Analytical Mechanics: A Guided Tour of

A Guided Tour of
Analytical Mechanics
with animations in MAPLE and MATHEMATICA
Rouben Rostamian
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
UMBC
[email protected]
December 1, 2014
ii
Contents
Preface
1
vii
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1
1
3
3
4
6
Work and potential energy

Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
12
A single particle in a conservative force field

3.1
The principle of conservation of energy .
3.2
The scalar case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3
Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4
The phase portrait of a simple pendulum
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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13
13
14
16
16
17
The Kapitsa pendulum

4.1
The inverted pendulum . . . . . .
4.2
Averaging out the fast oscillations
4.3
Stability analysis . . . . . . . . . . .
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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19
19
19
22
23
Calculus of variations
5.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.1
A straight line is the shortest path . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2
The brachistochrone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3
Mathematical preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.1
Basic lemmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.2
The variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4
The central problem of the calculus of variations . . . . . . . . . .
5.5
The invariance of Eulers equation under change of coordinates
5.6
The solution of Problem 5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.7
The solution of Problem 5.1 in polar coordinates . . . . . . . . . .
5.8
The solution of Problem 5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.9
A variational problem in two unknowns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.10
Lagrange multipliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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25
25
25
25
27
27
28
30
32
33
34
35
36
37
An introduction through examples

1.1
The simple pendulum la Newton .
1.2
The simple pendulum la Euler . . .
1.3
The simple pendulum la Lagrange .
1.4
The double pendulum . . . . . . . . .
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
iii
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iv
Contents
5.11
Calculus of variations with pointwise constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.12
Calculus of variations with integral constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
41
43
Lagrangian mechanics
6.1
Newtonian mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2
Holonomic constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3
Generalized coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4
Virtual displacements, virtual work, and generalized force
6.5
External versus reaction forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6
The equations of motion for a holonomic system . . . . . .
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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45
45
46
49
50
52
53
55
Angular velocity
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
58
The moment of inertia tensor

8.1
A brief introduction to tensor algebra . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.1
Tensor algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.2
Connection with R3 and 3 3 matrices .
8.1.3
Symmetric tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2
The moment of inertia tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3
Translation of the origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4
The principal moments of inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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59
59
59
61
63
64
65
67
67
Constraint reactions
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
73
10
The Gibbs-Appell formulation of dynamics

10.1
Gibbs-Appell according to Lurie [9] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1.1
Acceleration in generalized coordinates . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1.2
Ideal constraints and the fundamental equation of dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1.3
Virtual work and generalized force . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1.4
Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1.5
Virtual displacements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1.6
Back to the fundamental equation: Part 1 . . . . . . . . .
10.1.7
Back to the fundamental equation: Part 2 . . . . . . . . .
10.1.8
The Gibbs-Appell equations of motion . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1.9
Quasi-velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1.10
Appells equations of motion in terms of quasi-velocities
10.2
Gibbs-Appell according to Gantmacher [10] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.1
Pseudocoordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.2
Work and generalized forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.3
Newtons equations in pseudocoordinates . . . . . . . . .
10.2.4
The energy of the acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3
A modification noted by Desloge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4
The simple pendulum via Gibbs-Appell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5
The Caplygin
sleigh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
75
75
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75
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86
86
Contents
The Caplygin
sleigh revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The problem from page 63 of Gantmacher . . . . . . . . .
Rigid body dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.8.1
Three frames of reference . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.8.2
The energy of acceleration for a rigid body
10.9
The rolling coin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.9.1
The three frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.9.2
The angular velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.9.3
The no-slip constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.9.4
The acceleration of the coins center . . . . .
10.9.5
The rotational acceleration . . . . . . . . . . .
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.6
10.7
10.8
11
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. 88
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. 97
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. 100
Quaternions
11.1
The quaternion algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2
The geometry of the quaternions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2.1
The reflection operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2.2
The rotation operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3
Angular velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4
A differential equation for the quaternion rotation . . . . . . . .
11.5
Unbalanced ball rolling on a horizontal plane . . . . . . . . . . .
11.5.1
The no-slip condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.5.2
The Gibbs function and the equations of motion
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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101
101
102
102
103
106
107
108
108
109
110
Maple basics
A.1
Configuring MAPLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.2
The execution group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.3
MAPLE key bindings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.4
Expression sequences, lists, and sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.5
Selecting and removing subsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.6
Solving equations symbolically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.7
Solving equations numerically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.8
The eval() function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.9
Expressions and functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.10 Vectors and Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.11 Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.12 Solving differential equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.12.1
Solving differential equations symbolically .
A.12.2
Solving differential equations numerically .
A.13 Plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.13.1
Plotting a single function . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.13.2
Plotting multiple function together . . . . .
A.13.3
Parametric plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.13.4
Plotting points and more . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.13.5
Overlaying multiple plots . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.13.6
Reflecting a plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.14 The EulerLagrange equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.15 The animation of a simple pendulum . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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113
113
113
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116
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120
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vi
Contents
Preface
By solving a problem I mean performing all the steps laid out below:
1. Select configuration parameters.
2. Define the position vectors r1 , r2 , . . . of the point masses in terms of the generalized
coordinates q1 , q2 , . . . .
3. Compute the velocities of the point masses:
vi = ri =
X ri
j
4. Compute the kinetic energy T =

Lagrangian L = T V .
1
2
qj
P
i
qj ,
i = 1, 2, . . . .
mi kvi k2 , the potential energy V , and the
5. Form the equations of motion (a system of second order differential equations

(DEs)) in the unknowns q1 (t ), q2 (t ), . . .:
L
L
d
=
, j = 1, 2, . . . .
d t qj
qj
If done by hand, this step would be the most labor-intensive part of the calculations.
The calculations can get unbearably complex and can easily lead to formulas that
fill more than one page. Fortunately we can relegate the tedious computations to a
computer algebra system (CAS) such as MAPLE or MATHEMATICA. I use MAPLE
in my own work, therefore I will use that for the purposes of this class. I believe
that MATHEMATICA has the equivalent capabilities, and you are welcome to use
it instead, if you so prefer. I have, however, no experience with MATHEMATICA,
therefore I cannot help you there.
6. Solve the system of DEs. Except for a few special cases, such system are generally not
solvable in terms of elementary function. One solves them numerically with the
help of specialized software. MAPLE and MATHEMATICA offer that functionality
as well.
The software replaces the continues time variable t by a closely spaced time ticks
t0 , t1 , t2 , . . . which span the time interval of interest, say [0, T ], and then it applies some rather sophisticated numerical algorithms to evaluate the unknowns
q1 (t ), q2 (t ), . . . at those time ticks. The result may be presented as:
(a) a table of numbers; but thats not very illuminating, so its rarely done that
way;
vii
viii
Preface
(b) as a set of plots of q j versus t . This is the most common way. Both MAPLE
and MATHEMATICA can do this easily; or
(c) as a computer animation, which is the most user friendly choice but which
takes some workand a certain amount of know-howto produce. I will
show you how to do this in MAPLE.
Chapter 1
An introduction through
examples
This chapter introduces some of basic ideas involved in Lagrangian formulation of dynamics through examples. You will need to take some of the statements and formulas for
granted, since they wont be formally introduced until several chapters later. The idea
here is to acquire some gut feeling for the subject which will help motivate some of the
abstract concepts to come.
1.1 The simple pendulum la Newton

A pendulum, specifically a simple pendulum, is a massless rigid rod of fixed length , one
end of which is attached to, and can swing about, an immobile pivot, and to the other end
of which is attached a point of mass m, called the bob.1 The force of gravity tends to pull
the pendulum down so that to bring the free end to the lowest possible position, called
the pendulums stable equilibrium configuration. A pendulum can stay motionless in the
stable equilibrium configuration forever. If disturbed slightly away from the equilibrium,
however, it will oscillate back and forth about it, indefinitely in principle if there are no
frictional/dissipative effects. Figure 1.1 shows a simple pendulum at a generic position
where the rod makes an angle relative to the vertical.
The pendulum may also be balanced in an inverted position, obtained by turning it
upward about the pivot by 180 degrees (remember that the connecting rod is rigid.) That
position, which admittedly is difficult to achieve in practice, is called the pendulums unstable equilibrium configuration. A pendulum can stay motionless in the unstable equilibrium configuration forever, in principle. If disturbed slightly away from that equilibrium,
however, it will move away from it in general.
The stable and unstable equilibria are the only possible equilibrium position of a simple pendulum. The pendulum cannot stay motionless at an angle, say at 45 degrees, relative to the vertical.
A pendulums initial condition completely determine its future motion. I am assuming here that the only external action on the pendulum is the force of gravity. The initial
condition consist of a pair of data items, one being the initial angle that the rod makes
relative to the vertical, and the other is the initial velocity which is the bob is set into
motion.
As a specific instance, consider the case where the rots initial angle is zero, and the
1
The pendulum of a grandfather clock is a reasonably good example of such a pendulum, albeit the rod is
not massless, and the mass attached to the end of it is not literally a point mass.
Chapter 1. An introduction through examples
i
j
er
e r
mg
w = mgj
Figure 1.1: On the left is a depiction of the physical shape of the pendulum. On the
right we see the pendulums mathematical model given by the position vector r. The force of the weight has been decomposed into components parallel and perpendicular to the motion.
bobs initial velocity is small. Then the pendulum will oscillate back and forth about the
stable configuration, similar to what we see in a grandfather clock. If the initial velocity
is slightly larger, the pendulum will undergo wider oscillations. If the initial velocity is
large enough, the pendulum will not oscillate at all. It will swing about pivot, reach the
unstable equilibrium position, go past it, fall down from the other side, and return to its
initial position, having made a complete 360 degree rotation about the pivot. At this point
the pendulum finds itself in the same condition that it had at the initial time, therefore it
will repeat what it did the first time around. In the absence of energy dissipating factors,
the rotations about the pivot will continue indefinitely.
To make a mathematical model of the pendulum, we introduce the Cartesian coordinates xy with the origin at the pendulums pivot, and the y axis pointing down. We also
introduce the unit vectors i and j along the x and y axes, and the unit vectors e r along the
pendulums rod and e which is perpendicular to it, as shown in Figure 1.1. The vectors
e r and e may be expressed as linear combinations of the vectors i and j:
e r = i sin + j cos ,
e = i cos + j sin .
Furthermore, let us observe that their time derivatives are related through
,
er = i cos j sin , = e
r.
e = i sin + j cos , = e
(1.1)
The bobs position vector r(t ) relative to the origin is r = e r , therefore, the bobs
velocity v = r and acceleration a = v may be computed easily with the help of (1.1):
,
v = r = (e r ) = e
) = e
e = e
2 e r .
a = v = (e
We see that the bobs acceleration has a component along e and another along e r .
Newtons law of motion asserts that ma = F , where F is the resultant of all forces
acting on the bob. Referring to Figure 1.1 we see that the forces acting on the bob consist
of weight w and the tension e r along the rod.2 It follows that
2 e r ) = w e r .
m(e
2
The assertion that the force exerted on the bob by the rod lies along the rod requires justification. See the
next section for elaboration.
1.2. The simple pendulum la Euler
Upon replacing w with its decomposition w = m g j = (m g cos )e r +(m g sin )e , and

collecting the coefficients of e r and and e , we arrive at

m + m g sin e + m2 + m g cos e r = 0.
Since e r and e are orthogonal, hence linearly independent, each of the expressions in
the square brackets is zero. We conclude that
m + m g sin = 0,
m2 + m g cos = 0.
(1.2)
The first equation is a second order differential equation in . It has a unique solution
for any prescribed initial condition pair (0) and (0),

although the solution is not expressible in terms of elementary functions. In practice, one solves the equation through
a numerical approximation algorithm on a computer. Once the solution is obtained, it
may be substituted in the second equation to evaluate the tension in the pendulums
rod, should it be of interest.
1.2 The simple pendulum la Euler

In the previous section we assumed, without explanation, that the force within the pendulums rod points along the rod; see Figure 1.1 where that force is shown as the vector
e r .
That assumption seems to be so obvious that many textbooks on mechanics and its
applications present it without as much as a comment. A close scrutiny, however, shows
that the assumption is far from obvious, and in fact, it is not a logical consequence of
any of Newtons laws of motion. Antman [3] presents a critical analysis of this issue and
concludes that the proper approach is through an application of Eulers law of motion,
which states that the rate of change of the pendulums angular momentum equals the
resultant torque applied to it.
1.3 The simple pendulum la Lagrange

In this section we rederive the previous sections differential equation of motion of simple
pendulum through Lagranges analytical approach. We no longer need the vectors e r
and e . Instead, we write the bobs position vector r directly in terms of its i and j
components:
r = ( sin )i + ( cos )j,
and then differentiate to find the velocity
v = r = ( cos )i ( sin )j.
It follows that that kvk2 = 2 2 .
To proceed further, we introduce a few definitions and assertions whose motivations
and explanations will emerge only in subsequent chapters.
1
A the kinetic energy T of a point mass m moving with velocity v is T = 2 mkvk2 .

1
In the case of the pendulum this becomes T = 2 m2 2 .
The potential energy V of a point mass m in a constant gravitational field equals
m g h where g is the acceleration due to gravity, and h is its height above an arbitrarily selected reference point. In the case of the pendulum, the elevation of the bob relative to the lowest point in its path is h = (1cos ), therefore V = m g (1cos ).
The Lagrangian L of a mechanical system is the difference between its kinetic and
potential energies, that is, L = T V . In the case of the pendulum we have:
1
= m2 2 m g (1 cos ).
L(, )
2
(1.3)
As the notation above indicates, we are viewing the Lagrangian L as a function two
It should be emphasized that and are considered independent
variables and .
variables here. If you find the notation confusing in that regard, consider renaming it
to , as in
1
L(, ) = m2 2 m g (1 cos ).
2
Now L is a function of two independent variables and .
The Lagrangian completely characterizes a mechanical system. It incorporates the
systems parameters, geometry, and physics, all in one neat bundle. Beyond this point the
analysis of the systems motion is pure calculusor analysis, as Lagrange called it in his
Mcanique Analytiquewith no need to refer to the systems components and geometry.
According to the theory that Lagrange developed, the equation of motion of a me is given by
chanical system whose Lagrangian depends on two variables and ,

d L
L
=
.
(1.4)
d t
In the case of pendulum we have:

L
= m2 ,

L
= m g sin ,
and therefore the equation of motion is

= m g sin ,
(m2 )
or equivalently,
+
g
sin = 0,
l
(1.5)
which agrees with the first equation in (1.2). The second of those equations may be obtained through the Lagrangian approach as well, but we will not get into that right now.
1.4 The double pendulum

A double pendulum is obtained by suspending a second pendulum from the bob of a first
pendulum, as shown in the left diagram in Figure 1.2. The double pendulums geometric
configuration is specified through the two angles 1 and 2 that the rods make relative to
the vertical.
To make a mathematical model of a double pendulum, we follow the ideas sketched
in the previous section. Specifically, we introduce the xy Cartesian coordinates and the
unit vectors i and j as shown in Figure 1.2, and then express the position vectors r1 and
r2 of the two bobs in terms of their components relative to i and j:
r1 = (1 sin 1 )i + (1 cos 1 )j,
r2 = r1 + (2 sin 2 )i + (2 cos 2 )j.
(1.6)
1.4. The double pendulum
i
1
1
m1 g
r1
m1 g j
x
r2
2 2
m2 g
m2 g j
Figure 1.2: On the left is a depiction of the physical shape of the double pendulum. On
the right we see the pendulums mathematical model given by the position
vectors r1 and r2 or the two bobs.
Then we find the velocities of the bobs through differentiation:

v1 = (1 1 cos 1 )i (1 1 sin 1 )j,
v2 = v1 + (2 2 cos 2 )i (2 2 sin 2 )j.
We see that kv1 k2 = 21 12 . Computing kv2 k2 takes only a little bit more work. We observe
where v = (2 2 cos 2 )i (2 2 sin 2 )j. Therefore
that v2 = v1 + v,
kv2 k2 = kv1 k2 + kv k2 + 2v1 v

= 21 12 + 22 22 + 2 (1 1 cos 1 )i (1 1 sin 1 )j (2 2 cos 2 )i (2 2 sin 2 )j
= 21 12 + 22 22 + 21 2 1 2 (cos 1 cos 2 + sin 1 sin 2 ).
= 21 12 + 22 22 + 21 2 1 2 cos(2 1 ).
We conclude that the double pendulums kinetic energy is

1
1
T = m1 21 12 + m2 21 12 + 22 22 + 21 2 1 2 cos(2 1 )
2
2
1
1
= (m1 + m2 )21 12 + m2 22 22 + m2 1 2 1 2 cos(2 1 ).
2
2
As to the potential energy, let us recall that a masss potential energy in a constant
gravitational field is the product of its weight and its elevation above a certain reference
point. In the case of a double pendulum, it is easiest to set the reference point at the origin
of the coordinates; see Figure 1.2. Then the j components of the vectors r1 and r2 provide
the elevations of the bobs below the reference point, therefore their elevations above the
reference point will require a sign reversal. Referring to (1.6) we see that

V = m1 g cos 1 m2 g 1 cos 1 + 2 cos 2 = (m1 + m2 ) g cos 1 m2 g 2 cos 2 .
Thus, the double pendulums Lagrangian, L = T V , takes the form
1
1
L(1 , 2 , 1 , 2 ) = (m1 + m2 )21 12 + m2 22 22 + m2 1 2 1 2 cos(2 1 )
2
2
+ (m1 + m2 ) g cos 1 + m2 g 2 cos 2 .
was a function
In the previous sections simple pendulum, the Lagrangian L(, )
two variables. In the present case, the Lagrangian L(1 , 2 , 1 , 2 ) is a function of four
variables. In general, if a mechanical systems geometric configuration is specified through

n variables q1 , . . . , qn , then its Lagrangian is a function of 2n variables q1 , . . . , qn , q1 , . . . , qn .
The equivalent of the single equation of motion (1.4) now is a system of n equations, called
the mechanical systems EulerLagrange equations:

d L
L
=
,
i = 1, . . . , n.
d t qi
qi
The variable q1 , . . . , qn are called the systems generalized coordinates.
Applied to the case of double pendulum, the EulerLagrange equations lead to

d
L
L
L
d
L
=
,
=
.
d t 1
1
d t 2
2
To evaluate these explicitly, we begin by computing
L
1
L
2
L
1
L
2
= (m1 + m2 )21 1 + m2 1 2 2 cos(2 1 ),

= m2 22 2 + m2 1 2 1 cos(2 1 ),
= m2 1 2 1 2 sin(2 1 ) (m1 + m2 ) g sin 1 ,
= m2 1 2 1 2 sin(2 1 ) m2 g 2 sin 2 .
We conclude that the differential equations of motion are

(m1 + m2 )21 1 + m2 1 2 2 cos(2 1 )
m2 22 2 + m2 1 2 1 cos(2 1 )
= m2 1 2 1 2 sin(2 1 ) (m1 + m2 ) g sin 1 ,

= m2 1 2 1 2 sin(2 1 ) m2 g 2 sin 2 .
Exercises
1.1. Pendulum with a mobile pivot. Figure 1.3 shows a pendulum whose pivot is
allowed to move horizontally without friction. The pivot has mass m1 while the
bob has mass m2 . Find the equations of motion of the pendulum.
1.2. A spherical pendulum. The motion of the simple pendulum of length introduced in this chapter was confined to a single vertical plane, and therefore the
pendulums bob moved along a circular arc of radius . If off-plane motions are
permitted, then the bob will move on a sphere of radius centered at the pivot. In
that setting the pendulum is called a spherical pendulum; see Figure 1.4.
Derive the equations of motion of the spherical pendulum.
1.3. Bead on a spinning hoop. A circular wire hoop of radius R spins about a vertical
diameter at a constant angular velocity . A bead of mass m can slide without friction along the hoop. The hoops radius that connects to the bead makes an angle
of (t ) with respect to the vertical; see Figure 1.5. Find the differential equation
satisfied by .
Exercises
x
m1
m2
y
Figure 1.3: Pendulum with a horizontally mobile pivot (Exercise 1).
i
j
y
z
Figure 1.4: A spherical pendulum (Exercise 2).
1.4. A governor mechanism. Figure 1.6 is a schematic drawing of a (simplified) Watt

governor which was invented for the automatic control of the speed of steam engines. Our version consists of four massless rigid links of length each, hinged at
their ends to form a rhombus. The vertex O remains motionless, while the sleeve
at vertex S can slide on the devices vertical shaft, thereby change the rhomuss
shape. Two balls of mass m1 each are attached to the vertices A and B. The sleeves
mass is m2 . The entire assembly rotates at a constant angular speed about the
vertical shaft. Find the differential equation satisfied by the angle marked on the
diagram.
1.5. Two masses on a string. A particle P of mass m1 lies on a smooth horizontal table
and is attached to a long, inextensible string which passes through a smooth hole
O in the table and hangs down. The other end of the string carries a particle Q of
mass m2 ; see the illustration in Figure 1.7.
The particle P is positioned at the point (a, 0, 0) in the xy z coordinates shown, and
given a horizontal initial velocity perpendicular to the x axis. Find the differential
equations of motion.
Hint: Let (t ) and (t ) be P s position at time t in polar coordinates as seen in
Figure 1.7. The equations of motions constitute a system of differential in (t ) and
(t ) .
mg
Figure 1.5: Bead on a rotating hoop (Exercise 3).
m1
m1
m2
Figure 1.6: A simplified Watt governor (Exercise 4).
(t )
m1
(t )
m2
Q
z
Figure 1.7: The point P slides on the table. The point Q moves vertically (Exercise 5).
Chapter 2
Work and potential energy
Work is the product of force and its displacement. To be precise, the infinitesimal work
dW performed in displacing a force F by an infinitesimal distance d r is dW = F d r.
If the point of the application of the force moves along a path C in space, then the work
performed along the path is the line integral
Z
W=
F d r.
(2.1)
C
If you are repositioning a massive desk in an office, for example, then work measures the
amount of effort exerted by you in performing the task.
Expanding upon the moving of the desk scenario, suppose that you intend to move
the desk from a point A to a point B. It should be obvious that the amount of work
performed will vary, depending on the path along which you move the desk between A
and B. Chances are that the shortest (straight line) path will require lesser effort than a
long path that winds around the office.
There are many interesting and important situations where, unlike the moving of the
desk example, the work performed in goings from a point A to a point B is independent of
the path taken between A and B. The most elementary example is the raising or lowering
of a weight. To see how it works, set up a Cartesian coordinate system in space so that
the x and y axes are horizontal, and the z axis points up. Let ra = (xa , ya , za ) and r b =
(x b , y b , z b ) be the position vectors3 of the starting and ending points A and B, and let
r = x, y, z be the position vector of a generic point along a path C (A, B) with endpoints
A and B. Suppose that we move an object of mass m along that path. The force of the
objects weight is F = 0, 0, m g , where g is the acceleration of gravity. The work
performed along the path is
Z
W=
F dr
C (A,B)
=
C (A,B)
0, 0, m g d x, d y, d z =
C (A,B)
m g d z = m g (z b za ).
We see that the work in moving the weight from A to B is expressed in terms the z coordinates of the endpoints, thus it is the same on all conceivable paths that go from A
to B.
3
A position vector of a point P (x, y, ) is the vector r = x, y, z that extends from the origin to the point P .
10
Chapter 2. Work and potential energy
To generalize, consider a (possibly position dependent) force field F (r) with the property that the work performed in going from a given point A to an arbitrary point r in space
is independent of the path from A to r. Let us write V (r) for the negative of the value of
that integral, that is,
Z
V (r) =
C (A,r)
F (r ) d r .
(2.2)
The function V defined this way is called the potential function, or simply the potential, of
the the vector field F . Equivalently, the vector field F is said to be derived from a potential.
In (2.2) I have written r for the dummy variable of integration in order to distinguish it
from the position vector r which designates the paths endpoint. The minus sign does
not have a deep significance; its convenient to build it into the definition since it leads to
more pleasing forms of general statements, such as the one on conservation of energy.
Theorem 2.1. Consider a continuous vector field F defined in an open and connected domain D in the n-dimensional space, and suppose that F possesses a potential function V as
in (2.2). Then V is differentiable and F (r) = V (r).
Proof. By definition, the gradient V of a function V at a point r is the vector with the
property that for any unit vector e, the directional derivative of V in the direction of e is
given by V (r) e. That is,
V (r) e = lim
h0
V (r + he) V (r)
.
h
To simplify the discussion, let us write P and Q for the points in space corresponding
to the position vectors r and r + he, as illustrated in Figure 2.1. Pick a path C (A, r) to
evaluate V at P , then extend that path as a straight line segment to Q to evaluate V at Q.
Then the difference V (Q) V (P ) amounts to an integration along the straight segment
P Q:
Zh
V (r + he) V (r) = V (Q) V (P ) =
F (r + e) e d ,
0
Then it follows that

V (r + he) V (r)
1
=
h
h
h
0
F (r + e) e d = F (r + e) e
for some (0, h), the latter assertion being a consequence of the Mean Value Theorem
for integrals; see e.g., Stewart [4].
As h goes to zero, so does because (0, h). It follows that
V (r) e = lim
h0
V (r + he) V (r)
= F (r) e.
h
Since this holds for every e, it follows that V (r) = F (r).

