Geophysical Investigations for Engineering Projects, 05-07 February, 2014, CWPRS, Pune

GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATIONS FOR ENGINEERING PROJECTS - AN OVERVIEW

R.S. Ramteke, Joint Director

1.0

INTRODUCTION
The application of geophysical techniques to civil engineering projects dates back to 1930s, when

seismic refraction method was employed for determination of depth to bedrock. What use to Engineering
Geophysics about a decade back, now encompasses a wider field of application and is referred to as
Engineering and environmental Geophysics.

In the field of exploration geophysics engineering and

environmental geophysics has been elevated from the third to the second position to be next to petroleum
geophysics.
Engineering geophysics is concerned with resolution, detail and quantification of specific subsurface
conditions up to a depth of 100m, rather than resort to detection as in exploration of petroleum/oil minerals.
Also, in contrast to exploration geophysics which is undertaken in areas considered most likely to lead to
success, engineering geophysics is often undertaken in areas of considerable difficulty where complete
success may not be possible. Engineering geophysicists therefore play an extra role of public liability
Engineering geophysics plays an important part in engineering design process of diverse projects,
from major dams and nuclear power plants to disposal of toxic and chemical wastes. In the developed
countries such as USA, Japan, Australia and UK they form an essential part of the code of practice. In India,
in certain sectors such as nuclear power plant sites it has already form a part of the code of practice. It is
essential that practicing engineers, geologists and geophysicists know about the utilities and limitations of the
engineering geophysical techniques.
1.1

Objectives
Geophysical surveys are increasingly used because:
i) These are rapid and economic
ii) These supplement direct methods like drilling and trenching
iii) At times they are the only ones which can provide solutions.
It is very essential that in all applications to civil engineering projects the three disciplines, civil

engineering, engineering geophysics and engineering geology be involved Geophysics in itself is incapable

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of quantifying useful civil engineering parameters e.g. bedding and jointing spacing, orientation, roughness,
groundwater conditions local geometry of excavations etc.
2.0

APPLICABILITY OF THE METHODS

Geophysical methods are widely used in petroleum and mineral exploration, however, in the field of

civil engineering applications it has not gained wide acceptance in our country because of its misuse or
ignorance. Many a times the objectives could not be met and the methods have been branded useless.
The choice of the appropriate geophysical technique/ method to detect a given target is controlled by
i) signal penetration
ii) resolution
iii) signal / noise ratio
iv) contrast in physical property
V) the infrastructure available with the institute
The operative physical contrast property of the engineering geophysical methods are given in
Table 1 and some of the applications are given in Table 2.
2.1

Limitations
Geophysical methods can be broadly categorized into two types 1) seismic (i.e. refraction, reflection,

cross hole etc.) 2) potential fields (i.e. gravity, magnetic, electrical, electromagnetic etc.) While the seismic
techniques are theoretically relatively capable of unambiguous solution, the potential field techniques suffer
from inherent ambiguity or non-uniqueness, in the conclusions that can be drawn. The seismic method plays
an extra role in engineering geophysics because it provides information on the engineering properties of rock
and soil.
Geophysical measurements in themselves are unambiguous and precise.

However, in their

interpretation, models of geological structures have to be constructed and there may be a number of models
which could equally fit a given data set. The success in producing a realistic model is dependent on:
i) Ability to interpret the data correctly

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Geophysical Investigations for Engineering Projects, 05-07 February, 2014, CWPRS, Pune

ii) Accessibility to geological and borehole information

iii) Close liaison between geologist, site engineer and geophysicist.
More than one geophysical methods are recommended to be used in solving a particular problem,
because of the ambiguity arising from the results of one method which can often be removed by
consideration of results of the other method.
3.0

GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

3.1

Seismic
Seismic method makes use of the physical property of elasticity of the earth materials and measures

the velocities (compressional as well as shear) of artificially induced seismic waves.

