ABSTRACT

This paper presents the position control of a DC servo motor using discrete
electronic component built around the ever familiar LM741 operational amplifier.
Servo systems are generally controlled by conventional Proportional Integral
Derivative (PID) controllers. PID controller is a feed-back loop unit in the
industries control. The controller receives the command, subtracts it with the actual
value to create a difference. This difference is then used to calculate a new input
value which allows the data of system to achieve or maintain at the reference
value. Our design focuses on low cost semiconductor component which makes it
direct in its approach. Here a feedback loop built around an operational amplifier
maintains the system stability as well as controlling the position of the motors.

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Preamble
A servomechanism, sometimes shortened to servo, is an automatic device that uses
error-sensing negative feedback to correct the performance of a mechanism.
The term correctly applies only to systems where the feedback or error-correction
signals help control mechanical position, speed or other parameters. For example,
an automotive power window control is not a servomechanism, as there is no
automatic feedback that controls positionthe operator does this by observation.
By contrast a car's cruise control uses closed loop feedback, which classifies it as a
servomechanism.

This chapter will provide information basic to understanding servo systems and
their components.

The Open-Loop Control System is controlled directly, and only by an input

signal. It has no feedback and is therefore less accurate than the closed-loop
control system. The open-loop system usually requires an operator to control the
speed and direction of movement of the output.

The Closed-Loop Control System is the most common type used in the Navy. It
can respond and move loads quickly and with greater accuracy than the open-loop
system. The closed-loop system has an automatic feedback system that informs the
input that the desired movement has taken place.

The Servo System is classified as a closed- loop system when it is capable of:
Accepting an order and defining the desired result, evaluating present
conditions.
Comparing the desired result with present conditions and obtaining a
difference or an error signal.

 Issuing a correcting order, and changing the existing conditions to the

desired result, and Obeying the correcting order.

The Basic Servo System is normally made up of electromechanical parts, and

consists of a synchro-control system, servo amplifier, servo motor, and some form
of feedback.

The Position Servo has the goal of controlling the position of the load. In the ac
position servo system, the amplitude and phase of the ac error signal determine the
amount and direction the load will be driven.

In the dc position servo system, the amplitude and polarity of the dc error signal
are used to determine the amount and direction the load will be driven.

The Velocity Servo is based on the same principle of error-signal generation as the
position servo, except that the VELOCITY of the output is sensed rather than
position of the load. When the velocity loop is at correspondence, an error signal is
still present, and the load is moving at the desired velocity.

The Acceleration Servo is similar to the velocity and position servos except that
the acceleration of the load is being sensed rather than the position or velocity. In
this loop, the tachometer of the velocity loop is replaced with an accelerometer.

Purpose of Servomechanism:
Accurate control of motion without the need for human attendants
(automatic control),

 Maintenance of accuracy with mechanical load variations, changes in the

environment,

power

supply

fluctuations,

and

aging

and

deterioration of components (regulation and self- calibration),

Control of a high-power load from a low-power command signal (power
amplification) and,
Control of an output from a remotely located input, without the use of
mechanical linkages.
Applications
Servomechanisms are useful to control motion without human attendants, or to
maintain the accuracy of an environment like a power plant, and to control action
from a remote isolated station. The controller typically uses (and has) much less
power than that of what is being controlled. Almost always it is the position or
velocity which is being controlled.

Servomechanisms are used to control mechanical things such as motors, steering

mechanisms, and robots. Servomechanisms are used extensively in robotics. A
robot controller can tell a servomechanism to move in certain ways that depend on
the inputs from sensors. Multiple servomechanisms, when interconnected and
controlled by a sophisticated computer, can do complex tasks such as cook a meal.
A set of servomechanisms, including associated circuits and hardware, and
6

intended for a specific task, constitutes a servo system. Servo systems do precise,
often repetitive, mechanical chores. A computer can control a servo system made
up of many servomechanisms. For example, an unmanned robotic warplane (also
known as a drone) can be programmed to take off, fly a mission, return, and land.
Servo systems can be programmed to do assembly-line work and other tasks that
involve repetitive movement, precision, and endurance.

A servo robot is a robot whose movement is programmed into a computer. The

robot follows the instructions given by the program, and carries out precise
motions on that basis. Servo robots can be categorized according to the way they
move. In continuous-path motion, the robot mechanism can stop anywhere along
its path. In point-to-point motion, it can stop only at specific points in its path.
Servo robots can be easily programmed and reprogrammed. This might be done by
exchanging diskettes, by manual data entry, or by more exotic methods such as a
teach box. When a robot arm must perform repetitive, precise, complex motions,
the movements can be entered into the robot controllers memory. Then,when the
memory is accessed, the robot arm goes through all the appropriate movements. A
teach box is a device that detects and memorizes motions or processes for later
recall.