Remark 2.1. Let is point out the roles that the theorems technical assumptions play in
the proof:
The continuity of the vector field F enters at the point where the Mean Value Theorem is applied. That theorem is not true without continuity.
11
C(
A,
r
r+
he
A
Figure 2.1: If V (P ) is evaluated by integration along the path C (A, r), then V (Q) may
be evaluated by integrating along that same path, and then continuing along
the straight line segment P Q of length h in the direction e.
The assumption that the domain D is connected is needed to ensure that a path may
be established between any pair of points in D. Thats what enabled us to sketch
the curve C (A, r) that connects the points A and P in Figure 2.1.
The assumption that the domain D is open means that a ball of positive radius may
be placed around any point P D so that the ball lies entirely within D. Its that
property which ensures that moving away from P by a small distance h, as we did
in Figure 2.1, we land safely on a point Q which lies within D.
Remark 2.2. Adding a constant to the potential function V does not affect the equality
F (r) = V (r). Thus, a vector fields potential, if it has one, is defined modulo an additive
constant.
Example 2.2. Earlier in the this section we observed that the force field corresponding to
an objects weight is F = 0, 0, m g . We see that F (r) = V (r) where V (x, y, z) =
m g z. We will use m g z as the potential of a weight throughout these notes. Note the
effect of the minus sign in (2.2); in its absence the potential of a weight would have been
m g z.
Example 2.3. In the previous example we assumed that the acceleration of gravity g is a
constant. Thats a good assumption if the changes in height during the motion are small
relative to the radius of the Earth. In general, the gravitational force that a point mass M
exerts on a point mass m drops as the inverse square of the distance. Specifically, Newtons
law of gravitation says

r
GM m
.
(2.3)
F (r) =
2
krk
krk
where r is ms position vector relative to M , and G is the universal gravitational constant.
The inverse square law is manifested through the krk2 term that appears in the denominator inside the parentheses. The factor r/krk is a unit vector that points from M to m.
It is possible to show (see Exercise ??) that F is derived from a potential.
Theorem 2.4. Suppose the force field F is derived from a potential V . Then the work per-
12
Chapter 2. Work and potential energy
formed in moving the force along any path from a point ra to r b is given by
W = V (ra ) V (r b ).
(2.4)
Proof. We have F (r) = V (r) therefore

F d r = V (r) d r =
therefore
D V
x1
,...
V E
d x1 , . . . , d xn
xn
V

V
=
d x1 + +
d xn = dV ,
x1
xn
W=
C
F dr =
rb
ra
dV = V (ra ) V (r b ).
Exercises
2.1. Verify that the gravitational potential field F (r) in (2.3) is derived from the potential
GM m
V (r) =
.
krk
Chapter 3
A single particle in a
conservative force field
3.1 The principle of conservation of energy

Newtons law of motion, F = m r relates the acceleration r of a point of constant mass
m subjected to a force F . If the force is derived from a potential V (r), that is, F = V ,
then the law of motion takes the form
m r = V (r).
(3.1)
Multiplying this through by the velocity r
m r r = V (r) r,
and then rearranging
we arrive at

1
+ V (r) = 0,
m(r r)
2
d
dt
1
2 + V (r) = 0,
mkrk
2
which tells us that the quantity

1
2 + V (r)
E = mkrk
2
(3.2)
remains constant during the motion. The constant E is called the particles mechanical
energy (or just the energy for short). The first term on the right-hand side of (3.2) is called
the kinetic energy; the second term is called the potential energy. The constancy of E in a
motion is called the principle of conservation of energy.
Remark 3.1. The kinetic and potential energies dont remain constant during the motion; its their sum that does. Therefore the reduction of one is accompanied by the increase of the other. It helps to think of this as a conversion of one form of energy to
the other. The myriad of motion phenomena encountered in our daily experiences are
manifestations of such interplay between the kinetic and potential energies.
Remark 3.2. The conservation of the total energy E is a consequence of the assumption
that the force field F is derived from a potential. This should explain the alternative name,
13
14
Chapter 3. A single particle in a conservative force field
a conservative force field, which is commonly used to refer to a force field derived from a
potential.
Remark 3.3. Had we chosen against putting the minus sign in the definition (2.2),
the principle of conservation of energy would have stated that the difference between the
kinetic and potential energies remains constant, which is not as appealing as saying that
their sum remains a constant.
3.2 The scalar case

The rest of this chapter is devoted to a study of the scalar version of equation (3.1), that
is,
m x = V (x),
(3.3)
where x is scalar, and V is the derivative of a potential V . In addition to the obvious

applications in one-dimensional dynamics, this equation occurs in quite a number of other
context which are far from one-dimensional motions. The equation of motion of a simple
pendulum (1.5), for instance, falls in this category, but the motion is certainly not linear.
We will more on this in Section 3.4.
The previous sections statement on conservation of energy, which in the scalar case
takes the form
1
E = m x2 + V (x),
(3.4)
2
is a first order differential equation in the unknown x(t ), and which may be solved, in

2
principle, through a separation of variables. We have x2 = m E V (x) , therefore x =
q

2
m E V (x) , and hence
Z
dx
2 E V (x)
Z
=
d t = t + C .
Expect for the most trivial cases, the integral on the left is impossible to evaluate in
terms of elementary functions. It is possible, however, to obtain quite an adequate feel
for the solution, without performing any integration at all, through a phase plane analysis
of the equation.
To explain the idea, consider the potential function V whose graph is shown in Figure 3.1(a). Regard the solution x(t ) of the differential equation (3.3) as the abscissa of a
point P that moves along the horizontal axis in that figure according
to the equations

dynamics. Then the point Q with coordinates x(t ),V (x(t ) slides on the graph of V
accordingly. The length of the line segment P Q equals the potential energy V (x). We extend that segment upward to a point R so the the length of QR equals the kinetic energy
1
m x2 . Since the sum of the kinetic and potential energies remains a constant E during
2
the motion, the locus of the point R is the horizontal line V = E, as marked on the figure.
The point Q cannot rise above the horizontal line V = E during the motion because
1
the nonnegative length of the line segment QR (which equals 2 m x2 ) prevents it. Consequently, the motion of Q is confined to the graphs red-colored arc. We refer to that arc as
a potential well corresponding to the energy E and we think of Q as a point that has fallen
into the well and is unable to get out.
At the edges of the potential well the potential energy equals E and the kinetic energy, and therefore the velocity x, are zero. In the interior, where the potential energy
3.2. The scalar case
15
V (x)
1
m x2
2
(a)
V (x)
Q
x
(b)
Figure 3.1: The dynamics of the equation x + V (x) = 0 is completely determined by

the potential function V . The figure on top shows the graph of V (x), and
an energy well corresponding to an energy level E. The coordinate x is confined to the energy well shown in red. Since the total energy is conserved,
as the potential energy drops below E within the well, the kinetic energy
increases, resulting in the phase portrait shown in the bottom figure.
drops below E, the kinetic energy, and therefore the velocity squared, x2 , are positive.
We conclude that as we traverse the potential well from left to right, the velocity begins
at zero, increases gradually (in absolute value) to a maximum, then drops back to zero at
the rightmost end. The sign of the velocity may be positive or negative since the only
information we are getting from Figure 3.1(a) is on the square of the velocity.
This observation leads to the red oval in the diagram shown in Figure 3.1(b). The
horizontal axis in that figure is the same as the x in Figure 3.1(a). The vertical axis is
the velocity x . Observe that at the leftmost and rightmost points of the oval, which
correspond to the extremes of the potential well, the velocity is zero, and in between in
rises to a maximum (or falls to a minimum), as we expect. The oval is symmetric with
respect to the x axis because a given x2 yields two velocities |
x |.
The red oval constructed in the previous discourse depends on the choice of the energy
level E. It should be clear that lowering E slightly will shrink the oval, and raising E
slightly, will expand it. The black curves in Figure 3.1(b) are the result of selecting various
values of E.
Figure 3.1(b) is called the phase diagram or phase portrait of the differential equation (3.3).
The curves in it are called orbits. An alternative to the geometric construction of the orbits carried out above, we may equally well view them as implicitly defined curves in the
x
x plane through the equation (3.4). Varying the parameter E produces the family of all
orbits, some of which are shown in Figure 3.1(b).
Yet another way of viewing the orbits is as level curves of the the surface defined by
the function
1
E(x, x) = m x2 + V (x).
2
Two views of the surface E(x, x ) corresponding to the potential V (x) of Figure 3.1(a) are
16
Figure 3.2: Two views of the energy surface E(x, x) corresponding to the potential V (x)
of Figure 3.1(a). The graph on the right has been turned upside down to
bring out some of the details which are hidden in the conventional view on
the left.
shown in Figure 3.2.
3.3 Stability
We have seen that the dynamics of the equation (3.3) dictate that a hypothetical particle
trapped in an energy well cannot escape. The closer the energy level E is to the bottom
of the well, the lesser room there is for the particle to maneuver.4 In the extreme case
when the particles energy matches that of the wells bottom, the particle cannot move
at all. We express this by saying that the bottom of the well is a stable equilibrium point
of the differential equation (3.3). If the energy level is increases just slightly, the particle
will move along an oval around the equilibrium point. Referring to the construction of
the phase portrait from the potential V , it should be evident that a local minimum of
V corresponds to a stable equilibrium. Similarly, a local maximum of V corresponds to a
saddle on the energy surface (see Figure 3.2) therefore a local maximum of V corresponds
to an unstable equilibrium.
3.4 The phase portrait of a simple pendulum

The previous sections treatment of the scalar equation of motion has greater applicability
than it may appear on the surface. The variable x(t ) there need not be the coordinate of a
moving point along a straight line. For instance, according to (1.5) on page 4, the motion
of a simple pendulum is described by the differential equation
+
g
sin = 0,
(3.5)
where = (t ) is the angle the the pendulums rod makes relative to the downward pointing vertical, as depicted in Figure 3.3 on the left. Although the motion of the pendulum
takes places in two dimensions, the equation of motion (3.5) is exactly of the form (3.3)
with V () = g / sin , hence V () = g /(1 cos ), therefore the analysis of the pre4
I am assuming a round-bottomed energy well here. In a flat-bottomed energy well the particle can move
around no matter how shallow the well.
Exercises
17
V () = 1 cos
2
1
mg
Figure 3.3: The pendulum is shown on the left. The graph of the potential function
V () = g /(1 cos ) (with g / = 1) is shown at top right. The corresponding phase portrait is shown at bottom right. The function V has a
period of 2, therefore it would have sufficed to limit the plots to the range
. Outside of that range, things repeat by periodicity.
vious section applies.5 The graph of V () and the resulting phase portrait, constructed
according to the previous sections guidelines, are shown in Figure 3.3 on the right.
The configuration of a pendulum is completely specified by the angle at any instant.
The configuration corresponding to + 2k is exactly the same as that of for any
integer k. In other words, the pendulums configuration is determined by mod 2. In
particular, the left and right edges of the phase portrait in Figure 3.3 correspond to the
same configuration. This is best visualized by wrapping the phase portrait into a cylinder
and gluing the left and right edges together. This is illustrated in Figure 3.4.
Exercises
3.1. Analyze the stability of the spinning hoop of Exercise 3. Show that the lower
equilibrium is stable if is small, and unstable if it is large. Find the value of
where the transition takes place.
3.2. Plot representative phase portraits for the two cases of the problem above.
5
As noted earlier, the potential function is defined within an additive arbitrary constant, therefore the 1
in 1 cos is immaterial; its inclusion makes V (0) = 0 which is nice but of no special consequence.
18
Figure 3.4: Two views of the pendulums phase portrait as wrapped into a cylinder to
emphasize that the pendulums configuration depends on mod 2.
Chapter 4
The Kapitsa pendulum
4.1 The inverted pendulum

The pendulum in Figure 4.1 consists of a massless rod of length , a point mass m as the
bob, and a pivot which oscillates vertically according to y = a cos t , where a and are
prescribed constants. In Exercise 1 you will show that the equation of motion is
+
g
a 2
sin +
sin cos t = 0,
(4.1)
where is the angle of the rod relative to the vertical, as shown.

If the amplitude a of the pivots oscillation is small, and if is not too large, then
we expect the system to behave similar to an ordinary pendulum, albeit with somewhat
jittery oscillations. In particular, the lower equilibrium = 0 would be stable and the
upper equilibrium = would be unstable. A graph of the the solution (t ) of the
pendulums equation of motion with smallish a and is shown on Figure 4.1.
It is the purpose of this chapter to show that as is increases beyond a critical threshold, the pendulums behavior changes drastically. Specifically, the lower equilibrium becomes unstable and the upper equilibrium becomes stable. Thus, the pendulum turns
around by 180 degrees, points upward, and oscillates about the = position! Figure 4.2
shows the solution of the pendulums equation of motion for a relatively fast . Note
that the oscillation now take place about the upper equilibrium = . The pendulum is
standing upright, pointing up!
4.2 Averaging out the fast oscillations

To explain this interesting phenomenon, Introduce the a hypothetical nominal rod
which connects the origin to the bob, and let be its angle relative to the vertical, as
shown in the schematic diagram in Figure 4.1. The let = be the angle between
the real rod and the nominal rod. According to the Law of Sines applied to the triangle
shown in the figure, we have:
sin
sin
=
a cos t
that is,
sin =
a
sin cos t .
19
20
Chapter 4. The Kapitsa pendulum
pivots nominal position

x
a cos t
rods nominal position
(t )
y
mg
Figure 4.1: The pivot oscillates vertically according to a cos t about the pendulums
nominal pivot. In the schematic diagram on the left the pivots displacement
is exaggerated; we assume that a/ is very small in our computations. When
the pendulums arm makes a nominal angle with the vertical, the angle
actually oscillates rapidly in the range . The graph on the right is that
of the angle (t ) obtained by solving the differential equation (4.1) with
parameters = 1, g = 1, a = 0.05, and = 20, and initial conditions (0) =
= 0. The oscillation about the lower equilibrium position ( =
5/6, (0)
0) is stable since 2 < 2g /a.
5
4
(t )
3
4
t
Figure 4.2: The solution of the differential equation (4.1) with parameters = 1, g = 1,
= 0. The
a = 0.05, and = 40, and initial conditions (0) = /6, (0)
oscillation about the upper equilibrium position ( = ) is stable since 2 >
2g /a. The figure on the right is an enlarged copy of a portion of the graph
on the left. We see that (t ) consists of high-frequency, small-amplitude
oscillations riding on a slowly oscillating function.
Then the assumption a implies that sin 1, therefore sin . We conclude

that
a
sin cos t .
(4.2)
We are going to need s second derivative soon, so lets calculate it right now. We
4.2. Averaging out the fast oscillations
21
have:

a
cos cos t sin sin t ,

a
cos cos t 2 sin cos t 2 cos sin t 2 sin cos t .
We are interested in high frequency oscillations of the pivot, that is, 1. Therefore,
the term with 2 in the expression above dominates the rest. We conclude that
2
a

sin cos t .
Now we go to the differential equation (4.1) and replace by + , and replace sin
with its Taylor series approximation
sin = sin( + ) sin + cos .
We get:
a 2

g
+ +
sin + cos +
sin + cos cos t = 0.
We multiply out everything and replace with the expression obtained above, and arrive
at
2
2
2
a sin cos t + g sin + g cos + a sin cos t + a cos cos t = 0.
The second and fifth terms cancel, leaving us with

g
g
a 2
cos sin t = 0.
+ sin + cos +
Then we substitute for from (4.2):

g
ag
a2 2
+ sin +
sin cos cos t +
sin cos cos2 t = 0.
2
2
(4.3)
In the graphs of (t ) in figures 4.1 and 4.2 we see that the period 2/ of the pivots
oscillations is much smaller than the oscillations of the pendulum itself. Consequently,
within one such time period, the value of and its derivatives are essentially constants.
On the basis of this observations, we average (4.3) over one 2/ period, where we regard
as constant. Since
1
2/
2/
cos t d t = 0,
0
1
2/
Z
0
2/
1
cos2 t d t = ,
2
we get
g
a22
+ sin +
sin cos = 0,
22
or the equivalent
i
gh
a22
cos sin = 0.
1+
+
2g
(4.4)
22
In comparison with the equation (3.5) of the motion of an ordinary unforced pendulum, the Kapitsa pendulum sees an effective acceleration of gravity given by
h
i
a22
g 1+
cos .
2g
If the pendulums motion is in the 0 < < /2 regime, the quantity in the square brackets
is greater than 1, therefore vibrating the support is tantamount to increasing the acceleration of gravity.6 If, however, the pendulums motion is in the /2 < < regime,
then the effective acceleration of gravity may become negative if the coefficient of cos
is sufficiently large. The latter will happen if is sufficiently large. Thats tantamount to
reversing the direction of gravity, which sort of explains why the pendulum turns upright.
4.3 Stability analysis

The effective equation of motion (4.4) of the Kapitsa pendulum is of the type (3.3) which
was studied in Chapter 3. Comparing the two, we see that
V () =
g
a22
sin +
sin cos ,
22
(4.5)
V () =
g
a22 2
(1 cos ) +
sin
42
(4.6)
whence
The analysis presented in Chapter 3 is based entirely on the shape of V s graph. Therefore
we proceed to analyze the shape.
The equations equilibria are the roots of the equation V () = 0. Upon factorizing
the equation as
i
h g a22
+
cos sin
22
we see that the roots are the solutions of
sin = 0
and
cos =
2g l
.
a22
The first equation yields = 0 and = as roots. (It suffices to look for roots in the
0 range.) The second equation yields a root given by
2g l
= cos1
a2 2
(4.7)
if and only if 2 > 2g /a 2 . (If that ratio equals to 1 then the root is , which duplicates
what we have already found.)
Table 4.1 lists the critical points of the function V (), along with the values of V , V ,
and V at those points. We see that:
V (0) > 0 regardless of the parameter values, therefore the hanging-down equilibrium, = 0, is always stable;
6
Dont take this literally; the acceleration of gravity in (3.5) is a constant while the effective acceleration of
gravity in (4.4) depends on cos , therefore is not a constant.
Exercises
23
V ()
V ()
2g
V ()
V ()
i
g h a22
+1
l 2g
a2 2 2
sin
22
i
g h a2 2
1
l 2g
Table 4.1: The analysis of the critical points of the function V () defined in (4.6). The
defined in (4.7) exists if and only if 2 > 2g /a 2 .
critical point ,
Figure 4.3: Two representative graphs of the function V () in (4.6) with the parameters
= 1, g = 1, a = 0.05. On the left we have taken = 20, which leads to
2g l /(a 2 2 ) = 2 > 1. This corresponds to a stable equilibrium at = 0
and an unstable equilibrium at = . On the left we have taken = 40,
which leads to 2g l /(a 2 2 ) = 1/2 < 1. This corresponds to stable equilibria
at = 0 and = , and an unstable equilibrium at = 2/3.
< 0 regardless of the parameter values, therefore the equilibrium = 0, if it

V ()
exists, is unstable; and
if 2 < 2g /a 2 then V () < 0, therefore the inverted equilibrium, = , is
unstable; but if 2 > 2g /a 2 then V () > 0, therefore the inverted equilibrium,
= , is stable.
Figure 4.3 shows the graphs of V () for two representative cases. The graphs are
plotted over the range [2, 2] to give a clear sense of their nature; only the range [0, ]
is of true relevance to us.
Exercises
4.1. Derive the equation of motion (4.1) of Kapitsas pendulum.
24
4.2. Horizontally oscillating pivot. Consider a pendulum similar to Kapitsas, but

whose pivot oscillates horizontally rather than vertically. Derive the equation of
motion and do a stability analysis.
Chapter 5
Calculus of variations
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 A straight line is the shortest path
That a straight line is the shortest path that connects a pair of points in the Euclidean plane
seems so obvious that it hardly needs elaboration. It is somewhat surprising, therefore,
that when the question is formulated as a minimization problem, the conclusion, though
true, is far from immediate. Let us look into the details.
Fix two points P1 (x1 , y1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 ) in the Cartesian coordinate plane, where x2 >
x1 , and consider a function f whose graph goes through the points P1 and P2 . The length
of the graph is given by the usual formula from calculus:
Z
x2
( f ) =
1 + f (x)2 d x.
(5.1)
x1
The notation ( f ) emphasizes that the length depends on the choice of the function f .
Now the question of the path of minimal length between two points may stated as follows:
Problem 5.1. Find a function f whose graph goes through the points P1 and P2 , and
which minimizes the length ( f ).
Calculus of variations is the branch of mathematics that deals with that and similar
questions.
5.2 The brachistochrone

Set up a Cartesian coordinate system in a vertical plane, with a horizontal x axis and a
downward pointing y axis. Fix a point P2 (x2 , y2 ) as shown in Figure 5.1 and consider a
smooth function f whose graph passes through the point P1 at the origin and P2 . Think
of the curve shown there as a slide in a playground. A particle slides without friction from
P1 (with zero initial velocity) and arrives at P2 . Can we tell how long it takes?
Yes.
The particles
position vector, relative to
the origin of the coordinate system

x , where a superposed dot
is r = x, f (x) , therefore its velocity is v = r = x, f (x)

indicates the time derivative. It follows that kvk2 = 1+ f (x)2 x2 , therefore the particles
25
26
Chapter 5. Calculus of variations
P1 (0, 0)
x
P2 (x2 , y2 )
y
Figure 5.1: How long does it take to slide from P1 to P2 ?
mechanical energy, which is the sum of its kinetic and potential energies, is given by

1
E = m 1 + f (x)2 x2 m g f (x),
2
where m is the particles mass, and g is the acceleration of gravity. In particular, since the
initial velocity is zero, the mechanical energy at the initial time zero. Furthermore, since
there is no friction, mechanical energy is conserved, therefore

1
m 1 + f (x)2 x2 m g f (x) = 0 for all t .
2
This is a first order differential equation for the unknown x(t ). To solve, we isolate x:
v
u 2g f (x)
t
.
x =
1 + f (x)2
Let us consider the forward motion of the particle only, therefore select the + sign.
Since x = d x/d t , we get
v
u
d x t 2g f (x)
=
.
dt
1 + f (x)2
Separate the variables:
v
u 1 + f (x)2
t
dt =
,
2g f (x)
and integrate between t = 0 when x = 0, and t = T when x = x2 . We have

ZT
Z x2 v
u 1 + f (x)2
t
d x.
dt =
2g f (x)
0
0
We conclude that the time T to go from P1 to P2 is given by
Z x2 v
u 1 + f (x)2
t
T (f ) =
d x,
2g f (x)
0
(5.2)
where we have written T as T ( f ) to emphasize the dependence of the elapsed time on the
function f , that is, on the slides shape. This leads to the following question, known as
the brachistochrone problem:
5.3. Mathematical preliminaries
27
Problem 5.2. Find a function f whose graph goes through the points P1 and P2 , and
which minimizes the travel time T ( f ).
In other words, we are looking for the shape of a slide that will let us slide from P1 to
P2 in the fastest possible way.
A historical remark
The brachistochrone problem (from the Greek brachistos+chronos; brachistos = shortest, chronos = time) was proposed by Johann Benoulli in 1696 in Acta Eruditorum, one of
the earliest Eupopean scientific journals. His solution, along with those of several other
prominent mathematicians, was published in the journal in the following year. The various techiniques developed for analyzing the problem were distilled, decades later, in the
capable hands of Euler and Lagrange, into what became known as the calculus of variations.
5.3 Mathematical preliminaries

Before moving on to the analysis of the problems introduced in the previous section, and
that of the calculus of variations in general, we collect here a few elementary mathematical
concepts and results which facilitates the subsequent treatment. The presentation here
follows closely that of Gelfand and Fomin [5].
5.3.1 Basic lemmas

We write C [a, b ] for the set of continuous functions defined on the closed interval [a, b ].
For any nonnegative integer n, we write C n [a, b ] for the the set of those functions in
C [a, b ] whose derivatives of order up to n are in C [a, b ]. In particular, C 0 [a, b ] =
C [a, b ].
Lemma 5.1. If C [a, b ] and if
Z

for all h in C 1 [a, b ] : h(a) = h(b ) = 0 ,
(x)h (x) d x = 0
(5.3)
then is constant on [a, b ].

Proof. Define the constant c through
Z
b
a

(x) c d x = 0,
and let
h(x) =
a

(s) c d s.
Then h meets the requirements of (5.3). We also have h (x) = (x) c, therefore
Z
b
a
(x) c
whence c.
2
dx =
a

(x) c h (x) d x =
b
a
Z
(x)h (x) d x
b
a
c h (x) d x = 0,
28
Lemma 5.2. Let and be in C [a, b ] and

Z

(x)h(x) + (x)h (x) d x = 0

for all h in C 1 [a, b ] : h(a) = h(b ) = 0 .
(5.4)
Then is differentiable, and (x) = (x) for all x in [a, b ].

Proof. Let
(s) d s,
A(x) =
a
then calculate as follows, applying integration by parts:

Z
(x)h(x) d x =
a
b Z b

A (x)h(x) d x = A(x)h(x)
A(x)h (x) d x
a
Z
=
A(x)h (x) d x.
Therefore (5.4) may be written as

Z
a

A(x) + (x) h (x) d x = 0

for all h in C 1 [a, b ] : h(a) = h(b ) = 0 .
Then from Lemma 5.1 it follows that

A(x) + (x) constant on [a, b ],
which implies, in particular, that C 1 [a, b ] since A C 1 [a, b ]. Upon differentiation
we see that (x) = A (x) = (x).
5.3.2 The variation

An affine subspace is a subset of a linear space X obtained by translating a subspace of X
parallel to itself. The illustration in Figure 5.2 shows a subspace N of X which has been
translated to produce the affine subspace A . Thus, if x1 and x2 are in A , then x1 x2
is in N . Equivalently, if x0 A , then every x A is of the form x = x0 + h, where
h N .
Definition 5.3. Let X , N , and A be as above, and suppose that X is equipped with a norm
k k. Consider the (generally nonlinear) function J : A R. The variation of J at a point
x A is a linear function J x : N R, if one exists, with the property that
J (x + h) = J (x) + J x (h) + khk,
for all h N ,
(5.5)
where 0 as khk 0.
Remark 5.1. The variation of a function is closely related to the derivative. In fact, the
two concepts coincide if N = X .
Remark 5.2. The traditional notation for the variation of J is J . However the
symbol is assigned too many diverse roles in in mechanics. I prefer the more innocuous
5.3. Mathematical preliminaries
29
A
N
O
X
Figure 5.2: The oval represents a normed space X with O as the origin. The affine
subpace A is obtained by a parallel translation of the subspace N .
notation J x , which has the additional advantage that it makes explicit the point x at which
it is evaluated.
Theorem 5.4. The variation of a function, if it exists, is unique.
Proof. Suppose that J x and Jx are both variations of J at x. Then
J (x + h) = J (x) + J x (h) + 1 khk,
J (x + h) = J (x) + Jx (h) + 2 khk,

for all h N . It follows that
J x (h) Jx (h) = (1 2 )khk
for all h in N .
Fix h N arbitrarily, and set hn = h/n. Then we have
J x (hn ) Jx (hn ) = (1 2 )khn k,
which has two consequences. First, by the linearity of J x and Jx , and the homogeneity of
the norm we have:
J x (hn ) =
1
J (h),
n x
1
Jx (hn ) = Jx (h),
n
khn k =
1
khk,
n
therefore
J x (h) Jx (h) = (1 2 )khk.
Second, h/n 0 as n , therefore 1 and 2 go to zero as n . It follows that
J x (h) Jx (h) = 0 for all h N , therefore J x = Jx .
Definition 5.5. Let J : A R be as in Defintion 5.3. We say J is stationary at x A if
J x (h) = 0 for all h N .
30
Note that if J is stationary at x, then it follows from (5.5) that

J (x + h) J (x)
= 0,
khk
as h 0,
which corresponds to the familiar statement from elementary calculus which says that a
function is stationary when its derivative is zero.
5.4 The central problem of the calculus of variations

The minimum length problem of subsection 5.1.1, and the minimum time problem of
subsection 5.2, are special cases of the following general problem.
Let X = C 1 [a, b ] equipped with the norm

(5.6)
kyk1 = max |y(x)|, |y (x)| , y X .
axb
Define the subspace N of X through

N = y X : y(a) = y(b ) = 0 ,
and the affine subspace A of X through

A = y X : y(a) = A, y(b ) = B ,
(5.7)
(5.8)
where A and B are given. Note that A is a parallel translation of N ; the difference of
any two elements of A is in N .
Lets say we are given a function F : R3 R, which we will assume is twice continuously differentiable. Define the function J : A R through
Z
J (y) =

F x, y(x), y (x) d x,
y A,
(5.9)
and then introduce the central problem of the calculus of variations:

Problem 5.3. Find y A so that J is stationary at y.
Remark 5.3. The function J is defined over the domain A which consists of a set
of functions. This is unlike the common functions studied in elementary calculus where
function are typically defined over R or Rn . In the modern theory of functions, a function
is a mapping from a set (the domain) to another set (the range). The domain and range
may be sets of any type, therefore the fact that the domain of J is a set of functions is of no
way special. However, in the historical context in which the calculus of variations arose,
a function whose domain was anything other than Rn was an oddity, therefore such a
function was called a functional, implying a function-like object. In modern times there
is no particular justification for such a special terminology, nevertheless functions like J
are often called functionals, carrying on the tradition.
Remark 5.4. Section 5.1.1s curve of minimal length (equation (5.1)) corresponds to
F (x, y, y ) =
1 + y 2 ,
5.4. The central problem of the calculus of variations
31
and Section 5.2s brachistochrone problem (equation (5.2)) corresponds to

v
u 1 + y 2
t
F (x, y, y ) =
.
2g y
Note that we are using y as a formal argument herethe prime in y does not mean the
derivative. The two functions F shown above could have been given equally well as
v
u 1 + z2
p
t
2
F (x, y, z) =
F (x, y, z) = 1 + z ,
,
2g y
but the y notation is a useful reminder that the y is a placeholder for the actual derivative
y (x) in the integrand of in J in (5.9).
Theorem 5.6. Consider the function J : A R defined in (5.9). If J is stationary at y A ,
then
d
Fy
F = 0,
(5.10)
dx y
where a subscript to F means the partial derivative of F with respect to the corresponding
argument.
Proof. Let us say J is stationary at y A . From the Taylor series expansion of F about
y:
F (x, y + h, y + h ) = F (x, y, y ) + Fy (x, y, y )h + Fy (x, y, y )h
1
1
+ Fyy (x, y, y )h 2 + Fyy (x, y, y )h h + Fy y (x, y, y )h 2 + .
2
2
Integrating over [a, b ] we obtain
Zb

Fy (x, y, y )h + Fy (x, y, y )h d t + khk1 ,
J (y + h) = J (y) +
a
where the norm k k1 is defined in (5.6), and 0 as khk1 0. Then it follows from
Defintion 5.3 that the variation of J is given by
Zb

Fy (x, y, y )h + Fy (x, y, y )h d t .
Jy (h) =
a
Since J is stationary at y, we have

Zb

Fy (x, y, y )h + Fy (x, y, y )h d t = 0,
a
for all h in N .
Then according to Lemma 5.2, Fy (x, y, y ) is differnetiable and
d
F (x, y, y ) =
d x y
Fy (x, y, y ).
Remark 5.5. Equations (5.10) is called the Euler equation corresponding to the function
J . In expanded form it looks like this:

d F
F

= 0, x [a, b ].
y x,y(x),y (x)
d x y x,y(x),y (x)
32
This is a second order differential equation in y. It is to be solved for y A which supplies

the boundary conditions y(a) = A and y(b ) = B in accordance with (5.8).
In the frequently occurring special case where the function F (x, y, y ) in (5.9) has no
explicit dependence on x, that is, when J is of the form
Z
J (y) =

F y(x), y (x) d x,
y S,
(5.11)
then the second order differential (5.10) may be reduced to a first order equation, thus
resulting in significant simplification. We state this as the following:
Theorem 5.7. If y is a stationary point of J defined in (5.11), then
F y Fy = C
(5.12)
where C is a constant.
Proof. To show that the left-hand side of (5.12) is a constant, let us compute its derivative:

d
F y(x), y (x) y (x)Fy y(x), y (x)
dx

= Fy y(x), y (x) y (x) + Fy y(x), y (x) y (x)

d
Fy y(x), y (x) .
y (x)Fy y(x), y (x) y (x)
dx
The second and third terms on the right-hand side cancel, and we are left with

d
F y(x), y (x) y (x)Fy y(x), y (x)
dx

d
= Fy y(x), y (x)
F y(x), y (x) y (x).
dx y
The right-hand side is zero due to (5.10), completing the proof.
5.5 The invariance of Eulers equation under change of

coordinates
A remarkable property of Eulers equation is its invariance under change of coordinates
in the following sense. Consder a change of variables from (x, y) to (u, v), where
x = X (u, v),
y = Y (u, v),
and suppose that the transformation is smooth and one-to-one, which in particular implies
that Jacobian of the transformation is nonzero:
det
Xu
Yu
Xv
6 0.
=
Yv
5.6. The solution of Problem 5.1
33
X
A subscript indicates partial derivative, as in X u = u . A curve given by the equation

y = y(x) in the xy-plane corresponds to a curve v = v(u) in the uv-plane. In particular,
we have
d x = X u d u + Xv d v,
d y = Y u d u + Yv d v,
which has two immediates consequences. First, we have d x = (X u + Xv v ) d u, and second,
Y d u + Yv d v
Y + Yv v
dy
= u
= u
.
y =
d x X u d u + Xv d v X u + Xv v
With the aid of these, we change the variables from x and y to u and v in (5.9):
Z

F x, y(x), y (x) d x =
b
a

Y + Yv v
F X (u, v), Y (u, v), u
(X u + Xv v ) d u,
X u + Xv v
where a and b are the images of a and b under our transformation. Thus, we set

Y + Yv v
F(u, v, v ) = F X (u, v), Y (u, v), u
(X u + Xv v ),
X u + Xv v
and define
J(v) =
F(u, v, v ) d v.
Remark 5.6. The rest of the argument requires the introduction of the concept of
variational derivative which we havent done. See [5, Section 8] for the rest. But for now,
perhaps the following heuristic argument will do.
Review Section 5.4 to verify for yourself that neither the statement of the problem (5.9),
nor its solution (5.10) refer to any particular coordinate system. Therefore the x and y
notation notwithstanding, the entire treatment is independent of a choice of coordinates.
For instance, if F (, , ) is constructed in polar coordinates (, ), then the stationary
point is given by the differential equation
d
F = 0.
d
This is an absolutely crucial observation in the development of the theory of Lagrangian

mechanics.
5.6 The solution of Problem 5.1

To illustrate the previous sections general development,
let us apply it to solve Probp
lem 5.1. In view of to (5.1), we set F (x, y, y ) = 1 + y 2 , therefore
y
F
,
=p
y
1 + y 2
F
= 0,
y
whence

d F
d x y
=
x,y(x),y (x)
y (x)
d
,
p
dx
1 + y (x)2
34
and the differential equation (5.10) takes the form
y (x)
d
= 0.
p
dx
1 + y (x)2
Solving this is quite straightforward. The derivative of the parenthesized quantity is zero,
therefore the parenthesized quantity is a constant, say c:
y (x)
p
1 + y (x)2
= c.
p
It follows that y (x) = c 1 + y (x)2 , therefore y (x)2 = c 2 (1 + y (x)2 ), whence (1
c 2 )y (x)2 = c 2 , which implies that y (x) is constant, therefore the graph of y(x) is a straight
line, as asserted.
p
Remark 5.7. Since F = 1 + y 2 has no explicit dependence on x in this case, we could
have solved the problem by applying the alternative formula (5.12) which would have lead
to
p
y
1 + y 2 y p
= C.
1 + y 2
p
This simplifies to C 1 + y 2 = 1, whence we conclude that y is a constant, as before.
5.7 The solution of Problem 5.1 in polar coordinates

In Section 5.5 we noted that the Euler equations are independent of the choice of coordinates. To illustrate this, let us solve Problem 5.1, that is, determining the shortest path
between two points, in polar coordinates.
Thus, let () be a function in the polar coordinates (, ) so that its graphs passes
through the given points P1 (1 , 1 ) and P2 (2 , 2 ). In calculus it is shown that the paths
length is obtained through the formula
Z 2
() =
()2 + ()2 d ,
1
therefore F (, , ) =
here we get
2 + 2 . Note that F has no explicit dependence on . From
F
,
=p

2 + 2
therefore the Euler equation (5.12) takes the form

p
2 + 2 p
2
2 + 2
= c.
p
p
Multiplying the equation through by 2 + 2 and simplifying, we get c 2 + 2 = 2 ,
p
whence c 2 (2 + 2 ) = 4 , and consequently, c = 2 c 2 , which may be solved
through separation of variables:
Z
Z
cd
= d = + k,
p
2 c 2
5.8. The solution of Problem 5.2
35
where k is the constant of integration.