By virtue of the various composition, textures (i.e. grain shape and degree of sorting) porosities and
contained pore fluids, rocks differ in their elastic moduli and densities and hence in their seismic velocities.
The variation of velocities for different earth materials and information on the compressional/ shear wave
velocities of rock layers encountered by seismic survey is important for two reasons 1) for conversion of
seismic wave travel times into depths and 2) it provides an indication of the lithology of rock, or in some
cases the nature of pore fluid contained in it. Typical range of compressional wave velocities are given in
Table III.
The artificial seismic waves are induced in the ground by a seismic source such as a dynamite shot
or a hammer stroke on a steel plate placed on the ground and the velocity of the shock waves that return to
the ground are calculated from data recorded on a seismograph. As the velocity of propagation of seismic
waves is directly related to the elasticity of the soils and rocks. The variation in velocities of shock waves as
calculated are utilized to assess the depth of various sub-surface materials, location of faults and shear zones.
The seismic survey presently used in engineering geophysics falls under three categories 1) seismic
refraction, 2) seismic reflection and 3) uphole and downhole seismic 4) cross-hole seismic.

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Table. 1 Geophysical Surveying Methods

Method

Measured parameter

Seismic reflection

Travel time in msec

Seismic refraction

Travel time in msec

Crosshole seismic

Acoustic

Density and elastic moduli

Travel time of direct

waves in msec

Earth resistance in ohms

Electrical sounding

Earth resistance in ohms

Electrical

in

mill volts
Variation in gravity field

Gravity

in mgal

Density and elastic moduli

Horizontal

field in NanoTeslas

Vertical electrical resistivity

Electrical conductivity

Lateral variation in density

resistivity
natural

Borehole logging

physical
borehole

and

artificial

around

variation

in

magnetic susceptibility

penetrating Variations in electrical

Radar

electrical

resistivity

Variation in the magnetic Lateral

Magnetic
Ground

potential

impedance

(velocity x density)

Electrical profiling

Self potential

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Physical property

volume content of water

Physical

properties

of

materials around a borehole

Geophysical Investigations for Engineering Projects, 05-07 February, 2014, CWPRS, Pune

Table. 2 Engineering Geophysical Applications

Problem

Engineering significance

Method

Fault zone and Fractures

weak zone in tunnel or foundation Seismic-refraction

and

Electrical

may be water bearing or because of resistivity Seismic refraction and

Leakage from tunnels.

Reflection,

Electromagnetic,

magnetic
Buried channels

weak, possibly permeable zone In Seismic

foundation, may be water bearing

Cavity, shafts and Sinkholes

refraction,

gravity,

Electromagnetic, electrical resistivity

weak, possibly water bearing high Magnetic, Gravity, Electromagnetic,

permeability zones, hazardous

Radar, Electrical resistivity, Seismic

reflection

Landslipped mass

Weak,

compressible

foundation Seismic

refraction,

electrical

Unstable at present, hazardous to resistivity Electromagnetic

Construction
Deeply weathered or altered weak zone in tunnel or foundation

Seismic

zone

resistivity

Engineering property of Rock Weak zone in tunnel and foundation

Seismic

and soil

crosshole Seismic

Sand, gravel and clay

Detection

of

Borrow and construction materials

contaminant Environmental

safety

refraction,

refraction,

Electrical

transmission,

Resistivity, Electromagnetic

and Radar, EM, Electrical resistivity

plume

groundwater Pollution

Leakage in Impoundments

Groundwater contamination

Depth to Bedrock

Sitting of engineering structure and Seismic refraction, seismic reflection

Electrical resistivity

development of ports and harbors

Depth and Integrity of piles

Soundness of caisson shaft steel, Seismic refraction and reflection,

quality

of

the

concrete

Piles Crosshole

checking rapidly and economically

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seismic,

nuclear

and

density logging

Geophysical Investigations for Engineering Projects, 05-07 February, 2014, CWPRS, Pune

Seismic methods are used for determining depth to rock, stratigraphy, mapping faults and shear
zones, delineating buried river valleys and evaluating dynamic elastic moduli, determining the depth and
integrity of the piles.
3.1.1

Seismic Refraction
The seismic refraction technique has been used for many years for the determination of depth to

bedrock The method is normally used to locate refracting interfaces( refractors) separating layers of
different seismic velocity, but the method is also applicable in cases where velocity varies smoothly as a
function of depth or laterally. The method is used for layer cake and dipping multi-layer earth having lateral
as well as vertical variation in velocity.