The constant speed control system of a DC motor is a servomechanism that

monitors any variations in the motors speed so that it can quickly and
automatically return the speed to its correct value. Servomechanisms are also used
for the control systems of guided missiles, aircraft, and manufacturing.

The power steering system in an automobile is an example of a servomechanism.

The direction of the front wheels is controlled by the angle of the steering wheel.
Should the motion of the car turn the front wheels away from the desired direction,
the servomechanism, consisting of a mechanical and hydraulic system,
automatically brings the wheels back to the desired direction. Another example of
a servomechanism is the automatic control system by which a THERMOSTAT,
(q.v.) in one of the rooms of a house controls the heat output of the heating
furnace. Other examples include automatic pilots used on ships, aircraft, and space
vehicles, in which the direction of motion of the vehicle is controlled by a compass
setting. Unmanned spacecraft are automatically turned to point their cameras, radio
antennae, and solar panels in the desired directions by servomechanisms. The input
in that case is the sensing of the direction of the sun and stars, and the output is the
control of small jets that turn and orient the spacecraft.

A common type of servo provides position control. Servos are commonly electrical
or partially electronic in nature, using an electric motor as the primary means of
creating mechanical force. Other types of servos use hydraulics, pneumatics, or
magnetic principles. Usually, servos operate on the principle of negative feedback,
where the control input is compared to the actual position of the mechanical system
as measured by some sort of transducer at the output. Any difference between the
actual and wanted values (an error signal) is amplified and used to drive the
system in the direction necessary to reduce or eliminate the error. An entire science
known as control theory has been developed on this type of system.

Servomechanisms were first used in military fire-control and marine navigation

equipment. They were also used in military applications, such as an antiaircraft
gun that tracks a plane via radar. As the plane moves the radar gives the planes
position information to the gun, which computes the new position of the plane and
realigns. This process can go indefinitely. Some other applications are satellite
tracking and satellite antenna alignment systems, automatic machine tools, startracking systems on telescopes (since the stars position changes as the earth
rotates), and navigation systems.

Another device commonly referred to as a servo is used in automobiles to amplify

the steering or braking force applied by the driver. However, these devices are not
true servos, but rather mechanical amplifiers.

Today servomechanisms are used in automatic machine tools, satellite-tracking

antennas, and remote control airplanes, automatic navigation systems on boats and
planes, and antiaircraft-gun control systems. Other examples are fly-by-wire
systems in aircraft which use servos to actuate the aircrafts control surfaces, and
radio-controlled models which use RC servos for the same purpose. Many
autofocus cameras also use a servomechanism to accurately move the lens, and
thus adjust the focus. A modern hard disk drive has a magnetic servo system with
sub-micrometre positioning accuracy.

THE PID CONTROLLER

What basic components are needed for a servo system? Many look similar to the
circuit below. The error amp gives you a constant reality check. How? It compares
where you want to go, Vset, with where you're at now, Vsensor, by calculating the
difference between the two, Verr = Vset - Vsensor. The PID controller takes this
error and determines the drive voltage applied to the process in an attempt to bring
Vset = Vsensor or Verr = 0.
10

The terms defined: P -Proportional, I - Integral, D - Derivative. These terms

describe three basic mathematical functions applied to the error signal, Verror =
Vset - Vsensor. This error represents the difference between where you want to go
(Vset), and where you're actually at (Vsensor). The controller performs the PID
mathematical functions on the error and applies their sum to a process (motor,
heater, etc.) So simple, yet so powerful! If tuned correctly, the signal Vsensor
should move closer to Vset.

Tuning a system means adjusting three multipliers Kp, Ki and Kd adding in

various amounts of these functions to get the system to behave the way you want.
The table below summarizes the PID terms and their effect on a control system.

11

Math
Term

Effect on Control System

Function

Typically the main drive in a control loop, KP

KP x Verror

Proportional

reduces a large part of the overall error.

Reduces the final error in a system. Summing

KI x Verror even a small error over time produces a drive

Integral

dt

signal large enough to move the system

toward a smaller error.
Counteracts the KP and KI terms when the

KD x dVerror output changes quickly. This helps reduce

Derivative

/ dt

overshoot and ringing. It has no effect on

final error.

ERROR AMPLIFIER. A classic circuit for calculating the error is a summing op

amp. In the controller, XOP1 performs the error calculation. Remembering that the
summing amp is an inverting amp, we calculate its output using R1 = R2 = R3 =
10 k.

