ArcInfo 9

Using ArcGIS Desktop

Copyright 2006 ESRI

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Contents
1 Introduction

ArcGIS Desktop quick tour.............................2

ArcGIS Cornerstones ..................................52

The ArcGIS Desktop framework...................15

Getting help..................................................57

2 Geographic Data Management 63

GIS data concepts........................................64

Ensuring spatial data integrity....................113

An overview of geographic data

management................................................75

Ensuring attribute data integrity..................119

Finding and connecting to data....................85

Previewing data and maps...........................87
Searching for data and maps.......................90
Organizing your data with ArcCatalog..........93
Documenting your database
with metadata...............................................97
Creating a geodatabase.............................102

Building relationships
between features and tables......................124
Managing raster datasets
in a geodatabase........................................130
Adding specialized datasets
to a geodatabase........................................134
Maximizing the performance
of your database.........................................146

Creating feature classes and tables...........107

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3 Data Compilation and Editing 151

An overview of data compilation
and editing..................................................152

Adding and editing attribute data................201

Collecting, importing, and converting

GIS data.....................................................160

Creating and editing dimensions................218

Assigning locations using

street addresses or routes..........................165

Checking your data for errors.....................230

Starting and managing an edit session......172

Creating and modifying features................176
Editing connected features.........................181
Creating features from a printed
or scanned map..........................................190

4 Mapping and Visualization

Creating and editing annotation.................207

Editing routes and geometric networks......222

Defining coordinate systems
and projecting datasets..............................237
Adjusting and integrating datasets.............240
Editing multiuser and distributed
geodatabases.............................................248

263

An overview of mapping
and visualization.........................................264

Labeling features........................................300

Adding data to a map.................................273

Creating a map layout................................309

Working with layers....................................277

Adding and arranging map elements.........313

Setting the map extent and scale...............279

Creating a graph.........................................318

Identifying and locating features.................283

Creating a report........................................321

Symbolizing data........................................288
Using attributes to symbolize features.......292

Creating relief maps

and perspective views................................325

Saving and reusing symbol definitions.......296

Creating dynamic views and animations....328

Creating and storing custom symbols........298

Creating a time series animation................333

Drawing graphics on a map........................305

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5 Geographic Analysis

339

An overview of analysis
in ArcGIS Desktop......................................340

Creating paths and corridors......................386

Working with tabular data...........................348

Modeling flow.............................................395

Adding fields
and calculating attribute values..................352

Creating raster surfaces.............................398

Joining tables.............................................355
Selecting a subset of features....................360
Working with a selected set........................365
Extracting a portion of a dataset.................369
Overlaying geographic datasets.................373

Allocating areas to centers.........................391

Creating a TIN surface...............................402

Deriving data from an elevation surface.....404
Calculating surface volume........................409
Analyzing visibility......................................412
Analyzing spatial distributions....................416
Identifying patterns and clusters.................419

Measuring distances between features......379

Calculating distance over a surface...........383

Additional Resources for Learning

and Using ArcGIS Desktop.........................423
Index...........................................................427


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Introduction

ArcGIS Desktop lets you perform the full range of GIS tasksfrom
geodatabase design and management to data editing, from map query to
cartographic production and sophisticated geographic visualization and analysis.
It is where the core work of GIS occurs. This book gives you an overview of the
ArcGIS Desktop system and shows you how to access the basic functions of the
software.
This chapter introduces ArcMap, ArcCatalog, and ArcToolboxthe
basic framework of ArcGIS Desktopincluding the structure of each, the
functions each performs, and how theyre used together. It also provides insight
into the underlying design concepts of ArcGIS, and describes where to get help.
Chapters 2 through 5 get you started with the specific tasks youll perform as
you use ArcGIS. Theyre organized around the major functional areas of the
software. Each chapter contains an overview and then describes common tasks.
The book covers the functions most people will use, plus a number of
specialized tasks that you may need for specific applications. It illustrates the
various tasks you can perform, shows where to access them in the user interface,
and shows how to get started with a particular task using basic or default
settings.
The tasks presented here, plus many additional tasks and functions, are
described in detail in the Desktop Help system (discussed at the end of this
chapter).
In addition to providing an overview of ArcGIS Desktop, this book can be used
as a quick reference to the interface and to common tasks. The book includes
functions available in ArcInfothe full-function ArcGIS Desktop productas
well as in the ArcView and ArcEditor products (these products are described
later in this chapter, as well as in the book What is ArcGIS 9.2?).

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

ArcGIS Desktop quick tour

Most of your GIS work will revolve around maps, so exploring a map is a good way
to start getting familiar with the software. The following brief tour introduces the two
main integrated ArcGIS Desktop applicationsArcMap and ArcCatalogalong with
ArcToolbox. Youll see what they look like and get a sense of what they do.

ArcMap is the application youll use to make maps, edit data, and display the results of your
analysis. ArcCatalog is the application youll use to search for, preview, and manage your
geographic data. Its also used to build GIS databases. Youll use the tools in ArcToolbox for
processing geographic databoth to create databases and to perform geographic analysis.
(The next section, The ArcGIS Desktop framework, describes ArcMap, ArcCatalog, and
ArcToolbox in more detail, and introduces the ArcGIS Desktop extension products.)

ArcGIS uses a standard Windows interface, for the most partmany buttons will be
familiar, and many menu options are found where youd expect them to be (Open, Save, and
Print are found on the File menu, Copy and Paste are on the Edit menu).

To begin the tour, select the ArcGIS program group from the Start menu, and select
ArcMap. When prompted, click the option to open An existing map, select Browse for maps
from the list, and click OK. Browse to the Using_ArcGIS_Desktop folder under the tutorial
data distributed with ArcGIS Desktop (the default location is C:\ArcGIS\ArcTutor). Select
MexicoPopulationDensity.mxd and click Open.

What youre looking at is a map layout view of the population density of Mexico (in 1990).
Each state is color-coded based on the number of people per square mile. The rulers along
the top and side of the view show you the size of the map were you to print itin this case
8.5 x 11 inches. The map displayed on the screen is not a static image of a map (as a printed
map would be), but rather is interactiveyou can change the data that is displayed, change
its appearance, change the scale of the map by zooming in or out, and more.

Before continuing, if others in your organization will be running through this tour, make a
copy of the map. Click the File menu and click Save As. Give the copy a different name
this is the map youll be working with.

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1 Introduction

The table of contents on the left side of the ArcMap window controls which map themes,
or layers, are displayed on the map (right now the boxes all have check marks in them
indicating all the layers are displayed). Layers higher in the table of contents are displayed
on top of lower ones. Click the check box for Rivers to turn it off so its easier to see
population density.

Uncheck this box

to turn off the layer

The display window (the right-hand panel) is currently showing a layout view. Layout view
is where you can see what a map will look like when its printed. Its also where you add
map elements, such as legends, scalebars, titles, and text, and create the map layout.

The map is missing a north arrow. Click North Arrow on the Insert menu, select a north
arrow from the panel that appears, and click OK.

Select a north arrow from

the palette....

....and click OK

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

The north arrow appears on the map, surrounded by a boxdrag it above the legend at the
left side of the map.

To print the map, click Print on the File menu. To make sure the whole map fits on the page
click Scale Map to fit Printer Paper. You may also need to click Setup to change the printer
paper orientation to landscape.

Drag the north arrow here

Click here

Click here

and click here

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1 Introduction

While layout view lets you add and arrange map elements in preparation for printing, much
of the initial work with a mapsuch as which layers you display, and which color schemes
and symbols you chooseis done more efficiently in data view. Data view lets you focus
exclusively on the map bodythe geographic data.

To switch to data view, click Data View on the View menu.

Switch to Data View

Now the geographic features fill the screen and the map elements no longer appear.
However, you can see that the data content from the layout view is all here. If you go back
to layout view, all the map elements will still be present.

Suppose you want to emphasize the country boundary. In the table of contents, right-click
Mexico Bnd to display the context menu for that layer (this menu gives you options for
working with the layer) and click Properties. The Layer Properties dialog box gives you
options for how the layer is displayed.

Right-click....

....and click Properties

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

Click the Symbology tab, and click the button showing the current symbol. The Symbol
Selector dialog box appearsthis is where you set and modify the symbols you use to draw
features, such as line colors and widths, area fills, and so on. Set the outline width to 2, then
click Outline Color and pick a color that is easier to see, such as a dark red or brown.

Click here to display the

Symbol Selector dialog box....

....set the width to 2....

....then click here to display
the color palette

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1 Introduction

It would be helpful to show major roads on the map, but theyre not in the table of
contentsyou have to find the roads dataset and add it to the map. If you knew exactly
what the dataset is called and where it is located on disk, you could use the Add button and
browse to the file. If you need to search, though, use ArcCatalog.
The Add button

The ArcCatalog button

Click the ArcCatalog button (or open ArcCatalog from the ArcGIS program group on the
Start menu). The ArcCatalog window opens.

In the Catalog tree view (the left-hand pane) navigate to Mexico_data under the Using_
ArcGIS_Desktop folder. There are two possibilities listed: click mex_roads and click the
Preview tab. This looks like too many roads to display for a map of the entire country.

....and click the

Preview tab
Click the
mex_roads
dataset....

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

Now preview the other dataset: roads. By clicking the Metadata tab you can view a
description of the dataset. The metadata confirms that this is major roads.

....and click the

Metadata tab

Click the roads

dataset....

To add roads to the map, drag the dataset name from the tree view in ArcCatalog and drop
it anywhere on the map display in ArcMap.

Click and drag the dataset from ArcCatalog....

....to ArcMap

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1 Introduction

When you drag the roads onto the map theyre drawn automatically, using a default
symbol. Click the roads symbol in the ArcMap table of contentsthis is a shortcut to the
Symbol Selector dialog box. Set the line width to 0.1 and pick a color for the line from the
color palette. (The default symbol color is different each time you add a dataset to a map
so if you added roads again they would draw in a different color. Once you save the map,
the symbol specifications are also saved.)

Click to open the

Symbol Selector

Change the
line width
to 0.1

Each layer has an attribute table that contains the descriptive information associated with
each feature. Open the attribute table for the states by right-clicking States in the table of
contents (to open the context menu) and clicking Open Attribute Table.

Right-click....

....and select Open Attribute Table

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

The information in the table can be used to symbolize features (the states are color-coded
on the map based on the values in the population density field). You can also explore and
query the information in the attribute table as you would in a spreadsheet. You could, for
example, get the mean population density for the states, and then find the states having
a density greater than the mean. Scroll the table to the right, if necessary, right-click the
column heading POP90_SQMI (1990 population per square mile), and select Statistics.
Right-click the field name....

....and select
Statistics

The mean density for the states is about 633 people per square mile. Close the statistics box
before going on.

Mean

Use ArcToolbox to find the most densely populated states. Open ArcToolbox by clicking
the Show/Hide ArcToolbox Window button.
The ArcToolbox button

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1 Introduction

ArcToolbox includes a wide variety of data management and analysis tools. Expand the
Data Management Tools toolbox (by clicking the plus sign next to the toolbox), then
expand the Layers and Table Views toolset. Open the Select Layer By Attribute tool by
double-clicking it.

Double-click to open

Use the drop-down arrow to select States as the Layer Name.

Click and select the States layer

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Click the SQL button to open the Query Builder. Create a query to find states having
a density greater than the mean by double-clicking POP90_SQMI in the Fields box,
clicking the greater than (>) button, and typing 633.

Double-click....

....then click >....

....and type 633

Click OK to close the Query Builderyour expression appears in the box on the Select
Layer By Attribute dialog box. When you click OK on the dialog box, a status box appears
telling you the command has been completed (you can close this box) and the states having
a population density greater than the mean of 633 people per square mile are highlighted in
the attribute table.

Many of the tools in ArcToolbox are also available through other parts of the interface.
(In ArcMap, if you click Select by Attributes on the Selection menu or click Options on
the attribute table window and click Select By Attributes, you get a similar query builder
dialog box.) ArcToolbox collects all the tools in one place, and gives you a direct, common
interface for using them.

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1 Introduction

If necessary, click the refresh button on the ArcMap window to see the selected states
highlighted on the map. At this point, you can close the ArcToolbox window and the
attribute table window.

To get a closer look, zoom to the selected states by right-clicking States in the table of
contents, pointing to Selection, and clicking Zoom To Selected Features.

The Refresh button

Right-click....

....click Selection....

....and click Zoom To Selected Features

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The map zooms in to the selected statesthose with a population density greater than the
mean.

When youre done exploring the map, click File and click Exit. When prompted whether to
save changes to this map, click No (unless you made a copy of the map as suggested earlier
and want to save your changes).

The goal of this overview tour was to introduce the core components of ArcGIS Desktop
ArcMap, ArcCatalog, and ArcToolboxand show how they work together. Youll learn
more about each of these in the next sections and in Chapters 2 through 5.

Step-by-step tutorials for learning specific parts of the software are found in the Help
system (in the Getting more help topic under Getting Started). See also Additional
Resources for Learning and Using ArcGIS Desktop at the end of this book.

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1 Introduction

The ArcGIS Desktop framework

ArcGIS Desktop is structured around ArcMap, ArcCatalog, and ArcToolbox. This section
describes each in more detail, and presents the ArcGIS Desktop extension products. Using
these together, you can perform the full range of GIS tasks including geographic data
management, data compilation and editing, mapping and visualization, and geographic
analysis.

ArcMap ArcMap is the central application in ArcGIS Desktop for display and manipulation of
geographic data, including mapping, query and selection, and editing.

ArcMap lets you create and work with map documents. A map document is composed of
data frames, layers, symbols, labels, and graphic objects. ArcMap has two main windows
you use to work with map documents: the table of contents window, and the display
window. The table of contents lets you specify the geographic data that will be drawn in
the display window, and how the data will be drawn. The display window can show either
a data view (just the geographic data) or a layout view (a page showing how the data and
any map elementssuch as legendsare arranged). Youll read more about these windows
later in this section.
Table of Contents

Display Window

Data Frame name

Layer
Symbol
Graphic object

Label

Map documents
A map document is a file stored on disk. When you start ArcMap you either create a new
map document or open an existing one. You add data, change the way the data is displayed,
and create new data while working in the map document. When you save a new map
document, a filename extension of .mxd is appended to the file name. When you reopen the
map document, it looks as it did when you last saved and closed it.

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Data frames

The container in a map document that holds data is called a data frame. You can think of
a data frame as a window onto a patch of the earths surface, scaled down to fit in the
ArcMap display. You display and work with the data in a data frame in ground units, such
as feet, meters, or kilometers.

When you open a new map document, there is one data frame, named Layers. In many
cases, your map will only need a single data frame. Complex maps may require several
data frames. Data frames are both a way of grouping data in a map document and a way
of showing multiple maps on a single layout page. One common use of this is to show
different views of the same area. Another common use is to use one data frame to show a
map of the area of interest and use another data frame to show a reference map of the wider
area. You add data frames to a map document from the Insert menu.

A layout with two data frames showing two different views of the
same area. Both data frames have the same map extent.

A layout with two data frames showing the area of interest and
an inset area reference map. The data frames have different map
extents.

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Layers

Each data frame contains one or more layers that you create by adding datasets to a map
document (a dataset being a file, or set of files, stored on disk containing GIS datathe
basics of GIS data are discussed in Chapter 2, Geographic Data Management). Each
dataset, and hence each layer, contains geographic features of the same typeroads in one
layer, rivers in another, county boundaries in a third, and so on. Layers youve created in a
map document are stored with the document when you save it, and appear when you
reopen the document.

A layer contains information about how to display the dataset, but not the data itself.
Rather, a layer references the underlying dataset wherever it is stored on disk, so ArcMap
doesnt have to store a copy of the data in each map document the dataset is added to. Any
changes to the underlying dataset automatically appear in any of the layers created from the
dataset.

You can create as many layers from the same dataset as you want in a single map
document, in the same or in different data frames. For example, from a dataset of counties
you could create one layer that shows the county boundaries with a thick red line and no fill
color, and another layer showing the counties color-coded by population. You could add the
same counties dataset to another map document to create a layer showing the counties in a
solid green color.

The two layers in the map aboveCounty boundaries and

County populationand the layer in the map to the right
County basewere all created from (and point to) the same
counties dataset.

You can also create layers that contain a subset of geographic features from the dataset (this
is known as a selected set). For example, from a layer of roads, you could select just the
major highways and create a layer showing these. Creating a selected set does not create a
new datasetit only marks the particular features in the underlying dataset as selected.
The layer created from the selected set contains the selection definition, so appears when
you reopen the document.

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A layer in a map document can be saved as a layer file (its named with an extension of
.lyr) that can be added to other map documents. A layer file is essentially a map document
layer that has been saved to disk. As with a layer on a map, a layer file stores the name and
location of the underlying dataset along with the symbol settings for drawing the layer and
the definitions of any selected sets (it doesnt store the GIS data). Unlike adding a dataset
to a map, when you add a layer file to another map document it appears the same as on the
original map document from which it was createdthe features are drawn using the same
symbols, and any selected sets are implemented. (You can, of course, modify the layer once
its added to the new map document.)

You can also export any layer in a map document to create a new dataset. Youd most likely
do this if youve created a selected set of features and want to save only those features
to a new datasetperhaps to send to another ArcGIS user, or to use in analysis. Unlike
a layer file, the new dataset contains the GIS data, but no symbol settings or selected set
definitions.

Layers have an associated attribute table that contains descriptive information (obtained
from the underlying dataset) about the features in the layerfor example, the name of each
park, its size, and which agency maintains it.

Each layer has an associated attribute table that displays descriptive information
about each feature in the layer.

Symbols

To display geographic data and to better communicate the information on the map, graphic
symbols are usedlines, colors, patterns, and so on. Symbols are a set of properties that
get applied to a particular feature or geographic object.

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1 Introduction

You render the features in a layer by assigning symbols, such as blue lines for rivers and a
green color fill for parks. You can also symbolize features based on descriptive information
in the layer attribute table. For example, you could symbolize parcels by assigning a color
to each landuse code: all residential parcels yellow, all commercial parcels red, all vacant
parcels gray.

Landuse can be mapped by assigning a different color symbol to each landuse

categoryparcels are drawn using the color for their assigned landuse value.