Seismic refraction method is normally carried out using

compressional waves, only in special situations the survey is carried out using shear waves.
The seismic refraction method makes use of ability of layered subsurface materials to bend or refract
seismic waves passing through them in such a way that some of them are returned to the earth surface after
penetrating various strata. The refraction method is extensively used in surveys of subsurface materials and
condition. The method however assumes that the velocities of the different layers are increasing with depth.
Fig.1 shows the geometry of refracted ray paths.

Fig .1 Raypath diagram for critically refracted ray in four layer case.

3.1.2

Seismic Reflection
In seismic reflection surveys the travel times are measured of arrivals reflected from subsurface

interfaces between media of different acoustic impedance ( velocity x density) Reflection surveys are
normally carried out in areas of shallowly dipping sedimentary sequence. In such situations velocity varies
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much more as a function of depth than horizontally. The method has had spectacular success in the search
for petroleum at depths of few kilometers, but is only during the last decade that it has been applied to depths
of the order of 100 m or so which are of interest for groundwater, engineering and mining applications. The
problem peculiar to shallow reflection seismology arise due to 1) change of scale per sec, 2) change in
geological character of the region investigated because of the presence of complex heterogonous weathered
layer. Considering first the change of scale by a factor of 20 ( 4000 to 200 msec), the seismic wavelet is to
be scaled up from 50 Hz to 1000 Hz and a typical geophone separation from 20 m to 1 m.

It is in fact the wavelength that in principle be scaled down by a factor of 20 which can be achieved
without any change of frequency. The desired frequency can therefore be set at nearer 300 than 1000 Hz.
Resolution, and hence the shallower limit to useful data, is at present limited by dominant source frequencies
of approximately 100 Hz. Shallow reflection survey have been recorded with success using 12 channel
signal enhancement seismograph with a 16 lb hammer source and 100 Hz geophones by the optimum
window method and then processing the seismic data using softwares similar to that of oil seismic
reflection. Fig.2 shows the geometry of the reflected ray path.

Fig.2 Geometry of reflected raypath and time distance curve for reflected rays

3.1.3. Uphole and Downhole Seismic

Majority of the site investigations require/have a few boreholes drilled and these can sometimes be
used for uphole or downhole seismic for investigations of the adjacent ground. The technique is especially
applicable especially where the borehole distances are very large. In this case it is possible to investigate
only a cone shaped volume of the rock mass. The rock mass between the hole and the ground can be
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investigated for the presence of cavities, such as tunnels, by making careful measurements of the travel times
and / or amplitudes of seismic energy traveling in the medium.
Table 3. Compressional Velocities in Earth Materials

Material type
Unconsolidated material
dry sand
saturated sand
clay
saturated glacial till
permafrost
Sedimentary rocks
sandstones
limestone
dolomites
salt
anhydrite
gypsum
Igneous/metamorphic rock
granites
gabbros
ultramafic rock
serpentine
Pore fluids
air
water
ice
petroleum
Other materials
steel
iron
aluminum
concrete

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Compressional wave velocity (km/sec)

0.2 -1.0
1.5- 2.0
1.0- 2.5
1.5 2.5
3.5 4.0
2.0 6.0
2.0 6.0
2.5 6.5
4.5 - 5.0
4.5 6.5
2.0 3.5
5.5 6.0
6.5 7.0
7.5 8.5
5.5 6.5
0.3
1.4 1.5
3.4
1.3 1.4
6.1
5.8
6.6
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Geophysical Investigations for Engineering Projects, 05-07 February, 2014, CWPRS, Pune

3.1.4

Cross hole Seismic

In crosshole seismic studies, seismic waves are generated in one borehole and are recorded in other

borehole drilled in close proximity (typical about 2 to 30 m apart depending on the geological set up).
Seismic waves are generated by lowering a mechanical device or using small explosive charges at a
particular depth and recording the seismic waves with the help of a three component geophone held against
the borehole wall at the same depth. The normal procedure is to generate the seismic waves at one depth and
record them at different depths by lowering the geophone successively, then move the source to the next
depth position and record the arrivals at the previous location points. At the end of the survey we should
have seismic travel time arrivals for multiple source and receiver positions. The data collected can be
inverted using seismic geo-tomography softwares to obtain anomalous zones. Figure 3 is a schematic set up
of crosshole seismic survey. The survey is specially applicable in restricted survey areas where details on the
medium between the boreholes is required, such as at nuclear and

thermal power plant sites, and quarry

areas, piles etc.