12

Verr=-(Vset/R1+Vsensor/R2) R3
=(Vset+Vsensor) (10k/10k)
= - (Vset + Vsensor )
But how does the summer calculate a difference? Well, it does require that your
sensor circuit produce a negative output voltage. Assuming that Vsensor is the
negative of the actual sensor voltage Vsensor = - Vsens, you get the difference.
Verr = -( Vset - Vsens )
You can look at the error amp's function this way. When Vsensor is exactly the
negative of Vset, the currents through R1 and R2, equal and opposite, cancel each
other as they enter the op amps's summing junction. You end up with zero current
through R3 and of course 0V, or zero error, at the output. Any difference between
Vset and -Vsensor, results in an error voltage at the output that the PID controller
can act upon.

13

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW

History
James Watt's steam engine governor is generally considered the first powered
feedback system. The windmill fantail is an earlier example of automatic control,
but since it does not have an amplifier or gain, it is not usually considered a
servomechanism.
The first feedback position control device was the ship steering engine, used to
position the rudder of large ships based on the position of the ship's wheel. This
technology was first used on the SS Great Eastern in 1866. Steam steering engines
had the characteristics of a modern servomechanism: an input, an output, an error
signal, and a means for amplifying the error signal used for negative feedback to
drive the error towards zero. The Ragonnet power reverse mechanism was a
general purpose air or steam-powered servo amplifier for linear motion patented in
1909.
Electrical servomechanisms were used as early as 1888 in Elisha Gray's
Telautograph.
Electrical servomechanisms require a power amplifier. World War II saw the
development of electrical fire-control servomechanisms, using an amplidyne as the
14

power amplifier. Vacuum tube amplifiers were used in the UNISERVO tape drive
for the UNIVAC I computer. The Royal Navy began experimenting with Remote
Power Control (RPC) on HMS Champion in 1928 and began using RPC to control
searchlights in the early 1930s. During WW2 RPC was used to control gun mounts
and gun directors.
Modern servomechanisms use solid state power amplifiers, usually built from
MOSFET or thyristor devices. Small servos may use power transistors.
The origin of the word is believed to come from the French "Le Servomoteur" or
the slavemotor, first used by J. J. L. Farcot in 1868 to describe hydraulic and steam
engines for use in ship steering.

The simplest kind of servo use bangbang control. More complex control systems
use proportional control, PID control, and state space control, which are studied in
modern control theory.

Although control systems of various types date back to antiquity, a more formal
analysis of the field began with a dynamics analysis of the centrifugal governor,
conducted by the physicist James Clerk Maxwell in 1868, entitled On Governors.
This described and analyzed the phenomenon of "hunting", in which lags in the
system may lead to overcompensation and unstable behavior. This generated a
15

flurry of interest in the topic, during which Maxwell's classmate, Edward John
Routh, abstracted Maxwell's results for the general class of linear systems.
Independently, Adolf Hurwitz analyzed system stability using differential
equations in 1877, resulting in what is now known as the RouthHurwitz theorem.
A notable application of dynamic control was in the area of manned flight. The
Wright brothers made their first successful test flights on December 17, 1903 and
were distinguished by their ability to control their flights for substantial periods
(more so than the ability to produce lift from an airfoil, which was known).
Continuous, reliable control of the airplane was necessary for flights lasting longer
than a few seconds.

By World War II, control theory was an important part of fire-control systems,
guidance systems and electronics. Sometimes mechanical methods are used to
improve the stability of systems. For example, ship stabilizers are fins mounted
beneath the waterline and emerging laterally. In contemporary vessels, they may be
gyroscopically controlled active fins, which have the capacity to change their angle
of attack to counteract roll caused by wind or waves acting on the ship.
The Sidewinder missile uses small control surfaces placed at the rear of the missile
with spinning disks on their outer surfaces; these are known as rollerons. Airflow
over the disks spins them to a high speed. If the missile starts to roll, the
16

gyroscopic force of the disks drives the control surface into the airflow, cancelling
the motion. Thus, the Sidewinder team replaced a potentially complex control
system with a simple mechanical solution.

The Space Race also depended on accurate spacecraft control, and control theory
has also seen an increasing use in fields such as economics.

17

CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
RESEARCH METHOD
Basically, research on this project was done both on the internet and on various
Electrical/Electronic textbooks. The circuit is built around discrete electronics
components including resistors, capacitors, transistors and as the microcontroller as
the core.

COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION

RESISTOR
Resistors are one of the most common components in an electronic circuit. The
basic operation is to limit the flow of current in the circuit. Many resistor values
were used in this project. Some of them include 1K, 10k, 100 and the 330
used to limit the current that flows to the seven segment display.
How to read Resistor Color Codes

Fig 3.1 Resistor color code

First find the tolerance band, it will typically be gold (5%) and sometimes silver
(10%). Starting from the other end, identify the first band - write down the number
18

associated with that color; in this case Brown is 1. Now 'read' the next color, here it
is Black so write down a '0' next to the six. (You should have '10' so far.) Now read
the third or 'multiplier exponent' band and write down that as the number of zeros.
In this example it is two so we get '1000'. If the 'multiplier exponent' band is Black
(for zero) don't write any zeros down.

If the 'multiplier exponent' band is Gold move the decimal point one to the left. If
the 'multiplier exponent' band is Silver move the decimal point two places to the
left. If the resistor has one more band past the tolerance band it is a quality band.

BS 1852 Coding for resistor values

The letter R is used for Ohms and K for Kohms M for Megohms and placed where
the decimal point would go.

At the end is a letter that represents tolerance Where M=20%, K=10%, J=5%,
G=2%, and F=1% D=.5% C=.25 B=.1%

CAPACITOR
Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits
because it takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth
varying DC supplies by acting as a reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter
circuits because capacitors easily pass AC (changing) signals but they block DC
(constant) signals. There are many types of capacitor but they can be split into two
groups, polarized and unpolarised. Each group has its own circuit symbol.

Electrolytic Capacitors

19

Fig 1.5 Electrolytic Capacitors

Electrolytic capacitors are polarized and they must be connected the correct way
round, at least one of their leads will be marked + or -. They are not damaged by
heat when soldering.

There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors; axial where the leads are attached
to each end (220F in picture) and radial where both leads are at the same end
(10F in picture). Radial capacitors tend to be a little smaller and they stand
upright on the circuit board. It is easy to find the value of electrolytic capacitors
because they are clearly printed with their capacitance and voltage rating. The
voltage rating can be quite low (6V for example) and it should always be checked
when selecting an electrolytic capacitor.

Non-polarized capacitors

Small value capacitors are non-polarized and may be connected either way round.
They are not damaged by heat when soldering, except for one unusual type
(polystyrene). They have high voltage ratings of at least 50V, usually 250V or so.
It can be difficult to find the values of these small capacitors because there are
many types of them and several different labeling systems!
20

Many small value capacitors have their value printed but without a multiplier, so
you need to use experience to work out what the multiplier should be.

TRANSISTORS
Transistors are made from semiconductors. These are materials, such as silicon or
germanium, that are doped (have minute amounts of foreign elements added) so
that either an abundance or a lack of free electrons exists. In the former case, the
semiconductor is called n-type, and in the latter case, p-type. By combining n-type
and p-type materials, a diode can be produced. When this diode is connected to a
battery so that the p-type material is positive and the n-type negative, electrons are
repelled from the negative battery terminal and pass unimpeded to the p-region,
which lacks electrons. With battery reversed, the electrons arriving in the pmaterial can pass only with difficulty to the n-material, which is already filled with
free electrons, and the current is almost zero.

The bipolar transistor was invented in 1948 as a replacement for the triode vacuum
tube. It consists of three layers of doped material, forming two p-n (bipolar)
junctions with configurations of p-n-p or n-p-n. One junction is connected to a
battery so as to allow current flow (forward bias), and the other junction has a
battery connected in the opposite direction (reverse bias). If the current in the
forward-biased junction is varied by the addition of a signal, the current in the
reverse-biased junction of the transistor will vary accordingly. The principle can be
used to construct amplifiers in which a small signal applied to the forward-biased
junction causes a large change in current in the reverse-biased junction.
Another type of transistor is the field-effect transistor (FET). Such a transistor
operates on the principle of repulsion or attraction of charges due to a
superimposed electric field. Amplification of current is accomplished in a manner
21

similar to the grid control of a vacuum tube. Field-effect transistors operate more
efficiently than bipolar types, because a large signal can be controlled by a very
small amount of energy.

Transistors function majorly as switch or amplifiers. To function as a switch, the

transistor has to be biased into saturation i.e. the base voltage exceeds 0.7v for
silicon type and 0.3v for germanium type. On the other hand, the base voltage can
be varied continually by an input signal for the transistor to function as an
amplifier. The transistors in this circuit are all Field Effect Transistors (FET) and
they function as high speed switches.