When you add data to create a layer, or when you draw a graphic object, a default symbol
is used. You can modify the properties of the default symbol or apply another predefined
symbol from a palette (and then modify it if necessary).
ArcMap includes a
number of styles. You
can access theseand
the symbols they
containwhen youre
making a map or when
youre creating your
own symbols.

You choose symbols from the Symbol Selector

dialog box. You can use a symbol as is, or
modify it. You can add symbols to the palette by
opening additional styles.

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Predefined symbols are stored in styles. A style is a folder that contains other folders, one
for each symbol typeall the line symbols in one folder, all the color symbols in another,
all the marker symbols in a third. Many industries, such as forestry or real estate, use
standard symbols on their maps, so styles are often specific to a particular industry. ArcMap
provides a number of styles for various industries. You can save any symbols you modify
in an existing or new style. You can also create new symbols entirely from scratch and store
them in a style.

You access stylesand the symbols they containvia the

Style Manager.

You can modify any of the existing symbols, or create your own,
using the Symbol Property Editor.

Labels

Labels are used to identify geographic features on your map, such as labeling streets with
their name. There are several ways to create labels in ArcMap:
You can label features with their name or other information from the layer attribute
table by specifying a field in the table. Text labels are placed automatically and cant
be moved or edited individually.
You can create annotation features. Annotation features are usually associated with
individual geographic features and can be placed and edited individually. When you
move a feature, the annotation automatically moves with it. Annotation can also be
stored as a separate dataset and added to different maps.
You can label features using graphic text. Graphic text is placed and edited
individually, but is not linked to features. It is often used to label one feature, or a few.
Graphic text is stored only with the map document in which it was created.

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1 Introduction
Feature labels (street names in this map) are created for each feature. Theyre
placed automatically and cant be edited individually.

Graphic text is used to quickly label individual features. It can also be used to
create labels for general locations not represented by specific features, such as
the civic center area shown on this map.

Graphic objects

Graphic objects, such as circles or boxes, are used to highlight the data thats displayed in
the map document. Graphic objects, along with graphic text, are also used to create map
elements, such as titles, neatlines, legends, scalebars, and north arrows, that describe the
information on your map.

The title, north arrow, scalebar, and legend are all composed of graphic objects,
as is the blue circle on the map.

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The ArcMap interface

The ArcMap interface consists of the two main windowsthe table of contents and display
windowsalong with a number of standard and specialized toolbars and menus.
The table of contents

The table of contents lists the data frames and layers in the map document, and shows you
the current symbols for each layer. Use the check boxes to turn layers on and off. Drag
layers up or down in the table of contents to change the drawing order (layers higher in the
list draw on top).

Click and drag a layer to

change the order.

The table of contents is also where you control how layers are drawn, via context menus
(right-click a layer name to display the menu). You can change the colors and patterns used
to draw features, label features, and more.

The tabs at the bottom of the table of contents window present different views of the layer
list. The Display tab is the default, and is the one youll use when displaying and querying
datait shows a simple list of all the layers, organized by data frame (group layers are used
to manage several layers as a unit). The Source tab is useful when youre editing datait
shows the layers organized by where their underlying dataset is stored (either in a folder
or a geodatabase). It also lets you see other nonlayer data stored with your map, such as
tables not associated with a geographic dataset. The Selection tab gives you an overview of
selected subsets of data that are currently active, and lets you set selectable layers.
Folder

Checked box indicates

layer available for selection

Geodatabase

Bold indicates layer having

a selected subset

Data frame
Layer
Group Layer

The Display tab

The Selection tab

The Source tab

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The display window

The display window displays the layers and graphic objects in the map document. It has
two views that you switch between: data view and layout view.

Data view shows you one data frame at a time, including the currently displayed layers in
that frame, along with any labels or graphic objects drawn inside the data frame. In data
view, the display window is the data framethe layers in the active data frame appear in
the window.

Layout view shows you all the data frames in the map document and their contents on a
layout page along with map elements youve created, such as titles, legends, and scalebars.
In layout view, the data frame is embedded on the pagethe frame itself is treated as a
graphic element, as reflected by the context menu for the data frame on the layout page. It
can be moved, resized, and so on.

Data View

Switch to Layout View from the View menu

Data view is mainly where you do map display, query, and editing. You set the scale and
map extent to control the geographic area thats displayed. You can interactively zoom in
and out and pan the data (you can also set the map scale explicitly, in the scale window).
You work with the contents of the data frame in ground units, such as feet or meters.

Layout view is where you compose page layouts for printing and publishing. You work
with the layout in page unitsusually inches or centimeters. Layout view activates
tools for navigating around the page, for adding standard map elements, such as legends
and scale bars, and for arranging the map data and map elements on the page. Simple
map elements, such as titles and neatlines, are associated with the map page. Other
map elements, such as legends and scalebars, are associated with a data frame and are
dynamicthey change to reflect the layers and the map scale displayed in the data frame.
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When in layout
view, you
can add map
elements from
the Insert menu.

While in layout view you can still work with the data thats displayed in a data frame just
as you do in data viewzoom in and out, pan, turn layers on and off, change symbols, and
even edit the data.

Only one data frame is active at a time. The active data frame appears in bold in the table of
contents. When you add layers to the map theyre added to the active data frame. In layout
view, the active data frame is outlined with a dashed boxyou need to make a data frame
active before you can work with the data in the frame. To make a data frame active, click it
in layout view or right-click the data frame name in the table of contents and select Activate
from the context menu.

Active
data
frame

The active data frame is highlighted in bold in the table of

contents and outlined with a dashed line on the layout page.

Click the data frame on the page to make it

active, or right-click the data frame name and click
Activate.

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1 Introduction
Toolbars and menus

ArcMap has several standard toolbars you use to manage the map document and navigate
the map display. These are displayed when you first open ArcMap. The Tools toolbar
contains tools that let you zoom and pan the geographic data (the data contained in the data
frame). Its active in both data view and layout view. The Layout toolbar contains tools for
navigating the layout pageits active only in layout view.

These tools work with

the data inside the
active data frame
just like in data view

Pan the
data inside
the data
frame

These tools work

with the entire
pagetheyre
activated only in
layout view

Pan the page

in the display
window

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A number of specialized toolbars are used for specific tasks. These are accessed from the
View menu (point to Toolbars).

Additional toolbars are available from the

View menu.

You use context menus in ArcMap to access the setting, properties, and other options for
data frames, layers, and graphic objects (for example, you open a layers attribute table
from the context menu). Right-click a data frame name or layer name in the table of
contents to display the context menu. Right-click a graphic object in the display window to
display its context menu.

Right-click a component to
display the context menu.
Click Properties to display the
properties dialog box.

Properties dialog
box for a map

Properties dialog box for a layer

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1 Introduction

Each context menu includes a Properties option, displayed at the bottom of the menu. By
clicking it youll open a Properties dialog box. Symbols and labels are properties of a layer.
Layers have other properties you can access and modify, using the various tabs on the
properties dialog box (as do data frames and graphic objects). For example, transparency
(on the Display tab) can be used to let layers drawn underneath show through.

Set a transparency level

for the flood zone to reveal
parcels drawn underneath.

ArcMap tasks
ArcMap is used to display geographic data and create maps, interactively query and explore
data, and edit geographic data.
Display data and create maps

To display geographic datasets, youll add layers to and remove layers from the map
document, change symbology and labels, zoom and pan on the map extent, and so on. This
work will be done in data view. When you want to make a map for printing or publication,
youll switch to layout view, add map elements, such as titles and legends, arrange the data
frames and map elements on the page, and then print the map or export it to a standard
graphic format. Displaying data and making maps are discussed in Chapter 4, Mapping
and Visualization.
Query and explore geographic data

A map document can be thought of as an interactive map that lets you not only display
geographic data, but also get information about the features in the document. The Tools
toolbar includes the Identify tool that lets you point to one or more features in the display
window and list the descriptive information (contained in the layer attribute table) for those
features. It also includes the Find tool that lets you find and zoom to specific features or
locations. ArcMap includes several ways to select a subset of featuresyou can point to
one or more features on a map or draw a box around them, you can select features based
on their spatial relationship to other features, such as parcels within 100 feet of a park, or
you can select features using their attributesfor example, you can select all the vacant
parcels in a parcel layer. Query and selection is discussed in Chapter 4, Mapping and
Visualization, and Chapter 5, Geographic Analysis.

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The parcels within 100 feet of a park have been selected and are highlighted in
blue on the map.

Once selected, you can create a layer from the features or you can export the selected
features to a new dataset. ArcMap also includes tools to summarize or get statistics on
attribute values, such as the minimum and maximum parcel sizes. These tools are available
on the layers attribute table.
Edit geographic data

ArcMap is where you create new features in a dataset, or modify the shape or location of
existing features. You also add and edit attributes in tables, and can create editable map text
(annotation). Most of the time the data in the map document is essentially lockedyou can
change its appearance (via layers on a map) but not its shape or position. To delete features
or move a features coordinates, you start an edit session. You open the edit session, specify
the layer to edit, create or modify features, save them, and close the edit session when
youre done. Even though you specify a layer on the map to edit, the edits are made to the
underlying data source. Editing is discussed in Chapter 3, Data Compilation and Editing.

Use the Editor toolbar in ArcMap to start an edit session and

interactively create or modify features.

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1 Introduction

ArcCatalog The ArcCatalog application helps you manage your GIS informationGIS datasets, map

documents, layer files, and much more. GIS data comes in a variety of data formats and file
types. There is also associated descriptive information about the geographic features (stored
in tables) and information about the datasets, such as when the data was collected, when
it was updated, and how accurate it is. Much of this data and information youll compile
from various sources. ArcCatalog was designed to help you organize and manage your
geographic data in all its various forms.

ArcCatalog has two main windows in which you work: the catalog tree view, and the
display window.
Catalog Tree

Display Window

Viewing data in ArcCatalog

ArcCatalog displays folders, databases, and other items for which connections are currently
established. When you open ArcCatalog, connections are automatically established to
folders on your local disk drives. You can add connections to subfolders to make them
easier to access. You can also add connections to databases on shared database servers or
on the internet.

Once a connection to a folder, GIS database, or GIS server is established, you can browse
through its contents with ArcCatalog. You can look for the map you want to print, draw a
dataset, examine the values in a table, and find out which coordinate system a raster uses or
read its metadata document to learn about how it was created.

When you close ArcCatalog, all the current connections are retained and are available the
next time you open ArcCatalog. The connections are also available when browsing for
data in ArcMap and ArcToolboxeven if ArcCatalog isnt currently open. (You can also
establish new connections when browsing for data in ArcMap and ArcToolbox.)

The ArcCatalog interface

The Catalog tree view shows the current connections in ArcCatalog. Add and remove
connections using the Connect and Disconnect buttons. The tree view shows you how
your data is organized in folders and subfolders, and lets you reorganize it. Right-click a
top-layer folder, point to New, and click Folder to create a subfolder. The tree view is also
where you perform basic data management tasks, such as moving, copying, deleting, or
renaming datasets and files.
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Right-click an entry in the tree to copy, delete, or rename it. Drag a tree entry to move the
data to another folder.
Connect

Disconnect

Right-click an
entry to display
the available
options.
Use the New option to
create new Catalog tree
entries.

The display window shows information about the currently selected entry in the catalog
tree view. The information that appears is controlled by the three tabs at the top of the
display window.

The Contents tab displays the contents of a folder or geodatabase as a list, icons, or
thumbnails of the datasets. In this mode, ArcCatalog lets you quickly browse and find
particular datasets.

Use these buttons to switch between content views

The contents of a database shown as a list (above) and as

thumbnails (right).

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1 Introduction

The Preview tab

The Preview tab displays the geographic features or the table for the selected dataset. Use
the drop-down menu at the bottom of the window to select which to display. Preview mode
is useful for perusing datasets before adding them to a map in ArcMap or processing them
using the tools in ArcToolbox. Its also a quick way to view the resulting processed dataset.
(Open ArcMap or ArcToolbox directly from ArcCatalog using the buttons on the toolbar).

Right-click a field name

to sort by that field

Use the drop-down menu

to specify the feature
geography or the attribute
table

The Metadata tab displays the documentation for the currently selected dataset, including
the geographic parameters, the source information and permissions for use, processing
history, attribute value definitions, and so on. You can display the information using one
of several standard metadata formats, or create a custom format. A set of buttons on the
toolbar allows you to create and edit the metadata text.
Select the metadata style

Use these buttons to create and modify metadata text

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Why use ArcCatalog to manage ArcGIS data, and not Windows Explorer?
Unlike other data (a photo or a Word document), geographic datasets often consist of a set
of files, rather than a single file. When listed in Windows Explorer, the datasets appear as
a list of system folders and files. ArcCatalog displays and manages the datasets as single
entities. Accessing them directly in Explorerfor example to delete or copy themor
in another program can corrupt the datasets; use ArcCatalog to delete, copy, rename and
otherwise work with the datasets.

In ArcCatalog the datasets appear as single entities with identifying icons.

In Windows Explorer, the datasets appear as system folders and files.

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1 Introduction

The icons in ArcCatalog show you at a glance what kind of dataset it isfor example,
shapefile, coverage, or layer file. ArcCatalog also lets you preview the data, using
thumbnails. Right-clicking a dataset in the Catalog tree provides additional operations not
available in Windows Explorer, such as Export, and lets you access the datasets properties.

ArcCatalog lets you preview datasets as thumbnails. The Catalog tree shows the
workspace structure and contents.

Using ArcCatalog to compile data

In addition to using ArcCatalog to organize, preview, and document data, you use
ArcCatalog to implement database designs and compile GIS data.

ArcCatalog is where youll import datasets from other GIS formats.

Use ArcCatalog to import datasets.

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ArcCatalog also lets you prepare datasets for editing and updatingyou can set up rules
so that edits to one feature class are reflected in another or that moving one feature moves
associated or connected features; you can also define additional fields before adding
attribute values when editing in ArcMap. You may also use ArcCatalog to assign the spatial
reference for a dataset, so its coordinate system is defined.

Use the Properties dialog box in ArcCatalog (right-click a dataset and click Properties) to
specify the spatial reference for a dataset or add fields to the dataset.

You also use ArcCatalog to create new (empty) datasets before creating the geographic
features themselves in the datasets (by importing or by editing in ArcMap). ArcCatalog lets
you define parameters and rules to ensure data integrity for your database. Right-clicking
an entry in the tree and clicking New displays the appropriate options for creating new
databases or datasets, or for creating rules for the database.

Right-click a Catalog tree entry to begin defining new databases, datasets, or

rules for ensuring data integrity.

Using ArcCatalog to build databases and compile GIS data is discussed in Chapter 2,
Geographic Data Management, and Chapter 3, Data Compilation and Editing.

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1 Introduction

ArcToolbox Much of your GIS work will involve using ArcMap and ArcCatalog to manage, display,

and query geographic data. A good deal of your work will also involve processing
geographic data to create new datasets, known as geoprocessing. Geoprocessing is used
in virtually all phases of GISfor data automation, compilation, and data management;
analysis and modeling; and for advanced cartography.

A typical geoprocessing operation takes one or more input datasets, performs an operation,
and returns the result of the operation as an output dataset. The Union tool, for example,
combines features from separate datasets into a single dataset.
Inputs to Union

Land parcels

Output from Union

Soil types

Land parcels and soil types

There are geoprocessing functions for spatial analysis operations, for converting data from
one format to another, for simple data management operations such as copying datasets,
for data integration operations such as appending map sheets, and many other operations.
These geoprocessing functions are collected as tools in ArcToolbox, grouped by category
in toolboxes and toolsets. Some of these same functions can also be accessed through
toolbars, menus, and dialog boxes in ArcMap and ArcCatalog.

Toolbox
Toolset
Tool

Additional geoprocessing toolsets come with many of the ArcGIS extensions (described
later in this chapter), such as ArcGIS Spatial Analyst, which includes raster modeling tools,
and ArcGIS 3D Analyst, which includes terrain analysis tools. ArcGIS Geostatistical
Analyst adds kriging and surface interpolation tools. When the extensions are installed, the
tools appear as new toolsets in ArcToolbox. Some may also appear in menus or toolbars in
ArcMap or ArcCatalog.

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Opening the Slope tool from

the Surface Toolbox opens a
dialog box that prompts you
for the tool parameters.

The Slope tool can also be run

from a similar dialog box opened
from the Spatial Analyst toolbar.

Not all ArcToolbox tools create new datasets (and thereby perform geoprocessing, strictly
speaking), but all allow you to at least manage or manipulate your data in some manner.
Using ArcToolbox
To open ArcToolbox, click the Show/Hide ArcToolbox Window button on the ArcMap or
ArcCatalog toolbar, or click ArcToolbox in the Window menu. The ArcToolbox window is
initially docked in the ArcMap or ArcCatalog window. You can drag it to dock it along any
edge or have it float as a separate window.
The ArcToolbox button

ArcToolbox
docked in
ArcCatalog

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1 Introduction

When you open ArcToolbox click the plus sign next to a toolbox to see the available
toolsets, and open a toolset to see the individual tools.
You can also browse an alphabetical list or search for a tool by name (click the tabs at the
bottom of the ArcToolbox window). Once you find the tool you want, use Locate to display
the tool in the toolsetthis is useful since you can see related tools in the toolset.

Search for tool in ArcToolbox using the functional list, an alphabetical index, or by searching
for a keyword.

You run a tool from any of the tabs by double-clicking it (or right-clicking and clicking
Open) to display a tool dialog box. The dialog box prompts you for the input data and
output dataset, as well as any required or optional parameters. The required parameters are
indicated by a green dot. Once you enter a valid parameter, the dot disappears. If the input
you enter isnt validfor example, if a dataset you enter doesnt existthe dot turns red.
If youve opened ArcToolbox from ArcMap, you can select the input data from the layers
that are currently displayed on your map, using the drop-down menu on the dialog box. For
optional parameters, ArcGIS often supplies default values, which you can use or change.
Click OK to run the toola Status window shows you the progress of the tool and tells you
whether the process completed successfully.

Running a function from ArcToolbox opens a

dialog box.

When you run the tool, a status window appearsit tells you the progress of the
operation and notifies you when it completes.

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You can run any of the functions that appear as tools in ArcToolbox from a command line.
This is an efficient way to run a function if youre already familiar with ityou type the
function name, the input and output, and the parameters on a single line.