Fig.3 Setup of Crosshole Seismic Survey

3.1.5

Single Channel Underwater Reflection Profiling

Single channel reflection profiling is a simple but highly effective method of seismic surveying at

sea or in river and lakes. It represents reflection surveying reduced to its bare essentials. An acoustic source
(i.e. boomer or sparker) is towed behind the boat (Fig.4) and is triggered at fixed firing rate, signals reflected
back from the seabed and sub-bottom reflectors are detected by hydrophone steamer. The outputs of the
individual hydrophones are summed and fed to a single channel recorder through a band pass filter.
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Boomer source provide high energy (100-500 joules) and operate from 200 Hz to 10 KHz
frequencies. Boomer sources have a high resolution (-15 cm) and shallow penetration (-30 m) and are used
in connection with channel dredging, or for high resolution survey of shallow geological features. Sparker
sources operate at higher energy levels (1000 15000 joules) and operate at frequency range of 100 Hz to 5
Hz. Sparker survey therefore represents a versatile tool for moderate resolution (2 m) to deep penetration
(> 1 km).
With advancement in digital signal processing a new technique is developed and is called CHIRP subbottom profiler. Chirp system provides constant resolution with depth and produce high resolution images of
sea bed as well as sub sea bed. This system emits a repeatable swept frequency signal over a frequency
range 500 Hz to 12 KHz. This repeatable waveform can be varied in terms of pulse length, frequency
bandwidth and amplitude. The wide bandwidth ensures minimum thickness of sediment layer that can be
resolved and the range of frequency is selected on the basis of depth of investigation and required lateral and
vertical resolution.

Fig. 4 Set up for single channel seismic survey

3.2

Electrical Resistivity Methods

There are many methods in electrical surveying, some make use of naturally occurring fields while

others require the introduction of artificially generated currents into the ground. Direct current resistivity,
and induced polarization are two surface electrical techniques that are in use for geological engineering
problems. The depth to basement, detection of cavity, the location of clay, sand and gravel, delineation of
salt water intrusion, location of faults are some of the problems to which these techniques have been
successfully applied.
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The common electrode configuration or array used in resistivity surveys are the dipole- dipole, the
pole-dipole, the gradient, the Schlumberger, and the Wenner (Fig.5)

Fig. 5 Common arrays used in resistivity and induced polarization surveys and geometric factors

3.2.1

Direct Current Resistivity Techniques

Direct current resistivity measurements are the most extensively used electrical techniques for

engineering applications. Artificially generated electric currents are introduced into the ground and the
resulting potential differences are measured at the surface. While vertical electrical sounding probes the
vertical variation in layer resistances, electrical profiling is susceptible to lateral variations in resistance at a
constant depth. They are routinely applied to geothermal, mining, coal, groundwater and engineering
applications. Recently they are in use is sensing buried wastes, migration of contaminant plumes and
monitoring leakage in reservoirs.
Current is passed through two current electrodes C1 and C2 and the potential difference is measured
between the electrode P1 and P2 (Fig.6). Potential difference is given by:

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Fig.6 Distribution of current and potential lines for two current electrodes at the surface.

(1)
The resistivity of half space is given by
(2)
I current
V Measured potential difference
K Geometric factor for specific array
Over a homogenous isotropic ground the resistivity calculated by the above equation will be
invariant. Over an inhomogeneous and/or anisotropic earth, the resistivity so calculated will vary with
position and/or direction of the electrode array. The measured values of apparent resistivity for each position
and/or orientation of the electrode array will vary in the latter instance.
3.2.1.1 Vertical Electrical Sounding
Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) is used to detect vertical variations in resistance, and
measurements are usually made with Schlumberger or Wenner electrode array. They are used for ground
water exploration to the largest extent.