DIODE
This is an electronic device that allows the passage of current in only one direction.
The first such devices were vacuum-tube diodes, consisting of an evacuated glass
or steel envelope containing two electrodesa cathode and an anode. Because
electrons can flow in only one direction, from cathode to anode, the vacuum-tube
diode could be used as a rectifier. The diodes most commonly used in electronic
circuits today are semiconductor diodes. The simplest of these, the germanium
point-contact diode, dates from the early days of radio, when the received radio
signal was detected by means of a germanium crystal and a fine, pointed wire that
rested on it. In modern germanium (or silicon) point-contact diodes, the wire and a
tiny crystal plate are mounted inside a small glass tube and connected to two wires
that are fused into the ends of the tube.

22

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
An operational amplifier (op-amp) is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage
amplifier with a differential input and, usually, a single-ended output. In this
configuration, an op-amp produces an output potential (relative to circuit ground)
that is typically hundreds of thousands of times larger than the potential difference
between its input terminals.
Operational amplifiers had their origins in analog computers, where they were used
to do mathematical operations in many linear, non-linear and frequency-dependent
circuits. Characteristics of a circuit using an op-amp are set by external
components with little dependence on temperature changes or manufacturing
variations in the op-amp itself, which makes op-amps popular building blocks for
circuit design.

Op-amps are among the most widely used electronic devices today, being used in a
vast array of consumer, industrial, and scientific devices. Many standard IC opamps cost only a few cents in moderate production volume. Op-amps may be
packaged as components, or used as elements of more complex integrated circuits.
The op-amp is one type of differential amplifier. Other types of differential
amplifier include the fully differential amplifier (similar to the op-amp, but with
two outputs), the instrumentation amplifier (usually built from three op-amps), the
23

isolation amplifier (similar to the instrumentation amplifier, but with tolerance to

common-mode voltages that would destroy an ordinary op-amp), and negative
feedback amplifier (usually built from one or more op-amps and a resistive
feedback network).
HOW IT WORKS
Generically, the word servo is short for servomechanism, which refers to any selfregulating feedback system. A servo is usually an active element used in feedback
in order to null or reduce an amplifier's offset voltage.
A Servo is a small device that has an output shaft which can be positioned to
specific angular positions by sending the servo a coded signal. As long as the
coded signal exists on the input line, the servo will maintain the angular position of
the shaft. As the coded signal changes, the angular position of the shaft changes. In
practice, servos are used in radio controlled airplanes to position control surfaces
like the elevators and rudders. They are also used in radio controlled cars, puppets,
and of course, robots. The servo motor has some control circuits and a
potentiometer (a variable resistor, aka pot) that is connected to the output shaft. In
the circuit above, the pot can be seen on the right side of the circuit board. This pot
allows the control circuitry to monitor the current angle of the servo motor. If the
shaft is at the correct angle, then the motor shuts off. If the circuit finds that the
angle is not correct, it will turn the motor the correct direction until the angle is
24

correct. The output shaft of the servo is capable of travelling somewhere around
180 degrees. Usually, its somewhere in the 210 degree range, but it varies by
manufacturer. A normal servo is used to control an angular motion of between 0
and 180degrees. A normal servo is mechanically not capable of turning any farther
due to a mechanical stop built on to the main output gear. The amount of power
applied to the motor is proportional to the distance it needs to travel. So, if the
shaft needs to turn a large distance, the motor will run at full speed. If it needs to
turn only a small amount, the motor will run at a slower speed. This is called
proportional control. How do you communicate the angle at which the servo
should turn? The control wire is used to communicate the angle. The angle is
determined by the duration of a pulse that is applied to the control wire. This is
called Pulse Coded Modulation. The servo expects to see a pulse every 20
milliseconds (.02 seconds) the length of the pulse will determine how far the motor
turns. A 1.5 millisecond pulse, for example, will make the motor turn to the 90
degree position (often called the neutral position) if the pulse is shorter than 1.5ms,
then the motor will turn the shaft to closer to 0 degrees. If the pulse is longer than
1.5ms, the Servo motors are used in closed loop control systems in which work is
the control variable. The servo motor controller directs operation of the servo
motor by sending velocity command signals to the amplifier, which drives the
servo motor. An integral feedback device (resolver) or devices (encoder and
25

tachometer) are either incorporated within the servo motor or are remotely
mounted, often on the load itself. These provide the servo motor's position and
velocity feedback that the controller compares to its programmed motion profile
and uses to alter its velocity signal. Servo motors feature a motion profile, which is
a set of instructions programmed into the controller that defines the servo motor
operation in terms of time, position, and velocity. The ability of the servo motor to
adjust to differences between the motion profile and feedback signals depends
greatly upon the type of controls and servo motors used.

26

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