To open the Command Line window, click the button on the ArcMap or ArcCatalog toolbar,
or click Command Line on the Window menu. As with ArcToolbox, the Command Line
window can float or be docked inside the ArcMap or ArcCatalog window.
The Command Line button

Click the Show/Hide Command Line Window button on the ArcMap toolbar; when
you start typing in the window, an alphabetical list of functions is displayed.

You type the command in the upper half of the window. As you type, the command usage
is displayed. Press Enter to run the commandthe status appears in the lower half of the
window.

The command usage and other prompts are displayed as you type.

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1 Introduction

If youre working in ArcMap, results produced from running tools via the dialog box
or command line will be added to your display by default (you can turn this off). In
some cases, the result of a function is simply a chart that appears in its own window or a
statistical value that appears in the status/results window.
Customizing the toolbox
You can create your own toolbox and add tools from other toolboxesfor example, you
might collect tools you use often into one toolbox for easy access. To create a new toolbox,
right-click anywhere in the ArcToolbox window and click New Toolbox. You can create
toolsets inside a toolbox to further organize your tools (right-click the toolbox name, click
New, and click Toolset).

To add a tool, right-click the toolbox or toolset name, click Add, and click Tool. In the
dialog box that appears use the check boxes to specify which existing tools to add.

In addition to adding existing tools to a toolset, you can add your own custom tools from
type libraries, executable programs, and ActiveX controls. Use Add From File on the Add
Tool dialog box.

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Setting the geoprocessing environments

Every tool dialog box has an Environments button. When geoprocessing tools are run,
default environment settings set for the application are applied to all applicable tools.
Examples of environment settings include the current workspace from which to take input
data and place resulting datasets, or the geographic extent to apply to results. These settings
can be changed in the Environment Settings dialog box.

Automating multistep processes

In many instances, the geoprocessing work that must be done is repetitive, involving
a large number of datasets or large datasets with numerous records. In addition, many
geoprocessing tasks involve a multistep processyou use the result of one function as
input to the next. Complex tasks may involve many such operations.

ArcGIS Desktop provides two ways to automate repetitive or multistep geoprocessing:

scripts and models. Scripts are useful for batch processing multiple inputs, such as when
converting multiple datasets to a different format. Models provide a graphic way of
creating and expressing a multistep process or method, such as when performing spatial
analysis.

The scripts and models you create become tools in a toolbox (often a custom toolbox you
create) and are run just like other toolseither through a dialog box or command line, or
embedded in yet other scripts or models.

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1 Introduction
Creating a script

Scripts can be written in any Component Object Model (COM)-compliant scripting

language, such as Python, JScript, or VBScript, or they can be ARC Macro Language
(AML) scripts or executable files. Any of the functions in ArcToolbox can be included
in a script. In fact, to include a function in a script you type it the same way you would if
you were running it interactively in the Command Line windowthe usage is the same.
Functions can be embedded in other script statements including branching and iterative
statements.

Scripts can be run from within their scripting application, or they can be added to a toolbox
and run like any other tool from a dialog box, the command line, a model, or another script.
To add a script, right-click a toolbox or toolset, click Add, and click Script. This opens the
Add Script dialog box, which prompts you for a name for the script and other descriptive
information, as well as the name of the file containing the script. You also specify any
required or optional input parameters.

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When you run the script in ArcToolboxthe same way as with any other toola dialog
box opens that prompts the user for the input and output datasets and any parameters.

Add scripts to toolboxes and run them by supplying values for parameters.

Creating a model

Models are created within a toolbox or toolset in ArcToolboxclick the toolbox or toolset,
click New, and click Model to open the ModelBuilder window.

Many GIS tasksespecially analysis tasksare not individual operations but sequences
where the result of one operation becomes input to the next. While you could run the
individual operations (tools) one at a time, ModelBuilder gives you a way to connect the
operations using a flow diagram and then run all the operations in sequence, at one time.

The basic structure of a model is an input dataset connected to a function producing an

output dataset.

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1 Introduction

Buffer tool

Input streams

Output buffer around

streams

This simple model contains one processthe Buffer tool is

used to create an output of buffer zones that are a certain
distance around the input streams.

You can drag tools from ArcToolbox, and datasets from ArcMap or ArcCatalog, onto a
model and connect these to create an ordered sequence of steps to perform GIS tasks. Use
the buttons to connect datasets to tools, and to automatically align the model elements.
Double-click a tool to open its dialog box and define the parameters (or right-click the tool
and click Open).

To build the model, drag and drop tools from ArcToolbox and datasets from
ArcCatalog onto the ModelBuilder window. Then connect them in sequence.

Connect elements
Align elements

The Run button

Click the Run button to run

the model. A window opens
that displays the status of
each process.

Double-click a
tool in the model
to open its dialog
box, then enter the
parameters.

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

The parameters you defineincluding the domain codes, in this exampleare stored with
the model, so if you want to change them and re-create the domain, you just edit the model
and rerun it. Or, you can copy the model and modify it. Once the model is constructed, you
run it in the ModelBuilder window, or from within ArcToolbox as with any other tool.

Right-click a model in the Catalog tree and click

Edit to display it in the ModelBuilder window
and make changes.

Double-click a tool in the

model to open its dialog
box and display the
current parameters.

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1 Introduction

You can connect multiple inputs, functions, and outputs to create quite complex models.
Models can include scripts, and even other models.

Scripts and models are a good way to save your methods and procedures. A model can be
exported as a graphic file or to a script for additional editing or for sharing with other GIS
users.

You export a model to a script from the Model menu on the

ModelBuilder window.

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ArcGIS Desktop ArcGIS Desktop extensions add specialized functionality for data compilation, cartographic
Extensions production, and advanced geographic analysis. Any of the extension products can be started
from either ArcCatalog or ArcMapyou first need to enable the extension from the Tools
menu, and then open the extensions toolbar from the View menu (click View and point to
Toolbars).

To enable an extension, click Extensions on the Tools menu and check the
extension you want to enable.

Then open the extensions toolbar from the View menu.

Some extensions add tools to ArcToolbox; some add a toolbar to ArcMap or ArcCatalog;
and some do both.

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Here is a brief description of each extension product. The licenses for the products are sold
separately, except as noted below.
Data Compilation Extensions
ArcScan for ArcGIS is used to generate data from scanned maps and manuscripts. It
vectorizes features from raster data and includes integrated raster-vector editing tools.
A complimentary ArcScan license is included with ArcEditor and ArcInfo.

Creating parcel features from a scanned map

ArcGIS Data Interoperability adds the ability to directly read, transform, and export
more than sixty common GIS data formats. It also includes tools to build converters
for complex or specialized data formats.

Converting data between formats

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ArcGIS Schematics generates database-driven schematic diagrams of GIS networks,
such as electrical, water, or telecommunications networks. It lets you create multiple
schematic representations of a network and place schematic views on maps and in
documents.

Creating a schematic diagram for a physical

network

Cartographic Production Extensions

Maplex for ArcGIS adds advanced label placement for cartographic production and
simplifies the labor-intensive process of placing map text. It detects labels that overlap
and automatically moves them, and includes tools for custom label placement. A
complimentary Maplex license is included with ArcInfo.

Placing labels for production of a utility network map

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1 Introduction
ArcGIS Publisher is used to publish data and maps for use with ArcReader. It
enables the creation of a published map file (PMF) format for any ArcMap document.
PMFs are used in ArcReader, and allow you to freely share your ArcMap documents
with any number of users.

Publishing a map as a PMF file for display in ArcReader

Geographic Analysis Extensions

ArcGIS Spatial Analyst provides advanced modeling and analysis for raster datasets,
including terrain analysis (creating shaded relief, slope, and aspect from a Digital
Elevation Model), creation of distance and cost surfaces, and raster overlay.

Selecting the best location for a business

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ArcGIS 3D Analyst enables visualization and analysis of surface data, including
creation of perspective views. It provides advanced tools for three-dimensional
modeling, such as cutfill, line of sight, and terrain modeling.

Creating a perspective view

ArcGIS Geostatistical Analyst provides statistical tools for predicting values across a
surface from a set of sample points. It includes exploratory spatial data analysis tools
for identifying outliers, trends, and spatial autocorrelation.

Creating a continuous surface of toxic exposure from a set of sample points

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ArcGIS Network Analyst is used for transportation network analysis. It allows you to
find the shortest path between two points, allocate resources to a center, or find the
most efficient route between several stops.

Finding the best route through a set of stops

ArcGIS Tracking Analyst allows you to view and analyze temporal datayou can
track feature movement through time (such as the location of a hurricane over the
course of a week) and track attribute values for features over time (such as population
for a county over several decades). It also lets you create time-based animations.

Tracking the strength and location of a hurricane

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ArcGIS Cornerstones

There is a set of cornerstones underlying the design of ArcGIS. Understanding these

cornerstones will help you understand how ArcGIS is built and, in turn, how to use the
software effectively.

A tiered product ArcGIS Desktop is sold as three software products, each providing a higher level of
structure functionality.
The first level of functionality, called ArcView, provides mapping, data use, and
analysis tools along with simple editing and geoprocessing.
The second level, called ArcEditor, includes all the functionality of ArcView and adds
advanced geographic data editing capabilities.
The highest level of functionality is ArcInfo, the full-function, flagship GIS Desktop
product. It includes the functionality of both ArcView and ArcEditor, and extends it
with tools for advanced data management and analysis. It also includes the legacy
applications for ArcInfo Workstation (including ArcPlot, ArcEdit, and AML).

The reason for the three products is that not everybody needs the full functionality of
ArcInfoat least initially. Your organization may have purchased one of the products, or
some combinationfor example, one ArcInfo license for advanced processing, and three
ArcView licenses for people who mainly need to display and query geographic data.

All three products include ArcMap, ArcCatalog, and ArcToolbox. The available
functionality of each depends on the product youre using. For example, if you buy
ArcView you get about 80 tools within ArcToolbox; ArcEdit provides over 90 tools; and if
you buy ArcInfo you get about 250 tools within ArcToolbox.

An extendable ArcGIS Desktop is designed around core functionality that can be extended for specialized
product applications. The core functionality included in ArcMap, ArcCatalog, and ArcToolbox
covers the tasks that the vast majority of users will need at some point in their GIS work.
Because of the range of GIS applications and tasks, though, some users may never need
the advanced functionality available in ArcGIS Desktop for particular tasks. For example,
a water utility that uses GIS to build and maintain a database of its pipes and pumps, and
perhaps its customers, will likely never need to use advanced raster analysis capabilities.
Conversely, a forest research lab will likely never need to include schematic drawings of
a utility network in its GIS. To allow for flexibility in building your GIS, ArcGIS Desktop
includes extension products (described earlier) that provide advanced capability for data
compilation, cartographic production, and advanced geographic analysis. That allows you
to buy and install only the advanced functionality youll use.

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1 Introduction

A flexible user ArcGIS Desktop provides a flexible user interface that allows you to perform many of
interface the same tasks in different ways, depending on the type of work youre doing and the

framework youre using. For example, you can add a field to a table in either ArcCatalog,
ArcMap, or ArcToolbox. That allows you to perform this common task whether youre
using ArcCatalog to add a field while building a new dataset, youre using ArcMap to add a
new field and calculate attribute values while doing analysis, or you need to add a field to a
dataset while using ArcToolbox to build a model.

Adding a field to a table in ArcCatalog

using the Properties dialog box.

Adding a field from

an attribute table in
ArcMap.

Adding a field using an ArcToolbox dialog box.

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

Similarly, the interface often provides defaults you can use for particular functions. You can
accept the defaults, or modify them. For example, when specifying what symbols to use to
draw features, such as the color and size you want points representing buildings to appear
on your map, you can:
Use the default symbol assigned when the data is added to the map
Change some basic properties of the symbol, such as color and size
Access and modify any of the properties that make up the current symbol
Create your own symbol from scratch by defining the various properties

You can use the

default symbol...

...modify some basic properties

of the default symbol or choose
another predefined symbol
using the Symbol Selector...

...or, you can access and modify all the properties of the symbol or create
symbols from scratch using the Symbol Property Editor.

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1 Introduction

ArcGIS Desktop provides a range of interface options that allow users at different skill
levels to work efficientlyfrom wizards and dialog boxes to a command line interface.
For example, tools in ArcToolbox can be run using a dialog box that prompts for inputs
helpful for less experienced usersor can be entered on a command line, a more direct
way for advanced users to run the tools.
Running the Union tool
using a dialog box.

Running the
Union tool using
the command line.

You can customize the interface, specifying which menus to display and which buttons to
include, for example.

The ArcGIS Desktop interface is customizable (click Customize from the Tools menu in ArcMap or ArcCatalog).
Use the Toolbars tab to specify which toolbars to display, by default. Use the Commands tab to add buttons
(commands) to the various toolbars.

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

Flexible data Another cornerstone of ArcGIS Desktop is its ability to access GIS data in any format and
support to support a range of database configurations.

ArcGIS is designed to work with just about every type of geographic data, from a broad
array of sources. Some data formats ArcGIS can read directly, such as geodatabase
datasets, shapefiles, coverages, and many raster formats. Data in other GIS formats must
be converted to an ArcGIS format before you can display and work with the dataArcGIS
Desktop includes converters for many standard GIS formats. Some data, such as CAD data,
can be read and displayed by ArcGIS Desktop, but must be converted to an ArcGIS format
to take advantage of the full functionality of the software.

ArcGIS Desktop also lets you set up databases that will meet the needs of one person, a
small department or workgroup, or an enterprise that requires that many people to be able
to access and edit the database concurrently. If you already use a commercial DBMSor
need your GIS to work with such a systemyou can take advantage of this by creating
ArcSDE geodatabases.

Types of geographic data and how to manage data are discussed in Chapter 2, Geographic
Data Management.

A generic ArcGIS Desktop was designed to be used across a range of disciplines for a huge variety
application of tasks. It is not industry or application specific. The software provides a comprehensive
approach set of tools and functions that users combine in the way that best addresses the task at
hand. Many users customize the application toolbars and menus to reflect the tasks and
workflows they perform most frequently.

ArcGIS Desktop can also be used with other ArcGIS applications in a way that allows GIS
to be available on different hardware platforms and for a range of GIS usersfrom the
general public to casual GIS users to GIS specialists. For example, maps created in ArcMap
can be published using the ArcGIS Publisher extension. The maps can be distributed on
CD/DVD or over the Internet and read by non-GIS users using ArcReader, a simple,
standalone map display software application.

The book What is ArcGIS? describes the complete ArcGIS system and how ArcGIS
Desktop can be used with other ArcGIS applications to publish data and maps on the
Internet, used by people throughout an organization to access a centralized GIS database, or
used in conjunction with handheld devices to collect and update data in the field.

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1 Introduction

Getting help

Chapters 2 through 5 describe the basics of a number of common tasks performed in

ArcGIS Desktop. More information on these and other tasks is available in the ArcGIS
Desktop Help system. The Help system contains both task-based (step-by-step) and
conceptual information, and includes a GIS dictionary. There are also several online
sources of help available.

Desktop Help Help can be accessed from an ArcGIS application (ArcMap or ArcCatalog) via the Help

menu on the Main menu, from the Start Programs menu, or by pressing the F1 key on the
keyboard. The Help viewer contains a navigation panewith Contents, Index, Favorites,
and Search tabsand a topic pane for viewing Help topics.

Use the Contents to look up general topics. Conceptual topics in the contents list are
indicated by a page icon. Task-based topics include step-by-step instructions and tips for
performing specific tasks. Theyre indicated by an icon showing a page with a numbered
list. Some of these topics also have short, animated tutorials available.

You can scroll through the Index or search by entering keywords that identify your task.

The Favorites tab lets you keep a list of often-visited topics.

Use the Search tab to enter keywords, phrases, or complete sentences. Once youve entered
your search, click the Ask button. The results are ranked and provide links to the topic.

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

The Help system also lets you get information about the buttons and menu commands
you see on the interface. When you position the mouse pointer over a button for a second
or two, the buttons name pops up (this can be turned on or off on the Options tab of the
Customize dialog box).

After clicking the Whats This? button on the standard toolbar, you can click any button or
menu option to display a description of it.

When you click the Help button in the upper-right corner of a dialog box, then click an
item, a description is displayed. Some dialog boxes also have a Help button on the bottom;
clicking it opens a Help topic with detailed information about the particular task.

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1 Introduction

All ArcToolbox tools have associated help. The Show/Hide Help button on the tool dialog
box displays (or hides) a Help panel with a description of the tool and information about
the tool parameters. Clicking the Help button at the top of the panel takes you to the topic
in the Desktop Help system where youll find complete information about the tool.
Click here to open the tools
topic in the Desktop Help system

Show or hide the Help panel

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

Online Help In addition to the Desktop Help System, there are several online resources for getting help
with the software. These can also be accessed from the Help menu.

Online resources, including Desktop Help Online, a GIS Dictionary, the ESRI
Support Center, training resources, and developer support are available from the
Help menu.

Desktop Help online

The entire Desktop Help system is also available online. The online version features links
to common tasks and to specific applications.

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1 Introduction

ESRI Support Center

This online site provides users with information and help for all of ESRIs software
products. You can access it directly from http://support.esri.com, or you can launch it from
the Help menu in ArcGIS.

The site includes:

The Knowledge Base, which lets you search ESRIs database of technical articles,
white papers, system requirements, and product documentation.
Downloads of the latest software updates, service packs, samples, user-contributed
ArcScriptsSM, data models, geoprocessing models and scripts, and evaluation software.
User forums for ESRIs community of GIS professionals to browse and post focused
questions, or actively help others.

Developer Help
The ESRI Developer Network (EDNSM) at edn.esri.com provides information about
creating your own user interfaces, tools, and special applications. This site contains sample
code, technical documents, downloads of developer tools and add-ins, and discussion
forums for ESRIs developer community.