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Fig 7 Seven layer interpretation of a Schlumberger vertical soundings

When conducting field soundings with the Schlumberger array, the current electrodes are expanded
six times per decade of distance, starting with a current electrode separation of a few meters, until their
separation reaches 1 km or so. The potential electrodes are kept fixed, at say 0.5m apart, until the voltage
becomes too small, which occurs as the current electrodes get further apart then the potential electrodes are
expanded to say 5 m, and the current electrode separation (AB/2) is expanded again The apparent resistivity
is plotted vs AB/2 When Wenner array is used, all four electrodes are moved as the electrode separation a
is increased six times per decade. Expanding the electrodes in an electrical sounding causes the fraction of
the injected current, that penetrates below a given depth, to increase. A typical seven layered VES curve and
its interpretation is shown in Fig.7.
3.2.1.2 Electrical Profiling
Electrical profiling is used to detect variations in resistance. Profiling is carried out either using
Schlumberger or Wenner or other electrode array depending on the objective of the survey. One of the
common used of the method is for cavity detection
When profiling with an array, the whole array is moved perpendicular to strike along trave3rses
across the area of interest with fixed separation between transmitting electrodes on the one hand and between
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receiving electrodes on the other hand. Figure 8 shows profiles computed for the response of a conductive
buried sphere using three different arrays.
When one of the recognized arrays is used, the anomaly due to the lateral inhomogenetiy is very
much dependent upon the spacing of the array used. Thus, it is customary to perform VES at a few points in
the survey area, in order to ascertain the range of depths of interest. Unless a knowledge of the depth ranges
of the inhomogeneties are known or estimated in advance, then profiling may not yield anomalies, or even
recognizable magnitude.

Fig 8. Resistivity profiles over a buried spheres.

3.2.2

Self Potential
The self potential or Spontaneous Potential (SP) method is based on the surface measurement of

natural potential differences resulting from the electrochemical reactions in the subsurface. Typical SP
anomalies may have amplitude of several hundred millivolts with respect to barren ground. The SP method
is probably used most in the detection of water leakage around dams. The method has also been used for
determining the efficiency of drains, outlet tunnels and buried pipes. SP method has also been used for
detection of underground fire in coal formation. SP measurements are generally taken by using gradient
array (one in which a fixed distance is maintained between two electrodes which moves as a pair) or a total
field array ( one in which the voltage difference is measured with one potential electrode kept fixed and the
other one moved to successive locations). Generally SP anomalies are interpreted qualitatively.
SP has been maligned as a geophysical tool probably because it looks so easy, on paper, to make SP
measurements, but getting reliable field data is not very easy. SP

anomalies can be plagued by noise

problems. The possible source of noise are cultural features, telluric current, changes in topography,
variations in surface resistivity , soil properties, moisture content, temperature etc.
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Electromagnetic reactions can generate SP field. Conductive mineral deposits, electrochemical

concentration cells, and other electrochemical effects, such as variation in soil chemistry , temperature and
moisture content are grouped here. All of these generate SP fields due to chemical differences between
areas.
3.4

GRAVITY AND MAGNETIC METHODS

Gravity and magnetic methods form a part of a family of passive techniques in which active sources

(e.g. dynamite in seismic, current carrying loop in airborne electromagnetic surveys) are not required This
gives them some advantage over the more popular seismic methods in that they can be used in more
localities (e.g. national parks, private lands etc.) as they do not usually interfere with natural habitat and are
therefore ecologically more acceptable. There are however several major limitations which restrict their
utility and consequently their importance in engineering exploration work. Prime among these limitations is
the nonuniqueness inherent in the interpretation of the data. Hence, solutions are limited value without
further constraints from other sources.
3.4.1

Gravity
Most people are familiar with the concept of gravity, irrespective of the truth or otherwise of the

story of the apple falling onto Sir Issac Newtons head. In gravity surveying, subsurface geology is
investigated on the basis of horizontal variation in density of the subsurface rocks produced by either vertical
displacement of homogenous layers or by the inherent lateral inhomogeneties in the earth material
themselves.

A causative body represents a subsurface zone of anomalous mass and causes a localized

perturbation in the gravitational field known as a gravity anomaly.

A gravity meter is used for gravity

survey and since the gravity meter is affected by the mass underneath it, if the rocks are unusually heavy or
light, then the readings will vary accordingly when compared with the readings of the surrounding rocks.
The application of gravity method to the solution of engineering and environmental sciences require a
multiple step process from data acquisition to geologic interpretation. Density ranges for common rock types
are presented in Table 4.
In engineering, the gravity technique is used to study the soundness of bedrock and locate sinkholes,
solution cavities etc. Delineate buried valleys and verify grout injection.
The gravitational attraction between two bodies is described by Newtons law of gravity. In its
simplest form this law refers to the attraction between point masses, i.e. where all the mass of the body is
concentrated at a point.
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In case of two point masses, the force at one mass point towards other mass. Where many point
masses are involved the gravitational field becomes very complicated and the force vector will point in many
different directions at different points in the field. However, at any one particular point there will be only one
direction and magnitude to the vector. For extended bodies where the mass may not to be considered at a
point, the gravitational attraction is determined by integration.
In gravity prospecting the measurements that are made are values of g the acceleration due to
gravity, because all measurements are vertical components.