The integral on the left-hand side is may be evaluated with the help of the change of
variables = c/u. We have d = c/u 2 d u, therefore
Z
Z
Z
c
c( u 2 ) d u
cd
c
du
= cos1 u = cos1 .
= p
=
p
c
c
2
2
2
2
2
1u
c
(u) c
u
c
We conclude that the solution of the differential equation is = cos1 = + k, that is,
c
= cos( k) = cos( + k) = cos k cos sin k sin .
Multiplying through by noting that x = cos and y sin , where x and y are the
Cartesian coordinates corresponding the the polar (, ), the solution reduces to
c = x cos k + y sin k,
which is the equation of a straight line.
5.8 The solution of Problem 5.2

In view of (5.2), we set
v
u 1 + y 2
t
F (x, y, y ) =
.
y
I have dropped the factor of 2g in the denominator a constant multiplier does not affect
the location of a functions minimum. Note that F does not have an explicit dependence
on x, therefore the special Euler formula (5.12) yields,
v
u 1 + y 2
y 2
t
p
= C,
y
y(1 + y 2
which simplifies to
1
.
C2
Introducing the alternative constant a = 1/C 2 , and then solving for y we obtain
p
y = a y y.
y(1 + y 2 ) =
Upon separating the variables and integrating we get

Z
Z s
y
dy = dx = x + b.
ay
()
The integral on the left-hand side may be evaluated with the help of a change of variables
a
of the form y = a sin2 = 2 (1 cos ). With hindsight, the change of variables y =
produces a better-looking
2
cos
d , and
2
2
a sin2
a sin
Z s
result, and thats what we will use. We have d y =
v
Z u
u a sin2 2
y
a sin cos d
dy = t
2
ay
2
2
a a sin 2
Z
Z
a
a
(1 cos ) d = ( sin ).
= a sin2 d =
2
2
2
36

a
From () we conclude that 2 ( sin ) = x + b . Thus, we have arrived at the general

solution of our Euler equation in parametric form
a
x = ( sin ) b ,
2
a
y = (1 cos ).
2
The constant a and b may be determined form the problems auxiliary conditions. Referring to Figure 5.1, we see that the solution curve is to go through the points (0, 0) and
(x2 , y2 ). The first of these conditions is fulfilled by taking b = 0. The second condition
requires that
a
x2 = ( sin ),
2
a
y2 = (1 cos ),
2
where is the value of at the point P2 . Upon solving this system for the unknowns a
we arrive at the solution of the brachistochrone problem, expressed parametrically
and ,
as follows:
a
x = ( sin ),
2
a
y = (1 cos ).
2
You will recognized that these are the parametric equations of a cycloid. Therefore the
fastest playground slide is a cycloid that goes through the slides start and finish points.
5.9 A variational problem in two unknowns

This section needs to be completely rewritten!
The variational problem defined in equation (5.9) involves a single unknown function
y = y(x). The following generalization involves two unknowns, x(t ) and y(t ):
Z t2

F t , x(t ), y(t ), x (t ), y(t ) d t ,
(5.13)
J (x, y) =
t1
where a superposed dot indicates a derivative with respect to t .

Consider the set X of all smooth functions from (t1 , t2 ) to R such that x(t1 ) = a1 ,
y(t1 ) = b1 , x(t2 ) = a2 , y(t3 ) = b2 , where a1 , b1 , a2 , b2 are given.
Problem 5.4. Find functions x X and y X which minimize J (x, y).
Following the technique introduced in Section 5.4, it is not too hard to prove the
following theorem whose proof will be left as an exercise:
Theorem 5.8. Consider the function J : X X R defined in (5.13). If J achieves a
minimum at (x, y) X X , then x and y satisfy the following system of second order
differential equation
d
d
Fx
Fy
(5.14)
F x = 0,
F = 0.
dt
dt y
5.10. Lagrange multipliers
37
5.10 Lagrange multipliers

This section is not really necessary; consider removing it.
This section reviews the Lagrange multipliers technique which is usually covered in
a multivariable calculus course. If you are familiar with the concept, have a quick look
through this section nevertheless, since the methodology developed here caries in a parallel fashion to the subsequent sections.
Problem 5.5. Let the functions f : R3 R and g : R3 R be given. Find the minimum
of f subject to g (x, y, z) = 0.
Geometrically, we think of g (x, y, z) = 0 as a surface S in R3 , and we are asking for
the minimum of f on that surface.
Solution. Lets say f achieves a minimum at a point P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) S. The rest of the
solution falls into two parts, which analyze the properties of g and f at P0 .
Part 1: The analysis of g
Let C be an arbitrary curve in S which passes through P0 , and lets write x0 + (s), y0 +

(s), z0 + (s) for the parametric representation of C . The requirement that C passes
through P0 implies that (0) = (0) = (0)= 0. The requirement that C lies within S
implies that g x0 + (s), y0 + (s), z0 + (s) = 0 for all s, and consequently
g
g
g
(s) +
(s) +
(s) = 0,
x
y
z
for all s,
or equivalently,
D g g g E

,
,
(s), (s), (s) = 0.
x y z
This says that in particular at the point P0 where s = 0 we have

g P (0), (0), (0) .
(5.15)

The vector (0), (0), (0) . is tangent to the curve C at the point P0 . Since C is arbi

trary, the vector (0), (0), (0) . can be anything. We conclude that g P is perpen0
dicular to all tangent vectors of all curves that pass through P0 , therefore it is perpendicular
to the surface S at P0 .
Part 2: The analysis of f
We introduce the function

(s) = f x0 + (s), y0 + (s), z0 + (s) = 0
which expresses the values taken on by the function f on the curve C . Since f achieves a
minimum at P0 on S, the (s) achieves a minimum at s = 0, and therefore (0) = 0. We
have
D f f f E

,
,
(s) =
(s), (s), (s) ,
x y z
38
therefore

f P (0), (0), (0) .
(5.16)
0

We conclude that f P is perpendicular to all tangent vectors of all curves that pass
0
through P0 , therefore it is perpendicular to the surface S at P0 .
Part 3: Conclusion

We have seen that g P and f P are both perpendicular to the surface S at P0 . It follows
0
0
that those two vectors are parallel, that is, there exists a scalar so that f = g at P0 .
The solution of Problem 5.5 then reduces to solving the system of 4 equations
f
g
=
,
x
x
f
g
=
,
y
y
f
g
=
,
z
z
g (x, y, z) = 0,
for the four unknowns x, y, z, .
Remark 5.8.
obvious way.
The statement and conclusion of Problem 5.5 generalizes to Rn in the
Example 5.9. Find the point on the ellipse x 2 /9 + y 2 /4 = 1 which is closest to the point
(a, b ).
Solution. We let f (x, y) = (x a)2 + (y b )2 be the square of the distance from any point
(x, y) to the point (a, b ); and g (x.y) = x 2 /9+y 2 /41. Then the problem may be restated
as: minimize f subject to g (x, y) = 0. Therefore we need to solve the nonlinear system
of equations
2
1
x2 y2
2(x a) = x, 2(y b ) = y,
+
= 1.
9
2
9
4
There is no simple solution to this system; the usual method of elimination leads to a
fourth degree polynomial equation. If a and b are given as numbers, then we may solve
the system numerically.
5.11 Calculus of variations with pointwise constraints

Gelfand & Fomins approach calls for the introduction of the variational derivative
Here is a variant of Problem 5.4 with an added constraint.
y(t1 ) = b1 , x(t2 ) = a2 , y(t3 ) = b2 , where a1 , b1 , a2 , b2 are given.
Problem 5.6. The functions L : R5 R and G : R2 R are given. We define
Z t2

L t , x(t ), y(t ), x (t ), y(t ) d t .
J (x, y) =
t1
Find functions x X and y X which minimize J (x, y) subject to G(x, y) = 0.
(5.17)
5.11. Calculus of variations with pointwise constraints
39
Solution. Let and be a pair of arbitrary smooth scalar-valued functions defined on

some interval (, ), and such that (0) = (0) = 0.
Let and be a pair of arbitrary smooth scalar-valued function defined on the interval
(t1 , t2 ) which vanish at t1 and t2 ,
Suppose the constrained minimum of J is achieved at x X and y X . Then, if ,
, , and are such that
G x(t ) + (s) (t ), y(t ) + (s)(t )) = 0,
s ,
t 1 t t2 ,
(5.18)
we have
J (x + , y + ) J (x, y).
Upon differentiation (5.18) with respect to s and then setting s to zero we get
G
G
(t ) (0) +
(t ) (0) = 0.
x
y
Now integrate the result
Z
(0)
t2
t1
G
(t ) d t + (0)
x
t2
t1
G
(t ) d t = 0.
y
We conclude that the vectors (0), (0) and

Z t2
D Z t2 G
E
G
(t ) d t ,
(t ) d t
t1 x
t1 y
(5.19)
are orthogonal.
Next, let us introduce : (, ) R via
(s) = J (x + , y + )
Z t2

L t , x(t ) + (s) (t ), y(t ) + (s)(t ), x(t ) + (s)(t ), y(t ) + (s)
(t ) d t .
=
t1
Then the previous inequality takes the form (s) (0). which indicates that achieves
a minimum at 0. We conclude that (0) = 0. We proceed, therefore, to calculate (s).
We have:
Z t2 h
i
L
L
L
L
(s) =
(t ) (s) +
(t ) (s) +
(t ) (s) +
(t ) (s) d t
x
y
x
y
t1
Z t2
Z t2

L
L
L
L
(t ) d t + (s)
(t ) +
(t ) +
(t ) d t .
= (s)
x
x
y
y
t1
t1
Z t2
Z t2

L
d L
d L
L
(t ) d t + (s)
(t ) d t
= (s)
x d t x
y d t y
t1
t1
Then from (0) = 0 we get that the vectors (0), (0) and
Z t2
D Z t2 L
E
L
d L
d L
(t ) d t ,
(t ) d t
x d t x
y d t y
t1
t1
are orthogonal.
(5.20)
40
Since the vectors (5.19) and (5.20) are both orthogonal to (0), (0), and since the
latter is arbitrary, we conclude that the two former vectors are parallel, therefore, there
exists a function (t ) so that
d L L
G
=
,
d t x x
x
d L L
G
=
.
d t y y
y
(5.21)
Example 5.10. Find the curve of shortest length in R3 that lies on the cylinder x 2 +y 2 = 1
and connects the points ??.

Solution. Let the shortest curve be parametrized as x(t ), y(t ), z(t ) , t1 t t2 . The
curves length is
Z t2 p
x2 + y2 + z2 d t .
t1
Therefore we let
p
L t , x(t ), y(t ), z(t ), x(t ), y(t ), z(t ) = x2 + y2 + z2 ,
G(x, y, z) = x 2 + y 2 1,
and apply the equations (5.21). We have

x
L
=p
,
x
x2 + y2 + z2
L
= 0,
x
G
= 2x.
x
These lead to the system of equations

x
= 2x,
p
x2 + y2 + z2

y
= 2y,
p
x2 + y2 + z2

z
= 0,
p
x2 + y2 + z2
x 2 + y 2 = 1.
If the curve is parametrized by the arc length s, then x2 + y2 + z2 = 1, therefore the
equations simplify to
x = 2x,
y = 2y,
z = 0,
x 2 + y 2 = 1,
(5.22)
where a superposed dot means differentiation with respect to s. The z equation integrates
readily to z(s) = as + b .
To continue, let us differentiate the constraint equation twice. We get x x + y y = 0
and x2 + x x + y2 + y y = 0. For the second derivatives we substitute from (5.22) to get
x2 + 2x 2 + y2 + 2y 2 = 0, which we rearrange into
2(x 2 + y 2 ) + x2 + y2 = 0.
This further simplifies by observing that:
5.12. Calculus of variations with integral constraints
41
1. x 2 + y 2 = 1 (the constraint equation);

2. x2 + y2 + z2 = 1 (the arc length parametrization) therefore x2 + y2 = 1 z2 ; and
3. z = a.
We conclude that 2 = 1 a 2 , therefore
1
= (1 a 2 ).
2
It just happens that in this case is a constant; in general we expect to be a function.
Going back to the differential equations in (5.22), we have
x = (1 a 2 )x,
y = (1 a 2 )y,
which yields the solution

p
x(s) = cos( 1 a 2 s + c),
y(s) = sin(
1 a 2 s + c).
z(s) = as + b ,
which we recognize as the parametric equations of a helix.
5.12 Calculus of variations with integral constraints

Gelfand & Fomins approach calls for the introduction of the variational derivative
x(t2 ) = a2 , where a1 , and a2 are given. Similarly, let Y be the set of all smooth functions
from (t1 , t2 ) to R such that y(t1 ) = b1 , y(t2 ) = b2 , where b1 , and b2 are given.
Problem 5.7. The functions L : R5 R and G : R5 R are given. We define
Z
t2
J (x.y) =

L t , x(t ), y(t ), x(t ), y(t ) d t .
(5.23)
t1
Find the functions x X and y Y which minimize J (x, y) subject to

Z
t2

G t , x(t ), y(t ), x (t ), y(t )) d t = 0.
t1
With a technique similar to those in the previous sections, it is not difficult to see that
the solution of the problem is given by
d
(L + G) =
(L + G),
d t x
x
where is a constant to be determined.
(L + G) =
(L + G),
d t y
y
(5.24)
42
Example 5.11. Find the closed curve of a prescribed length in the plane which encloses
the largest possible area.

Solution. Suppose the curve is given in parametric form as x(t ), y(t ) , 0 t 1, with
x(0) = x(1) and y(0) = y(1). The area enclosed by the curve, according to Greens Theorem, is
Z
1 1
(x y y x ) d t
(5.25)
2 0
and the curves length is
Z 1p
x2 + y2 d t .
(5.26)
Therefore we wish to maximize (5.25) subject to (5.26). We apply the equation (5.24) to
solve this. We have:
1
L t , x(t ), y(t ), x(t ), y(t ) = (x y y x)
2
and
p
G t , x(t ), y(t ), x(t ), y(t ) = x2 + y2 ,
therefore
p
1
L + G = (x y y x) + x2 + y2 ,
2
whence
x
,
(L + G) = y + p
x
2
x2 + y2
1
(L + G) = y + p
y
2
x2 + y2
1
(L + G) = y
x
2
(L + G) = x.
y
2
If we pick the arc length, s, for parametrization, we get x2 + y2 = 1, therefore equations (5.24) lead to
x = y,
y =
x.
Integrating once we obtain
x = y + c1 ,
y = x + c2 .
We solve the resulting system of ODEs and arrive at

1
1
x(s) = Asin s + B cos s + c2 ,
1
1
y(s) = Acos s B sin s c1 ,
which we recognize as a parametric equation of a circle.
Exercises
43
y
(x2 , y2 )
(x1 , y1 )
x
Figure 5.3: The graph of y(x) is revolved about the x axis (left) to produce a surface of
revolution (right) (Exercise 1).
Exercises
5.1. Minimal surface. Find the function y(x), x1 x x2 , whose graph passes through
the points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) in the Cartesian plane, and the surface of revolution
obtained by rotating the graph about the x axis has the least area. See Figure 5.3.
5.2. Derive the Euler equations (5.14). Hint: Suppose (x, y) is a minimizing pair. Then
for any pair of scalars , R, and any pair of functions and which vanish at
t1 and t2 , we have:
J (x + , y + ) J (x, y).
For fixed and let
(, ) = J (x + , y + ).
Argue that achieves a minimum at (0, 0), then proceed as on the proof of Theorem 5.6.
5.3. The geodesic. Find the differential equations corresponding to the shortest curve
lying on the surface z = f (x, y) in R3 , which connects the points P1 x1 , y1 , f (x1 , y1 )

and P2 x2 , y2 , f (x2 , y2 ) . Such a curve is called a geodesic. Hint: Any such curve may
be represented parametrically as

r(t) = u(t ), v(t ), f (u(t ), v(t ) , 0 t 1,
such that
u(0) = x1 ,
Then we have
v(0) = y1 ,
u(1) = x2 ,
v(1) = y2 .
f
f
u +
v d t .
d r(t) = u , v,
u
v
Let d s be the infinitesimal curve length corresponding to the increment d t . We

have
f
f 2
2
2
2
2
d s = kd r(t)k = u + v +
u +
v d t 2 ,
u
v
44
therefore the curves length is

Z 1 h
1/2
h
f 2 i
f 2 i
f f
2
2
=
dt.
u + 1 +
v + 2
u v
L(u, v, u, v)
1+
u
v
u v
0
5.4. Apply
the previous exercises general result to the special case where z = f (x, y) =
p
1 x 2 , that is, the surface is (a part of) a circular cylinder. Conclude that geodesics
are helixes.
Chapter 6
Lagrangian mechanics
6.1 Newtonian mechanics

Let r(t ) be the position vector at time t of a particle (point mass) of constant mass m
moving in the three-dimensional space under the influence of a force f (t ). According
to Newton, the equation of motion is m r = f , where, to simplify the notation, I have
written r and f for r(t ) and f (t ). A superimposed dot on a variable indicates the time
derivative of that variable. Thus, r is the particles velocity and r is its acceleration.
The motion of a collection of N particles is given as a set N vectorial equations
mk rk = fk ,
k = 1, 2, . . . , N ,
(6.1)
where mk is the mass of the kth particle, rk is its position vector, and fk is the resultant
of all forces acting on mk .
Example 6.1. Consider and idealized dumbbell consisting of two particles of masses
m1 and m2 , connected with a rigid massless rod, as shown in Figure 6.1(a). In the free
flight of the dumbbell, as when it is tossed up in the air, the force exerted on m1 is the
resultant of the (known) weight vector m1 g and the (unknown) push/pull f12 the rod.
That is, f1 = m1 g + f12 .
Let us write rk = rk,1 , rk,2 , rk,3 and fk = fk,1 , fk,2 , fk,3 for the Cartesian representations of the vectors rk and fk . Then the N vector equations above may equivalently be
viewed as 3N scalar equations
mk rk, j = fk, j ,
j = 1, 2, 3,
k = 1, 2, . . . , N .
(6.2)
The following obvious trick flattens the doubly-indexed variables into singly-index
quantities and results in a significant algebraic simplification. We introduce the vectors
x = r1,1 , r1,2 , r1,3 , r2,1 , r2,2 , r2,3 , . . . rN ,1 , rN ,2 , rN ,3 ,
|
{z
}|
{z
}
{z
}
|
(6.3a)
f = f1,1 , f1,2 , f1,3 , f2,1 , f2,2 , f2,3 , . . . fN ,1 , fN ,2 , fN ,3 ,

| {z } | {z }
|
{z
}
(6.3b)
r1
f1
r2
f2
rN
fN
m = m1 , m1 , m1 , m2 , m2 , m2 , . . . , mN , mN , mN ,
{z
}
|
| {z } | {z }
m1
m2
45
mN
(6.3c)
46
Chapter 6. Lagrangian mechanics
f21
f21
m2 g
f12
f12
f23
12
m2 g
23
f32
m1 g
f13
31
f31
m3 g
m1 g
(a) A idealized dumbbell
(b) a rigid triangle
Figure 6.1: This idealized dumbbell on the left consists of two points masses connected
through a massless rigid rod of length . In free flight, the force exerted on
m1 is the resultant of the weight vector m1 g and the push/pull of the rod
f12 . The rigid triangle on the right consists of three point masses connected
through a massless rigid rods.
and write (6.2) as

mi xi = fi ,
i = 1, 2, . . . , 3N .
(6.4)
The change from (6.2) to (6.4) may seem merely cosmetic, but it entails a major change
of philosophy and opens the doors to Lagrangian mechanics, as we shall see. Specifically,
we view (6.4) as the differential equation of a motion of a point x in R3N . According
to (6.3a), knowing the position of the single point x R3N is equivalent to knowing
the positions of the N points r1 , r2 , . . . , rN in the (physical) three-dimensional space.
Thus, the study of the motion of a system of N points in the three-dimensional space is
equivalent to the study of the motion of a single point in the abstract R3N . Specifying an x
in the R3N amounts to specifying the geometrical configuration of the particle system.
Definition 6.2. The 3N -dimensional space introduced above is called the mechanical systems
Cartesian configuration space. In analogy with Newtons equations of motion, the vectors
x, f , m defined in (6.3) are called the position, the force, and the mass of the single abstract
particle moving in the configuration space.
Remark 6.1. Although it is tempting to think of the equation of motion (6.4) as a
= f to R3N , the analogy is imperfect. The true
generalization of Newtons equation m x
generalization would have been
m xi = fi ,
i = 1, 2, . . . , 3N ,
involving only a single m. In contrast, (6.4)s fictitious particle exhibits different masses
along different coordinate directions.
6.2 Holonomic constraints

The motion of a particle in the three-dimensional physical space traces a curve, as in the
arc of a thrown ball, or the orbit of a planet. The motion of N particle then traces N
curves in the three-dimensional space. The position x in configuration space, defined
in (6.3a), merges the coordinates of the N particles into one, therefore the motion of the
entire N -particle system appears as a single curve in the configuration space. We call that
6.2. Holonomic constraints
47
curve the systems orbit in the configuration space. When there is no risk of confusion, we
will simply call it the orbit.
If there are no impediments in placing the particles independently in arbitrary positions in space, then the orbit of the system of N particle may reach any point in the
configuration spaceall is needed is the application of an appropriate force to get there.
If, however, the relative movements of the points are constrained, as in the dumbbell of
Figure 6.1(a), only a subset of the configuration space may be reached.
Example 6.3. Let r1 = r1,1 , r1,2 , r1,3 and r2 = r2,1 , r2,2 , r2,3 . be the position vectors of
the dumbbell of Figure 6.1(a). Then, according to (6.3a) the position vector x R6 is
given by
x = r1,1 , r1,2 , r1,3 , r2,1 , r2,2 , r2,3 .
The constraint of the fixed length of the connecting rod is expressed as kr1 r2 k = ,
or more explicitly, as
(r1,1 r2,1 )2 + (r1,2 r2,2 )2 + (r1,3 r2,3 )2 = 2 ,
that is,
(x1 x4 )2 + (x2 x5 )2 + (x3 x6 )2 2 = 0.
(6.5)
This defines a 5-dimensional surfacea manifold is the technical termembedded in R6 .