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Geographic Data
Management
GIS data concepts 64
An overview of geographic data
management 75
Finding and connecting to data 85
Establishing a data connection
Database and server connections

Previewing data and maps 87

Previewing whats in a folder or geodatabase

Previewing a features geography or attributes
Reviewing a datasets characteristics
Creating a thumbnail

Searching for data and maps 90

Organizing your data with ArcCatalog 93
Creating a new workspace
Managing workspaces and datasets
Exploring an items properties
Managing the ArcCatalog display

Documenting your database with metadata 97

Selecting the metadata stylesheet
Printing metadata
Editing metadata documentation
Importing and exporting metadata

Creating a geodatabase 102

Creating a geodatabase using ArcCatalog tools

Creating a geodatabase by copying a template

Creating feature classes and tables 107

Creating a feature class
Creating a standalone table
Specifying additional fields
Modifying a feature class or table definition

udt_ch02.indd 63

Ensuring spatial data integrity 113

Creating a feature dataset
Getting data into a feature dataset
Creating a geodatabase topology
Managing a topology

Ensuring attribute data integrity 119

Assigning default values to fields

Using domains to ensure valid attribute values
Using subtypes to assign default values and domains

Building relationships between features and

tables 124
Creating a relationship class
Specifying the number of allowed linked records
Managing a relationship class
Accessing table relationships in ArcMap

Managing raster datasets in a

geodatabase 130
Loading rasters into a geodatabase
Creating a raster catalog

Adding specialized datasets to a

geodatabase 134

Creating a terrain dataset for surface modeling

Creating a network dataset for transportation applications
Creating a geometric network for utilities applications
Creating an address locator for geocoding
Creating a route dataset for linear referencing

Maximizing the performance of your

database 146

Defining or modifying a spatial index

Creating an attribute index
Creating raster pyramids
Compacting and compressing geodatabases

10/18/2006 10:49:23 AM

Using ArcGIS Desktop

GIS data concepts

Underpinning all your GIS work, no matter what it is, are geographic datasets that contain
the data you need to build databases, make maps, and perform analyses. One of the
main roles of ArcGIS Desktop is to help you organize and manage this geographic data
efficiently. First, though, its useful to review some of the basics of GIS data. While similar
in some respects to data created and stored in a database program or graphics software, GIS
data has some unique characteristics.

What is GIS data? GIS data is a digital representationor modelof features or phenomena that occur on or

near the earths surface. Many types of geographic features and phenomena can be modeled
in ArcGIS and stored as GIS data, including:
A physical objecteither natural or man-madesuch as a stream, or a light pole.
Some objects are stationary while others are mobile, such as a delivery truck or an
animal with a radio transmitter.
A defined object that isnt necessarily visible on the ground, but that can be displayed
on a map. Areas defined by boundaries, such as a county boundary, are a prime
example. Many boundaries are legally defined, such as parcel or congressional district
boundaries, while some are formed by physical features, such as the boundary of a
watershed.
An event that occurs for some relatively short period of time, such as a burglary, or an
earthquake. While the event itself is ephemeral, the locationand date and timeof
the occurrence can be captured and stored.
A locator, such as a street address, or a milepost on a highway. The locator doesnt
represent a physical objectsimply a location that is important or useful to identify.
Locators are often used to fix the location of events or mobile objectsfor example,
a street address is often used to identify the location of a burglary or to identify the
location of customers or students (people move around, but in GIS their location is
usually fixed to their home address).
A spatial network representing linkages between objects or events. Often the network
is defined on top of other geographic objects, such as a bus route which is a geographic
feature defined from a set of streets and stops, themselves geographic features.
A phenomenon that can be measured at any given location, such as elevation above sea
level, soil moisture in the ground, or the concentration of ozone in the air.

What these geographic entities all have in commonfrom a GIS standpointis that they
have a location that can be captured and stored, and they have properties, termed attributes
in ArcGIS. The attributes might be descriptionssuch as the zoning code of a parcel or
the name of a stream, or they might be measurementssuch as the population of a county
or the magnitude of an earthquake. Linking the location of the object or event with its
attributes makes it possible to create highly customized maps, to perform spatial queries,
and to perform analyses that take into account the spatial relationships between objects.

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2 Geographic Data Management

How do you
represent feature
geography in a
GIS?

There are a number of models for representing this variety of geographic entities,
however two in particular are the most common. One represents geographic entities as
geometric shapes (feature classes); the other represents them as cell values (rasters).
Typical representations of feature classes are points (such as wells), lines (such as roads),
and polygons (such as census tracts). Feature classes are stored as coordinate pairs that
reference locations on the earths surface. A well, for example, might be represented as a
point in a features class, with coordinates as 119 degrees west longitude and 34 degrees
north latitude. A line or polygon can be represented as a series of coordinate pairs that can
be connected to draw the feature. This approach views features as discrete objects on the
earths surface, and the representation is referred to as vector data.
Points

Lines

Polygons

Building location points, street centerlines, and park boundary polygons are examples of feature classes.

In contrast, rasters represent geographic features by dividing the world into discrete square
or rectangular cells laid out in a grid. Each cell describes the phenomenon being observed.
For example, the cell values in a vegetation raster represent the dominant vegetation type in
each particular cell.

Shrub

Grass

Forest

A raster of vegetation types.

Cell values can also be any measured or calculated value, such as elevation, slope, rainfall,
vegetation type, or temperature.

The raster data structure is commonly used for continuous categorical data (such as land cover), digital
elevation models, and photo and satellite images.

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

While most geographic features can be represented using either of these approaches, using
one or the other is often more appropriate. For example, linear features, such as roads,
are often represented using feature classes. Phenomena that occur everywhere and are
measured on a continuous numeric scalesuch as elevation or air qualityare usually
represented as rasters. Quite often youll work with both types of data simultaneously
when creating a map or when performing analysis. ArcGIS includes tools that allow you to
convert data between features classes and raster data, if necessary.

This map display was created by drawing feature classes of cities, country
boundaries, rivers, and waterbodies on top of a raster dataset of shaded relief.

Features of a similar type within a designated area are stored in a single dataset. Datasets
are homogeneous collections of geographic elements. Roads in a town would be stored
in one dataset, landuse zones in another, census tract boundaries in a third, buildings in a
fourth, and so on. The various datasets are often thought ofand portrayedas layers of
information for that place.

Transportation
Land Use
Census Tracts
Structures
Postal Codes
Raster Imagery

Each dataset represents a type of information for a place.

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2 Geographic Data Management

During mapping and 3D visualization, datasets are symbolized, labeled, and displayed as
map layers.

This map display includes four datasets: a polygon dataset of lakes, line datasets
of roads and streams, and a raster dataset of elevation.

In geoprocessing, operators are applied to datasets to create new datasetsfor example, to

create a dataset of 30 meter buffer polygons around road centerlines.

BUFFER

You apply geoprocessing operators to datasets to create derived datasets.

Datasets are also the most common way of sharing data among GIS users.

Datasets can be listed in ArcCatalog, and can be copied and distributed to other GIS
users.

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

You also work with the individual data elements contained in each datasetthe individual
parcels, wells, or buildingsand their associated attributes. For example, you can list the
descriptive attributes and properties of an individual building by pointing at it on a map.
Text labels can be used to annotate selected buildings.

When you identify a building by pointing at it, youre working with the individual
data elements in a dataset.

During editing, you edit the geometric shapes of individual parcelsfor example, dragging
a corner to expand the boundary of a park. Spatial selection allows you to graphically select
a group of features on the mapfor example, the parcels that are within a quarter mile of a
freeway.

You work with individual data elements when you edit features, in this case, a
park boundary.

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2 Geographic Data Management

How do you
reference the
location of a
dataset on the
Earths surface?

A key concept of GIS data is that geographic datasets represent a location on or near the
Earths surface. This sets GIS data apart from graphics software where objects are simply
stored in page units. Because the data is tied to an actual location on the surface of the
earth, you cant just create it from scratch, as you would when creating a drawing on a
blank page in a graphics program. (While you could draw a map on a blank page, the
length or shape of features, and the distances between them, would likely not be accurate.)

Datasets are stored using coordinates that correspond to positions on the Earths surface.
The coordinates should accurately represent these positions to ensure that the feature
shapes and their relationships to other features reflect actual conditions on the ground.
Describing the correct location of features requires a framework for defining real-world
locations. This process is called georeferencing. Georeferencing is accomplished by
specifying a coordinate system for the dataset.

Georeferencing allows you to display on a single map various datasetsfrom different

sourcesand have them register correctly, or to combine datasets representing information
about the same location to derive new data and information. If datasets were only in page
units, two datasets representing the same location likely wouldnt register, depending on
where they happened to appear on the page. Once georeferenced, the datasets refer to the
same location on the ground, and register correctly.

Each GIS dataset has a set of properties that define the specific details about its coordinate
system. Once specified, the coordinate system definition is maintained with the dataset.

One coordinate system for describing the position of geographic locations on the Earths
surface uses spherical measures of latitude and longitude. Latitude and longitude are
measures of the angles (in degrees) from the center of the Earth to a point on the Earths
surface. This reference system is often referred to as a geographic coordinate system.

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

Although longitude and latitude can locate exact positions on the surface of the globe, this
coordinate system doesnt allow you to measure distances or areas accurately or display the
data easily on a flat computer screen or map.

The GIS displayson a flat computer screen or mapgeographic features that occur on the surface of the
spherical Earth.

To appear correctly on a screen or map page, the features have to be transformed to a flat
plane. Projected coordinate systems include this transformation and specify the origin and
units of the coordinates (feet or meters, usually).

Projected coordinate systems use two axes: one horizontal (x), representing eastwest, and
one vertical (y), representing northsouth (Cartesian coordinates). The point at which the
axes intersect is called the origin. Locations of geographic objects are defined relative to
the origin, using the notation (x,y), where x refers to the distance along the horizontal axis,
and y refers to the distance along the vertical axis. The origin is defined as (0,0).

(x=2, y=1)

(0,0)

x-axis

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2 Geographic Data Management

Typical units of measure in projected coordinate systems are feet or meters. So, in fact, the
coordinate values are often six or seven digitsespecially since the origin of the coordinate
system may be far from your study area.

Each features coordinates are stored in these geographic units: points as x,y pairs; lines
as a series of x,y pairs that define the shape of the line; the same for polygons. For raster
datasets, the coordinates of the origin of the grid (usually the upper left or lower left corner)
are stored, along with the cell size. Thus the extent of the raster and the geographic location
of each value for individual cells can be calculated.

These buildings (represented as points) are labeled with their x,y coordinate
values. The distance between them (about 82 feet) can be calculated in the GIS
by storing the geographic coordinate values instead of the page units.

Projected coordinates can be defined for both 2D (x,y) and 3D (x,y,z) datasets, where x,y
measurements represent the location on the Earths surface and z would represent height
above or below a point of reference such as mean sea level.

Unlike a geographic coordinate system (latitudelongitude), a projected coordinate system

has constant lengths, angles, and areas across the two dimensions. However, all map
projections representing the Earths surface as a flat map, create distortions in some aspect
of distance, area, shape, or direction. Many map projections are designed for specific
purposes. One map projection might be used for preserving shape while another might
be used for preserving the area (conformal versus equal area). In any case, the distortions
are primarily an issue if your study area covers a large part of the globe (a country or
continent), or the entire globe itself. If your study area is a county or city, these effects are
small.

Many standard coordinate systems are established for the globe or for various regionsthe
UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) system, for example, has a defined coordinate
system for each 6-degree swath of longitude around the globe. UTM is used worldwide;
in the United States, the State Plane system is another commonly used coordinate system.
Other countries and regions often have their own local systems that use a local set of
geographic controls.

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

A coordinate system specifies a datum, in addition to a map projection. A datum is a

mathematical representation of the shape of the Earths surface. A datum is defined by a
spheroid, which approximates the shape of the Earth and the spheroids position relative to
the center of the Earth. A local datum aligns its spheroid to closely fit the Earths surface in
a particular area; its origin point is located on the surface of the Earth. The coordinates of
the origin point are fixed, and all other points are calculated from this control point.

More than one coordinate system can become a standard for data from a specific region,
and other coordinate systems may also be used. So, you may face the prospect of dealing
with various datasets for the same location but that are in different coordinate systems.

By recording and storing the coordinate system properties for each dataset (the map
projection, datum, spheroid, and geographic units), ArcGIS can automatically transform the
locations of GIS datasets on the fly into any appropriate coordinate system (the coordinate
system of the dataset stored on disk is not changed). Its then possible to map and combine
information from multiple datasets regardless of their coordinate system. Alternatively, you
can transform a dataset to create a new dataset in the specified coordinate system, using
tools in ArcToolbox.

You can see a datasets coordinate system by viewing its metadata in ArcCatalog or
ArcMap, or by viewing its properties in ArcCatalog. See Defining coordiniate systems and
projecting datasets in Chapter 3 for more on assigning coordinate systems.

Metadata for a dataset includes a description of the datasets coordinate

system.

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2 Geographic Data Management

How do you In ArcGIS, attributes for feature classes are stored and managed in tables, which are based
represent feature on a series of relational data concepts. These include:
attributes in a GIS?
Tables contain rows.
All rows in a table have the same columns.
Each column has a type, such as integer, decimal number, character, date, and so on.
Relationships are used to associate rows from one table with rows in another table.
This is based on a common column in each table.
A series of relational functions and operators, SQL (structured query language), is
available to operate on the tables and their data elements.

Tables and relationships play a key role in ArcGIS, just as they do in traditional database
applications. In ArcGIS, tables have an added dimension: each row in a table represents
and is linked toa geographic element in the dataset. Additional tables can be linked to
the geographic elements by a common field. For example, information on parcel owners
might be stored in a separate tablethe parcel identification number (PIN) serves as a
link between this table and the parcels attribute table. This would allow you to associate
multiple owners with a single parcel or a single owner with multiple parcels.

Tables can be linked

through a common fieldin
this case, the Parcel
Identification Number.

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

This combination of geography and descriptive information provides the foundation for the
ArcGIS information model, which is often referred to as the geo-relational model.

05
6-0
62
4-1
33

33
4-1
62
6-0
06

PIN

Area

334-1626-004 9,254

33
4-1
62
6-0
04

Geogra

-003
1626
334-

26-006
334-16

334-1626-002

334-1626-007

334-1626-001

Addr
347 Cherry Ct.

Code Owner Relat. Acq.Date Assessed TaxStat

SFR

J. Williamson

Tabular View
Feature class table

HW

1974/09/20

$135,750.00

02

Related ownership table

PIN

Area

Addr

Code

PIN

334-1626-001
334-1626-002
334-1626-003
334-1626-004
334-1626-005
334-1626-006
334-1626-007
334-1626-008

7,342
8,020
10,031
9,254
8,856
9,975
8,230
8,645

341 Cherry Ct.

343 Cherry Ct.
345 Cherry Ct.
347 Cherry Ct.
348 Cherry Ct.
346 Cherry Ct.
344 Cherry Ct.
342 Cherry Ct.

SFR
UND
SFR
SFR
UND
SFR
SFR
SFR

334-1626-001
334-1626-002
334-1626-003
334-1626-004
334-1626-005
334-1626-006
334-1626-007
334-1626-008

Owner Relat. Acq.Date Assessed TaxStat

G. Hall
H. L Holmes
W. Rodgers
J. Williamson
P. Goodman
K. Staley
J. Dormandy
S. Gooley

SO
UK
HW
HW
SO
HW
UK
HW

1995/10/20
1993/10/06
1980/09/24
1974/09/20
1966/06/06
1942/10/24
1996/01/27
2000/05/31

$115,500.00
$24,375.00
$175,500.00
$135,750.00
$30,350.00
$120,750.00
$110,650.00
$145,750.00

02
01
02
02
02
02
01
02

The GIS information model includes both geographic and tabular data, and is often referred to as the georelational model.

The geo-relational model enables key GIS tasks, such as using attribute values to label and
symbolize features. Because the tabular information is linked to the geographic objects
(which in turn have a geographic location), it also allows you to perform spatial queries and
analyses. You can, for example:
Point at a feature on the map and display its attributes.
Select a feature in a table and see it highlighted on the map.
Select a subset of features that have certain attribute valuesthat is, that meet some
criteria you specify.
Use statistics to find geographic clusters of features having similar values.

In the raster data model, tables function in a different way. If the raster dataset represents
categorical information, such as the soil type in each cell, each row in the table represents
a category rather than an individual cell. The table stores the number of cells in each
category. You can also store additional attributes for each categorya soil name, crop
classification, and so on. If the raster dataset represents continuous measurements, such
as elevation or soil moisture, each cell potentially has a unique value, so only that value is
stored with the raster, and a table is unnecessary.

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An overview of geographic data management

ArcGIS provides a great deal of flexibility in the types of data you can view and
analyzedata stored using different data models (vector, raster, TINs, and so on), data in
different file formats (feature classes, shapefiles, or coverages), datasets covering different
geographic areas, datasets from various sources and in different coordinate systems, and so
on. ArcGIS Desktop also lets you work with or import a wide variety of other data types,
including images (.bmp, .jpg, and so on), CAD files, other geographic data formats (such
as DLG or TIGER) and tables (in text format or spreadsheet formats such as Excel). To be
able to efficiently find and use all this data, youll need to organize it.

The main mechanism for organizing your geographic data in ArcGIS is to define a
workspace. A workspaceby definitionis any folder containing your GIS data.
Workspaces also contain other files and documents you collect and create in the course of
your work.

Workspaces are viewed and managed in ArcCatalog. Here is a workspace named

Yellowstone, containing several datasets and associated files. These are the most common
types of datasets and files youll work with.
A geodatabase

A single geodatabase
feature class

An ArcGIS layer
file (.lyr file)

A raster image
(.img file)

A TIN
dataset

An ArcMap document
(.mxd file)

A geodatabase feature
dataset containing
three feature classes

A coverage
dataset

An ArcScene document
(.sxd file)

A shapefile
dataset

A table stored as
a .dbf file

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A geodatabase is both a format for storing datasets and a way of organizing related datasets.
Geodatabases are the primary way geographic data is stored in ArcGISthey are discussed
in more detail later in this section.

ESRI shapefiles and coverages were used in earlier versions of ESRI software (ArcView
GIS 3 and ArcInfo Workstation, respectively). Much geographic data is still available in
these formats, and the datasets are still widely used in ArcGIS Desktop.

ArcMap documents, ArcScene documents, and layer files are created as you build maps
and 3D views. Youll read more about them in Chapter 4, Mapping and Visualization, and
Chapter 5, Geographic Analysis.

Organizing
and managing
workspaces in

ArcCatalog

ArcCatalog is the primary application for organizing and managing workspaces and
datasets.

Setting up a workspace structure

When possible, youll want to define the structure for your data organization before starting
a map or a GIS project. In the case of building a large, multiuser database this is essential.

