomplished by using
significant figures.

Counting Significant Figures

The greater the number of significant figures, the
greater the certainty of the measurement.
To determine the number of significant figures in a
number, follow these rules (examples are on the right).

Significant Figure Rules

Examples

1. All nonzero digits are significant

28.03

0.0540

2. Interior zeroes (zeroes between two nonzero

digits) are significant.

408

7.0301

Counting Significant Figures

Significant Figure Rules

Examples

3. Leading zeroes (zeroes to the left of the first

nonzero digit) are not significant. They only
serve to locate the decimal point.
4. Trailing zeroes (zeroes at the end of a
number) are categorized as follows:

45.000

3.5600

Trailing zeroes before a decimal point (and

after a nonzero number) are always
significant.

140.00

2500.55

Trailing zeroes before an implied decimal

point are ambiguous and should be avoided
by using scientific notation.

1200
1.2 103
1.20 103
1.200 103

Ambiguous
2 significant figures
3 significant figures
4 significant figures

Decimal points are placed after one or more

trailing zeroes if the zeroes are to be
considered significant.

1200.

4 significant figures

Trailing zeroes after a decimal point are

always significant.

Counting Significant Figures Short form

Remember the rules:

1. count non-zero digits from left to right
2. placeholding zero are excluded mostly
for numbers > 1 place holding zeros are not significant
i.e., 70, 700, 7000 (all have 1 sig. fig.) How to change that?
for numbers < 1 place holding zeros are not significant
i.e., 0.7, 0.07, and 0.007 (all have 1 sig. fig.) How to change that?
sandwiched zeros are significant
i.e., 107 and 0.107 (both have 3 sig. figs.)

Counting Significant Figures

Measurement What are the digits?
45.5 g

0.58 km
455.09 L
780. ms
0.0098 mL
0.0780 s

Total Sig. Figs?

Exact Numbers
Exact numbers have an unlimited number of
significant figures.
Exact counting of discrete objects
Integral numbers that are part of an equation
Defined quantities
Some conversion factors are defined quantities,
while others are not.

Significant Figures in Calculations

In calculations using measured quantities,
the results of the calculation must reflect
the precision of the measured quantities.

We should not lose or gain precision

during mathematical operations.

Significant Figure: Rules for Calculations

Multiplication and Division Rule:
In multiplication or division, the result carries the
same number of significant figures as the factor
with the fewest significant figures.

Rules for Calculations

Addition and Subtraction Rule:
In addition or subtraction the result carries the
same number of decimal places as the quantity
with the fewest decimal places.

It is helpful to draw a line next to the number with the fewest decimal
places. This line determines the number of decimal places in the answer.

Rules for Calculations

Rules for Rounding:
When rounding to the correct number of
significant figures,
round down if the last (or leftmost) digit dropped is
four or less;
round up if the last (or leftmost) digit dropped is
five or more.

Rules for Rounding

Round to two significant figures:
5.37 rounds to 5.4
5.34 rounds to 5.3
5.35 rounds to 5.4
5.349 rounds to 5.3
Notice in the last example that only the last (or
leftmost) digit being dropped determines in
which direction to roundignore all digits to the
right of it.

Rounding in Multistep Calculations

To avoid rounding errors in multistep calculations
round only the final answer.

Do not round intermediate steps. If you write down

intermediate answers, keep track of significant
figures by underlining the least significant digit.

Precision and Accuracy Reminder

Accuracy refers to how close the

measured value is to the actual value.
Precision refers to how close a series of
measurements are to one another or how
reproducible they are.

Precision and Accuracy

Consider the results of three students who repeatedly
weighed a lead block known to have a true mass of
10.00 g (indicated by the solid horizontal blue line on the
graphs).
Student A

Student B

Student C

Trial 1

10.49 g

9.78 g

10.03 g

Trial 2

9.79 g

9.82 g

9.99 g

Trial 3

9.92 g

9.75 g

10.03 g

Trial 4

10.31 g

9.80 g

9.98 g

Average

10.13 g

9.79 g

10.01 g

Precision or Accuracyneither or both?

Precision and Accuracy

Measurements are said to be

precise if they are consistent with one another.
accurate only if they are close to the actual value.

Precision and Accuracy Error

The results of student A are both inaccurate (not
close to the true value) and imprecise (not
consistent with one another).
Random error is an error that has the equal probability of
being too high or too low.

The results of student B are precise (close to one

another in value), but inaccurate.
Systematic error is an error that tends toward being either too
high or too low.

The results of student C display little systematic

error or random errorthey are both accurate
and precise.

Solving Chemical Problems

Most chemistry problems you will solve in this
course are unit conversion problems.
Using units as a guide to solving problems is
called dimensional analysis.
Units should always be included in calculations;
they are multiplied, divided, and canceled like any
other algebraic quantity.

Dimensional Analysis
A unit equation is a statement of two equivalent
quantities, such as

2.54 cm = 1 in.
A conversion factor is a fractional quantity of a
unit equation with the units we are converting
from on the bottom and the units we are
converting to on the top.

Dimensional Analysis
Most unit conversion problems take the
following form:

Dimensional Analysis
Units Raised to a Power:
When building conversion factors for units raised
to a power, remember to raise both the number
and the unit to the power. For example, to convert
from in2 to cm2, we construct the conversion factor
as follows:

Homework Questions:
Self Assessment Quiz, page 34