The point orbit cannot roam arbitrarily in R6 ; it is constrained to stay on that manifold.
Example 6.4. Figure 6.1(b) shows three point masses connected with three massless rigid
rods, and thus forming a rigid triangle. The position vectors ri , i = 1, 2, 3, of the masses
are constrained through the three constraint equations
kr1 r2 k = 12 ,
kr2 r3 k = 23 ,
kr3 r1 k = 31 ,
which, in terms of the extended variable

x = r1,1 , r1,2 , r1,3 , r2,1 , r2,2 , r2,3 , r3,1 , r3,2 , r3,3 ,
= x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 , x6 , x7 , x8 , x9 ,
take on the form

(x1 x4 )2 + (x2 x5 )2 + (x3 x6 )2 = 212 ,
(x4 x7 )2 + (x6 x8 )2 + (x7 x9 )2 = 223 ,
(x7 x1 )2 + (x8 x2 )2 + (x9 x3 )2 = 231 .
These confine the triangles orbit in the configuration space to a 6-dimensional manifold
embedded in R9 .
Example 6.5. Reconsider the previous example with a added twist. Suppose that the
triangles rods are equipped with remote-controlled motors with may be activated to vary
the rods lengths as desired during the flight. The previous examples constraint equations
take the form
(x1 x4 )2 + (x2 x5 )2 + (x3 x6 )2 = 12 (t )2 ,
(x4 x7 )2 + (x6 x8 )2 + (x7 x9 )2 = 23 (t )2 ,
(x7 x1 )2 + (x8 x2 )2 + (x9 x3 )2 = 31 (t )2 ,
48
where 12 (t ), 23 (t ), and 31 (t ) are given. The manifold M in this case is a 6-dimensional

manifold embedded in R9 whose shape changes with time.
Example 6.6. Recall the bead on the rotating hoop of Exercise 3 on page 6. With the
obvious choice of the xy z coordinates, the position vector of the bead is
r = R sin cos t , R sin sin t , R cos .
The manifold M in this case is a the spinning hoop itself. Geometrically it is a onedimensional spinning object (a circle) embedded in R3 . It is given by the pair of equations
x sin t = y cos t ,
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2 .
The first equation is that of plane that contains the z axis and spins about it with an
angular velocity of . The second equation is that of a sphere of radius a centered at the
origin. The intersection of the two objects is the spinning hoop.
In general, a system of N particles subject to M constraint equations of the form
i (x, t ) = 0,
i = 1, 2, . . . , M ,
(6.6)
3N
where i : R R R, i = 1, 2, . . . , M . These define a (3N M )-dimensional manifold

M embedded in R3N . The systems possible orbits are confined to lie in that manifold.
Generally M may move/deform with time, as it was the case in Examples 6.5 and 6.6.
However, if the equations (6.6) are independent of time, as it was the case in Examples 6.3
and 6.4, then M remains unchanged during the motion. That corresponds to a set of
constraints of the form
i (x) = 0, i = 1, 2, . . . , M ,
(6.6)
Constraints of type (6.6) are not the most general. Some very interesting mechanical
as in i (x, x,
t ) = 0. The rolling of a coin
systems impose constraints on the velocity, x,
therefore (6.6) is inadequate
on the floor, for instance, has a constraint that depends on x,
for that purpose.
Definition 6.7. Constraints of the type (6.6) are called holonomic. All other types of constraints are called nonholonomic.
Definition 6.8. A mechanical system whose only constraints are of the holonomic type is
called a holonomic system.
We will begin our study of Lagrangian dynamics with holonomic systems. Nonholonomic constraints will be brought up in the later chapters.
Remark 6.2. You may be interested to know that holonomic constraints of type (6.6)
are called rheonomic while those of type (6.6) are called scleronomic. I prefer to call them
with the more user-friendly terms time-dependent and time-independent instead.
Remark 6.3. The term holonomic was introduced by Hertz in [6]:
123. A material system between whose possible positions all conceivable
continuous motions are also possible motions is called a holonomous system.
The term means that such a system obeys integral () laws (), whereas
material systems in general obey only differential conditions.
6.3. Generalized coordinates
49
Admittedly that definition is rather vague, but its meaning is clarified further down:
132. When from the differential equations of a material system an equal
number of finite equations between the coordinates of the system can be deduced, the system is holonomous.
By finite equations he means algebraic, as opposed to differential, equations.
6.3 Generalized coordinates

In a holonomic system of N particles subject to M holonomic constraints, the 3N Cartesian components of the position vector x are not quite suitable for the analysis of motion
they cannot serve as independent variables since they are interrelated through the M
constraint equations (6.6). A much better approach is to parametrize the n = (3N M )dimensional configuration manifold M through a suitably chosen n independent variables q1 , q2 , . . . , qn , called the systems generalized coordinates. The parametrization is certainly not unique, however in practice there often is an obvious choice. We write q
when we wish to refer to the n variables q1 , q2 , . . . , qn collectively.
The parameters q form a (generally curvilinear) coordinate system on M . Since the
motions orbit lies in M , the systems state as a function of time may be expressed in terms
of q(t ). The purpose of analytical mechanics is to express Newtons equations of motion (6.4)
in terms of the generalized coordinates q.
Remark 6.4. A familiar example curvilinear coordinates, albeit not directly related to
mechanics, is the system of addressing locations on the surface of the Earth through their
longitude and latitude . In this context, M is the Earths surface, and and are the
coordinates q1 and q2 .
Any q identifies a point on the manifold M . Since M is embedded in R3N , it also
identifies a point x R3N . That is, the systems configuration vector x is a function of q.
We write this is a x = x(q, t ), or in components:
xi = xi (q, t ),
i = 1, 2, . . . , 3N .
(6.7)
The t in this equations accounts for the possible motion/deformation of the manifold related to time-dependent constraints (6.6). In the case of time-independent constraints (6.6),
M is independent of time, and (6.7) reduces to
xi = xi (q),
i = 1, 2, . . . , 3N .
(6.7)
Differentiating the q to x mapping of (6.7) with respect to time, we obtain an expression for the velocities in terms of generalized coordinates:
xi =
X xi (q, t )
xi (q, t )
qk +
.
q
t
k
k
(6.8)
[The last term will be absent in the case of (6.7).] Let us observe that although the po and t . Lets
sition xi is a function of q and t only, the velocity xi is a function of q, q,
record this here for future reference:
t ),
xi = xi (q, q,
i = 1, 2, . . . 3N .
(6.9)
The following theorem establishes a couple of very useful mathematical identities:
50
Theorem 6.9. Let xi and xi be as in (6.7) and (6.9). Then for any i = 1, 2, . . . , 3N and
j = 1, 2, . . . , M , we have:
t ) xi (q, t )
xi (q, q,
=
.
qj
qj
t)
xi (q, q,
d xi (q, t )
=
qj
dt
qj
(6.10)
(6.11)
Proof. The assertion (6.10) is an immediate consequence of (6.8). As to (6.11), its a matter
of differentiating (6.8) with respect to q j and then exchanging the differentiation order in
the resulting second order partial derivatives:
t ) X 2 xi (q, t )
2 xi (q, t )
xi (q, q,
qk +
=
qj
q j qk
qj t
k
X
xi (q, t )
xi (q, t )
=
qk +
qk
qj
t
qj
k
d xi (q, t )
.
=
dt
qj
6.4 Virtual displacements, virtual work, and generalized force

Figure 6.2 depicts a representation of the orbit of a system of N particles on a manifold
of the orbit and then consider
M embedded in R3N . Pick an arbitrary point, lets say x,
the tangent at that point to the manifold. We explore that tangent through infinitesimal
Such excursions are called virtual displacements and commonly
excursions away from x.
written as x. I should emphasize that we are viewing the whole picture as a fossil frozen
in time. The excursions have nothing to do with the systems motion which will continue
along the predetermined orbit once we unfreeze the time. The x notation is used to
distinguish between virtual displacements and the actual differential of the motion d x.
The obvious way of producing a virtual displacement is through incrementing the
generalized coordinates q. A change in q amounts to a displacement within the manifold
M . Therefore the differential q is a displacement within M s tangent. In view of (6.7),
we have:
n
X
xi
xi =
q j .
(6.12)
qj
j =1
Under a virtual displacement x,
Let f be the force vector, see (6.3b), at the point x.
the force performs a work W , called virtual work, given by
W = f x =
3N
X
i =1
f i xi =
X
X
n
3N
n X
3N
n
X
X
xi
xi
q j =
q j =
Q j q j .
fi
fi
qj
j =1
j =1 i =1
i =1
j =1 q j
Letting
Qj =
3N
X
i =1
fi
xi
,
qj
j = 1, 2, . . . , n,
(6.13)
6.4. Virtual displacements, virtual work, and generalized force
51
virtual displacements at x
the true orbit
the manifold M
Figure 6.2: The systems orbit lies on a manifold M determined by the holonomic con are tangent to the manifold.
straints. Virtual displacements at x
the virtual work is now expressed as

W = f x = Q q.
The component Q j is called the compoThe vector Q is called the generalized force at x.
nent of the generalized force along the generalized coordinate q j .
Example 6.10. Consider the simple pendulum of Figure 1.1. The position vector r =
sin , cos , therefore the vector x (see (6.3a)) is
x = x1 , x2
= sin , cos ,
and the constraint is x12 + x22 2 , therefore the configuration manifold M coincides with
the circle swept by the pendulums bob, embedded in the configuration space R2 . The
angle plays the role of the generalized coordinate in this case; any value of identifies
a point on M . Let us write and Q instead of q1 and Q1 for clarity. The force vector is
0, m g . We compute the generalized force by applying (6.13):
Q = f1
x
x1
+ f2 2
= 0 ( cos ) + m g ( sin ) = m g sin .

Observe that Q turns out to be equal to the moment of the weight vector f about the
pendulums pivot.
Example 6.11. Consider the double-pendulum of Figure 1.2. The position vectors of its
two masses are given by
r1 = 1 sin , 1 cos ,
r2 = r1 + 2 sin , 2 cos ,
52
therefore the vectors x and f (see (6.3)) are

x = x1 , x2 , x3 , x4
= 1 sin , 1 cos 1 sin + 2 sin , 1 cos + 2 cos ,
f = f1 , f2 , f3 , f4
= 0, m1 g , 0, m2 g .
The configuration space is R4 in this case. The two constraints

(x1 x2 )2 = 21 ,
(x3 x4 )2 = 22
result in a two-dimensional configuration manifold M embedded in R4 . The angles

and serve as generalized coordinates on M . Let us write and for the generalized
coordinates instead of the generic q1 and q2 , for clarity. We write Q and Q for the
corresponding generalized forces. forces instead of Q1 and Q2 By applying (6.13) we get
x1
x
x
x
+ f2 2 + f3 3 + f4 4 = m1 g 1 sin m2 g 2 sin ,
x
x
x
x
Q = f1 1 + f2 2 + f3 3 + f4 4 = m2 g 2 sin .
Q = f1
6.5 External versus reaction forces

In equation (6.1) the force fk applied to particle k is the resultant of all forces acting on
that particle. For instance, in the triangular system of Figure 6.1(b), forces applied to m1
consist of m1 g + f12 + f13 . The fist term is the gravitational force applied to m1 , that
is its weight, which is known. We call it an external force. The other two are generated
dynamically within the rods, and are unknowns to be determined. We call then internal
forces or more frequently, constraint reactions because they arise due to the unchanging
lengths of the rods.
The constraint reactions get eliminated in the Lagrangian formulation as we shall see.
Their elimination reduces the problems unknowns, and hence simplifies the equations
of motion significantly. In anticipation of that development, we write the total force fk
in (6.1) as fk + fk , where, with some abuse of notations, we have recycled the notation
fk to signify the external forces only, and f the internal forces, applied to the particle k.
After flattening the vectors in accordance with (6.3), equation (6.4) takes on the form
mi xi = fi + fi ,
i = 1, 2, . . . , 3N .
(6.14)
The argument that leads to the elimination of the constraint reactions proceeds as
follows. The orbit of (6.14) lies in the constraint manifold M in R3N . External forces
applied to the particles push and pull the point x in a direction tangent to M . But what
keeps x from flying away from M ? The manifold holds it back, thats what! If, for
example, x speeds over a round protrusion on the manifold, centrifugal forces will tend
to pull it away from the manifold. The manifold, however, exerts just the right amount
of opposite force, the constraint reaction, which holds x attached to M . In the physical
space, that is R3 , the manifolds reactions manifests itself as the forces that develop in the
systems interconnecting links, such as f12 and f13 noted above.
The crucial observation that leads to the elimination of the constraint reactions from
the equations of motion is that the constraint reaction is orthogonal to the constraint manifold. If it werent, then it would have a component tangent to the manifold, which will
6.6. The equations of motion for a holonomic system
53
then perform work during the motion. But such a behavior is uncharacteristic of a passive
constraint surface, so we disallow it.
Since a virtual displacement x is tangent to the constraint manifold (see Figure 6.2),
the orthogonality of the reaction force f to M is expressed naturally as f x = 0 for
all virtual displacements x, or in expanded form
3N
X
f i xi = 0
for all virtual displacements x.
i =1
We note that, however, that due to (6.12)

3N
X
f i xi =
i =1
3N
X
fi
i =1
n
X
xi
q j
j =1 q j
!
=
3N
n
X
X
j =1
i =1
xi
fi
qj
q j ,
therefore
3N
n
X
X
j =1
i =1
xi
fi
qj
q j = 0
for all virtual displacements q,
from which it follows that

3N
X
fi
i =1
xi
= 0,
qj
j = 1, 2, . . . , n.
(6.15)
6.6 The equations of motion for a holonomic system

At this point, the motion of a system consisting of N point masses and M holonomic
constraints has been encapsulated into the 3N + M equations (6.14) and (6.6) in the unknowns xi and fi . It is the goal of this section to re-express the equations of motions as a
system of only n = 3N M differential equations for the n generalized coordinates q as
the unknowns. We begin with multiplying the equation (6.14) by xi q j and summing
over i:
3N
3N
3N
X
xi X
xi X
x
mi xi
=
+
fi
fi i .
qj
j
j
i =1
i =1
i =1
The second summation on the right-hand side is zero due to (6.15). The first summation
on the right-hand side is the generalized force Q j ; see (6.13). Therefore obtain
3N
X
i =1
mi xi
xi
= Qj ,
qj
j = 1, 2, . . . , n.
(6.16)
To simplify the left-hand side, we begin with a preliminary preparation. The kinetic
energy of the system is
3N
X
1
=
mk xk2 .
T (x)
2
k=1
I have written T rather than the usual T for a reason which will become obvious shortly.
Now observe that for any i
3N
T (x)
1
X
m x2 = mi xi ,
=
xi
xi k=1 2 k k
54
therefore
d T (x)
= mi xi .
d t xi
Then, the left-hand side of (6.16) may be calculated as
3N
3N
X
xi X
xi
d T (x)
mi xi
=
qj
xi
qj
i =1
i =1 d t
3N
3N
X T (x)
X
xi
d xi
d T (x)
,
=
xi q j
qj
i =1 xi d t
i =1 d t
where in the last step we have used the differentiation formula u v = (uv) uv . Now
apply (6.10) to the first summation on the right-hand side, and apply (6.11) to the second
summation, to get
3N
3N
3N
X
X T (x)
xi
xi
xi X
d T (x)
=
mi xi
qj
xi qj
i =1
i =1 d t
i =1 xi q j
3N
3N
X T (x)
xi
xi
d X T (x)
=
d t i =1 xi qj
i =1 xi q j
and the generalized velocity
Let us recall that the Cartesian velocity components x
components q are related through (6.8). Therefore the kinetic energy, which we have
may equally well be expressed as a function of q, q,
and t .
taken to be a function of x,
We write the latter as T to distinguish it from the former T :
= T (q, q,
t ),
T (x)
and then note that by the chain rule
3N
t) X
xi
T (q, q,
T (x)
=
qj
i =1 xi q j
Consequently
3N
X
i =1
xi
d
=
mi xi
qj
dt
and
3N
t) X
xi
T (q, q,
T (x)
=
.
qj
i =1 xi q j
t)
t)
T (q, q,
T (q, q,
qj
qj
and therefore (6.16) takes the form
t)
t)
T (q, q,
d T (q, q,
= Qj ,
dt
qj
qj
j = 1, 2, . . . , n.
(6.17)
These n second order differential equations in the n unknowns q1 , q2 , . . . , qn are called

Lagranges equation of motion for a holonomic systems.
In particular, if the external forces Q are derived from a potential, that is, if there exists
a scalar function function V (q, t ) so that Q j = V / q j , then Lagranges equation of
motion take on the form
t)
t)
T (q, q,
V (q, t )
d T (q, q,
=
, j = 1, 2, . . . , n.
dt
qj
qj
qj
Exercises
55
Figure 6.3: The massless hoop rolls against a horizontal line while remaining in a vertical plane. A point of mass m is affixed to the hoop. The angle or the
distance x may be used as generalized coordinates in the configuration space
(Exercises 2 and 3).
In that case we define the systems Lagrangian as

t ) = T (q, q,
t ) V (q, t )
L(q, q,
therefore
and observe that since V does not depend on q, we have L/ qj = T / q,
the equations of motion collapse to
t)
t)
L(q, q,
d L(q, q,
= 0, j = 1, 2, . . . , n.
(6.18)
dt
qj
qj
Exercises
6.1. Find the gneralized forces Q and Q in the spherical pendulum of Figure 1.4
(page 7).
6.2. A massless hoop of radius a rolls without slipping on a horizontal line, while remianing in a vertical plane. A particle of mass m is firmly attached to the hoop, as
seen in Figure 6.3. Use the angle of the masss radius relative to the vertical as
generalized coordinate. Find the generalized force Q .
6.3. In the previous problem use the distance x travelled by the contact point (see the
figure) as generalized coordinate. Find the generalized force Q x .
6.4. Suppose the external forces fi in (6.14) are derived from a potential, that is, there exists a scalar-valued function V (x, t ) such that fi = V (x, t )/ xi for i = 1, 2, . . . , 3N .
Let V (q, t ) = V (x, t ) be the representation of the potential as a function of generalized coordinates. Show that the generalized forces Q j are derived from the
potential V , that is, Q j = V (q, t )/ q j , for j = 1, 2, . . . , n.
56
Chapter 7
Angular velocity
When you hurl a rock in the air, or toss a Frisbee, the object spins in general as it moves.
Associated with the motion is a vector (t ), called the objects angular velocity vector,
(or just angular velocity for short,) whose direction and magnitude at any instant of time
t indicate orientation and the rate of rotation. It is the goal of this section to make the
definition of the angular velocity precise.
Toward that end, let {b1 , b2 , b3 } be an orthonormal set of vectors which is firmly affixed to the spinning object, therefore moves with it. The choice of the letter b is this
notation is to remind us that we are dealing with a body coordinate system.
We apply the general formula (8.7) (page 61) to express the rate of change, bi , of the
vector bi in the basis {b1 , b2 , b3 }:
bi =
3
X
j =1
(bi b j )b j .
b be the matrix of the coefficients. We claim that the matrix, lets call it A, is
Let ai j = b
i
j
skew-symmetric. Indeed, we have bi b j = i j , where i j is the Kronecker delta defined
in (8.6) (page 61). Upon differentiating this we get b b + b b = 0, whence a +a = 0,
i
which proves A is skew-symmetric.

Since the general form of a 3 3 skew-symmetric matrix is
0
3 2
0
1 ,
A = 3
2 1
0
ij
ji
(7.1)
therefore
b1 = 3 b2 2 b3 ,
b = b b ,
2
1 3
3 1
b3 = 2 b1 1 b2 .
(7.2a)
(7.2b)
(7.2c)
The coefficients 1 , 2 , 3 measure the rate of change of the triad {b1 , b2 , b3 }, and
consequently, the rate of change of orientation of the body to which the triad is attached.
The angular velocity vector, defined as
= 1 b1 + 2 b2 + 3 b3
57
(7.3)
58
Chapter 7. Angular velocity
encapsulates that rate of change.

Remark 7.1. Actually calling a vector is premature. A vector, as defined in Section 8.1
is a physical object in the sense that it is independent of any coordinate system which
may be used in defining it. Here has been defined in terms of its components on the
{b1 , b2 , b3 } triad. But the triad is not an integral part of the rotating body. Does survive
if the triad goes away? Does remain the same if that triad is replaced by another?
It turns out that the answer to both of those question is in the positive. Indeed,
is not an artifact of the arbitrarily chosen triad. It is an intrinsic property of the bodys
motion. The presence of a coordinate triad affixed to the body is immaterial. The proof
of this claim is not too hard but it takes us deeper into tensor analysis, so I will skip it for
now.
Remark 7.2. We leave it as an exercise to show that differentiating (7.3) and applying the
equations (7.2), resutls in
= 1 b1 + 2 b2 + 3 b3 .
(7.4)
Remark 7.3. On the one hand, in (7.1) we have a23 = 1 . On the other hand, we have
the ai j = bi b j by definition. It follows that 1 = b2 b3 . Similar expressions are obtained
for 2 and 3 . Lets make a record of this:
1 = b2 b3 ,
b ,
2 = b
3
1
3 = b1 b2 .
(7.5)
Remark 7.4. From the definition of in (7.3) it follows that

b1 = (1 b1 + 2 b2 + 3 b3 ) b1 = 2 b3 + 3 b2 .
Therefore the equations (7.2) may be written as
= b ,
b
1
1
b2 = b2 ,
b3 = b3 .
(7.6)
Remark 7.5. Consider points O and P in the body, and let r = OP . Then r = 1 b1 +
2 b2 + 3 b3 , where 1 , 2 , 3 are constants. The velocity v of P relative to O is given by
Let us observe that
v = r.
+ b + b
v = r = 1 b
1
2 2
3 3
= 1 ( b1 ) + 2 ( b2 ) + 3 ( b3 ) = (1 b1 + 2 b2 + 3 b3 ) = r.
The formula
v = r
is used throughout the rest of this book.
Exercises
7.1. Derive (7.4).
(7.7)
Chapter 8
The moment of inertia

tensor
8.1 A brief introduction to tensor algebra

In much of our working and thinking, we tend to blur the distinction between a vector
as a pointed arrow in space , and an n-tuple of numbers x1 , x2 , . . . , xn . Yet, the two
concepts are drastically different. The former would have been quite a natural object to
Euclid in 300 BC, but the latter would been very foreign to himfor at the time they lay
two millennia in the future.
The blurring between the two ways of looking at vectors is harmless much of the
time, but there are places where a strict distinction between the two views is crucially
important. Tensor algebra makes a bridge between the two and goes substantially beyond.
Tensor algebra, along with tensor analysis, are indispensable tools in differential geometry,
continuum mechanics, and general relativity, and perhaps other disciplines as well. For a
general exposition of tensor algebra and tensor analysis, see [7].
Tensor algebra is not a sine qua non of rigid body mechanics, therefore only rarely it
is brought into play. There is, however, the ubiquitous use of the term moment of inertia
tensor, which hints tantalizingly to a connection to tensors behind the scenes, however
the connection is only rarely brought out. It is the purpose of this section and the next
to introduce the minimal tensor algebra which explains the tensor in the moment of
inertia tensor.
8.1.1 Tensor algebra

In the three-dimensional Euclidean space fix
a point called the origin, and consider the set V of all vectors (in the sense of pointed
arrows) whose tails are attached to the origin. We define the sum x + y of two vectors x
and y in V through the parallelogram rule, that is, we form a parallelogram based on the
vectors, and consider the parallelograms diagonal as their sum as illustrated in Figure 8.1.
Multiplying a vector by a number stretches/shrinks the vectors length by the magnitude
of that number. If the number is negative, the resulting vectors flips, that is, it points in
the opposite of the originals direction. See Figure 8.1 for an illustration.
The length of the vector x is written kxk. The dot product x y of a pair of vectors x
and y in V is a number defined by
Vectors, dot product, cross product.
x y = kxk kyk cos ,

where is the angle between the vectors; see Figure 8.2. Let us note that (a) the dot
59
60
Chapter 8. The moment of inertia tensor
x+y
0.7x
o
x
1.2x
Figure 8.1: On the left: The sum x + y of two vectors x and y is formed through
the parallelogram rule. On the right: Multiplication by a number stretches/shrinks/flips a vector. The vector 1.2x is drawn in a slightly displaced
position relative to the origin o for the sake of visualization.
xy
y
o
Figure 8.2: On the left: The dot product of the vectors x and y is the number x y =
kxk kyk cos . On the right: The cross
product of the vectors x and y is

the vector x y = kxk kyk sin n, where n is a unit vector which is
perpendicular to the plane of the vectors x and y, and is oriented according
to the right-hand rule.
product is commutative, that is x y = y x; (b) if the vectors are orthogonal to each

other, that is, = /2, then x y = 0; and (c) a vectors length may be expressed as a dot
product: kxk2 = x x.
The cross product of x y of a pair of vectors x and y in V is the vector

x y = kxk kyk sin n,
where 0 is the angle between the vectors, and n is a unit vector which is perpendicular to the plane of the vectors x and y, and is oriented according to the right-hand
rule. The latter means that if you align your right hands thumb with n, then a rotation
by an angle in the direction pointed at by your fingers will take the vector x to y. It
follows that the cross product is anticommutative, which means that x y = y x.
Tensors.
A function L : V V is said to be linear if

L(x + y) = L(x) + L(y)
L(x) = L(x)
for all x, y V ,
for all x V , R.
A linear function from V to V is called a tensor on V , or just tensor, for short. It is

customary to write Lx instead of L(x) when L is a tensor, as we will do from now on.
The identity tensor, I , is the tensor with the property
Ix = x
for all x V .
(8.1)
The sum L1 + L2 of tensors L1 and L2 is a tensor defined by

(L1 + L2 )x = L1 x + L2 x for all x V .
(8.2)
8.1. A brief introduction to tensor algebra
61
The product L of a tensor L and a number R is a tensor defined by

(L)x = (Lx)
for all x V .
(8.3)
The set of tensors on V , equipped with the operations defined in (8.2) and (8.3), is a
vector space in the sense of an abstract vector space (not to be confused with vectors of the
pointed-arrow kind).
The dyadic product.
V defined by
The dyadic product a b of vectors a and b in V is a tensor on

(a b)x = (b x)a
for all x V .
(8.4)
Lemma 8.1. For any pair of vectors a, b V we have

ka bk2 = a kbk2 I b b a,
(8.5)
where I is the identity tensor.

Proof. Let be the angle between the vectors a and b. We have:
ka bk2 = kak2 kbk2 sin2
= kak2 kbk2 (1 cos2 )
= kak2 kbk2 kak2 kbk2 cos2

= kbk2 (a a) (a b)2

= a kbk2 a (a b)b

= a kbk2 a (b b)a
= a (kbk2 I b b)a.
8.1.2 Connection with R3 and 3 3 matrices
Let {e1 , e2 , e3 } be an orthonormal set in V . This means that the three vectors are mutually
perpendicular, and each is of length one. Thus
0 if i 6= j ,
ei e j = i j =
(8.6)
1 if i = j .
The symbol i j defined above is called the Kronecker delta.
In Exercise 1 you will show that an orthonormal set is linearly independent. If follows
that the orthonormal set {e1 , e2 , e3 } forms a basis for the three-dimensional vector space
V . Consequently, any x V may be expressed as a linear combination of the form
x = c 1 e1 + c 2 e2 + c 3 e3 .
Dot-multiplying through by e1 and taking into account the orthonormality of basis vectors, we get x e1 = c1 . Repeating with e2 and e3 we conclude that ci = x ei , i = 1, 2, 3.
Thus we have established the identity
x = (x e1 )e1 + (x e2 )e2 + (x e3 )e3 ,
for all x V .
(8.7)
62
For each i, the coefficient x ei is called the component of the vector x along ei .
Remark 8.1. Let us state emphatically that the components x ei are not properties of
the vector x at all! If you replace one basis with another which is rotated in an arbitrary
manner relative to the first, then the components of x will be different in general, while x
has not been touched. Even if you remove the basis altogether, the vector x will happily
continue to exist. Having said all that, it is sometimes useful to work with c1 , c2 , c3 R3
as sort of an avatar of x V , as long you remain cognizant of what it is.
Remark 8.2. Applying the defintion of the diatic product (8.4), the identity (8.7) may
be written in the equivalent form
x = (e1 e1 )x + (e2 e2 )x + (e3 e3 )x,
which has at least two implications. First, upon factoring the x on the right-hand side,
we see that
I = e1 e1 + e2 e2 + e3 e3 .
Second, ei ei acting on any vector x produces the projection of x in the direction ei .
We noted earlier that the set of tensors on V , equipped with the operations defined
in (8.2) and (8.3), is a vector space of its own. The following lemma shows how to construct a basis for that vector space.
Lemma 8.2. Let {e1 , e2 , e3 } be an orthonormal basis in V . Then {ei e j }3i , j =1 is a basis for
the space of tensors on V .
Proof. We will show that any tensor L is a linear combination of the nine dyadic products
{ei e j }3i , j =1 . Toward that end, pick an arbitrary x V ,
x=
3
X
i =1
(x ei )ei ,
and let y = Lx. By the linearity of L we have

y = Lx =
3
X
i =1
it follows that
y ej =
3
X
i =1
(x ei )Lei .
(x ei )(Lei ej ) =
3
X
i =1
(Lei ej )(x ei ),
and consequently
y=
3
X
j =1
(y e j )e j
3
3 X
X
j =1 i =1
3 X
3
X
j =1 i =1
(Lei ej )(x ei )e j
(Lei ej )(ei e j )x,
8.1. A brief introduction to tensor algebra
63
where we have made use of the definition (8.4). Since y = Lx, this tells us that
Lx =
3 X
3
X
i =1 j =1
therefore
L=
(Lei ej )(ei e j )x
3 X
3
X
i =1 j =1
for all x V ,
(Lei ej )(ei e j ),
(8.8)
which shows that L is a linear combination of the nine dyadic products {ei e j }3i , j =1 . In
other words, the set of vectors {ei e j }3i , j =1 spans the set of all tensors. To show that
the set is a basis, it remains to show that it is linearly independent. You will do that in
Exercise 2.
Remark 8.3. The coefficients in (8.8) are called the components of L in the basis {ei
e j }3i , j =1 . Letting i j = Lei ej , we may write (8.8) in the abbreviated form
L=
3 X
3
X
i =1 j =1
i j ei e j .
At times it is useful to identify the tensor L with the 3 3 matrix with components i j
but the caveats of Remark 8.1 apply equally well here. The components i j are artifacts
of the choice of the basis vectors. The tensor is an intrinsic property of the system and
will continue to exist even when the basis vectors are obliterated.
Remark 8.4. In view of the one-to-one correspondence between 3 3 matrices and tensors on V noted above, every property or theorem in matrix algebra finds a counterpart
in tensor analysis. For instance, a nonzero vector x is called and eigenvector of the tensor
L if Lx = x for some R.7 The coefficient is the eigenvalue corresponding to that
eigenvector.
8.1.3 Symmetric tensors

A tensor L is said to be symmetric if
a (Lb) = (La) b for all a, b V .
It is easy to show that if L is symmetric, then the matrix i j of its components (see Remark 8.3) is symmetric, that is i j = j i for i, j = 1, 2, 3.
We know from matrix analysis that the eigenvalues of a symmetric matrix are real,
and its eigenvector may selected as an orthonormal set. This, along with what is known
as diagonalization of matrices in linear algebra, lead to the spectral decomposition theorem
in tensor algebra:
Theorem 8.3 (Spectral decomposition, cf. [7, p. 137]). The eigenvalues 1 , 2 , 3 of a
symmetric tensor L are real, and the corresponding eigenvectors, g1 , g2 , g3 may be selected as
an orthonormal set. Furthermore,
L = 1 g1 g1 + 2 g2 g2 + 3 g3 g3 .
7
say something about complex fields
(8.9)
64
vi
mi
ri
o
Figure 8.3: whatever
Remark 8.5. According to (8.8), a tensor is a linear combination of the nine basis elements {ei e j }3i , j =1 in general. In contrast, (8.9) presents L as a linear combination of
only three special elements {g j g j }3j =1 constructed from Ls eigenvectors.
8.2 The moment of inertia tensor

Consider a set of particles of masses mi , i = 1, 2, . . . , N , which are thoroughly interconnected through massless rigid rods, so that the entire assembly forms a rigid, object. Suppose that the object rotates with angular velocity about a fixed axis passing through
the origin. Figure 8.3 depicts the vector , and a representative particle of mass mi and
position vector Let ri . Then the particles velocity is vi = ri , therefore the kinetic
energy of the N -particle system is given by
T=
N
X
1
i =1
mi kvi k2 =
N
X
1
i =1
mi k ri k2 ,
which according to Lemma 8.1 is equivalent to

T=
N
X
1
i =1

mi kri k2 I ri ri
N
X
1
2
mi kri k I ri ri ) .
=
2
i =1
We introduce the tensor
I=
N
X
i =1

mi kri k2 I ri ri ,
(8.10)
whereby the kinetic energy takes the simple form

1
T = I .
2
(8.11)
The tensor I is called the moment of inertia tensor of the N -particle system. Let us
note that I is independent of , so the orientation of the axis about which the system
rotates, or the speed of rotation, is immaterial. However, I does depend on the choice of
the origin of the vectorschanging the origin will affect the position vectors ri , therefore
8.3. Translation of the origin
65
the the tensor I . The change, however, obeys a simple translation rule which we will
develop in the next section. For now let us observe another aspect of (8.10). The fact that
the system under consideration consists of N rigidly connected point masses is hardly
of particular importance. A general rigid solid may be approximated by a union a large
number of tiny parts, as one does in the theory of integration, and then pass to the limit
as the number of the parts goes to infinity, and the sizes of the individual parts go to zero,
while maintaining a fix mass for the aggregate.
To be specific, let B be the solid object, d m be the differential mass of the part of B
indicated by the position vector r relative to some origin o. Then the obvious extension
of (8.10) takes the following form for the solids moment of inertia:
Z