Your workspaces may consist of a single file folder containing many datasets and other
related documents that are organized around themes or projects. For example, if you have
a statewide GIS, you might have your data organized by county. Many users organize their
projects by theme, such as workspaces for roads, water, parcels, administrative boundaries,
and so forth. In other situations, you may want to organize workspaces around a project
such as a road development project or new power plant project. You can also organize
workspaces within workspaces. For example, you may have a project workspace New
power plant, and within that workspace you may have subfolders organized for each
dataset or for each project task, such asNew dam, New road, or New transmission
lines.

If youre collecting existing data, you set up a structure and copy the datasets into it (or
import them). If youre creating new data (by digitizing, for example), you first create
the individual datasets, and then create the features within them (see Chapter 3, Data
Compilation and Editing, for more on creating features by editing).

This statewide workspace

contains a folder for each
county. The content of
the county workspaces is
consistent.

This simple project

workspace organizes
datasets in folders, by the
type of data.

This workspace for a

major project contains
subworkspaces for each
element of the project. The
workspaces contain the
components specific to that
element.

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Quite often youll set up a geodatabase (or several geodatabases) within a workspacethe
geodatabase contains the geographic datasets and related tables while other files and
documents (maps documents, layer files, and so on) are stored in folders within the
workspace.

This typical workspace

contains folders to contain
layer files and maps as well
as a geodatabase to contain
geographic datasets and
relationships.

Using ArcGIS A geodatabase is a collection of geographic datasets of various types used for representing
geodatabases features, images and tabular and other data types. While you can set up workspaces without
geodatabasescontaining only shapefiles, coverages, rasters, and so oncreating a
geodatabase to store and organize your GIS data has several advantages:

You can specify rules and create specialized datasets that more closely mimic the
behavior of geographic entities, such as creating a geometric network to model the
flow of water through a system of pipes and valves.
A geodatabase lets you set up a structure that ensures relationships between datasets
are made explicit and are maintained. You can make sure that datasets referencing
the same location on the Earths surface spatially register with each other correctly.
In addition, you can specify that when you edit features in a geodatabase, all related
features are also edited (so if you move a junction box, the connected electrical lines
also move).
You can also set up rules to ensure data integrity (for example, a rule might state that
parcel boundaries cannot crossany that do are flagged as errors).
Storing data in a geodatabase is an efficient way to manage related datasets as a single
unit.

The three most common dataset types are feature classes, raster datasets, and attribute
tables. Youll typically start by building a number of these fundamental dataset types.
Youll have a set of feature classes (roads, streams, boundaries, and so on). Most of the
time, youll also have a set of imagery and raster datasets to work with (an elevation
surface, orthophotos, or satellite images). And youll have a number of tables, such as
dBASE files, Microsoft Access tables, Excel spreadsheets, and so forth.

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Fundamentally, all geodatabases will contain this same kind of content. This collection of
datasets can be thought of as the starting point for your geodatabase.

Then, as necessary, youll extend your geodatabase with specialized capabilities to model
how geographic features behave in the real world, to maintain data integrity, and to work
with spatial relationships. These extended datasets are built from existing datasets plus
rules and properties that define behavior or relationships.

The three primary datasets in the geodatabase (feature classes, raster datasets, and attribute
tables) as well as other geodatabase datasets are stored using tables. Vector and raster
geometries are stored and managed in attribute columns along with traditional attribute
fields. (This is unlike shapefiles and coverages, where the geometry is stored in a set of files
and the attributes are stored in a related table.) The extended functions that define feature
behavior, data integrity, and spatial relationships are also stored in the database.

Basic geodatabase datasets

Feature classes are homogeneous collections of common features, each having the same
spatial representation, such as points, lines, or polygons, and a common set of attribute
columnsfor example, a line feature class for representing road centerlines. Feature
classes are similar to shapefiles or coverages in that they represent geographic features as
points, lines, and polygons.

Raster datasets are commonly used for representing and managing imagery, digital
elevation models, and other spatially continuous phenomena.

Tables are used to store all the properties of geographic objects (these are referred to as
feature attribute tables). This includes holding and managing feature geometry in a Shape
column. Tables also store attributes in related tables that can be linked to the feature class
or raster (these are referred to as standalone tables).

Extending your geodatabase

On top of building the basic datasets in your geodatabase, you can add datasets to ensure
data integrity, manage the relationships between geographic features and between tables,
and allow for specialized data types.

Ensuring spatial data integrity with feature datasets and topologies

A feature dataset is a specific element in a geodatabase (not to be confused with the

generic term dataset) that holds one or more feature classes (sort of like a folder holds
files). When you define a feature dataset, you specify the coordinate system. Any feature
classes must have this same coordinate system, so you ensure that they register correctly
(if theyre not in the right coordinate system, youll have to transform them firstsee
Defining coordinate systems and projecting datasets in Chapter 3).

A topology is a set of rules you specify that defines spatial relationships between adjacent
or connected features in a feature class, or between feature classes (for example, youd
specify that census tracts share common boundaries and that they nest within counties
that ensures that boundaries dont overlap). Topologies define explicitly in the GIS
relationships you can see by looking at a map. By defining a topology, you ensure these
spatial relationships are maintained. Topologies are created within feature datasets.

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Ensuring attribute data integrity with domains and subtypes

Attribute domains are used to specify a list of values, or a range of numeric values, for
attributes. This ensures that only valid attribute values are assigned to features and avoids
misspellings and other data entry errors. Subtypes are used to specify default attribute
values for categories within a feature class. For example, for a roads feature class you
could use a Road Type attribute to assign default speed limit values (25 mph for residential
streets, 45 mph for major roads, and so on). When you assign the Road Type value for a
feature, the Speed Limit value is automatically assigned. This ensures that the different
classes of road are assigned the correct speed limit. Subtypes can also be used to define
behavior for categories of features.

Building relationships between features and tables

Relationship classes are used to build tabular relationships between feature classes
and other tables using a common key. For example, you could build a relationship
class between a feature class of parcels and a table of parcel owners. The parcel owner
information is stored and maintained in a separate table, for efficiency (some owners may
own more than one parcelif you need to update the information, you only need to edit
one record). When necessary, you can retrieve the owner information by selecting a parcel,
or find all the parcels owned by someone by selecting the owner in the related table. You
can build relationship classes between any two tables. The owner table could in turn be
related to a table of property tax information.

Adding specialized datasets to your geodatabase

You can add a number of specialized datasets to your geodatabase to use in specific
applications, such as surface modeling or network analysis:

Terrainsused for modeling triangulated irregular networks (TINs) and for managing large
LiDAR and sonar point collections.

Network Datasetused for modeling connectivity and flow for a transportation network,
such as roads or rail.

Geometric Networkused for modeling outage and flows for a utilities network, such as
electrical, water, or telecommunications.

Address Locatorused for assigning locations to a set of street addresses.

Linear Referencingused for locating events along linear features with measurements,
such as a highway with mile markers.

All of these datasets are discussed later in this chapter.

Types of ArcGIS provides three types of geodatabases, designed for different work environments
geodatabases from people using GIS by themselves, to small workgroups where several people need to

access GIS data for various tasks, to large corporations or agencies (known as enterprises)
that have many people accessing and editing GIS data, and where the GIS is integrated into
other applications and databases.

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File and personal geodatabases are designed for use by one or a few people. They
support the full information model of the geodatabase, including topologies, raster
catalogs, network datasets, terrain datasets, address locators, and so on. File and personal
geodatabases can be edited by one person at a timethey do not support having multiple
versions of a geodatabase that can be worked on by different people simultaneously. The
file geodatabase is a new geodatabase type released in ArcGIS 9.2. Personal geodatabases,
which were introduced in ArcGIS 8, use the Microsoft Access data file structure (the .mdb
file).

ArcSDE geodatabases are designed to be accessed and edited simultaneously by

many users. In addition to the capabilities of file and personal geodatabases, ArcSDE
geodatabases can handle transactions that occur over a long period (such as continuous
updating), can manage simultaneous editing and updating by many users, and can track the
changes in the database over time, through versioning. ArcSDE geodatabases are primarily
used in workgroup, department, and enterprise settings. The Personal and Workgroup
editions of ArcSDE use SqlExpress. The Enterprise edition of ArcSDE allows you to create
geodatabases that work with a variety of DBMS storage models (IBM DB2, Informix,
Oracle, and Microsoft SQL Server).

Comparison of geodatabase types

File geodatabase

Storage

Notes

A file system folder containing

a system file for each dataset

Single-user editing, multiple

readers
Each dataset can be up to 1
TB in size
No versioning support

Personal geodatabase

All contents held in a single

Microsoft Access database file
(.mdb)

Single-user editing, multiple

readers
2 GB size limit for each
Access database (effective
size for performance is
250MB to 500MB)
No versioning support

ArcSDE geodatabase

Any of a number of relational

databases:
Oracle
Microsoft SQL Server
IBM DB2
IBM Informix

Requires ArcSDE
Multiuser editing, scales to
many users
Supports versioning and long
transactions
Size and number of users up
to DBMS limits

ArcGIS provides for flexibility in storing datasets. You can load datasets stored in a file
system geodatabase into a multiuser or personal DBMS geodatabase, and can export from a
DBMS geodatabase. You can also work with datasets stored in both file system and DBMS
geodatabases simultaneously.

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The process
for designing
and building a
geodatabase

One way to build a geodatabase is to create datasets and load data into the geodatabase as
needed during your GIS projects. Its often more efficient, though, to spend some time and
thought designing your geodatabase ahead of time and collecting as much of the required
data as possible before beginning your project. This will save time and effort later when
youre doing analysis and making maps.

If you have experience designing large relational databases, you already have the
background you need to set up a workgroup or enterprise geodatabase. The specific tasks
for building a geodatabase are described later in this chapter. If youre new to database
design and youre designing a single-user or small workgroup geodatabase, a process
you can follow is outlined below, to get you started. There are also a couple books on
geodatabase design published by ESRI Press, as well as additional resources in the Help
system and at ESRIs Web site. These are listed in the appendix.

Designing a geodatabase consists of identifying the types of information products youll

create with the GIS, listing the data themes required to create these products, and defining
the specifications for each data theme. These specifications are implemented as datasets in
the geodatabase (feature classes, rasters, topologies, relationship classes, and so on). You
will probably want to prototype the design before fully implementing it, and regardless,
youll definitely want to document your design.

Here, in brief, are the major steps in the process.

Identify the products youll create and manage using the GIS
Your geodatabase design should reflect the work of your organization. When designing a
geodatabase, youll have a set of applications in mindthe maps, analytical models, web
mapping applications, data flows, database reports, 3D views, and other products youll
create with ArcGIS Desktop. Defining what these products are helps determine the data
themes youll need in the database, and how theyre represented. For example, there are
numerous alternatives for representing surface elevationas contour lines and spot height
locations (hilltops, peaks, and so on), as a continuous terrain surface (a TIN), or as shaded
relief. Contour lines as height locations would be appropriate for a topographic map,
while a continuous terrain surface would be appropriate for an engineering or hydrology
application.

Identify the data themes needed to create the products

Next, list the themes youll need for your applications. For each product, list all of the
input data themes that are required. These are the geographic features and phenomena that
will comprise the geodatabase, and allow you to create your products. If your application
is to create a topographic map, youll need elevation, hydrology (streams, rivers, lakes,
wetlands), transportation (roads, trails, rail lines, ferry routes), transmission lines, and
so forth. A good place to start is by listing all the data themes you currently use in your
applications, and their sources. It might also help to organize the themes by broader
categoriestransportation, hydrology, land surface, and so on.

ESRI and its user community have developed a series of geodatabase data model templates
that provide a jump start on your geodatabase designs. These designs are described and
documented at http://support.esri.com/datamodels. At this stage of the design process you
can use them as a checklist to make sure youre including all the data themes youll need.
They also include the detailed specifications for each data theme (see the next step), so
you can use them as examples of how to define the various themes. When its time to build
your geodatabase, you can download the applicable templates, modify them per your own
geodatabase design, and then populate the geodatabase with your data, saving you the effort
of creating the geodatabase structure from scratch.
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Here is an example description of a data theme for ownership parcels in a cadastral

application.
Geometry Polygon
Contains M valuesNo
Contains Z valuesNo

Simple feature class

OwnerParcel
Field name
Data type
OBJECTID
Object ID
Shape
Geometry
ParcelID
String
ParcelLocalLabel
String
ParcelName
String
OwnerClassification
String
ManagingAgency
String
Area
Double
AreaType
String
Shape_Length
Double
Shape_Area
Double
ParcelType
Long integer

Allow Default
nulls value
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

Domain

Precision Scale Length

OwnershipClassification
Lot

0
0
0

0
0

30
64
64
64
64
20

Subtypes of OwnerParcel

Subtype field ParcelType

List of defined default values and
domains for subtypes in this class
Default subtype 1
Subtype
Subtype
Code
Description
Field name Default value Domain
1
2
3

Park
Lake
Forest

No values set
No values set
No values set

Relationship class
OwnerParcelHasOwner
Type Simple
Forward
Cardinality Many to many
label Owner
Notification None
Backward label OwnerParcel
Origin feature class

Destination table

Name OwnerParcel
Primary key ParcelID
Foreign key ParcelID

Name Owner
Primary key OwnerID
Foreign keyOwnerID

No relationship rules defined.

Table
Owner
Field name

Data type

OBJECTID
Object ID
OwnerID
String
OwnerName
String
PercentOwned Long integer
OwnershipRole
String

AllowPrecnulls ision Scale Length

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

60
60
30

Create the specifications for individual data themes

Once you have identified and described the thematic layers in your design, the next step is
to develop specifications, or schema, for representing the contents of each thematic layer in
the physical database. The description of each thematic layer will result in a specification
of geodatabase datasets, such as feature classes, tables, relationship classes, raster datasets,
subtypes, topologies, domains, and so on.

These then become the individual geodatabase datasets you create in ArcCatalog (or that
you copy from a data model and modify). Then you import the actual data into each feature
class, or create new data by digitizing or scanning features in the feature class.

Here are the characteristics of each data theme that youll want to define:
The coordinate systemthis may be predetermined by local or regional standards,
or by data that youre already using. You may use different coordinate systems for
different applications (and geodatabases).
How the data themes will be represented geographicallysome may be simple feature
classes (wells represented as point features); some may require special datasets (an
elevation surface represented as a terrain, or utilities as a geometric network). The map

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2 Geographic Data Management

scale is also an issue for the geographic representation of features. You might want to
represent buildings as point features when zoomed out, and as polygons (the building
footprint) when zoomed in. In this case youll need to create two feature classes for the
data theme.
The attributes of each data themethe fields (column names), the data type for each
(whether numeric or character, the field length, and so on), and the valid values or
value ranges. Youll also want to define the table structure for each data theme
whether all the attributes are held in the themes attribute table, or whether there are
related tables and, if so, which fields will be used as the common keys for building
relationships.
The relationships with other features. Consider how each map layer will be displayed
in an integrated fashion with other layers. For modeling and analysis, consider how
information will be used with other datasets (that is, how they are combined and
integrated). This will help you to identify key spatial relationships and data integrity
rules, to be implemented as feature datasets and topologies.

Heres a simple example for a parcels geodatabase.

Feature Class

Representation

Notes

Street centerlines

Line

Street segments split at each intersection.

Usually contain address ranges and network
properties.

Soil types

Polygon

Usually have many descriptive attributes in

related tables.

Parcels

Polygon

Topologically integrated with parcel boundaries

and corners.

Parcel boundaries

Line

Has coordinate geometry and dimension

attributes. Participates in a topology with parcels
and corners.

Parcel corners

Point

Surveyed corners of parcels. Participates in a

topology with parcel polygons and boundaries.

Parcel annotation

Annotation

Provides text labels for lot dimensions, taxation,

and legal description information.

Building footprints

Polygon

Contains outlines of building and structures.

Specify editing workflows and map display properties

If your GIS work will involve data editing or updating data on an ongoing basis, its
useful to define up front the editing procedures and integrity rulesfor example, youd
specify that all streets are split where they intersect other streets, street segments connect at
endpoints, and so on. You can ensure that these rules are implemented in the geodatabase.
Its also useful to define display properties for maps and 3D views, such as symbology,
standard map scales, and text fonts. These will be used to define map layers.

Build and test a prototype design

If youre building a large, multiuser database, youll want to test your prototype design.
Build a sample geodatabase copy of your proposed design using a file geodatabase or a
personal geodatabase. Load a subset of data and build maps, run key applications, and
perform editing operations to test the designs utility. You can then make changes to the
design before loading all the data.
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The process of implementing your geodatabase design involves building the geodatabase
structure, and then populating it with your data. There are two ways to build the
geodatabase structure.
Use ArcCatalog tools to create the various geodatabase datasets. There are a number
of tools in ArcCatalog that let you create new feature datasets, feature classes, tables,
relationship classes, topologies and other geodatabase datasets. These tools are
discussed as separate topics later in this chapter.
Use an existing geodatabase data model template. This can be one (or more) of the
data models available at the ESRI Web site (http://support.esri.com/datamodels), or
a template that someone else provides to you. That saves you the step of defining the
geodatabase structure using the ArcCatalog tools. Youll likely use the tools, though, to
modify the templates to match your design. The process for importing and modifying a
geodatabase data model template is discussed as a separate topic later in this chapter.

Importing data to a geodatabase and editing are discussed in Chapter 3, Data Compilation
and Editing.

