MIS:

A management information system (MIS) provides information that organizations require to manage
themselves efficiently and effectively.[1] Management information systems are typically computer
systems used for managing. The five primary components: 1.) Hardware, 2.) Software, 3.) Data
(information for decision making), 4.) Procedures (design,development and documentation), and 5.)
People (individuals, groups, or organizations). Management information systems are distinct from other
information systems because they are used to analyze and facilitate strategic and operational
activities.[2]
Academically, the term is commonly used to refer to the study of how individuals, groups, and
organizations evaluate, design, implement, manage, and utilize systems to generate information to
improve efficiency and effectiveness of decision making, including systems termed decision support
[2]
systems, expert systems, and executive information systems. Most business schools (or colleges of
business administration within universities) have an MIS department, alongside departments
of accounting, finance, management, marketing, and sometimes others, and grant degrees
(at undergrad, masters, and PhD levels) in MIS.

riginally, the term Management Information System "MIS" described applications providing managers with
information about sales, inventories, and other data that would help in managing the enterprise. Over
time, the term broadened to include: decision support systems, resource management and human
resource management, enterprise resource planning (ERP), enterprise performance
management (EPM), supply chain management (SCM), customer relationship
management (CRM), project managementand database retrieval applications.

Enterprise systemsalso known as enterprise resource planning (ERP) systemsprovide integrated

software modules and a unified database that personnel use to plan, manage, and control core
business processes across multiple locations. Modules of ERP systems may include finance,
accounting, marketing, human resources, production, inventory management, and distribution.

Supply chain management (SCM) systems enable more efficient management of the supply chain by
integrating the links in a supply chain. This may include suppliers, manufacturers, wholesalers,
retailers, and final customers.

Customer relationship management (CRM) systems help businesses manage relationships with
potential and current customers and business partners across marketing, sales, and service.

Knowledge management system (KMS) helps organizations facilitate the collection, recording,
organization, retrieval, and dissemination of knowledge. This may include documents, accounting
records, unrecorded procedures, practices, and skills.

Although SQL is free-format, an SQL statement or set of statements is more readable if

indentation and lineation are used. For example:
n each clause in a statement should begin on a new line;
n the beginning of each clause should line up with the beginning of other

clauses;
n if a clause has several parts, they should each appear on a separate line and be indented
under the start of the clause to show the relationship.
Throughout this and the next chapter, we use the following extended form of the Backus
Naur Form (BNF) notation to define SQL statements:
n upper-case letters are used to represent reserved words and must be spelt exactly as
shown;
n lower-case letters are used to represent user-defined words;
n a vertical bar ( ) indicates a choice among alternatives; for example, a b c;
n curly braces indicate a required element; for example, {a};
n square brackets indicate an optional element; for example, [a];
n an ellipsis ( . . . ) is used to indicate optional repetition of an item zero or more times.

Normalization A technique for producing a set of relations with

desirable properties,
given the data requirements of an enterprise.
The purpose of normalization is to identify a suitable set of relations
that support the data
requirements of an enterprise. The characteristics of a suitable set of
relations include the
following:
n the minimal number of attributes necessary to support the data
requirements of the
enterprise;
n attributes with a close logical relationship (described as functional
dependency) are
found in the same relation;

n minimal redundancy with each attribute represented only once with

the important
exception of attributes that form all or part of foreign keys (see Section
3.2.5), which
are essential for the joining of related relations.
Database Design
Normalization is a formal technique that can be used at any stage of
database design.
However, in this section we highlight two main approaches for using
normalization, as
illustrated in Figure 13.1. Approach 1 shows how normalization can be
used as a bottomup
standalone database design technique while Approach 2 shows how
normalization can
be used as a validation technique to check the structure of relations,
which may have been
created using a top-down approach such as ER modeling. No matter
which approach is
used the goal is the same that of creating a set of well-designed
relations that meet the data
requirements of the enterprise.

In artificial intelligence, an expert system is a computer system that emulates the decision-making ability
[1]
of a human expert. Expert systems are designed to solve complex problems by reasoning about
knowledge, represented primarily as IF-THEN rules rather than through conventional procedural
[2]
[3]
code. The first expert systems were created in the 1970s and then proliferated in the 1980s. Expert
[4][5][6][7][8][9]
systems were among the first truly successful forms of AI software.

A Symbolics Lisp Machine: An Early Platform for Expert Systems. Note the unusual "space cadet keyboard".

An expert system is divided into two sub-systems: the inference engine and the knowledge base. The
knowledge base represents facts about the world and rules. The inference engine applies the rules to the
known facts to deduce new facts. Inference engines can also include explanation and debugging
[10]
capabilities.