I=
krk2 I r r d m.
(8.12)
B
If (r) is the density of the body at the position r, then d m = dV , where V is the
volume element, and the formula above takes the form
Z

I=
(r) krk2 I r r dV .
(8.13)
B
8.3 Translation of the origin

As noted above, the moment of inertia tensor of a rigid body depends on the choice of
the origin of the vectors. To see how a translation of the origin affects the tensor, let Io
and Io be the moment of inertia tensors of a rigid body B relative to two origins o and
o , respectively. According to (8.12) we have:
Z
Z

Io =
krk2 I r r d m,
Io =
kr k2 I r r d m,
B
where r and r are the position vectors of a generic point p B relative to o and o , as
seen in Figure 8.4.
Theorem 8.4. Let c B the the bodys center of mass, and let us write rc for the position
vector of c relative to o . Furthermore, let = o o. Then we have:
i
h

(8.14)
Io = Io + m 2rc + k k2 I rc rc ,
where m is the bodys mass.
Proof. Referring to Figure 8.4 we have r = r + , therefore
Z

Io =
krk2 I r r d m
ZB

=
kr + k2 I (r + ) (r + ) d m
ZB h
i

=
kr k2 + 2r + k k2 I r r r r d m
ZB
Z h
i

2
=
kr k I r r d m +
2r + k k2 I r r d m.
B
66
B
p
c
rc
rc
r
Figure 8.4: The moment of inertia tensor of a rigid solid B depends on the choice of
the origin. The origins o and o in this illustration are related through
o o = . The solids center of mass is c.
The first intergral on the right-hand side equals Io . The second integral may be simplified
by noting that
Z
Z
1
m=
d m,
rc =
r d m,
m
B
B
R
and consequently B r d m = mrc ,
Corollary 8.5. Let c B be the bodys center of mass as before, and let Ic be the moment
of inertia tensor relative to c. Then the moment of inertia tensor Io of B relative to any
origin o is given by

Io = Ic + m krc k2 I rc rc .
(8.15)
Proof. Apply (8.14) with o set to c. Then rc = 0, and the formula reduces to

Io = Ic + m k k2 I .
Then the observation that = o o = c o = rc completes the proof.
Remark 8.6. The moment of intertia tensor of a rigid system of N point masses is given
in (8.10). In particualr, the moment of intertia tensor of a single point of mass m at a
position r relative to an origin o is

m krk2 I r r .
Therefore the translation formula (8.15) may be interpreted as saying that the moment of
interia of a body relative of any point o equals the moment of inertia relative to its center
of mass, plus the moment of inertia relative to o of a fictitious point of mass m situated
at the center of mass.
Remark 8.7. The moment of inertia tensor Ic of a ridig body relative to its center of
mass is an intrinsic property of the body, just like its total mass or its center of mass are.
8.4. The principal moments of inertia
67
The total mass is a scalar, the center of mass is expressed through its position vector, and
the moment of inertia Ic is a tensor.
8.4 The principal moments of inertia

In the exercises you will verity that a moment of inertia tensor is a symmetric tensor, that
is:
m I n = n I m, for all m, n V .
Then according to the Spectral Decomposition Theorem (page 63) I admits a representation of the form (8.9). In that context, the eigenvalues 1 , 2 , 3 of I are called the objects
principal moments of inertia, and the eigenvectors g1 , g2 , g3 are called the principal axes of
the moment of inertia.
Tables of the principal moments of inertia of many common geometric solids are
available in books and websites. Wikipedia has a page for it at:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_moments_of_inertia
Example 8.6. Consider a solid circular cylinder of radius r , length , and total mass m.
Assume that the mass is distributed uniformly, that is, the density is constant. The principal axes of the moment of inertia tensor Ic relative to the center of mass are: g3 along
the cylinders axis; g1 and g2 arbitrary unit vectors so that {g1 , g2 , g3 } forms an orthonor1
mal set. The corresponding principal moments of inertia are 1 = 2 = 12 m(3r 2 + 2 ),
1
3 = 2 m r 2 . Therefore
Ic =
1
1
1
m(3r 2 + 2 )g1 g1 + m(3r 2 + 2 )g2 g2 + m r 2 g3 g3 .
12
12
2
(8.16)
The limiting case of r = 0 is interesting in its own right. Such an object is called a
slender rod of length and mass m. In that case we have:
Ic =
1
1
m2 g1 g1 + m2 g2 g2 .
12
12
(8.17)
The principal moments of inertia I of a slender rod relative to one of its endpoints may
be calculated from the translation formula (8.15).
Exercises
8.1. Show that an orthonormal set of vectors is linearly independent.
8.2. Complete the proof of Lemma 8.2 by showing that the set {ei e j }3i , j =1 is linearly
P P
independent. Hint: It suffices to show that 3i =1 3j =1 ci j (ei e j ) = 0 implies that
every ci j is zero. Begin by applying each side of that equality to ek .
8.3. Show that if the tensor L is symmetric, then the matrix i j of its components (see
Remark 8.3) is symmetric, that is i j = j i for i, j = 1, 2, 3.
8.4. Use (8.17) in conjunction with the translation formula (8.15) to calculate the moment of inertia tensor of a slender rod relative to one of its endpoints.
8.5. Look up the principal moments of inertia of a circular hoop in Wikipedia relative
to the hoops center. Then apply the translation formula (8.15) to calculate the
moment of inertia tensor of the hoop relative to a point on its rim.
68
Chapter 9
Constraint reactions
In Chapter 6 we considered a mechanical system consisting of N point masses subject to

M holonomic constraints (6.6), and derived the equation of motion (6.17), where the generalized forces {Q j }nj=1 are related to the externally applied forces { fi }3N
through (6.13).
i =1
Here n = 3N M .
In the derivation of the equations we assumed that the generalized coordinates were
independent of each other. This was used in the derivation of equation (6.15) where we assumed thqat the virtual displacements q were arbitrary. Among other this, this resulted
in the elimination of the internal reaction forces fi from the equations of motion.
Suppose, however, that we are interested in finding out the reaction forces. It is the
goal of this chapter to explain how. The key idea is to forgo the assumption of independence of the generalized coordinates.
Specifically, we assume that the n generalized coordinates q1 , q2 , . . . , qn are greater than
the minimum necessary to specify the systems configuration. This implies that one or
more relationships exists among the q j s. Suppose that they are m such relationships:
a11 d q1 + a12 d q2 + a1n d qn + a1t d t = 0,
a21 d q1 + a22 d q2 + a2n d qn + a2t d t = 0,
(9.1)
a m1 d q1 + a m2 d q2 + a mn d qn + a m t d t = 0,
where each ai j and ai t can be a given function of q and t . For convenience, we write these
set of constraints in the compact form
n
X
a l k (q, t ) d qk + a l t (q, t ) d t = 0,
l = 1, 2, . . . , m,
(9.2)
k=1
Remark 9.1. By dividing (9.2) through by d t , we see that

n
X
a l k (q, t )qk + a l t (q, t ) = 0,
l = 1, 2, . . . , m,
(9.3)
k=1
that is, the equations impose restrictions on the systems velocities.

Repeating (TODO) the calculations of Chapter 6, we arrive at the following equations
69
70
Chapter 9. Constraint reactions
of motion:
d
dt
m
t) X
t)
L(q, q,
L(q, q,
=
ak j k ,
qj
qj
k=1
j = 1, 2, . . . , n.
(9.4)
These, together with (9.3), form a system of n + m equations in the m + n unknowns

q1 , q2 , . . . , qn , 1 , 2 , . . . , m . The summation that appeart on the right-hand side gives the
generalized reaction forces
m
X
Q j =
ak j k .
(9.5)
k=1
Once the coefficients k have been computed, we may use (9.5) in conjunction with
Q j =
3N
X
i =1
fi
xi
(9.6)
qj
to determine the raction force compnents fi .

Example 9.1. Let us revisit the simple pendulum of Figure 1.1 in page 2, and calculate
the force within its connecting rod.
In Section 1.3 we derived the equation of motion (1.5) in terms of the angle which
served as the generalized coordinate. The position vector of the pendulums bob relative
to the suspension point was expressed as r = e r in that context, where is the length of
the pendulums rod.
Here we change the setting of the problem as follows. We express the configuration
of pendulum in terms of not one, but two genealized coordinates: , which is the pendulums angle as before; and which is the rods length and which is viewed as a variable.
We impose the constraint = retroactively to recover the physical model.
Referring to Figure 1.1 we have r = e r , therefore the bobs velocity is given by
r + er = e
r e ,
v = r = e
where we have made use of (1.1). The kinetic and potential energies are
1
T = m(2 + 2 2 ),
2
V = m g cos ,
which leads to the lagrangian

1
L = T V = m(2 + 2 2 ) + m g cos .
2
We calculate
L
= m ,

L
= m2 + m g cos
= m2 ,

L
= m g sin .
The constraint of inextensibility = implies that d = 0, which we write as (1)d +

(0)d + (0)d t = 0 to conform to the genral template (9.1). It follows that a11 = 1, a12 = 0,
a1t = 0, therefore the equations (9.4) take the form
d L L
= a11 1
d t
d L L
= a12 1 ,
d t
71
that is
(m2 + m g cos ) = 1 ,
(m )
+ m g sin = 0,
(m2 )
or in expanded form:
m (m2 + m g cos ) = 1 ,
m2 + 2m + m g sin = 0.
Applying the constraint = reduces these to
m2 m g cos = 1 ,
m2 + m g sin = 0.
The second equation is the usual equation of motion of a simple pendulum. In principle,
we may plug its solution, (t ), into the first equation to find 1 , but we dont do it that
way. Instead, we compute the generalized reaction forces Q r and Q from (9.5):
Q r = (1)1 = m2 m g cos ,
Q = (0)1 = 0.
Then, we apply (9.6) to translate these into the physical components of the forces. Toward
that end, let us observe that r = e r , therefore
r
= er ,
e
r
= r = e ,
therefore (9.6) reads

Q r = f
r
= f er ,
Q = f
r
= f e ,
whence
f e r = (m2 + m g cos )
f e = 0.
Since f = (f e r )e r = (f e )e , we conclude that

f = (m2 + m g cos )e r .
This tells us that the constraint reaction force f lies in the direction of the pendulums
rod, and its magnitude equals the sum of the centrifugal force m2 and the compoment
m g cos of the bobs weight along the rod.
Example 9.2. Consider a the rolling hoop of Exercise (2) of Chapter 6. Find the force at
contact point between the hoop and the plane.
Referring to Figure 6.3, we use the hoops rotation angle and the horizontal translation x of its center as a generalized coordinates. The no-slip condition imposes the constraint x = a. We will use and x as overdetermined generalized coordinates subject to
x = a, that is d x a d = 0, thefore accoring to the template (9.1), a11 = 1, a12 = a.
72
The position vector of the mass m is r = x +a sin , a+a cos , therefore the velocity
is v = r =
x + a cos , a sin . It follows that kvk2 = x2 + 2a x cos + a 2 2 ,
therefore the kinetic and potential enerigies are
1
T = m(
x 2 + 2a x cos + a 2 2 ),
2
Therefore
V = m ga(1 + cos ).
1
x 2 + 2a x cos + a 2 2 ) m ga(1 + cos ).
L = m(
2
and
L
L
= m(
x + a cos ),
= 0,
x
x
L
L
= m(a x cos + a 2 )
= m(a x sin + ga sin ).

Then (9.4) takes the form

m(
x + a cos ) = a11 1 = 1 ,
m(a x sin + ga sin ) = a12 1 = a1 .
m(a x cos + a 2 )
Now substitute x = a and simplify:
ma(1 + cos ) + ma 2 sin = 1 ,
ma 2 (1 + cos ) + m ga sin = a1 .
(9.7)
To eliminate 1 , divide the second equation through by a and add the result to the
first equation. We get
2ma(1 + cos ) ma

g
+ 2 sin = 0.
a
This is the hoops equation of motion. To compute the constraint force, solve this for :

g
a a + 2 sin
=
2a(1 + cos )
and substitute the result in the first of (9.7). We get:
g
1
sin .
1 = ma 2
2
a
(9.8)
Now we compute the generalized forces Q x and Q from (9.5):

Q x = a11 1 = 1 ,
Q = a12 1 = a1 .
Then, we apply (9.6) to translate these into the physical components of the forces. Toward
that end, let us observe that
r
= 1, 0,
x
r
= a cos , a sin ,
Exercises
73
f
m
a(1 + cos )
a sin
p
f
therefore, letting f = f x , fy , we get

Q x = f
r
= fx
x
Q = f
r
= a f x cos a fy sin .
It follows that
f x = 1 ,
a f x cos a fy sin = a1 .
We solve this as a system of two equations in the two unknowns f x and fy :

f x = 1 ,
fy =
1 + cos
1 .
sin
Upon substitution for 1 from (9.8) we conclude that

g
1
f x = ma 2
sin ,
2
a
g
1
fy = ma 2 (1 + cos ),
2
a
whence
g
1
f = ma 2 sin , 1 + cos .
2
a
This result has a significant mechanical/geometric interpretation. Refer to Figure 9.1.
The vector asin , 1 + cos extends from the contact point p to the mass m, therefore
the constraint force f is parallel to that vector.
Exercises
9.1. The hoop of Example 9.2 rolls, without slipping, down an incline which makes an
angle with respect to the horizontal. See Figure 9.2. Use the angle as the generalized coordinate. Derive the equation of motion. Hint: (a) Express the vectors
i and j in terms of i, j, and the angle ; (b) Express the position vector r of the
mass m in terms of the basis vectors i and j ; (c) Apply the results of (a) and (b) to
express r in terms of i and j.
9.2. In the the previous exercise, find the contact force between the hoop and incline.
74
j
r
Figure 9.2: Hoop rolling on an incline. The hoops initial position is shown in gray
(Exercise 1).
Chapter 10
The Gibbs-Appell
formulation of dynamics
The goal of this chapter is to derive the Gibbs-Appell equations of motion and then show
a few applications. For now, I have two versions of the proof here, one based on the
presentation in Lurie [9] and the other based on the presentation in Gantmacher [10].
The part based on Lurie is not quite finished; the one based on Gantmacher is pretty
complete.
Due to the reliance on two different presentations, the notation in the illustrations/examples is very inconsistent. At one point I will rewrite this chapter by merging the two
presentations into one, and introduce a consistent notation.
Some of the material from the previous chapters is repeated for the sake of making
this chapter somewhat self-contained.
10.1 Gibbs-Appell according to Lurie [9]

The goal of this (lengthy) section is to derive the Gibbs-Appell equations of motion (10.27).
10.1.1 Acceleration in generalized coordinates

Consider the dynamics of N point masses, whose position vectors relative to an origin o
are ri , i = 1, . . . , N .
Suppose that the systems configuration may be specified through n independent generalized coordinates q = q1 , . . . , qn . Thus, ri = ri (q, t ), and the velocities are given
by
n
X
ri
ri
qs +
vi = ri =
, i = 1, 2, . . . , N .
(10.1)
q
t
s
s =1
We differentiate the velocities to calculate the accelerations wi :
wi = vi =
n
X
ri
s =1
qs
qs +
n X
n
n
X
X
2 ri
2 ri
2 ri
qk qs + 2
qs +
.
qk q s
t2
s =1 q s t
k=1 s =1
(10.2)
10.1.2 Ideal constraints and the fundamental equation of dynamics

Continuing the previous subsections analysis of the motion of N particles, let Fi +Ri be
the totality of forces acting on the particle i, where Fi is the resultant of the (known) externally applied forces and Ri is the resultant of the (unknown) internal forces/reactions.
75
76
Chapter 10. The Gibbs-Appell formulation of dynamics
Newtons law of motion states that

mi w i = F i + Ri ,
i = 1, . . . , N .
(10.3)
We assume that the systems constraints are ideal, that is, they do not perform work
in any virtual displacement. (See page 271 of Luries book for a discussion.) Thus, for all
virtual displacements ri we have
N
X
i =1
Ri ri = 0.
(10.4)
As a consequence, multiplying (10.3) by ri and summing over i eliminates the the reaction forces Ri :
N
N
X
X
Fi ri .
(10.5)
mi wi ri =
i =1
i =1
Lagrange called this the fundamental equation of dynamics.
10.1.3 Virtual work and generalized force

The virtual displacement ri of particle i is related to the virtual displacement q of the
generalized coordinates through
ri =
n
X
ri
qs
s =1
q s .
The expression on the right-hand side of (10.5) is the virtual work performed by all
external forces Fi under the virtual displacements ri . It may be expressed as
N
X
i =1
Fi ri =
N
X
i =1
Fi
n
X
ri
s =1
qs
q s =
N
n
X
X
s =1
ri
Fi
qs
i =1
q s =
n
X
Q s q s ,
s =1
where we have let

Qs =
N
X
i =1
Fi
ri
.
qs
(10.6)
Q s is called the generalized force corresponding to the generalized coordinate q s .

TODO: It can be shown that
ri
ri
ri
=
=
.
qs
qs
qs
In formulating the Gibbs-Appell equations, it works better if we replace (10.6) with
Qs =
N
X
i =1
Fi
ri
.
qs
(10.7)
10.1. Gibbs-Appell according to Lurie [9]
77
10.1.4 Constraints
Suppose that the n generalized coordinates are related through l (generally nonholonomic) constraints
n
X
ak s (q, t )qs + ak (q, t ) = 0, k = 1, . . . , l ,
(10.8)
s =1
or equivalently,
n
X
ak s (q, t ) d q s + ak (q, t ) d t = 0.
k = 1, . . . , l .
(10.9)
s =1
Consequently, virtual displacements q satisfy

n
X
ak s (q, t ) q s = 0,
k = 1, . . . , l .
(10.10)
s =1
We assume that the l n coefficient matrix ak s is full-rank, therefore (10.8) may be

solved for l of the generalized velocities in terms of the rest. Thus:
qr =
nl
X
b r,l +s (q, t )ql +s + b r (q, t ),
r = 1, . . . , l .
(10.11)
s =1
Similarly, (10.10) may be solved for l of the virtual displacements in terms of the rest:
q r =
nl
X
b r,l +s (q, t ) q l +s ,
r = 1, . . . , l .
(10.12)
s =1
Differentiating (10.11) we obtain an expression for the accelerations:

qr =
nl
X
b r,l +s (q, t )ql +s +
s =1
nl
X
br,l +s (q, t )ql +s +
s =1
nl
X
br (q, t ),
r = 1, . . . , l .
s =1
For reasons which will become clear shortly, the terms which involve no generalized accelerations in our calculations are irrelevant, therefore, to simplify the notation, we write
the above as
nl
X
qr =
b r,l +s (q, t )ql +s + .
(10.13)
s =1
From here on, the ellipsis in an equation indicates additive terms that involve no
generalized accelerations.
Now we apply (10.13) to eliminate the accelerations qr , r = 1, . . . , l from (10.2). We
have:
n
X
ri
q +
wi =
qs s
s =1
nl
l
X
X
ri
ri
qr +
ql +s +
s =1 q l +s
r =1 q r
nl
nl
l
X ri
X
ri X
ql +s +
b r,l +s (q, t )ql +s + +
=
s =1
s =1 q l +s
r =1 q r
nl
l
X
X
ri
ri
=
+
b r,l +s (q, t ) ql +s + .
s =1 q l +s
r =1 q r
78
Upon introducing the notation

ci ,l +s =
l
X
ri
ri
+
b
(q, t ),
q l +s r =1 q r r,l +s
i = 1, . . . , N ,
s = 1, . . . , n l ,
(10.14)
the acceleration takes the form

wi =
nl
X
s =1
ci ,l +s ql +s + ,
i = 1, . . . , N .
Since the terms hidden under the ellipsis do not involve the generalized accelerations, we
conclude that
wi
= ci ,l +s .
(10.15)
ql +s
10.1.5 Virtual displacements

According to (10.12), a virtual displacement ri is given by
n
l
nl
X
X
X
ri
ri
ri
qk =
q r +
q l +s
qk
r =1 q r
s =1 q l +s
k=1
nl
nl
l
X ri
X
ri X
b r,l +s (q, t ) q l +s +
q l +s
=
s =1
s =1 q l +s
r =1 q r
nl
nl
X
X
ri
ri
+
b r,l +s (q, t ) q l +s
=
s =1 q r
s =1 q l +s
ri =
nl
X
(10.16)
ci ,l +s q l +s ,
s =1
where ci ,l +s is as in (10.14). Then, in view of (10.15) we conclude that

ri =
nl
X
wi
q l +s ,
l +s
s =1 q
i = 1, . . . , N .
(10.17)
10.1.6 Back to the fundamental equation: Part 1

We use (10.17) to reformulate the fundamental equation of dynamics (10.5):
N
X
i =1
nl
X
wi
q l +s ,
l +s
s =1 q
i =1
N
nl X
X
wi
mi w i
q l +s .
=
ql +s
s =1 i =1
mi wi ri =
N
X
mi w i
This motivates the introduction of a quantity G known as the Gibbs function or the energy
of acceleration:
N
1X
m w wi ,
G=
2 i =1 i i
10.1. Gibbs-Appell according to Lurie [9]
We observe that
79
N
X
wi
G
=
,
mi w i
ql +s
ql +s
i =1
whence
N
X
i =1
mi wi ri =
nl
X
G
q l +s .
l +s
s =1 q
(10.18)
Let us note that we consider G as a function of the form G = G(q, ql +1 , . . . , qn , t ),

therefore the nonholonomic constraints (10.8) are automatically accounted for.
10.1.7 Back to the fundamental equation: Part 2

In the previous section we reformulated the left-hand side of the fundamental equation of
dynamics (10.5). In this section we reformulate its right-hand side. According to (10.16)
we have:
N
N
N
nl
nl X
nl
X
X
X
X
X
q ,
F r =
F
c
q =
F c
q =
Q
i
i =1
i ,l +s
l +s
s =1
i =1
s =1
where we have let
Q
l +s =
N
X
i =1
i ,l +s
l +s
Fi ci ,l +s ,
l +s
s =1
i =1
l +s
(10.19)
s = 1, . . . , n l .
Upon substituting for ci ,l +s from its definition in (10.14), we see that
l
X
ri
ri
+
b r,l +s (q, t ),
q l +s r =1 q r
i =1
N
l
N
X
X
X
ri
ri
+
F
b r,l +s (q, t ),
=
Fi
q l +s r =1 i =1 i q r
i =1
=
Q
l +s
N
X
Fi
which, according to (10.6) reduces to
Q
l +s = Q l +s +
l
X
Q r b r,l +s (q, t ),
r =1
s = 1, . . . , n l .
10.1.8 The Gibbs-Appell equations of motion

Substituting (10.18) and (10.19) in the fundamental equation of dynamics (10.5), we arrive
at
nl
nl
X
X
G
q ,
q l +s =
Q
l +s
l +s
l +s
s =1
s =1 q
that is,

nl
X
G
q l +s Q l +s q l +s .
l +s
s =1 q
Since the variations q l +s are independent, we conclude that

G
,
=Q
l +s
ql +s
s = 1, . . . , n l .
(10.20)
80
These are the Gibbs-Appell equation of motion.

The n l second order differential equations (10.20), along with the l constraint equations (10.8) form a system of n differential equation in the n unknowns q1 (t ), . . . , qn (t ).
10.1.9 Quasi-velocities
In a mechanical system with generalized coordinates q = q1 , . . . , qn , expressions of the
type
n
X
s =
a s k (q, t )qk + a s (q, t ), s = 1, . . . , n
(10.21)
k=1
are called quasi-velocities. At times it is simpler to model a system in terms of suitably

defined quasi-velocities 1 , . . . , n rather than generalized coordinates q1 , . . . , qn . If the
number of naturally occurring quasi-velocities is n < n, then we extend their number to
n by defining the rest through s = qs , s = n + 1, . . . , n.
We assume that the quasi-velocities are defined so that the coefficient matrix a s k is
nonsingular. It follows that (10.21) may be solved for qs in terms of s:
qr =
n
X
b r s (q, t ) s + b r (q, t ),
s = 1, . . . , n.
s =1
Additionally, with each equation in (10.21) we associate a differential as follows

d s =
n
X
a s k (q, t ) d qk + a s (q, t ) d t ,
s = 1, . . . , n.
(10.22)
k=1
Comparing (10.21) and (10.22) we see that

d s = s d t .
(10.23)
Remark: There is no reason to expect the expression on the right to be an exact differential, therefore although d s makes sense as defined, it should not be assumed that it
is the differential of a function s .
For any arbitrary function (q, t ) we have:
n
X
dt
d qr +
t
r =1 q r
n
X
qr d t +
dt
=
t
r =1 q r
n
n
X
X
=
b r s (q, t ) s + b r (q, t ) d t +
dt
t
s =1
r =1 q r
n
n
n
X
X
X
=
d s +
b r (q, t )
dt.
b r s (q, t )
dt +
qr
qr
t
s =1 r =1
r =1
d =
We introduce the purely symbolic notation

n
X
=
,
b r s (q, t )
s
qr
r =1
(10.24)
10.2. Gibbs-Appell according to Gantmacher [10]
81
whereupon the previous calculation leads to

n
n
X
X
d =
b r (q, t )
d s +
+
dt.
qr
t
s =1 s
r =1
(10.25)
Applying (10.24) to ri we get:

n
r
ri X
=
b r s (q, t ) i ,
s
qr
r =1
and therefore we obtain an expression for the velocity vector in terms of the quasi-coordinates:
vi = ri = TODO . . .
10.1.10 Appells equations of motion in terms of quasi-velocities

The main ingredients of Appells equations of motion (10.20) are the generalized accelerations qs . Those equations, however, are rarely used in that form. We will find that
expressing the equations in terms of quasi-velocities, defined below, leads to major simplification.
Thus, given the l constraints (10.8), define the quasi-velocities
k =
n
X
ak s (q, t )qs + ak (q, t ),
k = 1, . . . , l ,
(10.26)
s =1
therefore the constraint equations take the form

k = 0,
k = 1, . . . , l .
We solve (10.26) for the q in terms of the quasi-velocities. Since the first l of the quasivelocities are zero, each qr is a function of l +s , s = 1, . . . , n l . Then we express the
Gibbs function G as a function of
q1 , . . . , q n ,
l +1 , . . . , n
l +1 , . . . ,
n .
The rest of the derivation is horrendous, so we skip forward. . .