Document your geodatabase design

Once youve solidified your geodatabase design, youll want to document it for reference.
Various methods can be used to describe your database design and decisions: drawings,
map layer examples, schema diagrams, reports, and metadata documents. The data models
section at http://support.esri.com/datamodels has sample geodatabase documentation from
a variety of industries.

tHE aRCgis tRANSPORTATION dATA MODEL

The thematic layers
Layer Navigation
Map use For routing, navigation, and logistics
Data source Basemap features plus navigation properties
Representation Edges, transfers, turns, travel costs
Spatial relationships Topology networks, share geometry with routes and base maps
Map scale and accuracy Typical map scales range from 1:24 000 to 1:250 000
Symbology and annotation Varies with the source data product
Layer Point events
Map use Display and analyze DOT assets, activities, and incidents
Data source Department of Transportation departmental systems
Representation Linear-referenced point events
Spatial relationships Point events occur along routes
Map scale and accuracy Based on route geometry and measures
Symbology and annotation Typically drawn as circles colored by single attribute

Coded value domain

Table
Accidents_Refmkr
Field name

Layer Line events

Map use Display and analyze DOT assets, activities, and incidents
Data source Department of Transportation departmental systems
Representation Linear-referenced line events
Spatial relationships Line events are coincident with routes
Map scale and accuracy Based on route geometry and measures
Symbology and annotation Typically drawn as thick lines colored by single attribute

Point event table

Route
Measure

Layer Routes
Map use Used to display events on DOT maintained roads
Data source State Department of Transportation
Representation Polylines with measures
Spatial relationships Should share geometry with base maps and navigation
Map scale and accuracy Typical map scales range from 1:24 000 to 1:250 000
Symbology and annotation Typically drawn as thick lines colored by single attribute
Layer Reference layer
Map use A common underlying geometry for all transportation users
Data source Multiple agencies, could be a national dataset
Representation Lines and points
Spatial relationships Could share geometry with routes
Map scale and accuracy Typical map scales range from 1:24 000 to 1:250 000
Symbology and annotation Simple gray lines as background reference
Layer Basemap
Map use Map background
Data source Topographic maps and other cartographic data sources
Representation Raster or vector maps
Spatial relationships Should share geometry with routes and navigation
Map scale and accuracy Typical map scales range from 1:24 000 to 1:250 000
Symbology and annotation Detailed transportation symbolized by class such as bridges, overpasses
Layer Digital orthophoto
Map use Map background
Data source Aerial photogrammetry and satellite sources
Representation Raster
Spatial relationships Raster cells cover the image area
Map scale and accuracy 1 to 2.5 meter cell size
Symbology and annotation Tone, contrast, and balance of gray scale or color presentation

Data type

OID
String
Small Integer

String
String
String
String
Double
Double
String
String
String
Double
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
String

Allow Default
nulls value

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

Domain

Precision

0
0

Scale Length

0
0

EXT_INJURY

9
2
2
5
4
7

Point event table

Y coordinate

Line event table

The police precinct

The case number for the accident

Name
FromMeasure
ToMeasure

The number of people killed

The number of people injured

1
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1

The general location of the accident

The type of accident

LOCATION
ACCD_TYPE
COLL_TYPE
PED_LOC
PED_ACTION
ROAD_SURF
WEATHER
ROAD_CHAR
TRAF_CNTL
LIGHT_COND

Table
HAL_Refmkr
Field name

The route the accident occurred on

The location along the route for the accident
Municipality where the accident occurred
The police department that documented the accident

The extent of injuries

The date of the accident
The time of the accident
The number of vehicles involved

The type of collision

The location of any pedestrians involved
What the pedestrian was doing when the accident occurred
The road surface condition
The weather conditions
The road characteristics
Traffic control devices
The light conditions at the time of the accident

Incidents with an absolute X/Y value

Field name

Data type

OBJECTID
INC_ID
EST_DURATI
INCIDENT_S
INC_TYPE
LANES_BLOC
DATE_
X_COOR
Y_COOR

OID
Integer
Double
String
String
String
Date
Double
Double

Allow Default
nulls value

Domain

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

Precision

0
0

0
0
0

Field name
Unique incident identifier

0
0
0

17
20
15
8

Line event table

Estimated duration of the accident

Place a succinct description of the field in this text

Name
FromMeasure
ToMeasure

Type of incident
Number of lanes blocked by the incident

Y Coordinate in UTM

Participating feature classes and ranks

Rank
1
5
5

RouteMilept
RouteMPHist

5
5

RouteOffState
RouteRefmkr

5
5

RouteThruway

Event layer

Topology rules
Origin feature class

Topology rule

ReferenceLine
ReferenceLine

Must not over

Must not intersect or touch interior

Geometry Polyline
Contains M values Yes
Contains Z values No

Simple feature class

RefmkrRoute
Comparision feature class
Route event source

ReferenceLine
RouteCouplet

Endpoint must be covered by

Must be covered by feature class of

ReferencePoint
ReferenceLIne

RouteMilept
RouteMPHist

Must be covered by feature class of

Must be covered by feature class of

ReferenceLIne
ReferenceLIne

RouteOffState
RouteRefmkr

Must be covered by feature class of

Must be covered by feature class of

ReferenceLIne
ReferenceLIne

RouteThruway

Must be covered by feature class of

ReferenceLIne

Key

Field name

Data type

OBJECTID
Shape
ROUTE
Shape_Length

OID
Geometry
String
Double

Allow Default
nulls value

Domain

Yes
Yes
Yes

9
0

Field name

Field name

Data type

OID
Geometry
Double
String

Allow Default
nulls value

Domain

Yes
Yes
Yes

Field name

Data type

OBJECTID
Shape
FTRP_ID

OID
Geometry
String

Field name

Data type

OID
Geometry
String
String
Double
String

Allow Default
nulls value

Domain

Data type

OBJECTID
Shape
FTRP_ID

OID
Geometry
String

Precision

17

Geometry Polyline
Contains M values No
Contains Z values No
Allow Default
nulls value

Domain

Precision

Scale Length

State DOT Reference Lines, simulates

NSDI Framework transportation
reference segments (FTSeg)

Route event source

OBJECTID
Shape
ROUTE
ACTIVE
YEAR_ACTIVATED
YEAR_RETIRED
Shape_Length

Allow Default
nulls value

Domain

Yes
Yes

Precision

Unique national reference point identifier

Albany area Reference Lines, simulates

NSDI Framework transportation
reference segments (FTSeg)

Field name

OBJECTID
Shape
ROUTE
ACTIVE
YEAR_ACTIVATED
YEAR_RETIRED
Shape_Length

Data type

OID
Geometry
String
String
Small Integer
Small Integer
Double

Category of road
Name of road

Simple feature class

ThruwayRoute

Unique national road identifier

Field name

Albany area Reference Points, simulates

NSDI Framework transportation
reference points (FTRP)

Domain

Precision

Scale Length

Field name

Routes with measure defined

according to milepost markers along
roads

Line event table

The geodatabase structure

Table
Accidents_Refmkr

0
0
0

0
0
0

9
1
2
2

Route Identifier
If the route status is active

Geometry Polyline
Contains M values Yes
Contains Z values No

The year the route was activated

The year the route was retired

Allow Default
nulls value

Domain

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

Precision

0
0
0

Routes along non-state roads

Scale Length

0
0
0

9
1
2
2

Route Identifier
If the route status is active

Point feature class

ReferencePoint

Line feature class

RouteOffState

Line feature class

RouteCouplet

Line feature class

RouteRefmkr

Line feature class

RouteMilept

Line feature class

RouteThruway

Feature dataset
Imlications
Line feature class
albroad_arc
Line feature class
r1route_arc

3
2
1
6
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0

Data type

Allow Default
nulls value

OID
String
Small Integer
Small Integer
Small Integer

Domain

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

Precision

OBJECTID
Shape
ROUTE
Shape_Length

Data type

OID
Geometry
String
Double

Geometry Polyline
Contains M values Yes
Contains Z values No
Allow Default
nulls value

Domain

Yes
Yes
Yes

OBJECTID
Shape
ROUTE
ACTIVE
YEAR_ACTIVATED
YEAR_RETIRED
Shape_Length

Data type

OID
Geometry
String
String
Small Integer
Small Integer
Double

Precision

New York Thruway maintained by

Thruway Authority

Scale Length

12
0

Route Number

Geometry Polyline
Contains M values Yes
Contains Z values No
Allow Default
nulls value

Domain

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

Precision

Table
HAL_Refmkr

0
0
0

Divided highways separated by more

than 200 feet

Scale Length

0
0
0

9
1
2
2

Table
Incidents_XY
Table
PMS_Refmkr
Table
Sufficiency_Ratings_Milept
Table
Transform_Output

Geometry Polyline
Contains M values Yes
Contains Z values No

Simple feature class

MileptHistRoute
Field name

OBJECTID
Shape
ROUTE
ACTIVE
YEAR_ACTIVATED
YEAR_RETIRED
Shape_Length

Data type

OID
Geometry
String
String
Small Integer
Small Integer
Double

Allow Default
nulls value

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

Domain

Precision

0
0
0

Code that identifies the county within a region

The DOT region for the HAL
Computed total average volume
The Million Vehicle Mile count for the section of road
Calculated classifications for accident related rates, percentages and costs
Number of fatal accidents

0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

Route Identifier
If the route status is active
The year the route was activated
The year the route was retired

Historical layer of Milepost routes

Scale Length

0
0
0

9
1
2
2

Route Identifier
If the route status is active
The year the route was activated
The year the route was retired

0
1

Collision With Bicyclist

Collision With Animal

2
?

Small Integer
Small Integer
Small Integer
Small Integer
Small Integer
Small Integer
Small Integer
Small Integer
Small Integer
Small Integer
String
String
Single

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
6
2

OBJECTID
MAJOR_PIN
ROUTE
BGN_MILEPT
END_MILEPT
CENT_LN_MI
PROJ_TITLE
LET_DATE
PSE_ESTIMATE
PSE_DATE
PROJ_EST
CONST_COST
PROJ_MGR_F
PROJ_MGR_L
WORK_TYPE
SUB_WRK_TYPE
PROJ_STUS_
REGION_NUM
LASTUPDATE
LET_QUARTE
FISC_YEAR
CAL_YEAR

Allow Default
nulls value

Data type

OID
String
String
Single
Single
Single
String
String
Double
String
Double
Double
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
Small Integer
Small Integer
Small Integer

Domain

Precision

Collision With Other

Collision With Light/Support Utility
Collision With Guard Rail

13
14

Collision With Crash Cushion

Collision With Sign Post
Collision With Tree
Collision With Building/Wall

Code

Description

Collision With Curbing

Collision With Fence

1
2

Straight And Level

Straight/Grade

19
20

Collision With Bridge/Structure

Collision With Culvert/Head Wall

3
4

Straight At Hillcrest
Curve And Level

Collision With Median/Barrier

Collision With Snow Embankment

5
6

Curve And Grade

Curve And Hillcrest

?
Z

Invalid Code
Not Reported

Collision With Guiderail End

Collision With Median Barrier End

27
30

Collision With Other Barrier

Collision With Other Fixed Object

Preventative Maintenance Screen

records along reference marker routes

31
32

Overturned
Fire/Explosion

33
34

Submersion
Ran Off Road Only

40
??

Other Non-Collision
Invalid Code

Code

Description

Other

The route identifier for the PMS record

ZZ

Not Reported

1
2

Dry
Wet

3
4

Muddy
Snow/Ice

5
?

Slush
Invalid Code

Not Reported

Pavement area type

***
Number of fatal accidents
Number of injury accidents

Description COLL_TYPE
Field type String
Split policy Default Value
Merge policy Default Value
Code

Description

0
1

Left Turn (With Other Car)

Rear End

2
3

Overtaking
Left Turn (Against Other Car)

4
5

Right Angle
Right Turn (Against Other Car)

6
7

Accidents not in intersection

Total accidents
End date for the pavement record
County within the DOT region

Code

Description

Right Turn (With Other Car)

Head On

Interstate
Parking Lot, Other Non-Traffic

Side Swipe
Other

1
2

State
County

Invalid Code
Not Reported

3
4

Town
City Street

Name
FromMeasure
ToMeasure

Field name

Data type

OBJECTID
GISRTE
FMILE
TMILE
Sufficiency
STMP
SHNUM
RES
RD
LN
PWD
SHWD
SHT
CYS
MWD
MT
SURFT
BASET
SUBBT
TERA
AREA
CULT
PARK
PASS
TRK
TRYR
DHV
AADT
FC
HCC
YS
YLW
ACC
ARC
VC
NHS
DOMDIS
REC
TRRT
TRKYR
WRKT
OLAP
PVT

OID
String
Single
Single
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
String
String

Description

Albany

0
0

0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

Ending milepoint reference

Place a succinct description of the field in this text
Description of the project
The date the project was let out for construction

11

Project supervisor cost estimate

Project supervisor estimate date

Code

Project Manager (first)

Project Manager (last)
Type of project work
More detailed project classification

The fiscal year for the project

The calendar year for the project

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

Domain

Precision

0
0

The GIS route referenced

1
4
5
3
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
4
5
2
1
1
2
1
3
4
1
6
1
1
2
1
1
1

Year 2000 surface score

Start milepost location

Number of roadways
Number of lanes
Pavement width
Shoulder width
Shoulder type
Current year surface score

Unknown
Invalid Code

Not Reported

Code

Description

+
&

Stopped School Bus

Stopped School Bus

Other
RR Crossing Gates

Description

Apparent Death
Unconscious
Semi-Conscious

1
2

None
Traffic Signal

4
5

Incoherent
Shock

3
4

Stop Sign
Flashing Light

6
?

Conscious
Invalid Code

A
B

Incapacitating Injury
Non-Incapacitating Injury

C
K

Possible Injury
Killed

9
C

Unknown

D
E

Maintenance Work Area

Utility Work Area

?
Z

Invalid Code
Not Reported

Description LIGHT_COND
Field type String
Split policy Default Value
Merge policy Default Value

Table
HAL_Refmkr
Table
Incidents_XY
Table
PMS_Refmkr
Table
Sufficiency_Ratings_Milept
Table
Transform_Output

5
6
7
8

Yield Sign
Officer/Flagman/Guard
No Passing Zone
RR Crossing Sign
RR Crossing Flash Light
Highway Work Area (Construction)

Coded value domain

WEATHER

Code

Description

1
2

Daylight
Dawn

3
4

Dusk
Dark Road Lighted

5
?

Dark Road Unlighted

Invalid Code

Not Reported

The from mile along the route

The to mile along the route

State highway number

Residency code

9
?

2
3

Coded value domain

Scale Length

0
0

Parkway
Thruway
Northway
Limited Access

LIGHT_COND

Pavement Sufficiency data file for

2000

Allow Default
nulls value

5
6
7
8

Coded value domain

Project status
DOT Region number for the project
Last date the information was updated
The quarter the project was let for construction

Line feature class

RouteThruway

Description TRAF_CNTL
Field type String
Split policy Default Value
Merge policy Default Value

Description EXT_INJURY
Field type String
Split policy Default Value
Merge policy Default Value

Project cost estimate

Construction Cost

15
18
60
60
60
2
11
2
2
2

Line feature class

RouteRefmkr

TRAF_CNTL
EXT_INJURY

Major project number

The route the project occurs along
Starting milepoint reference

60
11

Line feature class

RouteOffState

Table
Capitol_Improvements_Milept

Description ROAD_SYS
Field type String
Split policy Default Value
Merge policy Default Value

8
9

11

Line feature class

RouteMPHist

Table
Accidents_Refmkr

Coded value domain

ROAD_SYS

?
Z

Code

Line feature class

ReferencePoint

Line feature class

RouteMilept

Description ROAD_SURF
Field type String
Split policy Default Value
Merge policy Default Value

COLL_TYPE

Number of property damage only accidents

Accidents in intersection

Line feature class

ReferenceLine

Line feature class

RouteCouplet
ROAD_SURF

Accident volume
Number of roadways
Number of Lanes

Topology
R1Route_Topology

Coded value domain

The from location along the route

The to location along the route

Coded value domain

Feature dataset
R1Route

15
16

Severity rank for the section of pavement

6
9
0
0
0

Line feature class

r1route_arc

Description ROAD_CHAR
Field type String
Split policy Default Value
Merge policy Default Value

17
18

21
22

Feature dataset
Implications
Line feature class
albroad_arc

Coded value domain

ROAD_CHAR

Collision With Earth Element/Rock Cut/Ditch

Collision With Fire Hydrant

Scale Length

0
0
0

Pedestrian Not At Intersection

Invalid Code

Collision With RailRoad Train

Collision With In-Line Skater

10
11
12

Capital Improvement Project

locations along milepoint routes

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

Geodatabase
Description

Pedestrian Not Involved/Unreported

Pedestrian At Intersection

23
24

Accident reductions required to obtain normal accident status

Severity rank of the High Accident Location

9
2
2
2

Code

Collision With Motor Vehicle

Collision With Pedestrian

03
04

25
26

Number of intersection accidents

Upper limit of statistical confidence for HAL type

Scale Length

0
0
0

Description

01
02

05
06

The year for which the High Accident Location data exists
A number assigned to a highway by either federal or state governments
The count of the number of reference markers multiplied by 1/10th
Identifies whether the High Accident Location is a (PIL), (SDL) or a (PII).