Table. 4 Bulk Density of Various Rock Types

Material

Bulk density

Porosity

(gm/cc)

(%)

sandstone

2.41 2.25

10.7-11

limestone

2.37 2.75

0.5 -17

shale

2.06 2.42

17-34

granite

2.67

gneiss

2.69

quartz diorite

2.81

quartz- mica schist 2.82

3.4.2

gabbros

2.98

amphibolites

2.99

quartz

2.65

calcite

2.72

anhydrite

2.9

Magnetic
Most people have used magnetic compass and know that the magnetized compass needle points

north-south aligned towards the magnetic poles. The magnetic field of the earth is dipolar (i.e., it has north
and south poles) and has apparently been so far for most of the Earths history. The strength of the earths
magnetic field varies for three main reasons.
i) Secular changes
ii) Diurnal changes
iii) Anomalies in local magnetic field.

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The aim of the magnetic survey is to investigate subsurface geology on the basis of anomalies
resulting from the horizontal variation of the magnetic properties of the underlying rocks. Although most of
the rock-forming minerals are nonmagnetic, certain rock types contain sufficient magnetic minerals to
produce significant magnetic anomalies. Magnetic susceptibility of common rock types are shown in Table
V. Man made ferrous objects also generate magnetic anomalies.
Magnetic surveying enjoy more limited application but is useful in mapping the geometry of
igneous bodies such as dykes, sills and other intrusions and for detecting the presence of disused or
abandoned mine workings, buried metallic drums, and in special circumstances changes in soil type.

Table. 5 Magnetic Susceptibility of Various Rock Type

Rock type
Average susceptibility (x 10cgs units)
dolomite
8
limestone
23
sandstone
32
shale
52
quartz porphyries
2500
granite
2700
rhyolits
3000
gabbros
7200
andesites
13500
basalts
14300
The relationship controlling the attraction between two magnetic point poles is similar to Newtons
law of gravity for two point masses. By an extension of Coulombs law for electrostatic forces, the force
between two point poles S1 and S2 is:
(3)
Again the form of the equation refers to point poles and must be modified for extended bodies. The
Earths dipolar magnetic field by convention points vertically downwards at the North and vertically
upwards at the South Pole. AT the magnetic equator the field is locally horizontal. The Earths gravitational
field is mono-polar with a uniform radial direction at all latitudes. The dipolar nature of the magnetic field
plays a fundamental role in the interpretation of the magnetic data and is one of the most important
differences between gravity and magnetic method. In most magnetic surveys today the measurements made
in the field record changes in the amplitude of the total magnetic field vector. A variety of instruments,
known as magnetometers has been developed to measure such variations in the magnetic field.
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3.5

GROUND PROBING RADAR

Ground Probing Radar (GPR) is a geophysical technique that is gaining importance as a new tool for

shallow geotechnical investigation. GPR relies on the fact that many soils rocks allow the transmission of
Very High Frequency (VHF) radio signals to useful depths. Propagation distance can range from several
meters for clays and silts, to tens of meters for limestone and granites. Application in its use for measuring
the thickness of ice, cavity detection in resistive rocks, detection of rock shear zones, migration of pollutant
plumes investigation of landfill sites are reported in literature.
Variation in the electrical property of soil is usually related to the volume content of water which is
responsible for radar reflection which is sensitive to changes in rock type and water filled or dry fractures.
Velocity and attenuation are the factors that describe the propagation of high frequency radio waves (10
1000 MHz) . These factors depend upon the conductivity properties of the materials. Dielectric constant or
relative permittivity are the terms described at high frequency radio waves (10-1000 MHz) These factors
depend upon the conductivity properties of the materials. Dielectric constant or relative permittivity are the
terms described at high frequency (10 1000 MHz). The displacement (polarization) property dominates the
conductivity property for many geological materials.