Then, it turns out that the Gibbs-Appell equation of motion take the form
G
= Q l +s ,
l +s
s = 1, . . . , l .
(10.27)
Despite the complexity of the derivation, equations (10.27) are much easier to apply than
the original (10.20). In particular, these result in first order differential equations in quasivelocities, as apposed to the second order differential equations which we were getting
before.
10.2 Gibbs-Appell according to Gantmacher [10]

The goal of this (lengthy) section is to derive the Gibbs-Appell equations of motion (10.47)
82
10.2.1 Pseudocoordinates
Consider the motion of N particles of masses m and position vectors r subject to d
algebraic and g differential constraints. Utilizing the d algebraic constraints, we inroduce
m = 3N d generalized idependent coordinates q = q1 , . . . , q m , and express the systems
configures in them as
r = r (q, t ), = 1, . . . , N .
(10.28)
From this it follows that
m
X
r
r =
i =1
and
r =
qi
qi +
m
X
r
i =1
qi
r
,
t
qi ,
= 1, . . . , N ,
= 1, . . . , N .
(10.29)
(10.30)
The vectors r and r should satisfy the g differential constraints:

m
X
=1
l (r , t ) r + D (r , t ) = 0,
= 1, . . . , g .
(10.31)
Substituting for r and r from (10.28) and (10.29), the constraint equations take the
form
m
X
Ai (q, t )qi + A (q, t ) = 0, = 1, . . . , g .
(10.32)
i =1
Thus, the generalized coordinates q1 , . . . , q m can take on arbitrary values, but the generalized vecocities q1 , . . . , qm are constrained by (10.32).
Assuming that the g constraints in (10.32) are indepdendent, that is, the matrix Ai
has full rank, we may solve for g of the velocities q1 , . . . , qm in terms of the remaining
n = m g = 3N d g , the number n being the systems degrees of freedom. Thus,
the velocities q1 , . . . , qn may take on arbitrary values, while the remaining g velocities are
determined from (10.32).
In practice, instead of the n generalized velocities noted above, it is often preferable
to use n linear combination of the generalized velocities, such as
s =
m
X
f s i qi ,
i = 1, . . . , n.
(10.33)
i =1
The quantities s defined here are called pseudovelocities. The notation s is entirely pro
formathere is no requirement that the right-hand side of (10.33) be and exact derivative,
therefore although the notation s is well-defined, there is no function s which it is the
derivative of. Nevertheless, we will have occasions to refer to the un-dotted symbol s
which has no predefind meaning, but we will define it in an appropriate and constent way.
The symbol s is called a pseudocoordinate.
We impose an invertibility requirement on the definitions (10.33) as follows. Consider the system of g + n = m equation obtained as the union of the equations (10.32)
and (10.33), and view it as a system of m linear equaitons in the m unknowns q1 , . . . , qm .
We require that system to be invertible. Thus, the m generalized velocities may be expressed in terms of the n pseudovelocities:
qi =
n
X
s =1
hi s (q, t ) s + hi (q, t ),
i = 1, . . . , m.
(10.34)
10.2. Gibbs-Appell according to Gantmacher [10]
83
Thus, any set of m generalized velocities that satify the motion constraints (10.32) define
a corresponding set of pseudovelocities s , and conversely, any set of n arbitrary pseudovelocities define a set of generalized velocities that satify the motion constraints. The
important point here is that there is no constraint on the pseudovelocities.
Let us note that due to the constrain (10.32) on generalized velocities, the generalized
displacement are subject to the constraints
m
X
Ai qi = 0,
= 1, . . . , g .
(10.35)
i =1
Then in view of the equations (10.33) also introduce the notation

s =
m
X
Ai f s i qi .
s = 1, . . . , n.
(10.36)
i =1
From what it has been said, the union of the equations (10.35) and (10.36) is invertivle
and the inverse has the form
qi =
n
X
hi s s ,
i = 1, . . . , m.
(10.37)
s =1
Thus, as argumed before, the expressions s may take on arbitrary values. The corresponding qi obtained from (10.37) will automatically satisfy the constraints (10.35).
10.2.2 Work and generalized forces

Let us compute the work done by the external forces in a virtual displacement:
W =
N
X
=1
F r =
N
m X
m
m
X
X
X
r
r
qi =
F qi =
Qi qi , (10.38)
F
qi
=1
i =1 =1
i =1
i =1 qi
N
X
where
Qi =
N
X
=1
r
,
qi
i = 1, . . . , m.
(10.39)
Thus, we have obtained an expression for the virtual work in terms of the virtual
displacements qi . Utilizing (10.37), we may express the virtual work in terms of the
s :
W =
m
X
i =1
Qi
n
X
hi s s , =
m
n X
X
s =1
s =1

n
X
hi s Qi s , =
s s ,
(10.40)
s =1
i =1
where we have let

s =
m
X
hi s Qi ,
s = 1, . . . , n.
(10.41)
i =1
The s defined above are called the generalized forces corresponding to the pseudocoordiante
s , s = 1, . . . , n.
84
10.2.3 Newtons equations in pseudocoordinates

Equations (10.29) express the particle velocities in terms of the generalized velocities. Substituting for the latter from (10.34) we obtain the particle velocities in terms of the pseudovelocities:
n
X
r =
e s (q, t ) s + e (q, t ), = 1, . . . , N .
(10.42)
s =1
Then it follows that

r =
n
X
= 1, . . . , N ,
e s (q, t ) s ,
(10.43)
s =1
and
r =
n
X
s =1
e s (q, t ) s + ,
= 1, . . . , N .
where the ellipsis indicate terms that are free of the pseudoaccelerations s , s = 1, . . . , n.
For future reference, let us note that
r
= e s .
s
(10.44)
Consider the fundamental equations of dynamics:

W
N
X
=1
m r r = 0.
Substituting from (10.40) and (10.43) this takes the form

n
X
s =1
that is
n
X
s =1
s s
s s
N
X
=1
m r
n X
N
X
=1
s =1
X
n

e s (q, t ) s = 0,
s =1

m r e s (q, t ) s = 0,
and finally
n
X
s =1
N
n X
X
s =1
=1

m r e s (q, t )
s = 0,
Since s are unconstrained, we conclude that

N
X
=1
m r e s (q, t ) = s ,
s = 1, . . . , n.
(10.45)
10.2.4 The energy of the acceleration

We introduce the energy of acceleration which is defined as
)
=
U = U (q, ,
N
1X
m kr k2 .
2 =1
(10.46)
10.3. A modification noted by Desloge
85
Then, in view of (10.44), we see that

N
N
r X
U X
=
=
m r
m r e s ,
s
s
=1
=1
s = 1, . . . , n,
which, in conjunction with (10.45) leads to

U
= s ,
s
s = 1, . . . , n,
(10.47)
This are Appells equations of motion.

Upon a close examination, equaions (10.47) are a system of n first order differential
equations in the n unknowns s , s = 1, . . . , n. Note that there are no such things and s ,
so the equations are indeed first order in s .
The equations are not complete, however, since they also involve the generalized coordinates qi , i = 1, . . . , n. To complete the system, we append to it the g equations (10.32)
and (10.33), as in:
U
= s ,
s
m
X
Ai (q, t )qi + A (q, t ) = 0,
s = 1, . . . , n,
= 1, . . . , g ,
i =1
s =
m
X
f s i qi ,
i = 1, . . . , n.
i =1
This combined set consists of 2n + g equations. Let us note that n + g = m, theefore we

have a system of m + n first order differential equations in the m + n unknwns {qi }im=1
and { s }ns=1 .
10.3 A modification noted by Desloge

The generalized forces s in the Gibbs-Appel equations of motion (10.47) are computed
from (10.41), where, in turn, the Qi are computed from (10.39). Desloge [2, 11] notes that
if we define
N
X
R=
F r ,
(10.48)
=1
and ,
then s may be computed more easily
and express the result in terms of q, ,
through the formula
R
, s = 1, . . . , n.
(10.49)
s =
s
Consequently, (10.47) takes on the form
U
R
=
s
s
s = 1, . . . , n,
which motivates the introduction of the Gibbs function

G = U R,
(10.50)
86
whereby the equations (10.47) are expressed as

G
= 0,
s
s = 1, . . . , n.
(10.51)
I havent checked the details of the reasoning here, but in a couple of applications
which I calculated, (10.47) and (10.51) produce identical results.
10.4 The simple pendulum via Gibbs-Appell

Here we will apply the Gibbs-Appells equations (10.20) to derive the familiar equation
of motion of a simple pendulum. This is certainly an overkill; deriving the equations
of motion of a holonomic system such as a simple pendulum is done much more easily
through the Lagrangian approach. The power of the Gibbs-Appell approach manifests
itself when applied to nonholonomic systems, as we will see in the next section.
But for now, lets look at the simple pendulum as illustrated in Figure 1.1 on page 2.
We take the angle as the problems generalized coordinate, express the position vector
r of the pendulums bob in terms of , then calculate the velocity and the acceleration:
r = sin , cos ,
v = r = cos , sin ,
w = v = cos 2 sin , sin 2 cos ,

whence kwk2 = 2 (2 + 4 ). Considering that the force vector is f = 0, m g , we are
lead to the Gibbs function
1
G = mkwk2 f w
2
1
= 2 (2 + 4 ) + m g ( sin + 2 cos ).
2
Since the Gibbs-Appell equations of motion (10.20) reduce to G/ = 0 in our case,
we conclude that
2 + m g sin = 0,
which is the familiar equation of motion of a simple pendulum.
sleigh
10.5 The Caplygin
The Caplygin
sleigh consists of two point masses m1 and m2 connected through a rigid
massless rod of length . The two masses slide on a horizontal surface. The mass m2 can
slide freely on the surface with no resistance at all. Mass m1 rides on a sharp blade, as in
an ice hockey skate, which allows motion only in the direction of the rod. We wish to
describe the dynamics of the sleigh. Figure 10.1 depicts the sleigh. The position vectors
r1 and r2 of the masses m1 and m2 may be specified through the generalized coordinates
x(t ), y(t ), and (t ), shown on the figure. We have:
r1 = x, y,
r2 = r1 + cos , sin .
Since the mass m1 can slide only along the direction of the rod, the velocity r1 =
x , y is
parallel to the vector cos , sin , therefore x/ cos = y/ sin , that is,
x sin y cos = 0.
(10.52)

10.5. The Caplygin
sleigh
87
m2
m1
(x, y)
Figure 10.1: The Caplygin

sleighs configuration may be described in terms of the generalized coordinates x, y, and .
This is the concrete version of the general constraint (10.8).

To calculate the Gibbs function, with begin with
v1 = r1 =
x , y,
v2 = r2 =
x + sin , y + cos .
and then
w1 = v1 =
x , y,
w2 = v2 =
x 2 cos sin , y 2 sin + cos .
Thus, we arrive at
1
1
x 2 + y2 ) + m2 2 2
G = (m1 + m2 )(
2
2
1
m2 ( sin + 2 cos )
x + m2 ( cos 2 sin )
y + m2 2 4 .
2
Now, following the idea in (10.11) of eliminating redundant generalized velocities, we
solve (10.52) for y, and eliminate it from the equations. Substituting y = x tan in the
above expression for G, we obtain
G=

m1 + m2 2
1
x +
(m1 + m2 )
x sin m2 cos2 x
2
3
2 cos
cos
1
1
m
x + , (10.53)
+ m2 2 +
2
cos 2
where, as before, the ellipsis stands for terms that involve no accelerations.
There are no externally applied forces on the sleigh, therefore the equations of motion (10.20) reduce to
G
G
= 0,
= 0,
x

that is,

m1 + m2
1
x +
(m1 + m2 )
x sin m2 cos2 = 0,
2
3
cos
cos
1
m
x = 0.
m2 +
cos 2
(10.54a)
(10.54b)
We may solve this system of two second order differential equations for the two unknowns x(t ) and (t ), subject to initial conditions x(0) = x0 , x(0) = x0 , (0) = 0 ,
88
= 0 . We may compute y retroactively from the constraint equation y(t ) =

and (0)
x(t ) tan (t ), and then integrate it to find y(t ) subject to the initial condition y(0) = y0 .
In practice, when solving the system on a computer, it is easier to adjoin the constraint
equation (10.52) to the two equations, as in

m1 + m2
1
x +
(m1 + m2 )
x sin m2 cos2 = 0,
cos2
cos3
1
m2 +
m
x = 0,
cos 2
x sin y cos = 0,
and solve the whole thing in one fell swoop for the three unknowns x(t ), y(t ), and (t )
by applying the initial conditions
x(0) = x0 ,
x(0) = x0 ,
(0) = 0 ,
= 0 ,
(0)
y(0) = y0 .
Note that there is no initial condition on y(0) since the x0 and 0 determine y(0) through
the constraint equation (10.52).
sleigh revisited
10.6 The Caplygin
In Section 10.5 we obtained the differential equations of motion of the Caplygin

sleigh
by applying the Gibbs-Appell equations (10.20). Here we solve the same problem by
applying the equations (10.27). Toward that end, let us introduce the generalized velocities
v and defined through
x
v=
,
= .
cos
Thus, is the rods angular velocity. To understand v, note that x = v cos , therefore v
is the speed (not velocity!) of the mass m1 .
Now, substitute = and x = v cos in (10.53) and simplify:
1
1
2 + m2 v
m2 2 v
G = (m1 + m2 )v2 + m2 2
2
2

1
+ (m1 + m2 )v 2 + m2 2 2 2 .
2
Equations (10.27) in this case take the form
G
= 0,
v
G
= 0,
and thus,
(m1 + m2 )v m2 2 = 0,
2
+ m2 v = 0.
m2
(10.55a)
(10.55b)
These are much more pleasant-looking equations compared to (10.54) which we had
obtained before. In fact, they are quite amenable to solving by hand. To wit, multiply the
fist equation by v, the second by , and add. We get
= 0,
(m1 + m2 )v v + m2 2
10.7. The problem from page 63 of Gantmacher
that is
89
1
1
(m1 + m2 )v 2 + m2 2 2 = 0,
2
2
whence
1
1
E = (m1 + m2 )v 2 + m2 2 2
(10.56)
2
2
is a constant of the motion. (In fact, it is the sleighs kinetic energy.) The value of E is
determined by the initial conditions v(0) and (0).
Now, multiplying (10.55a) by /2 and adding to (10.56), we get
1
1
(m1 + m2 )v + (m1 + m2 )v 2 = E,
2
2
that is,
v + v 2 = 2 ,
where 2 =
2E
.
m1 + m2
We solve this separable equation for v subject to the initial condition v(0) = v0 , and obtain
h
v i
(10.57)
v(t ) = tanh t + tanh1 0 .
We see that lim t v(t ) = , that is, the sleighs speed approaches in the long run.
Now that we have v(t ), the angular velocity (t ) may be computed easily. From the
1
differential equation v + v 2 = 2 we get v = (2 v 2 ). We substitute this expression
for v in (10.55a), then solve for 2 :
(t )2 =

m1 + m2 2
v(t )2 ,
2
m2
(10.58)
where v(t ) is given in (10.57). Note, in particular, that v(t ) implies (t ) 0, that
is, the sleighs spin slows down to zero in the long run.
Remark 10.1. Lets observe that (a) From the definition x = v cos of the speed v we
see that a positive v implies motion in which m1 trails m2 ; and (b) Since tanh is positive
when its argument is positive, the solution (10.57) indicates that regardless of the initial
conditions, v(t ) will be positive for sufficiently large t . Putting these two observations
together, we conclude that regardless of the sleighs initial conditions, in the long run it
will orient itself so that m1 trails m2 in its motion.
10.7 The problem from page 63 of Gantmacher

A dumbbell consists of a rigid weighless rod of length with point masses of m each
attached to its ends. The rod is free to move in a vertical plane, other than the requirement
that the velocity of its center should point along the rod itself. Find the equaitons of
motion.
We introduce a Cartesian coordiante system xy, where x is horizontal and y points
up. Let x(t ) and y(t ) be the coordinates of the rods center, and let (t ) be the rods angle
relative to the x axis. We use x, y, and as the problems generalized coordiantes. Then
rc = x, y is the position vector of the rods midpoint. The position vectors of the two
masses are
r1 = rc cos , sin , r2 = rc + cos , sin .

2
2
90
Now we calculate the velocities of the masses:
sin , cos , r2 = rc +
sin , cos ,
r1 = rc
2
2
(10.59)
and their accelerations:
sin , cos 2 cos , sin ,

r1 = rc
2
2
2
sin , cos + cos , sin .

r2 = rc +
2
2
It follows that
S=
1
m 2
m 2
1
mkr1 k2 + mkr2 k2 = mkrc k2 +
( + 4 ) = m(
x 2 + y2 ) +
( + 4 )
2
2
2
2
(10.60)
The formulation above indicates that we have made the tacit choice of using x, y and
as generalized coordiantes for this problem. Although these coordiantes are independent
of each other algebraically, they are related to each other through their derivatives, since
according to the problems statement, the velocity of the rods midpoint is constrainted
to lie along the rods direction. This says that the velocity vector rc =
x , y makes an
angle of of with the x axis, as the rod does, therefore y/
x = tan , or equivalently,
x sin = y cos .
(10.61)
This is the problems nonholonomic constraint.

To relate this to the general theorey developed in the previous sections, the problem
has m = 3 generalized coordinates x, y and ; and it has g = 1 nonholonomic constraint (10.61). Therefore its degrees of freedom are n = m g = 2. Again, acoording to
and
the preceding general theory, we should express the generalized velocities x, y and ,
the constraint (10.61), in terms of n = 2 independent and unconstrained pseudovelocities
1 and 1 .
There is no unique choice of the pseudovelocities 1 and 1 . All is needed the requirement that the pseudovelocities (10.33) togehter with the constraint equations (10.32) be
solvable for the generalized veclocities (10.34). Table 10.1 shows a few possible choices for
the problem at hand. In Choice (1) we take pseudovelocities 1 and 1 to be the actual
The generalized velocity y then is determiend through the
generalized velocities x and .
constraint (10.61).
Choice (2) defines the pseudovelocity 1 to be the left-hand side of the constraint
equation (10.61) which is a reasonable choice to make.
Choice (3) sets 1 to the seemingly odd expression x / cos . The resulting expressions
for x and y are quite simple, in the sense that they are easy to differentiate; we are going
to need x and y to calculate the energy of acceleration. The derivatives of x and y will be
messier expressions with the Choices (1) and (2).
On a closer scrutinty, the setting of 1 = x/ cos is not that odd after all since it has
a pleasant physical interpretation. Let v be the (scalar) speed of the rods midpoint. Since
the velocity points along the rods direction, then it should be clear that x = v cos and
y = v sin . Comparing the x and y values in Choice (3), we see that 1 is the speed v.
We adopt the pseudovelocities of Choice (3) for the rest of this section. To ease the
notational burden, however, we replace the ageneric symbols 1 and 2 with the more
meaningful notation v = 1 and = 2 . In particular, according to Choice (3) we have
x = v cos ,
y = v sin .
(10.62)
10.7. The problem from page 63 of Gantmacher
Choice (1)
Choice (2)
Choice (3)
91
1 = x
=
2
x sin = y cos
1 = x sin
=
2
x sin = y cos
1 = x/ cos
=
2
x sin = y cos
x = 1
y = 1 tan
= 2
x = 1 / sin
y = 1 / cos
= 2
x = 1 cos
y = 1 sin
= 2
Table 10.1: There is no unique choice of pseudovelocities for a given problem. The
choices given here are three out of infinite such possibilities for the dumbbell
problem.
To express the energy of acceleration S in (10.60) in terms of the quasivelocities, we differentiate (10.62):
x = v cos v sin = v cos v sin ,
y = v sin + v cos = v sin + v cos ,
(10.63a)
(10.63b)
whence x2 + y2 = v2 + v 2 2 , and (10.60) changes to

S = m(v2 + v 2 2 ) +
m 2
m 2
+ 4 ) = m v2 +
+ ,
(
2
2
where the ellipses indicates terms which are free of the acceleration terms v and .
A force of F = 0, m g acts on each of the two masses. Therefore
F r1 + F r2 = F (r1 + r2 ) = 2F rc
= 20, m g
x , y = 2m g y = 2m g (v sin + v cos ).
In the last step we have substituted for y from (10.63b).

We conclude that the Gibbs function is
m 2
+ 2m g v sin + ,
G = m v2 +
2
where, as usual, the ellipses indicates terms which are free of the accelerations.
= 0 lead to
Then the Appell equations G/ v = 0 and G/
v + g sin = 0,
= 0.
To complete the system, we append the constraint equations (10.62). Therefore the complete set of differential equations of motion are
x = v cos ,
y = v sin .
= ,
v + g sin = 0,
= 0.
92
These form a set of five first order differential equations in the five unknowns x, y, , ,
and v.
This system is solvable in terms of elementary functions, as demostrated in Gantmacher. Plugging the raw system into Maple does not produce a good result immediately,
but we can maneuver it toward the right solution as follows.
The equations above impliy that is a constant, and therefore = t +0 . Therefore
the system shrinks to
x = v cos ,
y = v sin .
v + g sin = 0,
where = t +0 . In solving this reduced system, Maple distinguishes between the cases
where is zero and nonzero. If is nonzero, we get something like Gantmachers. In
particular, y consists of a linear term in t plus trigonometric function. If, however, is
zero and 0 = /2, we get a 1/2g t 2 term, as expected.
Note: In the above, I calclated the Gibbs function a la Desloge. We may calculate it a la
Gantmacher if we wish. Here is how.
The equation
What I have written above as the quasivelocity v, Gantmacher calls it .
y = v sin then takes the form y = sin , whereby we introduce the virtual displacement of the quasicoordinate through y = (sin ) .
In accordance with (10.59), the virtual displacements of the masses are
r1 = rc sin , cos ,
2
is
r2 = rc + sin , cos ,
2
A force of F = 0, m g acts on each of the two masses therefore their virtual work
W = F r1 + F r2 = F (r1 + r2 ) = 2F rc
= 20, m g x, y = 2m g y = 2m g sin .
(10.64)
However W = + , where and are the generalized forces corresponding

to the quasicoordinates and . We conclude that = 2m g sin and = 0. The
equations of motion are
S
S
= ,
= ,

which agree with what we obtained earlier.
10.8 Rigid body dynamics

The previous sections have focused on the dynamics of point masses. Extending the results to rigid bodies is a matter of replacing the summations with integrals, which is easy
in principle, but provides some challenges in practice. It is possible, with some work, to
systematize the treatment and arrive at a general formula for the Gibbs function which
applies to all rigid bodies. Lurie [9] and Desloge [2], for instance, have such formulas.
Luries formula is packaged quite nicely. Desloges result is a little more general but it
is not packaged as nicely. Furthermore, Desloges formula is actually incorrect(!) due to
10.8. Rigid body dynamics
93
a false assumption made in its derivation. Desloge [11] points out his error and offers a
corrected formula.
In the following sections I will offer a blending of Luries and Desloges approaches
which combines the nice packaging of the former with the generality of the latter.
10.8.1 Three frames of reference

It turns out that to derive the equation of motion of a rigid body, it is quite convenient
to use not one, not two, but three(!) special purpose frames of reference simultaneously.
In most applications a frame of reference takes the form of a right-handed orthonormal
triad and a point called the frames origin.
The stationary frame is defined by a triad {i, j, k} and the associated origin O. As the
name implies, the stationary frame is fixed (not moving). Typically the i and j
vectors lie in a horizontal plane and the vector k points upward, but thats not a
requirement.
With the stationary frame we associate a Cartesian coordinate system whose x, y,
and z axes are aligned with the i, j and k vectors, respectively.
Ultimately, the purpose of rigid body dynamics is to express a bodys motion relative to the stationary frame.
The body frame of reference is defined by a triad {b1 , b2 , b3 } and an associated origin o.
The triad is firmly attached to the body, and therefore moves with it. There are
no restrictions on the choice of the origin, nor on the triads orientation. Whenever possible, however, we set the origin at the bodys center of mass, and orient
the triad along the bodys principal axes of inertia, since that results in significant
simplifications.
Since the triad {b1 , b2 , b3 } is affixed to the body, the triads angular velocity is exactly
the bodys angular velocity .
The intermediate frame of reference is defined by a triad {e1 , e2 , e3 } and an associated
origin O . The choice of this frame is entirely up to you. You choose it to fit the
specific application at hand. The triad may rotate and the origin may move as you
wish.
Remark 10.2. Whats the purpose of the intermediate frame of reference? In
formulating the equations of motion, some quantities are more easily expressed in
once coordinate system than the other. For instance, the position of the bodys
center of mass is best expressed in terms of the stationary frame, while its spin is
best express in terms of the body reference frame. Some other quantities may be
difficult to express in either of those, but may be easy in terms of a special purpose
intermediate frame of reference. All three frames are related through orthogonal
transformations, therefore we may readily translate the information from one frame
to another, as needed.
10.8.2 The energy of acceleration for a rigid body

Consider a rigid body B of mass m equipped with a body reference frame with an origin
o and a orthonormal triad {b1 , b2 , b3 }, as in Section 10.8.1. Let ro be the position vector of
the point o relative to the stationary frame, that is ro = Oo, and let Io be bodys moment
94
.
of inertia relative to o. Furthermore, let c be the bodys center of mass, and let c =
oc
8
Then we have
Z
B
1
1
2 d m = mkro k2 + m(ro )
c + m(ro ) ( c )
krk
2
2
1
Io
+ (
) Io + ,
+
2
(10.65)
where the ellipsis indicates terms that do not involve accelerations, and are, therefore,
immaterial to the Gibbs-Appell equations of motion.
If the origin o of the body frame is chosen to coincide with the bodys center of mass,
then c = 0 and (10.65) reduces to
Z
1
1
1
2 d m = mkrc k2 +
Ic
+ (
) Ic + ,
krk
(10.66)
2
2
B 2
where rc is the position vector, relative to the stationary frame, of the bodys center of
mass, and Ic is the moment of inertia tensor relative to the center of mass.
10.9 The rolling coin

Here we analyze the somewhat challenging dynamics of a coin, modeled as a thin homogeneous disk of radius a, rolling without slipping on a horizontal floor; see Figure 10.2.
10.9.1 The three frames

Figure 10.2 depicts the coin along with the three frames of reference discussed in Section 10.8.1. Specifically, the {i, j, k} triad of the stationary frame has its origin on the
floor and the k vector points upward; the {b1 , b2 , b3 } triad of the body frame has its origin at the disks center and the vector b3 is perpendicular to the disk.
We choose an intermediate frame with its origin at the disks center, and an associated
orthonormal triad {e1 , e2 , e3 } oriented as follows. The vector e3 is perpendicular to the
disk, and therefore coincides with b3 . The vector e1 is horizontal. Then we set e2 =
e3 e1 .
The body frame is fixed to the coin, by definition, and rotates with it. The position of
the body frame relative to the intermediate frame is described by a single parameter, the
angle , between the vectors b1 and e1 as indicated on the figure.
The coins position relative to the stationary frame is specified through five generalized
coordinates x, y, , , and , where is the angle between the coins plane and the floor;
is the angle between the vectors i and e1 (it measures how the coins plane is rotated
relative to the k vector); and (x, y, a sin ) are the coordinates of the coins center.
10.9.2 The angular velocity

From the geometry of Figure 10.2 it is evident that e1 = cos i + sin j. The unit vector
e2 makes an angle with the floor and its horizontal projection is perpendicular to e1 ,
therefore its horizontal and vertical projections are ( sin i + cos j) cos and sin k.
We conclude that e2 = ( sin i + cos j) cos + sin k. The vector e3 may be found
8
This is a combination of equation (4.11.8) in Lurie [9] and (22) in Desloge [11]. I havent personally verified
them yet.
10.9. The rolling coin
95
k
j
b2
e2
e3 , b3
y
b1
e1
a
(x, y, a sin )
Figure 10.2: The rolling coins configuration is specified through five generalized coordinates x, y, , , and , as shown.. The no-slip conditions at the contact
point with the floor imposes two nonholonomic constraints.
with a similar geometric reasoning, or just by computing e3 = e1 e2 . Here is a summary:

e1 = cos i + sin j,
e2 = sin cos i + cos cos j + sin k,
e3 = sin sin i cos sin j + cos k.
(10.67a)
(10.67b)
(10.67c)
We will need the time derivatives of these vectors shortly, so lets compute them right
now. We have
e1 = sin i + cos j.
It follows that
e1 e1 = 0,
e1 e2 = cos ,
e1 e3 = sin ,
therefore, according to (8.7), we have e1 = cos e2 sin e3 . In a similar manner we

compute e2 and e2 and express them in terms of the basis {e1 , e2 , e3 }. Here is what we
get:
e1 = cos e2 sin e3 ,
e = cos e + e ,
2
e3 = sin e1 e2 .
(10.68a)
(10.68b)
(10.68c)
96
Now let us examine the body frame. Referring to Figure 10.2 we have:
b1 = cos e1 + sin e2 ,
(10.69a)
b2 = sin e1 + cos e2 ,
b3 = e3 .
(10.69b)
(10.69c)
We differentiate these with respect to t , and substitute from (10.68) for the derivatives of
ei , and obtain
sin e + ( cos + )
cos e + ( sin cos + sin ) e ,
b1 = ( cos + )
1
2
3
(10.70a)
cos e ( cos + )
sin e + ( sin sin + cos ) e ,
b = ( cos + )
2
b3 = sin e1 e2 .
(10.70b)
(10.70c)
in (10.70c) and e in (10.68c) agree since b = e .