Description PED_LOC
Field type String
Split policy Default Value
Merge policy Default Value

Code

The start point along the route

The end point along the route

Number of injury accidents

Number of property damage only accidetns

Table
Sufficiency_Ratings_Milept

The year the route was activated

The year the route was retired

Table
Capital_Improvements_Milept

Topology
R1Route_Topology
Line feature class
RouteMPHist

Name
FromMeasure
ToMeasure

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

Simple feature class

CoupletRoute

Unique national reference point identifier

Geodatabase

Line feature class

ReferenceLine

Allow Default
nulls value

Simple feature class

OffstateRoute

17

17

The Catalog view

PED_LOC

Description ACCD_TYPE
Field type String
Split policy Default Value
Merge policy Default Value

The GIS route the accident location is referenced to

Description COUNTY
Field type String
Split policy Default Value
Merge policy Default Value

Event layer

State DOT Reference Points, simulates

NSDI Framework transportation
reference points (FTRP)

12
32

Scale Length

0
0

Statistically High Accident sections

along reference marker routes and
intersections

The route number

Unique national road identifier

Field name

Feature dataset
R1Route

Data type

OID
Geometry
String
String
Small Integer
Small Integer
Double

Geometry Point
Contains M values No
Contains Z values No

0
0

13
2
2
4
4

Coded value domain

Line event table

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

Scale Length

COUNTY

Event layer

Scale Length

Precision

Routes with measures that correspond

to reference marker locations along
roads

Yes
Yes

Simple feature class

AlbReferencePoint
Field name

Scale Length

17

Simple feature class

AlbReferenceLine

OBJECTID
Shape
CATEGORY
NAME
Shape_Length
FTSEG_ID

Precision

Geometry Point
Contains M values No
Contains Z values No

Simple feature class

ReferencePoint

Domain

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

Geometry Polyline
Contains M values Yes
Contains Z values No

Simple feature class

MileptRoute

OBJECTID
Shape
Shape_Length
FTSEG_ID

Scale Length

Allow Default
nulls value

OID
String
Small Integer
Small Integer
String
String
Double
String
String
String
String
Double
String
Double
Double
Double
Double
Double
Double
Double

Table
Capital_Improvements_Milept

Key
Geometry Polyline
Contains M values No
Contains Z values No

Simple feature class

ReferenceLine

Precision

Data type

Coded value domain

Event layer

Feature class
ReferenceLine

OBJECTID
ROUTE_RM
F_RM
T_RM
AADT_X_100
NO_ROADW
NO_LANES
AREA_TYPE
CULTURE
FATAL_ACC
INJ_ACC
PDO_ACC
INTRS_ACC
NON_IN_ACC
TOT_ACC
END_DATE
REG_CNTY
SERV_RANKN

Date the incident occurred

X coordinate in UTM

Cluster tolerance 0.006185288

ReferencePoint
RouteCouplet

OBJECTID
ROUTE_GIS
From_RM
To_RM
HAL_YR
RT_NUM
SEG_LEN
HAL_TYPE
REG_CO
REGION
AVG_VOL
EXPOSURE
CLSF_CDE
NUM_FAT_ACC
NUM_INJ_ACC
NUM_PDO_ACC
NUM_INT_ACC
UCL
RED_IND
SEV_RANK

Table
PMS_Refmkr

Scale Length

Coded value domain

ACCD_TYPE

Detailed information for Albany

County point accident locations along
routes

5
11
2

Table
Incidents_XY

X coordinate

Topology
R1Route_Topology

OBJECTID
ROUTE_RM
Measure
MUNI
POLICE_DPT
PRECINCT
CASE_NUM
NUM_KILLED
NUM_INJURY
EXT_INJURY
ACCD_DATE
ACCD_TIME
NUM_VEH
LOCATION
ACCD_TYPE
COLL_TYPE
PED_LOC
PED_ACTION
ROAD_SURF
WEATHER
ROAD_CHAR
TRAF_CNTL
LIGHT_COND

Coded value domain

LOCATION
Description LOCATION
Field type String
Split policy Default Value
Merge policy Default Value
Code

Description

1
2

First Event Occurred On Road

First Event Occured Off Road

Invalid Code, Not Reported

Description WEATHER
Field type String
Split policy Default Value
Merge policy Default Value
Code

0
1
2

Description

Other
Clear
Cloudy

3
4

Rain
Snow

5
6

Sleet/Hail/Freezing Rain
Fog/Smoke/Smog

?
Z

Invalid Code
Not Supported

Road median width

Road median type
Surface type
Base type
Sub-base type
Terrain
Area type
Culture
Percent Parking
Passing sight distance
Percent of trucks
Traffic count year (2 digits)
Design hour volume (*10)
AADT volume (*10)
Functional Class
Highway control code
Year scored (current year)
Year of latest work
Access control
Adjusted rated capacity
Volume-capacity rating
National highway system
Dominant distress
Record code = 1
Tandem truck
Truck classification year

Coded value domain

PED_ACTION
Description PED_ACTION
Field type String
Split policy Default Value
Merge policy Default Value
Code

Description

00
01

Pedestiran Not Involved/Unreported

Crossing With Signal

02
03

Crossing Against Signal

Crossing, No Signal, Marked Crosswalk

04
05

Crossing, No Signal or Crosswalk

Along Highway With Traffic

06
07

Along Highway With Traffic

Along Highway Against Traffic

08
09

Child Getting On/Off Schoolbus

Getting On/Off Vehicle

10
11

Pushing/Working On Car
Working in Roadway

12
13

Playing in Roadway
Other Action in Roadway

14
??

Not in Roadway
Invalid Code

Work type
Route status - overlap code
Pavement type

A sample geodatabase data model document showing the various datasets and associated attributes, as well as the links between tables.

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2 Geographic Data Management

Finding and connecting to data

ArcCatalog lets you find and connect to data stored on your computer or another computer on your network, on a CD or
DVD, in a database management system, or on a GIS server on your local network or the Internet. Once connected, you
can browse or search for data across the connections.

Establishing a data connection

While you can add data directly to a map from your local disk drive without setting up a connection, establishing the
connection allows you to preview the data, review the metadata, and more easily manage your data sources.
You manage all the data connections from ArcCatalog
The Connect to
Folder button
lets you create a
connection to data
stored on a local disk
or network (Connect
to Folder is also
available from the
File menu)

Double-click Add Database Server to

connect to a Personal or Workgroup
ArcSDE geodatabase.
Double-click an option under Database
Connections to add a connection to an OLE
database or data stored in an RDBMS.

Double-click an option under GIS Servers to add a

connection to an ArcGIS Server, an ArcIMS Server,
a web mapping server (WMS), or a server on the
Geography Network.

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

Some connections may be established once, for databases you access on an ongoing basis; others may be connections
you set up on an as-needed basis to access data for a particular map. If the connection is not currently valid (the data has
moved or the server is unavailable), a small red x will appear next to the connections name.
You can have more than one connection to the same data sourcefor example, a
connection to a CD at the highest level and additional connections to folders and
subfolders on the CD.
You can set up multiple
connections to the same
sourcein this case, data
stored on a CD

Once youre done accessing the data or no longer need the connection, you can
disconnect by right-clicking the connection and selecting Disconnect Folder.
Right-click the connection
and select Disconnect Folder

The established connections

appear in the Catalog tree

Database and server connections

Storing geographic data in a relational database management system lets many people within an organization access
the same set of data. Storing data on an ArcGIS or ArcIMS server lets people both inside and outside an organization
access the data. These connections are often established by a GIS or database system administrator. One special server
connection is to the Geography NetworkSM, a clearinghouse for GIS data supplied by users worldwide. When you
connect to the Geography Network you get a list of currently available images and feature data you can preview, and
add to your map.

Geography Network Services lets you access images and features and services

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2 Geographic Data Management

Previewing data and maps

Using ArcCatalog, you can preview data from any source youve connected to.

Previewing whats in a folder or geodatabase

Use the Contents tab to see whats in a folder or geodatabase containing geographic datasets. You can view the contents
as a list or as thumbnails, among other options.
Use this button to view a list of datasets
Use this button to view thumbnails

Previewing a features geography or attributes

Select a feature class in the tree view and select the Preview tab. Then specify whether you want to preview the
features geography or attribute table.
When previewing geography, you can point to a feature with
the Identify tool to list that features attributes.

Identify

Use the drop-down list to specify whether to preview a

datasets geography or attribute table.

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

You can preview an attribute table associated with a feature class or another data table in a compatible formatfor
example, .dbf. You can explore the table to make sure, for example, that its the most current version.

Right-click a field name

to sort or get summary
statistics for the field.

Click Options and Find to

search for a specific feature
record, by attribute value.

Reviewing a datasets characteristics

Metadata is useful for confirming the version of the data, its source and processing history, and the spatial reference
system its in. (Your metadata may not look like thisthere are many different standard and custom formats. See
Documenting your database with metadata in this chapter for more information.)

The Metadata tab displays myriad information about a dataset.

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2 Geographic Data Management

Creating a thumbnail
Before you can display a dataset as a thumbnail when previewing a folder or geodatabase, you need to create a
thumbnail for the dataset. With the Preview tab selected, click the Create Thumbnail button.
Create Thumbnail

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Searching for data and maps

The ArcCatalog Search tool will look on disks, in databases, and on GIS servers for data that matches criteria you
specify. Your search is saved in ArcCatalog. As data is found that satisfies your criteria, shortcuts to those data sources
are added to the searchs list of results. You can modify the searchs criteria and run the search again. The Search tool
uses metadata to evaluate whether a data source satisfies your criteria. Having good metadata documentation is essential
for finding useful data.

Right-click a folder or drive in the

Catalog tree and click Search to open
the Search dialog box.

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Use the Name & location tab to specify the name
of a dataset (wildcards can be used); the specific
data type, or types, youre searching for, such as
shapefiles or rasters; and the location to search.

Remove the current box

Use the Geography tab to define the geographic

area in which to search. Draw a box on the map (by
clicking and dragging the cursor). Use the buttons
to zoom and pan the display. Alternatively, enter the
coordinates of the bounding box. Refine your search
by choosing a location from within the box, using the
drop-down arrow.

Choose the map to display

Use the Date tab to search for data created or

published before or after a given date or within a date
range.

Use the Advanced tab to search other entries in the

metadata, such as keywords, the data theme type,
or the source. Use the dropdown arrows to create a
query; then add it to the list.

When youve entered all your criteria, enter a name for the
search (the default is My Search). Then click Find Now
(available from any of the tabs) to begin the search.

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When you click Find Now in the Search dialog box, your search is saved in the Search Results folder and automatically
selected in the Catalog tree. When an item is found that matches your search criteria, a shortcut to that item is added
to the Search Results list. Once youve found the item that you want to use, you can work with the shortcut as if you
were working with the item itself. You can preview the items data and metadata in the appropriate tabs. You can drag
and drop a shortcut onto a map or an ArcToolbox tool. When you delete a shortcut you delete the shortcut itself, not the
actual item.
To select the actual item in the Catalog tree, right-click the
shortcut and click Go To Target.

The search
results

Right-click a shortcut
to access the items
Properties dialog box.

You can delete or rename searches the same way you would delete or rename any other item in ArcCatalog. To see the
criteria for a search, select it and select the metadata tab. To rerun a search, or to modify the criteria and then rerun it,
right-click the search and click Propertiesthat opens the Search dialog box.

Right-click the search name in the

Catalog tree and click Properties
to open the search so you can
modify or rerun it.

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Organizing your data with ArcCatalog

ArcCatalog lets you organize your datasets in workspaces, manage datasets and workspaces, and manage how the data
is displayed in the Catalog tree.

Creating a new workspace

Right-click any existing folder in the Catalog tree to add a new folder. You can then create new datasets in the
workspace, or copy them in from other locations. You can also add subfolders to further organize your data.

To create a new workspace, right-click an entry in the

Catalog tree, select New, and click Folder. A folder
is added under the entry, with the default name New
Foldertype over the name to rename it.

Right-click the new workspace to add subfolders or to create new GIS datasets
in the workspace.

Managing workspaces and datasets

Right-click a workspace or dataset to copy, delete, or rename it (when you delete a workspace, all its contents are also
deleted). To move a workspace, simply drag it to a new location.

Right-click a workspace or dataset to rename, copy, or delete it.

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To copy a dataset into your workspace, navigate to the folder containing the dataset. Right-click the dataset name and
click Copy. Then right-click your workspace name in the Catalog tree and click Paste. You can also copy a dataset
by holding down the Ctrl key while dragging and dropping. (Without the Ctrl key, dragging and dropping moves the
dataset.)

Right-click the dataset and click Copy.....

....then right-click the workspace name and click Paste.

Exploring an items properties

To learn more about a dataset or other item, right-click it to open its Properties dialog box. You can, for example,
display the source information for the dataset, view its coordinate system parameters, and display a list of its attributed
fields. Different data formats have different properties dialog boxes.

Properties dialog box for a shapefile.

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Properties dialog box for a raster.

Managing the ArcCatalog display

You can customize ArcCatalog to show only the folders and items with which you want to work. When you first
start ArcCatalog, the Database Connections, Database Servers, GIS Servers, Address Locators, Search Results, and
Toolboxes folders are visible. If you dont use data that is stored in a remote database or provided by a GIS server, you
can hide those folders, for example. Similarly, you might only want to see the shapefiles in a folder, not the coverages
and CAD drawings.

The General tab on the Options dialog box lets

you specify which top-level folders to display in the
Catalog tree, and which types of data will be visible.

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Many files that you would see in a folder in Windows Explorer arent initially visible in the Catalog tree. Some of these
files may contain information that you need when working with geographic data. To see these files, you must add their
types to the Catalog trees file types list. You can also remove file types that you no longer need.
Some of the file types you want to use may already be registered with the operating system, such as Microsoft Word
documents. You can add file type information for these files to the Catalog tree. When you double-click a file whose
type is registered with the operating system, the Catalog tree will open it in the appropriate application. You can also
add your own file type by defining the file extension, description, and icon you want to use to represent those files. For
example, to see ArcView GIS 3 project files in the Catalog tree, you would add apr to the file types list, since project
files have a .apr extension.
To specify file types to display in ArcCatalog, select Options on the Tools menu.

On the File Types

tab, click New, then
type a file extension,
or select a file type
from the Registry
list.

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Documenting your database with metadata

Documentation of each item in your database is critical for sharing tools, data, and maps; for searching to see if the
resources you need already exist; and for maintaining records of your data and projects. Dataset documentation includes
a description of the dataset, its spatial reference and accuracy, its source and processing history, descriptions of its
attributes and definitions of categories and codes, and information on how the data may be used and shared. In ArcGIS,
documentation is stored in metadata and is accessed via the Metadata tab in ArcCatalog. Once created, metadata is
copied, moved, and deleted along with the dataset when you use ArcCatalog for these tasks. Any item in ArcCatalog
including datasets, tables, folders, and geodatabasescan have metadata.

Selecting the metadata stylesheet

Every time you start ArcCatalog, metadata is initially presented with the default metadata stylesheet. Each stylesheet
in ArcCatalog presents the same body of metadata, but using a different format. To change the metadatas appearance,
choose a different stylesheet from the drop-down list on the toolbar.

Use the Stylesheet drop-down arrow to select the metadata

stylesheet to use. The information in the metadata remains the
sameonly the way it is displayed changes. The Stylesheet
drop-down arrow is active when you select the Metadata tab.

To change the default stylesheet, use the Options dialog box on the Tools menu. You wont see the change until the next
time you start ArcCatalog.
Use Options on the Tools menu to set the default stylesheet (on
the Metadata tab). Your selection will be the default the next
time you open ArcCatalog.
Select the default stylesheet

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Stylesheets with filenames that begin with FGDC present metadata stored in the XML elements defined by the
Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) Content Standard for Digital Geospatial Metadata.

The FGDC stylesheet presents a summary of the dataset at the top of

the metadata.

The FGDC Classic stylesheet provides a set of links to quickly jump

to the pertinent section of the metadata.

The FGDC FAQ stylesheet presents a set of frequently asked

questions so you can jump right to the information you need. Its
useful for datasets accessed by many users.

The FGDC Geography Network stylesheet is used at the Geography

Network data clearinghouse. It uses a citation format so users can
quickly see if the dataset will be useful for their purposes.

Stylesheets beginning with ISO present metadata stored in the XML elements defined by the ISO standard 19115,
Geographic InformationMetadata. In addition to the existing stylesheets, you can customize the metadata stylesheets
provided by ESRI and add your own XSLT stylesheets to ArcCatalog.

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Printing metadata
When you print a copy of a datasets metadata in ArcCatalog, the metadata will print exactly as you see it in the
Metadata tab. If youre using the FGDC ESRI stylesheet, click the appropriate tab on the metadata page and expand the
appropriate headings so that you can see the information you want to print.

With the Metadata tab selected, choose Print Metadata from the File menu.

Editing metadata documentation

Metadata consists of properties and documentation. Properties, such as the extent of a shapefiles features, are derived
by ArcCatalog and added to the metadata. Documentation is descriptive information you enter using a metadata
editorfor example, legal information about using the resource.
Two metadata editors are provided with ArcCatalog. One lets you create complete documentation following the
FGDCs Content Standard for Digital Geospatial Metadata. The other editor lets you document your data following the
ISO standard 19115, Geographic InformationMetadata; it supports only the core metadata elements as defined by that
standard. Use the Metadata tab on the Options dialog box to select the editor you want to use.
Select Options on the Tools menu to open the dialog
box, then select the Metadata tab. Use the drop-down
arrow in the bottom box to select the metadata editor
to use.

Select the editor

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The editor selected in the Options dialog box will appear when you click the Edit Metadata button on the Metadata
toolbar.
Click the Edit Metadata button on the Metadata
toolbar to display the current metadata editor. The
FGDC editor is divided into major sections, listed at
the top of the dialog box. Click a section heading to
display the tabs for that topic.

The ISO editor is presented as a

wizard. You can step through the
panels using the Next button, or click
a topic on the list to jump to that panel.

Before you start writing documentation, you need to decide which metadata standard youre going to follow. If you
dont have any metadata yet and dont need to create metadata according to a specific standard, the ISO editor might be
right for you. If you have a requirement to create FGDC metadata, if you already have FGDC metadata, or if you want
to create detailed metadata, the FGDC editor would be a good choice. Once youve decided which metadata standard
youre going to follow, use the editor that corresponds to that standard. Whichever editor you use, the information you
enter will still appear in any of the style sheets.
A metadata document in ArcCatalog can contain both FGDC and ISO content. These two standards can exist in parallel
in the same metadata document because they each use a completely different set of XML tags to store their information.
Therefore, if you provide a title using the FGDC editor and you later switch to the ISO editor, the information you
previously added wont appear in the editor.

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Importing and exporting metadata

If you have metadata that was created outside of ArcCatalog, you can import it if its stored in one of the input formats
supported by the FGDCs metadata parser utility.
You might export metadata to publish it on a data clearinghouse website. Exporting to HTML format creates a file that
represents the selected items metadata exactly as you see it in the Metadata tab. Exporting to XML format creates an
exact copy of the items metadata in a new XML file; this lets you work with metadata for geodatabase items outside
ArcCatalog.

Use the buttons on the Metadata toolbar to import a datasets metadata from (or
export it to) one of several standard formats.

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Creating a geodatabase
The process for building a geodatabase is to create the design for the geodatabase, build the structure for the
geodatabase (the schema) in ArcGIS, and then import existing data into the geodatabase, or create new datasets within
it. There are two ways to turn a geodatabase design into a geodatabase structure: create an empty geodatabase and
then use ArcCatalog tools to create the various components (as defined in the design); or copy an existing schema or
geodatabase template and modify it, if necessary.
After the geodatabase is constructed, you can import data (see Collecting, importing, and converting GIS data in
Chapter 3). You may want to start by importing a subset of data to test the design. You can then make changes to the
geodatabase design before loading all your data.