The method sends continuous electromagnetic signals, the impulses are partially reflected back by
the subsurface structures ( Fig.9) The reflected radar echoes are picked up by the receiver and plotted as a
continuous two way travel time record, as a pseudo geological section. Table VI below gives the soil
resistivity with the effective depth of radar.
Computer Output

Control Unit
Data

Receiver
Pu

ls e

fle

cte

Laptop Computer

uls

Tr

Re

Re

ls
Pu

dP

ed

cte

uc

fle

Ind

Data and
Commands

Transmitter

an
sm
it t
ed
Pu
ls
e

BED ROCK

Fig 9 Field setup of GPR and its working principle

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Table. 6 Soil resistivity and depth of penetration

Soil Resistivity
(ohm m)
2000
1000
500
250
125
63
30
3.8

Maximum depth of penetration

(m)
30
15
8
4
2.5
1.5
1

BOREHOLE LOGGING
Borehole geophysics is the science of measuring physical properties with the aid of a borehole, and a

geophysical log is a continuous record of the physical properties. There are number of reasons for
determining geophysical well log data. 1) geophysical well log measurements sample a larger volume than
core 2) they provide chemical and physical properties where core is missing, 3) they are continuous
throughout the length of the borehole, while sample analysis are discrete. Borehole geophysical
measurements can be divided into three classes 1) conventional, 2) unconventional and 3) surface
geophysical measurements.
Geophysical well log measurements may record naturally occurring physical phenomena, or they
may use an artificial physical source to perturb the medium and measure the response to the perturbation.
Examples of these physical properties are given in Table. 7.

Table.7 Some Physical Properties Commonly Measured With The aid of a Borhole

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Natutal Physical
Property Measurement

Artificial Physical
Property Measurement

Radioactivity
Earths fields : gravity
magnetic
electromagnetic
Spontaneous potential

Resistivity
Induced polarization
Acoustic velocity
Density
Magnetic susceptibility

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Geophysical Investigations for Engineering Projects, 05-07 February, 2014, CWPRS, Pune

4.0

CONCLUSION
Geophysical methods applied to solving engineering and environmental problems are time and cost

effective. For the methods to be useful they must not be used always in isolation, a combination of the
different methods is recommended.

Documentation of their use in environmental and geotechnical

applications in the available literature requires considerable effort, and is worth the time spent.
The basic principles of the different methods of field survey and the methods of data processing are
well advanced. Interpretation of the resulting data is the trick of the trade and needs sufficient experience
and good knowledge of geology, geophysics and computers.
5.0

REFERENCES

Dobrin, M.B. 1976, Introduction to Geophysical Prospecting (3rd edition), McGraw Hill
Griffiths, D.H., King R.F. 1981, Applied geophysics for Geologists and Engineers (2nd edition), Pergamon
Press.
Kearey, P.,Brooks, M.,1984, An introduction to Geophysical Exploration, Blackwell Scientific Publication.
Parasnis, D.S., 1979, Principles of Applied Geophysics (3rd edition), Chapman and Hall.
Robinson E.S, Curoh, C.,1988, Basic Exploration Geophysics., John Wiley and Sons
Telford, W.M., Geldart., L.P., Sheriff, R.E., Keys, D.A.m 1976, Applied geophysics, Cambridge University
Press publication.
Ramteke R.S., Venugopal K., Krishnaiah C., Ghosh N., Panvalkar G.A.,Akut P.V., Shirke.J.M., 2002,
Reservoir competency, assessment by integrated geophysical investigations a case study,

Journal of

Geophysics , V.XXIII., No.2, 51-58

Ramteke R.S., Venugopal K.,Ghosh N.,Krishnaiah C,Panvalkar G.A., Vaidya, S.D. 2001, Remote sensing
and surface geophysical techniques in the exploration of ground water at Usha Ispat Ltd, Sindhudurg District,
Maharashtra, Journal Indian Geophysical Union v.,5 , November 1 , 41-50
Ramteke R.S., Ghosh N., Subba Rao Ch., Satpute M.S.,1999, Seismic refraction survey of the
Yeshwantsagar reservoir embankments for augmentation of water supply to Indore., M.P., Journal of
Geophysics v.20,3,117-122.
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