Remark 10.3. The expressions for b
3
3
3
3
Equations (10.70) may be used in conjunction with (7.5) to calculate the bodys angular
velocity vector. Toward that end we compute
cos (e b ) ( cos + )
sin (e b )
1b = b2 b3 = ( cos + )
1
3
2
3
+ ( sin sin + cos ) (e3 b3 ),
where the superscript b is to remind us that 1b is the component of the vector in the
the body frame. On the right-hand side we substitute for b3 from (10.69), simplify the
result, and arrive at 1b = sin sin + cos . Computing the 2b and 3b components
in the same way, we arrive at:
b = sin sin + cos ,
1b = b
2
3
b = sin cos sin ,
b = b
3
3b
b = cos + .
=b
1
2
Then from the definition (7.3) of the angular velocity vector we conclude that
b . (10.71)
= ( sin sin + cos ) b1 + ( sin cos sin ) b2 + ( cos + )
3
This is the coins angular velocity vector expressed in the {b1 , b2 , b3 } basis. By substituting
for {b1 , b2 , b3 } from (10.69), we obtain and expression for in the {e1 , e2 , e3 } basis:
e.
= e1 + sin e2 + ( cos + )
3
(10.72)
We see that the components of along the intermediate basis are particularly simple.
Therein lies the significance of the choice of our intermediate basis. Those components
play a central role in what comes next, therefore we name them simply i ,9
1 = ,
2 = sin ,
3 = cos + ,
(10.73)
9
To be consistent with the b superscript introduced earlier for the components of in the {b1 , b2 , b3 } basis,
we should have named its {e1 , e2 , e3 } components with superscripts e. We refrain from doing that, however, to
reduce clutter.
97
,
and
and ,
Note that each i is a linear combination of the generalized velocities ,
therefore each i is a quasi-velocity as defined in Section 10.1.9. Well, actually 1 is not
but the other
a true quasi-velocity since it is the derivative of the generalized velocity ,
two are honest quasi-velocities since they are not derivatives of anything.
,
and
Solving (10.73) as a linear system of three equations for the three unknowns ,
we get:
,
1
, = 3 2 cot .
(10.74)
= 1 , =
sin 2
Equations (10.73) and (10.74) establish a one-to-one correspondence between the gen ,
and the quasi-velocities , , . We may formulate the rest
,
eralized velocities ,
1
2
3
of the analysis in terms of one or the other set of variables. We will do it in terms of the
s since the derivations are easier that way.
For future reference, let us make a note of the following formula whose derivation is
left as an exercise:
= [
1 + 2 3 22 cot ] e1 + [
2 3 1 + 1 2 cot ] e2 +
3 e3 .
(10.75)
10.9.3 The no-slip constraint

The position vector of the coins center in the stationary frame is
rc = x i + y j + a sin k.
(10.76)
The vector = ae2 extends from the coins center to its contact point with the floor.
Therefore, according to (7.7), the velocity, relative to the coins center, of a point on the
coins rim at the contact point is given by . Consequently, the velocity of that point
relative to the stationary frame is rc + . Since the velocity of the ground at the
contact point is zero, then to prevent slippage, we need
rc + = 0.
(10.77)
Upon substituting for rc from (10.76), for from (10.72), for the ei vectors from (10.67),
and simplifying the result, and we get

cos j = 0.
cos i + y +a cos sin +( cos + )
x a sin sin +( cos + )
Then we apply (10.74) to change over to quasi-velocities and arrive at

x + a3 cos a1 sin sin i + y + a3 sin + a1 cos sin j = 0.
This leads us to a pair of scalar equations
x = a(3 cos 1 sin sin ),
y = a(3 sin + 1 cos sin )
(10.78)
which express the rolling coins nonholonomic constraints. We use these to eliminate x
and y from the rest of the computations.
10.9.4 The acceleration of the coins center

From (10.76) we have rc = x i + y j + a cos k.. We substitute for x and y from (10.78),
then we apply (10.74) and arrive at
rc = a(3 cos 1 sin sin ) i a(3 sin + 1 cos sin ) i + a1 cos k.
98
Then we differentiate this once again to find the acceleration:

1 sin sin
3 cos + 12 sin cos + 1 2 cos + 2 3 sin / sin i
rc = a

1 cos sin
3 sin 12 cos cos + 1 2 sin 2 3 cos / sin j
+a

1 cos 12 sin k.
+a
(10.79)
,
in favor of
Here we have applied (10.74) to eliminate the generalized velocities ,
2
the quasi-velocities 1 , 2 , 3 . Finally, we compute krc k which forms a part of the
problems Gibbs function:
12 +
32 + 2
1 2 3 21 2
3] + ,
krc k2 = a 2 [
(10.80)
1,
2,
3.
where the ellipsis indicate terms that involve no acceleration terms
10.9.5 The rotational acceleration

The body frame {b1 , b2 , b3 } is lined up with the coins principal moment of inertia axes,
therefore the moment of inertia tensor relative to the coins center is
I = b1 b1 + b2 b2 + b3 b3 .
where
1
= ma 2 ,
4
1
= ma 2 .
2
(10.81)
Therefore we have:
I = (b1 )b1 + (b2 )b2 + (b3 )b3 ,
I
= (b1 )b
1 + (b2 )b
2 + (b3 )b
3.
from (10.75) we get:

Inserting for
I
= (
1 + 2 3 22 cot )2 + (
2 3 1 + 1 2 cot )2 +
32
12 +
22 +
32 2(
1 2 1
2 )(2 cot 3 )
=
+ (12 + 22 )(2 cot 3 )2 .
(10.82)
The final term is free of accelerations, therefore it may be dropped when forming the
Gibbs function.
In a similar manner we also calculate
) I = ( )(
1 2 1
2 )3
(
( )(12 + 22 )(2 cot 3 )3 .
(10.83)
Again, the final term is free of accelerations, therefore it may be dropped when forming
the Gibbs function.
According to (10.66) and (10.7), The Gibbs function is
Z
Z
1
2dm
krk
F r d m
G=
B
B 2
1
1
I
+ (
) I (m g k) rc ,
= mkrc k2 +
2
2
99
which may be evaluated by putting together (10.79), (10.80), (10.82), and (10.83):
1
1
1
1
12 +
32 + 2
1 2 3 21 2
12 +
22 +
32
3 ] +
G = ma 2 [
2
2
2
2
1 2 1
2 )(2 cot 3 ) + m ga
1 cos + ,
(
where, as always, we have dropped terms which do not depend on the accelerations. Finally, substituting for and from (10.81), we arrive at
G = ma 2
h5
8
1 2 3 2 1
12 +
+

( cot 63 )
8 2 4 3 4 1 2 2
i
1
2 (2 cot 23 ) 1 2
3 + m ga
1 cos .
+ 1
4
1 = 0, G/
2 = 0, G/
3 = 0 we get
Then from the equations G/
g
5
1
1 2 (2 cot 63 ) + cos = 0,
4
4
a
1
1
+ ( cot 23 ) = 0,
4 2 4 1 2
3
1 2 = 0.
2 3
Clearly this set of differential equations is under-determined, since it depend on which
is also an unknown. However, from (10.74) we see that = 1 . Adjoining this to the
above gives us a system of four first order differential equations in the four unknowns 1 ,
2 , 3 , and .
In practice, we extend the system by adjoining all three of the equations from (10.74),
and the two equations from (10.78). Thus, we obtain a system of eight first order differential equations in the eight unknowns 1 , 2 , 3 , , , , x, and y, whose solution
completely determines the coins motion. Here is the system in its full glory:
4g
1
1 2 (2 cot 63 ) +
cos = 0,
5
5a
2 + 1 (2 cot 23 ) = 0,
2
3 1 2 = 0,
3
= 1 ,
1
=
,
sin 2
= 3 2 cot .
x = a(3 cos 1 sin sin ),
y = a(3 sin + 1 cos sin ).
(10.84)
Remark 10.4. We need eight initial conditions to go with these equations. The initial
conditions on x, y, , , and determine the coins initial position relative to the stationary axes, so they may be specified in the obvious way. The initial conditions on 1 ,
2 , and 3 require a more careful consideration. You may recall from (10.73) that the
s were defined as the components of the coins angular velocity along the intermediate
100
frame {e1 , e2 , e3 }. Since the intermediate frame has no immediate physical manifestation, it is not easy to make up meaningful initial values for the s. We do note, however,
that (10.73) defines the s in terms of the generalized coordinates and their velocities,
,
which are easier to grasp. Therefore in practice you will make up initial values for ,
and as desired, then use (10.73) to determine the initial values for 1 , 2 , and 3 .
Exercises
10.1.
10.2.
10.3.
10.4.
Derive (10.75).
Give the details of the computation which leads from (10.77) to (10.78).
Derive (10.83).
Equip a rigid body B with a body reference frame {b1 , b2 , b3 } whose origin coincides with the bodys center of mass. Additionaly, suppose that the {b1 , b2 , b3 }
is aligned with the bodys moment of inertia axes, so that the moment of inertia
tensor takes the form
I = I1 b1 b1 + I2 b1 b2 + I3 b1 b3 .
Let 1 , 2 , 3 be the components of the bodys angular velocity along the {b1 , b2 , b3 }
vectors, that is
= 1 b1 + 2 b2 + 3 b3 .
Show that:
1.
2.
I
= I1 1 2 + I2 2 2 + I3 3 2 .
) I = I1 (
2 3
3 2 )1
(
3 1
1 3 )2 + I3 (
1 2
2 1 )3 .
+I2 (
Conclude that the equations of motion of a freely spinning rigid body are
1 + (I3 I2 )2 3 = 0,
I1
2 + (I1 I3 )3 1 = 0,
I2
3 + (I2 I1 )1 2 = 0.
I3
10.5. Solve the system of differential equations (10.84) and produce an animation of the
coins motion.
Chapter 11
Quaternions
11.1 The quaternion algebra

A quaternion, as a mathematical object, is a pair [ a, u ], where a R and u E3 . Multiplication by a scalar cp, the sum p + q, and the product p q of the quaternions p = [ a, u ]
and q = [ b , v ] are defined according to
cp = c[ a, u ] = [ ca, cu ],
(c R)
p + q = [ a, u ] + [ b , v ] = [ a + b , u + v ],
p q = [ a, u ] [ b , v ] = [ ab u v, av + b u + u v ].
(11.1)
(11.2)
(11.3)
Note that addition is commutative but multiplication, due to the presence of the u v
term, is not.
As a special case of (11.3), we have
[ c, 0 ] [ a, u ] = c[ a, u ]
and
[ a, u ] [ c, 0 ] = c[ a, u ],
therefore the quaternion [ c, 0 ] acts exactly like the scalar c under quaternion multiplication. In particular, the quaternion [ 1, 0 ] is the multiplicative identity in the quaternion
algebra.
In view of the observation above, we adopt the convention of writing c instead of
of [ c, 0 ] when there is no chance of confusion. This is analogous to writing , instead
of + 0i when dealing with complex numbers. By the same token, we write u instead
of [ 0, u ]. The quaternion c = [ c, 0 ] is called a scalar quaternion or just a scalar if the
meaning is clear from the context. Similarly, the quaternion u = [ 0, u ] is called a vectorial
quaternion, or just a vector, for short.10
As a consequence of the convention adopted above, the notation u v, where u and
v are vectors, makes sense, and evaluates to
u v = [ 0, u ] [ 0, v ] = [ u v, u v ].
(11.4)
You may want to think of u v as the quaternion product of the vectors u and v,
but note that the product is a quaternion, not a vector, unless u v = 0, in which case
u v = u v.
10
The terminology is not quite standardized. What we have called a scalar quaternion is also called a real
quaternion, and what we have called a vectorial quaternion is also called a pure quaternion or imaginary quaternion.
101
102
Chapter 11. Quaternions
The conjugate p of the quaternion p = [ a, u ] is defined as p = [ a, u ]. Let us note

that
p p = [ a 2 + kuk2 , 0 ] = (a 2 + kuk2 )[ 1, 0 ] = a 2 + kuk2 = |p|2 ,
(11.5)
where we have defined
|p| = (a 2 + kuk2 )1/2 .
The quantity |p| is called the norm (or modulus) of the quaternion p. A quaternion p
such that |p| = 1 is called a unit quaternion.
If |p| is nonzero, then we may rearrange (11.5) into
1

p p = 1,
|p|2
which shows that the parenthesized expression is the left multiplicative inverse of p. Repeating the calculation, beginning with p p , we see that the parenthesized expression
is also the right multiplicative inverse of p. We conclude that if |p| is nonzero, then p has
a multiplicative inverse, p1 , given by
p1 =
1
p,
|p|2
(|p| 6= 0).
The special case unit criterion arises quite frequently:

p1 = p ,
(|p| = 1).
Remark 11.1. This section has touched on just a few basic concepts of the quaternion
algebra which will be needed in what follows. For an in-depth study of quaternions see
Altmann [12]. For a leisurely introduction to quaternions, with applications to computer
graphics, see Hanson [13].
11.2 The geometry of the quaternions

The goal of this section is to elucidate the geometric interpretations of a few features
related to quaternion which play significant roles in the dynamics of rigid bodies.
11.2.1 The reflection operator

As we noted in connection with (11.4), the quaternion product of two vectors is not a
vector in general. Thus, it may come as a surprise that the triple product v u v is
always a vector:
v u v = kvk2 u 2(v u)v,
for all u, v E3 .
(11.6)
The proof of this identity is left as an exercise.

In particular, if v is a unit vector, lets call it n, then we have
n u n = u 2(n u)n,
if knk = 1.
(11.7)
The right-hand side has a well-known geometric interpretation. Suppose the tails of the
vectors n and u are attached to a common point o, and let P be a plane through o and
perpendicular to n, as illustrated in Figure 11.1, and let Q be the plane of the vectors n
11.2. The geometry of the quaternions
103
u 2(n u)n
u
o
n
Q
P
and u. Then it is simple exercise to show that u 2(n u)n is the mirror reflection of the
vector u through the plane P . Thus, we have established the following:
Theorem 11.1. The reflection operator Rn into a plane with a unit normal n is given by
Rn u = n u n,
u E3 .
(11.8)
11.2.2 The rotation operator

Consider two planes, P1 and P2 , which have unit normals n1 and n2 and make a dihedral
angle /2 with each other. In the sketch shown in Figure 11.2a, the planes are shown
edgewise, therefore they appear as lines. The line of intersection of the two planes appears
as a point in that figure since we are looking at it head on. The unit vector n = (n1
n2 )/kn1 n2 k lies in the direction of that line of intersection.
Let Rn1 and Rn2 be the reflection operators, as in the previous subsection, into the
planes P1 and P2 . Pick an arbitrary vector u, apply Rn1 to it, and then apply Rn2 the the
result. Figure 11.2b shows the effect.
To gain insight into the structure of this geometric construction, it helps to introduce
the plane P1 which is the reflection of P1 into P2 . The plane P1 , seen edgewise, is shown
as a dashed line in Figure 11.2c.
In Figure 11.2d we have added the vector Rn2 u. It should be evident from the symmetries of the diagram that Rn2 u coincides with the reflection of Rn2 Rn1 u into P1 .
As a rotation by the angle about the vector n takes the plane P1 to the plane P1 , it is
evident that the same rotation takes the vector u to the vector Rn2 Rn1 u. Thus, we have
established the following:
Lemma 11.2. Suppose the planes P1 and P2 , with unit normals n1 and n2 , make a dihedral
angle of /2 with each other. Let Rn1 and Rn2 be the reflection operators into the planes P1 and
P2 , and let Rn, be the rotation operator by angle about the vector n = (n1 n2 )/kn1 n2 k.
Then Rn, = Rn2 Rn1 .
In the previous section we characterized a reflection operator as a triple quaternion
product. That, along with the lemma above enables us to express a rotation operator in
terms of quaternions. This is the subject of the following:
104
P2
P2
n2
n2
R n2 R n1 u
n1
R n1 u
P1
n1
P1
2
u
(a) Planes P1 and P2 , shown edgewise, have unit normals n1 and

n2 , and make a dihedral angle
of /2. The unit vector n =
(n1 n2 )/kn1 n2 k lies along
their intersection, and points
out of the picture, toward you,
therefore it is not visible.
(b) Reflecting the arbitrary vector u into the

plane P1 produces Rn1 u. Reflecting the latter into the plane P2 results in Rn2 Rn1 u.
P2
P2
n2
P1
n2
P1
R n2 R n1 u
R n1 u
n1
(c) We introduce the auxiliary plane P1 (shown as a

dashed line) which is the reflection of the plane P1
into the plane P2 , therefore it makes a dihedral angle of /2 with P2 .
P1
R n2 R n1 u
R n2 u
R n1 u
2
n
n1
(d) The vector Rn2 produced by reflecting u into P2 coincides with the reflection of Rn2 Rn1 u into P1 . From
the symmetries of the diagram it is evident that a rotation by an angle about the vector n takes the plane
plane P1 to the plane P1 . It follows that the same rotation takes the vector u to the vector Rn2 Rn1 u, thus
proving that Rn, = Rn2 Rn1 .
Figure 11.2: The sequence of diagrams is in effect a proof without words of

Lemma 11.2. It shows clearly that the composition of the two reflections
Rn1 and Rn2 into the planes P1 and P2 is equivalent to a rotation by an
angle about the vector n which lies in the intersection of those planes.
P1
11.2. The geometry of the quaternions
105
Theorem 11.3. The operator Rn, of rotation by angle about a unit vector n has an
associated unit quaternion
q = [ cos , n sin ]
(11.9)
2
2
so that
Rn, u = q u q ,
for all u E3 .
(11.10)
Proof. Pick any two planes P1 and P2 which intersect along a line parallel to n, and whose
dihedral angle is /2. Then according to Theorem 11.1 we have
Rn1 u = n1 u n1 .
Rn2 u = n2 u n2 ,
and according to Lemma 11.2 we have Rn, = Rn2 Rn1 . Thus, we compute
Rn, u = Rn2 Rn1 u
= Rn2 (n1 u n1 )
= n2 (n1 u n1 ) n2
= (n2 n1 ) u (n1 n2 ).
Let q = n2 n1 . We leave it as an exercise for you to show that q = n1 n2 . We conclude
that Rn, = q u q , which proves (11.10). To show that q has the form given in (11.9),
observe that the dihedral angle between the planes P1 and P2 is /2, therefore the vectors
n1 and n2 , which are perpendicular to those planes, also form an angle of /2. Then
applying (11.4) we see that
q = n2 n1 = [ n2 n1 , n2 n1 ] = [ cos
, n sin ] = [ cos , n sin ].

2
2
2
2
The negative sign in the final expression is immaterial since q appears twice in the rotation
formula (11.10). Finally, the assertion that q is a unit quaternion follows immediately from
the form of (11.9).
Remark 11.2. The planes P1 and P2 and their associated unit normals n1 and n2 which
enter the proof above are conveniences for the proof. They do not appear in the theorems
final result.
Remark 11.3. If we split the quaternion q in (11.10) into components, as in q = [ q0 , q ],
and expand the triple quaternion product, we get
Rn, u = (q02 kqk2 )u + 2(q u)q + 2q0 (q u).
(11.11)
We may be more explicit by setting q0 = cos /2 and q = n sin /2 and simplifying (11.10)
to get

Rn, u = (n u)n + u (n u)n cos + (n u) sin
which has an obvious geometric interpretation if you look at it closely.
106
11.3 Angular velocity

Theorem 11.3 shows that a rotation operator in E3 may be expressed in terms of an associated unit quaternion q defined in (11.9). A rotation that varies with the time t then
may be expressed in terms of a time-dependent unit quaternion q(t ) of that form. An
arbitrarily fixed vector r0 E3 then rotates to the position r(t ) according
r(t ) = q(t ) r0 q (t ).
(11.12)
Suppose that the instantaneous angular velocity vector under this rotation at time t is
(t ). Then, according to (7.7), we have:
r(t ) = (t ) r(t ).
(11.13)
Comparing (11.12) and (11.13) we expect a relationship between q(t ) and (t ). This is
stated in the following:
Theorem 11.4. Let q(t ) be any time-varying unit quaternion, and let (t ) the angular
velocity of the rotation (11.12) engendered by q(t ). Then we have
= 2q q .
(11.14)
Proof. Since q(t ) is a unit quaternion, we have |q(t )|2 = q(t ) q (t ) = 1, and therefore
q q + q q = 0. But since q q = (q q ) , it follows that q q + (q q ) = 0, which
indicates that the scalar part of the quaternion q q is zero, that is, q q is a vectorial
quaternion. This justifies defining the vector through the quaternion product (11.14).
It remains to show that thus defined is indeed the motions angular velocity.
Toward that end, let us compute r by differentiating (11.12):
r = q r0 q + q r0 q .
We note q1 = q by virtue of q being a unit quaternion, therefore r = q r0 q implies
that
r0 q = q r
and
q r0 = r q.
Therefore, the expression for r takes the form

r = q q r + r q q
= q q r + r (q q )
1 1
1
= ( r + r ).
= r+r
2
2
2
We leave it as an easy exercise to show that evaluating the right-hand side with the help of
the identity (11.4) leads to
r = r
which shows that defined in (11.14) is indeed the sought-after angular velocity.
(11.15)
11.4. A differential equation for the quaternion rotation
107
11.4 A differential equation for the quaternion rotation

Recall the definitions of the three frames of reference in Section 10.8.1 in connection with
the motion of a rigid body. The stationary frame is equipped with a non-moving orthonormal triad {i, j, k}. The body frame is equipped with an orthonormal triad {b1 , b3 , b3 }
which is fixed to the body and movies with it.
At any time t , the body triad {b1 , b3 , b3 } may be viewed as the rotated version of the
stationary triad {i, j, k}. Let q(t ) be the unit quaternion associated with that rotation.
Thus,
b1 (t ) = q(t ) i q (t ),
b2 (t ) = q(t ) j q (t ),
b3 (t ) = q(t ) k q (t ), (11.16)
which may be expanded with the help of (11.11), if desired.

Let be the bodys angular velocity vector, and 1 , 2 , and 3 be s components
in the body frame:
= 1 b1 + 1 b2 + 1 b3 .
(11.17)
Substituting from (11.16) we get
= 1 q i q + 2 q j q + 3 q k q
= q (1 i + 2 j + 3 k) q .
Then from (11.14) it follows that
2q q = q (1 i + 2 j + 3 k) q ,
whence
1
q = q (1 i + 2 j + 3 k).
2
(11.18)
This system of first order differential equations expresses the evolution of q in time. Together with the equations in (11.16), these determine the bodys orientation in space. We
will adjoin them to the differential equations of dynamics to obtain a complete system of
differential equations that describes the bodys motion.
The differential equations initial condition, q(0), which specifies the bodys initial
orientation, is a unit quaternion, as any quaternion associated with a rotation ought to be.
A question arises whether the solution q(t ) of the differential equation is a unit quaternion
for all t . The answer is yes, as it follows from Theorem 11.5 below.
Remark 11.4. Equation (11.17) defines the components 1 , 2 , 3 of the angular
velocity vector along the body triad. Beware that the sum 1 i+2 j+3 k that appears
in (11.18) does not add up to .
Theorem 11.5. The differential equation
q(t ) = q(t ) a(t ),
q(0) = q0
for the quaternion q(t ), where a(t ) is an arbitrary time-dependent vector, preserves the norm,
that is |q(t )| = |q0 | for all t . In particular, if q0 is a unit quaternion, then q(t ) is a unit
quaternion for all t .
Proof. We calculate the derivative of |q(t )|2 and substitute for q from the differential
108
equation:
d 2
d
|q| =
(q q ) = q q + q q
dt
dt
= (q a) q + q (q a) = (q a) q + q (a q ).
In the last step we have used the quaternion conjugation property (p q) = q p ; see
Exercise 5. Now note that for any vector a we have a = [ 0, a ] = [ 0, a ] = a. Then
d
it follows that d t |q|2 = 0, therefore the norm of q remains constant.
For computing purposes, we express q in components, as in
q = [ q0 , q1 i + q2 j + q3 k ],
whereby (11.18) expands to the system of differential equations

q0
q0
0 1 2 3
1
d
q
3
2 q1 .
1 = 1
q
q
dt
2
2
2
2
3
1
q3
q3
3
2 1
0
(11.19)
11.5 Unbalanced ball rolling on a horizontal plane

Consider a solid ball of radius R and uniformly distributed total mass of M . We know
that the balls moment of inertia tensor relative to its center is 2/5M R2 times the identity
tensor.
We embed a point of mass m, lets call it a slug, within that ball at a distance a R
away from its center. We wish to study the motion of the composite object when it rolls
without slipping on a horizontal plane.
We set up the usual {i, j, k} orthonormal triad as a stationary frame, with the origin
on the horizontal plane and k pointing upward. We set up the body frame with its origin
at the balls center, and the body triad {b1 , b2 , b3 } oriented so that the slug is at ab3 relative
to the balls center, and we let q(t ) be the unit quaternion associated with the rotation that
takes {i, j, k} to {b1 , b2 , b3 }.
Let rc = x i+y j +R k be the position vector of the balls center relative to the stationary frame. The bodys position at any time is given by the vector rc and the quaternion
q.
We express the balls angular velocity in terms of its components along the body
is given by (7.4) on page 58.
triad as in (11.17), and note that the derivative
11.5.1 The no-slip condition

The velocity of the point on the ball which is at contact with the horizontal plane is
rc + (R k), which should be zero if there is to be no slippage at the contact point.
Therefore we have rc = R k, that is, x i+ y j = R k. It follows that x = R ki =
Rk i = R j . Similarly, y = R i . The conditions
x = R j
and
y = R i
(11.20)
are this problems nonholonomic constraints. We will use these to eliminate x and y in
favor of .
11.5. Unbalanced ball rolling on a horizontal plane
109
Additionally, we use these to eliminate the second derivatives, x and y from the Gibbs
function. Let us make a note here:
x = R j ,
y = R i .
(11.21)
11.5.2 The Gibbs function and the equations of motion

The Gibbs function of the system is the sum of the Gibbs functions corresponding to the
homogeneous ball and to the slug. We calculate them separately, and then add them up.
The Gibbs function of the homogeneous ball is

1
2
12 +
22 +
32 ) .
G1 = M (
x 2 + y2 ) + M R2 (
2
5
Let us note that due to (11.21) we have

2 + (i )
2 = R2 kk
2 (k )
2
krc k2 = x2 + y2 = R2 (j )

2 , (11.22)
12 +
22 +
32 (k )
= R2
therefore
7

1
2 .
12 +
22 +
32 ) (k )
G 1 = M R2 (
2
5
To compute the slugs Gibbs function, let us write r for its position vector. We have:
r = rc + ab3 .
Then we calculate the slugs velocity

r = rc + a b3 = rc + a b3 ,
and its acceleration
b3 + b3
r = rc + a
b3 + ( b3 )
= rc + a

b3 + ( b3 ) ( )b3 .
= rc + a
Noting that b3 = 3 and
b3 = (
1 b1 +
2 b2 +
3 b3 ) b3 =
1 b2 +
2 b1 ,
the acceleration simplifies to

1 b2 +
2 b1 + 3 kk2 b3
r = rc + a

1 b2 +
2 b1 + 3 (1 b1 + 2 b2 + 3 b3 ) (12 + 22 + 32 )b3 ,
= rc + a
which we group as

2 + 3 1 )b1 (
1 2 3 )b2 (12 + 22 )b3 ,
r = rc + a (
then for rc substitute from (11.22), and finally we compute
1
2 (m g k) r.
G2 = mkrk
2
(11.23)
110
The fully expanded expression of G2 is horrendously large. For all practical purposes it
is impossible to compute it with bare hands. Doing it with a symbolic computational
software, such as MAPLE or MATHEMATICA, however, is not a problem.
The composite balls Gibbs function os G = G1 + G2 . The equations of motion are
G
= 0,
1
G
= 0,
2
G
= 0,
3
These along with the two equations (11.20) and the four equations (11.19) form a system
of nine first order differential equations in the nine unknowns x, y, 1 , 2 , 3 , q0 , q1 ,
q2 , q3 .
The initial conditions for the first five have immediate physical meanings and their
specifications are intuitive and easy. The x and y place the balls center at a desired location, and 1 , 2 , 3 impart it an initial velocity. (Remember that are the components
of the angular velocity in the body triad. The balls initial orientation is specified through
q0 , q1 , q2 , q3 as follows.
Begin with the ball oriented so that the body triad {b1 , b2 , b3 } is lined up with the
stationary {i, j, k} triad. Then apply a rotation Rn, about a unit vector n and rotation
angle to orient the ball as desired. Any orientation in space may be achieved through
the appropriate choices of n and . The quaternion associated with that rotation is given
in (11.9). Therefore
q0 (0) = cos
,
2
q1 (0) = n1 sin
,
2
q2 (0) = n2 sin
,
2
q3 (0) = n3 sin
.
2
(11.24)
Dont forget that n = n1 i + n2 j + n3 k must be a unit vector.