Advantages of EIS[edit]

Easy for upper-level executives to use, extensive computer experience is not required in operations

Provides timely delivery of company summary information

Information that is provided is better understood

EIS provides timely delivery of information. Management can make decisions promptly.

Improves tracking information

Offers efficiency to decision makers

Disadvantages of EIS[edit]

System dependent

Limited functionality, by design

Information overload for some managers

Benefits hard to quantify

High implementation costs

System may become slow, large, and hard to manage

Need good internal processes for data management

May lead to less reliable and less secure data

An object database (also object-oriented database management system) is a database management

system in which information is represented in the form of objects as used in object-oriented programming.
Object databases are different from relational databases which are table-oriented. Object-relational
databases are a hybrid of both approaches

A relational database is a database that has a collection of tables of data items, all of which is formally
described and organized according to the relational model. Data in a single table represents a relation,
from which the name of the database type comes. In typical solutions, tables may have additionally
defined relationships with each other.
In the relational model, each table schema must identify a column or group of columns, called the primary
key, to uniquely identify each row. A relationship can then be established between each row in the table
and a row in another table by creating a foreign key, a column or group of columns in one table that
points to the primary key of another table. The relational model offers various levels of refinement of table
organization and reorganization called database normalization. (See Normalization below.) The database

management system (DBMS) of a relational database is called an RDBMS, and is the software of a
relational database.

An object database (also object-oriented database management system) is a database management

system in which information is represented in the form of objects as used in object-oriented programming.
Object databases are different from relational databases which are table-oriented. Object-relational
databases are a hybrid of both approaches.

Mandatory features of object-oriented systems

Support for complex objects
A complex object mechanism allows an object to contain attributes that
can themselves be

objects. In other words, the schema of an object is not in first-normalform. Examples of

attributes that can comprise a complex object include lists, bags, and
embedded objects.
Object identity
Every instance in the database has a unique identifier (OID), which is a
property of an object
that distinguishes it from all other objects and remains for the lifetime
of the object. In
object-oriented systems, an object has an existence (identity)
independent of its value.
Encapsulation
Object-oriented models enforce encapsulation and information hiding.
This means, the state
of objects can be manipulated and read only by invoking operations
that are specified within
the type definition and made visible through the public clause.
In an object-oriented database system encapsulation is achieved if only
the operations are
visible to the programmer and both the data and the implementation
are hidden.
Support for types or classes

Type: in an object-oriented system, summarizes the common features

of a set of objects
with the same characteristics. In programming languages types can be
used at
compilation time to check the correctness of programs.
Class: The concept is similar to type but associated with run-time
execution. The term
class refers to a collection of all objects with the same internal structure
(attributes) and
methods. These objects are called instances of the class.
Both of these two features can be used to group similar objects
together, but it is normal
for a system to support either classes or types and not both.
Class or type hierarchies
Any subclass or subtype will inherit attributes and methods from its
superclass or supertype.
Overriding, Overloading and Late Binding
Overloading: A class modifies an existing method, by using the same
name, but with a
different list, or type, of parameters.
Overriding: The implementation of the operation will depend on the
type of the object it is

applied to.
Late binding: The implementation code cannot be referenced until runtime.
Computational Completeness
SQL does not have the full power of a conventional programming
language. Languages such
as Pascal or C are said to be computationally complete because they
can exploit the full
capabilities of a computer. SQL is only relationally complete, that is, it
has the full power of
relational algebra. Whilst any SQL code could be rewritten as a C++
program, not all C++
programs could be rewritten in SQL.

For this reason most relational database applications involve the use of
SQL embedded
within a conventional programming language. The problem with this
approach is that whilst
SQL deals with sets of records, programming languages tend to work on
a record at a time
basis. This difficulty is known as the impedance mismatch. Objectoriented databases

attempt to provide a seamless join between program and database and

hence overcome the
impedance mismatch. To make this possible the data manipulation
language of an
object-oriented database should be computationally complete.

Complex objects & relations

Class hierarchy
No impedance mismatch
No primary keys
One data model
High performance on certain tasks
Less programming effort because of
inheritance, re-use and extensibility of
code
Schema change (creating, updating) is
non trivial, it involves a system wide
recompile.
Lack of agreed upon standard
Lack of universal query language

Lack of Ad-Hoc query

Language dependence: tied to a specific
language
Dont support a lot of concurrent users

Typical Architecture of a Data Warehouse

 OLAP is the dynamic synthesis, analysis, and consolidation of

large volumes of multi-dimensional data.
While OLAP systems can easily answer who? and what?
questions, it is easier ability to answer what if? and why? type
questions that distinguishes them from general-purpose query
tools.