Remark 11.5. To make an animation of the rolling ball, it is suffices to design the ball
graphics in a reference position, say where the body axes is aligned with the stationary
axes. Then, after having solved the differential equations and computed x(t ), y(t ), q0 (t ),
q1 (t ), q2 (t ), q3 (t ), rotate the reference ball about the vector q1 (t ) i + q2 (t ) j + q3 (t ) k by
the angle (t ) obtained from q0 (t ) = cos (t )/2, that is, (t ) = 2 cos1 q0 (t ). Then translate the rotated balls center to the location x(t ) i + y(t ) j + R k. MAPLEs plottools
package provides the commands rotate() and translate() for rotating and translating graphics objects. Figure 11.3 shows the ball in its reference position (on the left),
and a frame from an animation sequence (on the right).
Exercises
11.1. Prove the identity (11.6).
11.2. In Figure 11.1, n is a unit vector to the plane P , and u is an arbitrary vector. Why
is u 2(n u)n the mirror reflection of u through the plane P ?
11.3. Let q = n2 n1 , where n1 and n2 are any two vectors. Show that q = n1 n2 .
11.4. Verify that the quaternion multiplication is associative, that is
p (q r) = (p q) r.
11.5. Show that (p q) = q p for all quaternion p and q.
11.6. Show that |p q| = |p| |q| for all quaternions p and q.
Exercises
111
Figure 11.3: On the left is a sample graphics of the unbalanced ball in the reference
position. On the right is a frame from an animation sequence which includes the trace of the balls contact point with the floor. This particular
animation was produced with the parameters R = 1, a = 3/5. M = 100,
m = 25, g = 1. The initial orientation was set through n = i, = /2;
see (11.24). The remaining initial conditions were x(0), y(0), 1 (0), 3 (0)
all zeros, and 2 (0) = 0.1.
11.7. Show that n n = 1 for all unit vectors n. Note the parallel with the imaginary
numbers: i 2 = 1.
11.8. Supply the details that lead to (11.15).
11.9. Produce an animation of the unbalanced ball of Section 11.5.
112
Appendix A
Maple basics
This appendix provides a very terse summary of the basic features of MAPLE that you will
need to solve this books problems. For details you should consult MAPLEs User Manual
(about 350 pages) and Programming Guide (about 650 pages) which you may download
from
http://www.maplesoft.com/documentation_center/
That page provides documentation for the latest version of MAPLE. You will find the
documentation of earlier versions in
http://www.maplesoft.com/products/maple/
history/documentation.aspx
I have broken the long URL into two lines so that it fits between the margins of this book.
You will enter those two lines as a single line in your browser.
A.1 Configuring Maple

Maples user interface is quite customizable. Unfortunately its default settings are less
than desirable. In fact, in my opinion they are so awful as to make Maple almost unusable.
Fortunately you may adjust those settings by following the simple instructions in:
http://userpages.umbc.edu/~rostamia/2009-01-math481/
configuring-maple.html
(Again, I have broken the long URL into two lines to fit). The screenshots there were
produced a few years ago, using an early version of MAPLE, therefore they may not correspond exactly to what you will see on your version. Nevertheless, you should have no
trouble in interpreting what needs to be done.
A.2 The execution group

The MAPLE prompt which looks like > on the screen, starts what is called an execution
group. You may enter one or more MAPLE commands at the execution group, ending
each command with a semicolon, then hit Enter to execute those commands at once.
Here is an example of a single command in an execution group:
113
114
Appendix A. Maple basics
> 3 + 4;
(1)
and here is an example of two commands in an execution group:

> expand((x+1)^2);
int(%, x=0..1);
x 2 + 2x + 1
7
3
(2)
The % character seen above, called a ditto operator, picks up the result of the previous
command.
As we see in the examples shown above, Maple attaches a label to the final computed
result in execution groups. You may refer to that result through its label. See the description of the CtrlL key in the next section.
A.3 Maple key bindings

CtrlL pops up a dialog window in which you enter the label produced in a prior execution group. The label entered here stands for the result of that execution group.
CtrlK and CtrlJ insert a fresh execution group above or below, respectively, of the
current execution group.
CtrlDelete deletes the current execution group.
ShiftEnter breaks a line, enabling you to format your input, as in
> expand((x^2+1)^2);
1/%;
int(%, x=-1..1);
x 4 + 2x 2 + 1
(3)
1
x 4 + 2x 2 + 1
(4)
1
+
2 4
(5)
A.4 Expression sequences, lists, and sets

An expression sequence is a comma-separated collection of MAPLE objects. For instance,
each of the following commands produces an expression sequence containing three objects:
> 1, 2, 3;
1, 2, 3
(6)
The following expression sequence consists of two equations and one fraction:
> x = a + b, y = cos(t), 3/4;
x = a + b , y = cos(t ),
3
4
(7)
A.5. Selecting and removing subsets
115
A list is an expression sequence enclosed in square brackets. For instance, [a,b,c] is

the list associated with the expression sequence a,b,c. To see the distinction between the
two, consider a function f of three variables, and a function g of one variable. These may
be invoked as f (a, b , c) and g ( p). Note, however, that g (a, b , c) is illegal, since
g cannot

be invoked with more than one argument. On the other hand, g [a, b , c] is legal, since
the brackets encapsulate the expression sequence a, b , c into a single object, that is, the list
[a, b , c].
The order of the objects in a list is essential. The lists [a, b ] and [b , a] are not the
same. To wit:
> is([a,b] = [b,a]);
false
(8)
A set is an expression sequence enclosed in curly braces. The order of the entries in
a set is immaterial. Moreover, in accordance with the mathematical definition of a set,
{b , a, a, b } is the same as {a, b }:
> is({b,a,a,b} = {a,b});
true
(9)
Sets may be combined through the union and intersection operations, as in

> { a, b, c } union { c, d, e };
{a, b , c, d , e}
> { a, b, c } intersect { c, d, e };
{c}
(10)
(11)
To pick element i of a list or a set A, we use the selection operation A[i]. For instance:
> A := [ a, b, c ];
> B := { a, b, c };
> A[2];
(12)
(13)
> B[2];
Specifying an empty bracket in a selection operation produces the expression sequence

that makes up the list or the set. Thus, with A and B as above, we get:
> A[];
a, b , c
(14)
a, b , c
(15)
> B[];
A.5 Selecting and removing subsets

Consider the set
> S := { a, b, x = a^2 + b^2, y = a^2 - b^2 };
S := {a, b , x = a 2 + b 2 , y = a 2 b 2 }
(16)
Two elements of S are equations, the other two are not. Suppose we wish to pick the
subset S consisting of equations. We do
> select(type, S, equation);
{x = a 2 + b 2 , y = a 2 b 2 }
(17)
116
To select the subset of S consisting of everything other than equations, we do

> remove(type, S, equation);
{a, b }
(18)
A.6 Solving equations symbolically

The solve() function solves algebraic equations or systems of equations. It attempts to
obtain a solution in symbolic form and gives up if no symbolic solution can be found. In
its most basic form, solve() takes two arguments. The first argument is an equation,
or a set, or a list of equations. The second argument is the unknown, or a set, or a list of
unknowns. For example:
> solve(a*x^2 + b*x + c = 0, x);
p
p
1 b + 4ac + b 2
1 b + 4ac + b 2
,
2
a
2
a
> solve( {a[1]*x + b[1]*y = c[1],
a[2]*x + b[2]*y = c[2]}, {x, y});
n
b c b2 c 1
a c a2 c1 o
x = 1 2
, y= 1 2
a1 b2 a2 b1
a1 b2 a2 b1
(19)
(20)
Remark A.1. If the right-hand side of an equation is zero, then the = 0 is optional.
Thus, the first of two commands entered above may have been entered as
> solve(a*x^2 + b*x + c, x);
p
p
1 b + 4ac + b 2
1 b + 4ac + b 2
,
(21)
2
a
2
a
If the equation is entered by hand, then there is no great savings in omitting the zero. The
value of this convention becomes apparent when solving machine-generated equations,
or systems of equations, where only the left-hand sides are present, and the zeros of the
right-hand sides are implicitly assumed.
A.7 Solving equations numerically

We are often faced with equations which do not have explicit symbolic solutions. In those
cases we turn to numerical approximation of their solutions. For instance, the transcendental equation
3(x + 1)e x 1 = 0
has two solutions, as is evident in its graph:
> plot(3*(x+1)*exp(-x)-1, x=-1..4, view=[-1.5..4, -1..2.5]);
A.8. The eval() function
117
The function fsolve() is MAPLEs numeric equation solver. It is used just like
solve():
> fsolve(3*(x+1)*exp(-x)-1, x);
0.8587727590
(22)
We see that it picked one of the two solutions in this case. To pick the other one, we
specify a range in which to search for it:
> fsolve(3*(x+1)*exp(-x)-1, x=2..3);
2.289281415
(23)
Remark A.2. In the two invocations of fsolve() above, I have omitted the = 0 from
the equations right-hand side, as this is permissible according to Remark A.1 in the previou section.
A.8 The eval() function

The eval() function plays several diverse roles in MAPLE. The one feature of eval()
that we need for our purposes is to evaluate an expression with given values. For instance
> eval(x^2 + x + 1, [x = 1]);
3

This is equivalent to the usual mathematical notation (x 2 + x + 1)
Multiple substitutions are allowed. E.g.:
> eval(ax^2 + bx + c, [a=1, b=2, c=1]);
x 2 + 2x + 1
(24)
x=1
(25)
A very common use of eval() is the following. Consider the solution of the linear
system given under MAPLE output (20) in Section A.6. To extract the solutions y value,
we do:
> Y := eval(y, (20));
Y :=
a1 c2 a2 c1
a1 b2 a2 b1
(26)
Remark A.3. The second argument of eval() may be given as a list [...] or as a set
{...}. They have similar effects, but in the case of a list, the arguments are substituted
in order, from left to right, while in the case of a set, the order of substitution may vary.
A.9 Expressions and functions

In MAPLE, as in customary mathematics, we distinguish between a function and the result
of the application of that function. In calculus we write, for instance, f : R R indicates
a function f , while f (x) indicates the result of applying f to x. In casual mathematical
discussion we mix the two concepts, by referring, for instance, to the function x 2 which
is a short way of saying the function whose application to x produces x 2 . A computer
algebra system such as MAPLE does no permit such a loose talk. As far as MAPLE is
concerned, if f : R R defined through f (x) = x 2 , then f is a function while x 2 is an
expression, and the two shall not to be confused.
In MAPLE a function is defined like this:
118
> f := x -> x^2;
Then it may be used as
f := x x 2
(27)
25
(28)
(a + b )2
(29)
> f(5);
> f(a+b);
A.10 Vectors and Matrices

A row vector with entries a, b , c is produced by
> < a | b | c >;
[a
c]
(30)
while a column vector is produced by

> < a, b, c >;

a
b
c
(31)
A matrix may be constructed as column vector whose entries are row vectors, as in
> < < a[1,1] | a[1,2] | a[1,3]
a[2,1] | a[2,2] | a[2,3]
a11 a12
a21 a22
>,
> >;
a13
a23
(32)
Equivalently, that matrix may be constructed as row vector whose entries are column
vectors, as in
> < < a[1,1], a[2,1] > | <
| <
a11
a21
a[1,2], a[2,2] >

a[1,3], a[2,3] > >;
a12 a13
a22 a23
(33)
The transpose of a vector or a matrix is constructed through the %T superscript, as in

> u := < a | b >;
u := [a
b]
(34)
> u^%T;

a
b
(35)
Multiplication between two vectors, or two matrices, or a vector and a matrix, is done
through the dot operator. For instance,
> A := < < a[1,1] | a[1,2] >, < a[2,1] | a[2,2] > >;
a11 a12
a21 a22
> X := < x[1] , x[2] >;

x1
x2
(36)
(37)
A.11. Differentiation
119
> X^%T . X;
x12 + x22
(38)
> A . X;
a11 x1 + a12 x2
a21 x1 + a22 x2
(39)
Example A.1. The position vector of a particle is a vector that extends from a point of reference to the particle. The motion of the particle is tracked by a time-dependent position
vector. For instance, the position of a simple pendulums bob may be given as
> r := phi -> < sin(phi), cos(phi) >;
r := sin(), cos()
(40)
where phi is the angle that the pendulum makes with the downward pointing vertical.
The bobs position at any time is given by
> r(phi(t));

sin (t )
cos (t )
(41)
A.11 Differentiation
Differentiation, ordinary or partial, is performed through the diff() function:
> diff(a*x^2 + b*x + c, x);
2ax + b
> diff(x^2 + y^2, x);
2x
(42)
(43)
Higher order derivatives are produced by extending diff()s arguments, as seen below:
> diff(x^7, x, x);
42x 5
(44)
210x 4
(45)
2
g (x, y)
x2
(46)
2
g (x, y)
y x
(47)
> diff(x^7, x, x, x);

> diff(g(x,y), x, x);
> diff(g(x,y), x, y);
The D operator offers an alternative syntax for computing derivatives. For instance,
if f (x) = x 2 , then
> D(f)(x);
2x
(48)
10
(49)
> D(f)(5);
A frequent use of the D operator is in specifying initial conditions for differential equations of second order and higher. For instance, the initial condition x(0) = a is entered as
D(x)(0)=a. See subsection A.12.1 for an example.
120
Remark A.4. The diff() function is designed to differentiate scalar quantities. To

differentiate a vector, we use diff~(). For instance, the velocity vector of Example A.1s
position vector r(phi(t)) is obtained by
> v := diff~(r(phi(t)), t);
d
(t )
cos (t )
dt
d
sin (t )
(t )
dt
(50)
Remark A.5. If the particles mass in the previous remark is m, then its kinetic energy is
1
mkvk2 :
2
> 1/2 * m * v^%T . v;
2
2
2 d
2 d
1
1
m cos (t )
(t ) + m sin (t )
(t )
2
dt
2
dt
(51)
The result may be simplified through the application of MAPLEs simplify() command:
> simplify((51));
2
d
1
m
(t )
2
dt
(52)
A.12 Solving differential equations

The dsolve() function solves differential equations or systems of differential equations.
The equations may be linear or nonlinear. By default, dsolve() attempts a symbolic
solution. Numeric solutions may be obtained by supplying extra arguments.
A.12.1 Solving differential equations symbolically

Here are a couple of example of dsolve() in symbolic mode:
> de1 := diff(y(t),t) + a*y(t) = 0;
d
y(t ) + ay(t ) = 0
de1 :=
dt
> dsolve(de1, y(t));
y(t ) = _C 1 e a t
> de2 := diff(y(t),t,t) + omega^2*y(t) = 0;
d2
de2 :=
y(t ) + 2 y(t ) = 0
dt2
> dsolve(de2, y(t));
y(t ) = _C 1 sin(t ) + _C 2 cos(t )
> de_sys := diff(x(t),t) + x(t) = y(t),
diff(y(t),t) + y(t) = x(t);
d
d
de_sys :=
x(t ) + x(t ) = y(t ),
y(t ) + y(t ) = x(t )
dt
dt
> dsolve({de_sys}, {x(t),y(t)});
x(t ) = _C 1 + _C 2e 2t , y(t ) = _C 1 _C 2e 2t
(53)
(54)
(55)
(56)
(57)
(58)
A.13. Plotting
121
Arbitrary constants that enter general solutions of differential equations appear as _C 1,

_C 2, etc. Underscores guard against a potential conflict between user-defined versus
MAPLE-supplied symbols.
To solve initial value problems, include the initial values in dsolve()s first argument:
> dsolve({de1, y(0)=b}, y(t));
y(t ) = b e a t
> dsolve({de2, y(0)=a, D(y)(0)=b}, y(t));
b sin(t )
+ a cos(t )
y(t ) =
> dsolve({de_sys, x(0)=5, y(0)=7}, {x(t), y(t)});

x(t ) = 6 e 2t , y(t ) = 6 + e 2t
(59)
(60)
(61)
A.12.2 Solving differential equations numerically

MAPLE offers a plethora of methods for calculating and displaying numerical solution
of differential equations. Here I present the one method which is most useful for our
purposes, through solving the differential equation, and plotting the solution of, the Van
der Pol oscillator. Note the use of eval() from Section A.8 to extract the parts x(t ) and
d x/d t from the list returned by dsolve().
> vdp := diff(x(t),t,t) - (1-x(t)^2)*diff(x(t),t) + x(t) = 0;

d
d2
(62)
x(t ) + x(t ) = 0
x(t ) 1 x(t )2
dt2
dt
> tmax := 10;
tmax := 10
(63)
> dsol := dsolve({vdp, x(0)=2, D(x)(0)=-2},
numeric, output=listprocedure, range=0..10);
h
dsol := t = proc(t ) . . . endproc, x(t ) = proc(t ) . . . endproc,
i
d
x(t ) = proc(t ) . . . endproc
(64)
dt
> my_x := eval(x(t), dsol);
my_x := proc(t ) . . . endproc
(65)
> my_dx := eval(diff(x(t),t), dsol);
my_dx := proc(t ) . . . endproc
(66)
> plot(my_x(t), t=0..tmax, labels=[t,x(t)]);
> plot(my_dx(t), t=0..tmax, labels=[t,dx(t)/dt]);
> plot([my_x(t), my_dx(t), t=0..tmax], labels=[x(t), dx(t)/dt]);
The plot(...) commands in the final three lines produce the graphs of x versus t ,
d x/d t versus t , and d x/d t versus x, shown side by side in Figure A.1. The details of
MAPLEs plotting functions are given in Section A.13.
A.13 Plotting
A.13.1 Plotting a single function
The plot() function provides the basic two-dimensional plotting services.
> plot(x^2, x=-1..1, labels=[x, y]);
122
Figure A.1: The graphs of x versus t , d x/d t versus t , and d x/d t versus x, of a solution
of the Van der Pol oscillator.
A.13.2 Plotting multiple function together

If plot()s first argument is a list of expressions, then their graphs are plotted all together
in one coordinate system, and in varying colors:
> plot([x^2, 1-x^2, 0.4*exp(x)], x=-1..1, labels=[x,y]);
A.13.3 Parametric plot

A parametric plot, such as x(t ), y(t ) , a t b
[x(t), y(t), t=a..b]. The following example plots a cycloid:
is specified as
> plot([t - sin(t), 1 - cos(t), t=0..2*Pi],

scaling=constrained, labels=[x,y], color=red,
tickmarks=[piticks,default], view=[0..7, 0..2.5]);
The scaling=constrained option seen above, requests a graph with a 1:1 aspect
ratio, that is, the unit lengths are equal along the horizontal and vertical axes. Addi-
A.13. Plotting
123
tionally, the command above shows the effects of the (self-explanatory) tickmarks and
view options.
A.13.4 Plotting points and more

More specialized plotting constructs are delegated to the plots package which you will
load with with(plots) in order to access them. The pointplot() function in that
package is designed to plot points on the plane, and optionally, connect them with straight
lines. Here is an example of its usage, along with a few options which modify its behavior:
> with(plots):
> pointplot([ [0,0], [1,3], [2,1], [3,2], [4,2] ],
symbol=solidcircle, symbolsize=30, color=blue,
labels=[x,y]);
p1 := %:
The last execution group consists of two commands. The first produces the plot. The
second assigns the name p1 to that plot. We may access the plot later on in the worksheet
by referring to its name. If you dont expect to be referring to the plot, then there is no
need to name it.
The connect=true option connects the consecutive points with straight line segments, and thus produces a piecewise linear curve. The point symbols themselves are not
plotted in that case.
> pointplot([ [0,0], [1,3], [2,1], [3,2], [4,2] ],
symbol=solidcircle, symbolsize=30, color=red,
labels=[x,y], connect=true);
p2 := %:
A.13.5 Overlaying multiple plots

To superpose the two or more graphs, use the display() function, which is defined in
the plots package. For instance, the plots p1 and p2 produced above may be superposed
124
to produce a composite graph:

> display([p1,p2]);
A.13.6 Reflecting a plot

The plottools package provides several additional plotting tools. Among these are
functions to plot ellipses, polygons, as well as three-dimensional solids. It also provides
functions for transforming plots, such as scaling, translating, rotating, and reflecting.
To illustrate some of the plottools functionality, let us make an ellipse:
> myellipse := ellipse([0,2],1,2, filled=true, color=pink):
This produces a plot structure of an ellipse; it does not plot the ellipse by itself. To see the
ellipse, apply display() to the plot structure:
> display(myellipse, scaling=constrained);
Now, suppose that we wish to reflect the ellipse about the line that connects the points
(0, 5) and (3, 0). The following sequence of commands plots the points, the line that connects them, the ellipse, the reflected ellipse, and then applies display() to display all
four objects together in one diagram:
> display([
pointplot([[0,5], [3,0]], symbol=solidcircle,
symbolsize=20, color=blue),
pointplot([[0,5], [3,0]], connect=true, color=gray),
myellipse,
reflect(myellipse, [[0,5], [3,0]])
], scaling=constrained);
A.14. The EulerLagrange equations
125
A.14 The EulerLagrange equations

MAPLEs EulerLagrange() function, which is defined in the VariationalCalculus
package, produces the EulerLagrange equations the functional
Z
J (x) =
L(t , x(t ), x (t )) d t
subject to x(a) = A and x(b ) = B. Here x may be a scalar- or vector-valued function.

Here is how it is done. First, we load the package:
> with(VariationalCalculus):
If x is scalar-valued, the corresponding EulerLagrange equation is obtained through

> EulerLagrange(L, t, x(t));
If x is vector-valued, with components x1 (t ), x2 (t ), . . . , xn (t ), we do

> EulerLagrange(L, t, [x[1](t),x[2](t),...,x[n](t)]);
In either case, EulerLagrange() returns a set consisting of

n second order differential equations in the n unknowns x1 (t ), x2 (t ), . . . , xn (t ).
zero or more first order differential equations of the type

Fi x1 (t ), x2 (t ), . . . , xn (t ), x1 (t ), x2 (t ), . . . , xn (t ) ,
i = 1, . . . ,
each of which represents a first integral of the problem, and where Ki are arbitrary
constants. A first integral is the result of integrating, if possible, a combination of
the previously noted second order differential equations.
In our application we wont be interested in the first integrals, therefore we remove
them from the set by applying the remove() function described in Section A.5, and thus
leaving only the second order differential equations.
A.15 The animation of a simple pendulum

In this section we will present a complete and self-contained MAPLE worksheet in which
we derive the equation of motion of a simple pendulum through the Lagrangian formulation, solve the resulting differential equation, and produce an animation that depicts the
pendulums motion. All MAPLE functions used in this worksheet have been described
earlier in this chapter.
126
The worksheet begins in Listing A.1 and continues into Listing A.2. The purpose
of the restart command which appears at the top of the worksheet is to unassign all
assigned variables and free the memory that MAPLE has allocated for its work. The command has no effect in a freshly started worksheet but its inclusion at the top of a worksheet
is a good practice. As you experiment with a worksheets contents, you may find it useful
to execute restart to reset MAPLE to its initial state and then start a new set of experiments. Without the restart you will have to exit and restart MAPLE to achieve the
same effect.
Next we load three packages which supply some of the special-purpose functions used
in the rest of the worksheet. Specifically, the VariationalCalculus package supplies the EulerLagrange() function; the plots package supplies the pointplot()
and display() functions; and the plottools package supplies the reflect() functions.
Now I will continue with commenting on the rest of the worksheet. A Line numbers in this context refers to the numerical labels produced by MAPLE which appear
along the right edge of the listing.
Line (1). We define the position vector r() of the pendulums bob as a function of the
deflection angle . The components are in accordance with the Cartesian coordinate system shown in Figure 1.1. In the worksheet I have used a for the length
of the pendulums rod instead of shown in the figure because the symbol is
not available in a MAPLE worksheet.
Lines (2)(5). We compute the velocity vector v, the kinetic energy T , the potential energy V , and finally, the Lagrangian L. Note the [2] in computing V ; it extracts
the second, that is the y, component of the position vector r.
Lines (6)(8). We apply the EulerLagrange() function to produce the differential
equations of motion. The result is a set consisting of a differential equation, and
a first integral. (See section A.14 for explanation.) We apply remove() (see Section A.5) to remove the first integral, and thus are left with a set consisting of a
single equation. Finally, we apply the empty selector [] to the set (see Section A.4)
to produce its contents, and assign it to the variable de.
Lines (9) and (10). We select a set of numerical values for the pendulums parameters,
substitute them in the differential equation, and name the result myde.
Lines (11) and (12). We define the motions initial conditions (0) and (0),
and a variable tmax which sets the upper bound on the time range of interest.
Lines (13) and (14). We apply dsolve() to solve (numerically) the differential equation myde along with the initial conditions ic. Then we extract the (t ) component of the solution and name it myphi.
Continuing on to listing A.2, we plot the function myphi(t ) which was computed in the
preceding listing. As expected, the graph periodic oscillations of the angle.
Next, on Line 15, we evaluate the vector r() with set to myphi(t ). Applying the
eval() is necessary; otherwise the result will contain the undefined symbols g and a in
it.
The next longish block of code beginning with frames := ... produces a sequence of frames which when played quickly in succession, will produce and animation
of the pendulums motion. The definition of frames may look somewhat complex in
A.15. The animation of a simple pendulum
127
Listing A.1: A complete MAPLE session, demonstrating the derivation of the equation
of a simple pendulum, and its numerical solution. The final command
produces a plot (not shown) of the pendulums angle (t ) versus the time t .
> restart;
> with(VariationalCalculus): with(plots): with(plottools):
> r := phi -> < a*sin(phi), a*cos(phi) >;
r := sin(), cos()
(1)
> v := diff~(r(phi(t)), t);
d
cos (t )
(t )
dt
(2)
d
sin (t )
(t )
dt
> T := simplify( 1/2 * m * v^%T . v );
2
d
1
(t )
T := m
(3)
2
dt
> V := -m*g*r(phi(t))[2];

V := m ga cos (t )
(4)
> L := T - V;
2

d
1
(t ) + m ga cos (t )
L := m
(5)
2
dt
> EulerLagrange(L, t, phi(t));
2

d
1
d
m
(t ) a 2 + m ga cos (t ) = K1 (6)
(t ) a 2 ,
m ga sin (t ) m
dt2
2
dt
> remove(type, (6), equation);
2

d
m ga sin (t ) m
(t ) a 2
(7)
dt2
> de := (7)[];
2

d
(t ) a 2
de := m ga sin (t ) m
(8)
dt2
> params := [ m = 1, a = 1, g = 1 ];
params := [m = 1, a = 1, g = 1]
(9)
> myde := eval(de, params);
d2
myde := sin (t )
(10)
(t )
dt2
> ic := phi(0)=Pi/6, D(phi)(0)=0;
1
i c := (0) = , D()(0) = 0
(11)
6
> tmax := 30;
tmax := 30
(12)
> dsol := dsolve({myde, ic}, numeric,
output=listprocedure, range=0..tmax);
h
dsol := t = proc(t ) . . . endproc, (t ) = proc(t ) . . . endproc,
i
d
(t ) = proc(t ) . . . endproc
(13)
dt
> myphi := eval(phi(t), dsol);
myphi := proc(t ) . . . endproc
(14)
...continued in Listing A.2...
128
Listing A.2: Continued from Listing A.1.
> plot(myphi(t), t=0..tmax, tickmarks=[default,piticks],

view=[0..tmax,-Pi/4..Pi/4], labels=[t,phi(t)]);
> myr := eval(r(myphi(t)), params);

sin myphi(t )
myr :=
(15)
cos myphi(t )
> frames :=
seq(
display([
pointplot([ <0,0>, myr ], connect=true, thickness=2),
pointplot(<0,0>, symbol=soliddiamond, symbolsize=30,
color=black),
pointplot(myr, symbol=solidcircle, symbolsize=50,
olor=red)
]),
t=0..tmax, tmax/250):
> reflect(
display([frames], insequence=true, scaling=constrained,
tickmarks=[0,0]),
[[0,0],[1,0]]);
first encounter, but fortunately it is not as complex as it looks. What it really says is that
frames consists of a sequence of 251 plots:
frames := seq( p(t), t=0..tmax, tmax/250):
where each p(t ) represents a drawing of the pendulum at some time t . Each plot p(t )
is a composite, consisting of three subplots overlaid with the help of the display()
command; see subsection A.13.5. The three subplots consist of (a) the pendulums rod
drawn with pointplot() connect=true; (b) a black diamond placed at the origin
A.15. The animation of a simple pendulum
129
as an indicator of the pendulums support; and (c) a red solid circle that represents the
pendulums bob.
The final command, beginning with reflect(... plays the animation. To understand what it does, ignore the reflect part for the moment and look at its argument,
which, in principle, says
display([frames], insequence=true, other options);
This displays the 251 individual frames stored in frames, one at a time in quick succession, and thus plays a movie.
The purpose of applying the reflect() function to frames is to flip the plots relative to the horizontal axis. This is because our pendulum model is derived in a Cartesian
coordinate system where the vertical axis points downward; see Figure 1.1. MAPLE, however, is not aware of this, so without the reflect() it will show the vertical axis in the
standard way, that is pointing upward, and consequently the animation will come out
inverted. See subsection A.13.6 for a description of MAPLEs reflect() function.
Remark A.6. Upon executing the reflect(display[... command, MAPLE will
display the first frame of the animation. To set the animation into motion, click on the
displayed frame. You will observe that animation control buttons, similar to
appears in the worksheets toolbar area. Experiment with the various parts to find out
what they do.
130
Bibliography
[1] Edward A. Desloge, Classical Mechanics, Vol. 1, John Wiley, 1982.
[2] Edward A. Desloge, Classical Mechanics, Vol. 2, John Wiley, 1982.
[3] Stuart S. Antman, The simple pendulum is not so simple, SIAM Rev. 40 (1998), no. 4, 927930.
[4] James Stewart, Multivariable Calculus, Brooks/Cole, 2008.
[5] I. M. Gelfand and S. V. Fomin, Calculus of Variations, Prentice-Hall, 1963.
[6] Heinrich Hertz, The Principles of Mechanics Presented in a New Form (English Translation), translated by D.
E. Jones and J. T. Walley, Macmillan and Co., New York, 1899.
[7] Roy Bowen M. and C.-C. Wang, Introduction to vectors and tensors, Vol. 1, Plenum Press, New York, 1976.
[8] A. I. Lure, Analiticheskaya mekhanika, Gosudarstv. Izdat. Fiz.-Mat. Lit., Moscow, 1961 (Russian).
[9] A. I. Lurie, Analytical mechanics, Foundations of Engineering Mechanics, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 2002.
Translated from the Russian by A. Belyaev.
[10] F. Gantmacher, Lectures on Analytical Mechanics, Foundations of Engineering Mechanics, Mir Publishers,
Moscow, 1975. Translated from the Russian by George Yankovsky.
[11] Edward A. Desloge, The Gibbs-Appell equations of motion, American Journal of Physics 56 (1988), no. 9,
841846.
[12] Simon L. Altmann, Rotations, Quaternions, and Double Groups, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1986.
[13] Andrew J. Hanson, Visualizing Quaternions, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, San Franciso, 2006.
131

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A Guided Tour of

Work and potential energy

A single particle in a conservative force field

The Kapitsa pendulum

An introduction through examples

The moment of inertia tensor

The Gibbs-Appell formulation of dynamics

4. Compute the kinetic energy T =

mi kvi k2 , the potential energy V , and the

5. Form the equations of motion (a system of second order differential equations

1.1 The simple pendulum la Newton

Chapter 1. An introduction through examples

1.2. The simple pendulum la Euler

Upon replacing w with its decomposition w = m g j = (m g cos )e r +(m g sin )e , and

for any prescribed initial condition pair (0) and (0),

1.2 The simple pendulum la Euler

1.3 The simple pendulum la Lagrange

A the kinetic energy T of a point mass m moving with velocity v is T = 2 mkvk2 .

Chapter 1. An introduction through examples

In the case of pendulum we have:

and therefore the equation of motion is

1.4 The double pendulum

r2 = r1 + (2 sin 2 )i + (2 cos 2 )j.

1.4. The double pendulum

Then we find the velocities of the bobs through differentiation:

v2 = v1 + (2 2 cos 2 )i (2 2 sin 2 )j.

Chapter 1. An introduction through examples

variables. In general, if a mechanical systems geometric configuration is specified through

= (m1 + m2 )21 1 + m2 1 2 2 cos(2 1 ),

We conclude that the differential equations of motion are

(m1 + m2 )21 1 + m2 1 2 2 cos(2 1 )

= m2 1 2 1 2 sin(2 1 ) (m1 + m2 ) g sin 1 ,

1.4. A governor mechanism. Figure 1.6 is a schematic drawing of a (simplified) Watt

Chapter 1. An introduction through examples

Figure 1.6: A simplified Watt governor (Exercise 4).

Work and potential energy

Chapter 2. Work and potential energy

Then it follows that

Since this holds for every e, it follows that V (r) = F (r).

Chapter 2. Work and potential energy

Proof. We have F (r) = V (r) therefore

3.1 The principle of conservation of energy

Multiplying this through by the velocity r

which tells us that the quantity

Chapter 3. A single particle in a conservative force field

3.2 The scalar case

where x is scalar, and V is the derivative of a potential V . In addition to the obvious

3.2. The scalar case

Figure 3.1: The dynamics of the equation x + V (x) = 0 is completely determined by

Chapter 3. A single particle in a conservative force field

shown in Figure 3.2.

3.4 The phase portrait of a simple pendulum

Chapter 3. A single particle in a conservative force field

The Kapitsa pendulum

4.1 The inverted pendulum

where is the angle of the rod relative to the vertical, as shown.

4.2 Averaging out the fast oscillations

Chapter 4. The Kapitsa pendulum