Creating a geodatabase using ArcCatalog tools

To build a geodatabase using tools in ArcCatalog, you first create the geodatabase, which is initially empty. You then
use the tools provided in ArcCatalog to create or import the feature datasets, feature classes, tables, geometric networks,
topologies, and other items in the geodatabase. These tools are described in separate sections in this chapter. Use these
same tools to modify a geodatabase youve imported from a template.
There are three kinds of geodatabases: file geodatabases, personal geodatabases, and ArcSDE geodatabases. A file
geodatabase stores datasets as a folder of files on your computer. A personal geodatabase stores datasets in a Microsoft
Access file on disk. They both look the same in ArcCatalog (except for the extension.gdb and .mdb, respectively),
although they vary in functionality and performance. A file geodatabase can be up to 1TB in size (versus up to 2GB
for a personal geodatabase) and will perform searches and queries faster than will a personal geodatabase. A personal
geodatabase, however, provides the advanced table operations found in Microsoft Access (some GIS applications may
require these).
You create a file or personal geodatabase within a folder (usually for a workspace youve set up) by right-clicking the
folder.
Right-click a folder, click New, and click either
File Geodatabase or Personal Geodatabase.

A new, empty geodatabase is created in the foldertype over the name to

rename the geodatabase.

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An ArcSDE geodatabase stores datasets in a DBMS. To create an ArcSDE geodatabase you first add a Database Server
connection (for Personal and Workgroup ArcSDE) or a Spatial Database connection (for Enterprise ArcSDE). See
Finding and connecting to data earlier in this chapter. You can then create the geodatabase from this connection.

To create an ArcSDE geodatabase, right-click the database connection and click

New Geodatabase. Youll be prompted to name the geodatabase, for a location to
store it (it will still appear under the server connection in the Catalog tree), and for
a maximum storage size.

Creating a geodatabase by copying a template

A quick way to build a geodatabase is to use the design of an existing geodatabase that meets the needs of your
application. Other ArcGIS users in your region or your industry may have already built a geodatabase structure you can
use or modify. Ask them to export their schema to a file and send it to you. ESRI also provides a number of data model
templates at http://support.esri.com/datamodels. You create an empty geodatabase, then import the schema file.

The first step in importing a

geodatabase is the same as
creating a geodatabase from
scratchright-click a folder,
click New, and click either File
Geodatabase or Personal
Geodatabase.

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Select Schema
Only, and type the
name of the XML
file (or browse
to locate it). This
same wizard is
used to load an
entire exported
geodatabase,
including the data.

After renaming the new geodatabase, right-click it, click Import, and
click XML Workspace Document to open the wizard.

The wizard shows

you all the empty
geodatabase
components that
will be created.
Select and type
over the Target
Name for a
component to
rename it (if
necessary), then
click Finish.

The result is a new schema with no data but with all the feature datasets, feature classes, tables, topologies,
relationships, geometric networks, domains, subtypes, and field properties from the source geodatabase. You can then
review the schema and modify it to suit your needs, deleting some items and adding or changing others.

When you import the schema, the various datasets are defined and created as empty containers. If you preview the geography for a feature class,
for example, youll see that the preview panel is blankthere are no features to preview. If you preview the attribute table for the feature class,
youll see that the columns have been created but there are no records in the table.

Once your schema is ready, import the existing data into the defined geodatabase datasets.

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The first panel of the Simple
Data Loader wizard explains
what it does.

Browse to the dataset

containing the data to load, then
Add it to the list (you can load
multiple datasets of the same
type at one time).

To load data into one of the empty containers, right-click it, click Load,
and click Load Data. That opens the Simple Data Loader wizard.
This panel shows the
geodatabase and feature class
the data will be loaded into.

Heres where you specify which

attributes correspond to which
fields in the table (if the field
names arent the same).

The default is to load all the

features, but you can load a
subset of featuresselect Load
only the features that satisfy
a query, then use the Query
Builder button to specify the
selection criteria.

The final panel shows you a

summary of the data that will
be loaded. Click Back to make
changes, or click Finish to load
the data.

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Once the data is loaded, the feature class now contains features. The feature geography can be previewed in ArcCatalog, and the features can be
added to a map in ArcMap. The feature attribute table contains the attribute values for each feature.

Another way to copy the schema of a geodatabase is to use the Extract Data wizard in ArcMap. It allows you to
modify the spatial reference of the new schema you create and to set a map extent for the data you want to copy into
your geodatabase. This is useful because the spatial reference requirements of your new geodatabase will probably be
different from those of the source geodatabase.

The Extract Data Wizard is available

from the Distributed Geodatabase
toolbar in ArcMap. To open the
toolbar, click the View menu and
point to toolbars.

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Creating feature classes and tables

Feature classes and tables are two of the basic datasets in a geodatabase. Feature classes store geographic features of the
same type and their associated attributesfor example, youd create one feature class for roads, another for streams,
and a third for parcels. Standalone tables store additional descriptive information that can be related to the geographic
features. When building a geodatabase structure (or schema) from a design, after creating the geodatabase youll create
and define the empty feature classes and tables. You first create the empty feature class or table. You then define any
additional fields containing descriptive data. Later youll add data to the datasets by importing or editing.

Creating a feature class

Feature classes contain both the geometric shapes of each feature as well as their descriptive attributes.

To create a feature class, rightclick the geodatabase in the

Catalog tree, point to New, and
click Feature Class.

Enter a name for the

table or feature class,
and an optional alias.
Then define the type of
feature.

Define the coordinate

system for the feature
class. Select a
predefined coordinate
system, import one from
an existing dataset, or
define a new one.

ArcGIS uses the

tolerance to evaluate
if features connect or
overlap. X,Y coordinates
within the tolerance
distance are considered
to be coincident. The
default tolerance is an
effective choice in most
cases.

Configuration keywords
are used to handle
special data storage
needs. For example,
if your database will
be larger than 1GB or
if you need to store
attributes containing
Chinese or Japanese
characters, youd specify
the appropriate keyword
(these are specific to
each DBMS). Otherwise,
choosing Default is a
suitable option.
New feature classes
have a default ObjectID
field and a Shape field
that specifies the type
of feature (point, line,
or polygon). This dialog
box is where you specify
additional fields, by
typing the name and
data type in an empty
row.

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Feature classes store features in vector format. Vector data is often used to represent features that have a discrete
location in spacesuch as wells, streets, rivers, states borders, and parcel boundariesas opposed to being continuous
across space, such as elevation or rainfall, often represented using rasters (see Managing raster datasets in a
geodatabase in this chapter). The most common vector types are points, lines, polygons. Annotation, which is used to
label features, is also stored as feature classes (see Creating and editing annotation in Chapter 3). Multipoints are often
used to manage arrays of very large point collections, such as LiDAR data. Multipatches are a 3D geometry used to
represent the outer surface of buildings or other objects having volume.
You can also specify whether the feature class includes Z or M values. Z values are most commonly used to represent
elevations, but they can represent other surface measures. M values are used to interpolate distances along linear
features, such as along roads, streams, or pipelines. A common example is a highway milepost measurement system.
The coordinate system for each dataset is for georeferencing. It can be imported from an existing dataset, or you can
create a custom coordinate system by defining its properties (youll likely either import a coordinate system or select
a predefined one). Most organizations use one coordinate systemappropriate for their geographic locationfor all
their data. Feature classes can also be created within a feature dataset in the geodatabase (see the next section, Ensuring
spatial data integrity). In this case, the spatial reference will be defined for the feature dataset, so you dont need to
specify it.
Use the Import option to assign the
feature class the coordinate system
of an existing dataset.

Use the New option to define the

parameters of a geographic or
projected coordinate system.

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Creating a standalone table

The process for creating a standalone table containing only tabular data is similar to the process for creating a feature
class containing geographic features. The main difference is that you dont specify a coordinate system, tolerance, or
feature type.

Enter a name and alias

for the table.

To create a table, right-click the geodatabase in the Catalog tree,

point to New, and click Table.

As when creating a
feature class, if youre
using an ArcSDE
geodatabase, you can
specify a keyword to
handle special data
storage needs. In most
cases you can safely
accept the Default.

New tables have a

default ObjectID field.
Specify additional fields
by typing the name and
data type in an empty
row.

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Specifying additional fields

All tables and feature classes have required fields that are automatically created. Tables have an ObjectID field, and a
simple feature class has an ObjectID field and a Shape field. The ObjectID uniquely identifies each object, or feature,
while the Shape field stores each features geometry (the coordinates). These fields have properties you can modify,
such as their aliases and geometry type, but the fields cannot be deleted. Beyond these required fields, you can add any
number of fields to a table or feature class to store descriptive information.
To add a field, type the field name in an empty row, select a data type for the field, and then specify the field properties
that appear in the box below (or accept the defaults). At this point youre only defining the fields in the tableyou add
data to the table later by importing it or by editing the table and entering the data.

To add a field, type the field name in an empty

row, and click the Data Type box in that row
to select the field type. Then modify the field
properties, as necessary, by clicking the box
to the right of the property name and typing a
value or selecting from the drop-down list.

The field properties vary somewhat,

depending on the data type. Numeric types
include Precision and Scale.

Data types include numbers, text, dates, and binary large objects (BLOBsused to store and manage binary
information such as symbols and CAD geometries). Numbers can be short integers, long integers, single-precision
floating point numbers (often referred to as floats), and double-precision floating point numbers (commonly called
doubles). If you just need to store whole numbers, such as 12 or 12345678, specify a short or long integer. If you
need to store fractional numbers that have decimal places, such as 0.23 or 1234.5678, specify a float or a double. When
choosing between a short or long integer, or between a float or double, choose the data type that takes up the least
storage space required. The short integer type stores integers between -32,768 and 32767; use long integer for numbers
outside this range (either smaller or larger). The float type stores fractional numbers between -3.4E-38 and 1.2E38; use
the double type for numbers outside this range.
If youre specifying numeric fields for a table in a file or personal geodatabase, you need only specify the data type.
If youre specifying numeric fields for an ArcSDE geodatabase, you additionally specify the precision, which is the
maximum length of the field, and scale, which is the maximum number of decimal places. For example, if you specify
a float with a precision of 4 and a scale of 2, the field will accept 12.34there are four digits (defined by the precision)
and two of them are to the right of the decimal point (the scale).

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Another way to add fields to a table or feature class is to import them from an existing dataset. When you do this, any
fields you may have just defined are automatically deleted, so import before defining any additional fields you may
need. You can modify the properties of the imported fields, just as with fields you define.

After selecting the

dataset to import from
and clicking Add on
the browser window,
the field definitions
are added to your new
feature class or table.

Import lets you browse to an existing dataset

and import the field definitions.

When defining a tables fields in an ArcSDE geodatabase, be aware that each DBMS has its own rules to define which
names and characters are permitted. The table designer checks the names you type using a set of common rules, but
each database is slightly different. If you want more control over a fields data types or structure, create the table
directly in the DBMS.

Modifying a feature class or table definition

You can change any of the field propertiesincluding the geometryanytime before pressing the Finish button. To
delete a field youve added, select it by clicking the box at the left side of the row, then press the Delete key on your
keyboard.

To delete a field, select the

row, then press the Delete
key on your keyboard.

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Once you press Finish, the fields and their properties are saved. You can modify some of the properties by opening the
feature class or table properties dialog box (right-click the feature class or table in the Catalog tree and click Properties).
On the General tab, you can change the alias. On the Fields tab you can delete a field youve added (as described above)
or change the alias or default value for a field by typing in the appropriate box. You cannot modify the feature class
geometry, or field types or lengths. You can add new fields by typing in an empty row.

Right-click a feature class or table and click

Properties to open the Properties dialog
box. You can add or delete fields, or modify
some field properties.

You can also delete and add fields when previewing a table in ArcCatalog, as well as when viewing a table in ArcMap
(see Adding fields and calculating attribute values in Chapter 5).

Select the feature class or table in the

Catalog tree, select the Preview tab, and
select Preview: Table from the drop-down
box at the bottom of the ArcCatalog
window. Right-click a column heading to
delete that field; use the Options button to
add a field.

If youve defined many fields and then findafter youve finished creating the feature class or tablethat you need to
modify the type or length of one or a few fields, you can delete the field and then add a new one. Or, you can create a
new feature or class or table and then import the fields from the original oneonce youve imported the fields you can
modify the ones you need to, up to the point you click the Finish button.
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Ensuring spatial data integrity

ArcGIS stores information about a place as layers of data (each represented by a dataset). You need to ensure that
the datasets are coincident and register with each other correctly. Adding whats known as a feature dataset to your
geodatabase ensures that feature classes for the same geographic area have the same coordinate system and therefore
register correctly. You also need to ensure that features within a dataset, and between datasets, relate the way the
features theyre representing do in the real worldfor example, that parcels dont overlap. Adding a topology dataset to
your geodatabase makes these spatial relationships explicit and ensures theyre implemented and maintained.

Creating a feature dataset

Sometimes different datasets that cover the same geographic area are in different coordinate systems and wont register
correctly when you display them on a map or combine them when performing geographic analysis. This is often true
if you collect existing datasets from various sources. A feature dataset, which contains feature classes and related
geodatabase datasets, ensures that all the related datasets are in the same coordinate system and register correctly.

To create a feature dataset,

right-click the geodatabase in the
Catalog tree, point to New, and
click Feature Dataset.

Enter a name for the feature

dataset.

As when creating a feature class,

you can specify the coordinate
system for a feature dataset
by selecting a predefined one,
importing a coordinate system
from another dataset, or creating
a custom coordinate system.

Specify a vertical coordinate

system if your dataset will include
feature classes that have Z values
(heights or depths).

Again as when creating a

feature class, you specify an XY
tolerance to define the distance
within which coordinate pairs are
considered to be coincident.

Once youve defined the feature dataset, it appears in the geodatabase.

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When you define a feature dataset, you specify its spatial reference. This includes its coordinate system and the
coordinate domainsthe minimum x-, y-, z-, and m-values and their precision. All feature classes in the dataset use the
same coordinate system, and all coordinates in all features in all feature classes must fall within the coordinate domains.
Any new feature classes you create within the feature dataset are automatically in that coordinate system. Any datasets
you want to import to the feature dataset have to be transformed or projected into the coordinate system before you add
them. When defining the coordinate system, you can choose a predefined coordinate system, import it from an existing
feature dataset, or define a custom coordinate system.
Feature datasets are primarily used for storing feature classes that will participate in a topology, network, or other
specialized dataset. These datasets can only be created within a feature dataset, the reason being that all participating
feature classes must have the same spatial reference (otherwise, it would be impossible to build the dataset), which the
feature dataset ensures.

Getting data into a feature dataset

When you first create a feature dataset, its empty. There are several ways to add feature classes to the feature dataset.
One easy way is towithin ArcCatalogsimply drag and drop a feature class from elsewhere in the geodatabase, or
from another geodatabase. Another way to add a feature class is to import it to the feature dataset. Importing lets you
modify the incoming feature class, to some extent.

To import data, right-click the feature

dataset in the Catalog tree, point to
Import, and click Feature Class (single) or
(multiple). The (single) option imports one
feature class at a time, and lets you specify
the input parameters. The (multiple) option
lets you import several feature classes at
once, but they are imported as-is.

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You can also define a new, empty feature class within the feature dataset. The process for defining the feature class is
the same as for creating a feature class at the geodatabase level (see Creating feature classes and tables in this chapter).

To create a feature class within a feature dataset, right-click the feature dataset,
point to New, and click Feature Class.

As you develop the geodatabase, you may add topologies, relationship classes, and specialized datasets to the feature
dataset.

Creating a geodatabase topology

Besides referencing the same location on the Earths surface, datasets for the same place often have spatial relationships
with each other. These are relationships you can see when looking at a map and are often intuitively obvious, but they
must be made explicit in the GIS. For example, streets must connect at intersections; parcel boundaries cannot overlap;
parcels nest within block boundaries; and so on.
A geodatabase topology is a set of rules that specify how points, lines, and polygons share geometry. The rules can
apply to features within a single feature classfor example, one topology rule would ensure that adjacent features, such
as two counties, will share a common edge, so county boundaries dont overlap. The rules can also apply to features in
different feature classes. For example, county boundaries (one feature class) must completely nest within states (another
feature class), and share edges along state boundaries.
A topology is created within a feature dataset, and applies to one or more feature classes in the dataset (so if you want
to create a topology in your geodatabase, you must first create a feature dataset and add the pertinent feature classes to
it). Only feature classes in the same dataset can participate in a topology, but not all the feature classes in a dataset are
required to participate in the topology. And a feature class can only participate in one topology at a time.
When you validate a topology, ArcGIS checks the rules youve established. To ensure the rules are not broken, ArcGIS
will, if necessary, snap feature vertices together to make them coincident. For example, if two street centerlines are
supposed to connect but dont quite meet, ArcGIS will snap the end points of the lines together. Specify a cluster
tolerance to control how far features are allowed to move during snapping (the default cluster tolerance is the minimum
possible). The cluster tolerance should be small, so only close vertices are snapped together. A typical cluster tolerance
is at least an order of magnitude smaller than the accuracy of your data. For example, if your features are accurate to
2 meters, your cluster tolerance should be no more than 0.2 meters.
Youll want the less reliable features to snap to the more reliable ones. Ranks are used to implement this. Vertices of
lower-ranking features within the cluster tolerance will be snapped to nearby vertices of higher-ranking features.
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To create a topology, right-click the feature dataset, point to New, and
click Topology. That opens the New Topology wizard.

Specify the number

of ranks, and use the
drop-down menus in the
Ranks column to assign
each feature class a
rank. Features having a
lower rank will snap to
those having a higher
one.

Click Add Rule to add

rulesuse the dropdown menus on the
Add Rule dialog box to
construct the rules.

Enter a name for the

topology, and specify
a cluster tolerance
(or accept the default
value).

Add all the rules you

need to the list. You can
save the rule list to use
with topologies in other
feature datasets and
geodatabases.

Select the feature

classes that will
participate in this
topologyyou can
have more than one
topology in a feature
dataset, but each
feature class can
participate in only one
topology.

The final panel displays

a summary of your
topology definition. Click
Back to make changes,
or Finish to create the
topology.

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After the topology is created (and before its added to the

feature dataset) youre prompted to validate itclick Yes.
Validation checks to make sure the rules are met. During
validation ArcGIS may actually move features (by snapping, for
example) to ensure the rules are adhered tobut only within
the cluster tolerance. If a feature would have to be moved
farther than allowed by the tolerance, it is not moved, and an
error is recorded.

Once validated, the topology is added to ArcCatalog in the feature dataset.

Validation records errorsthat is, instances of rule violations. You can get a list of any errors (or confirm that there
arent any) by accessing the topologys Properties dialog box (see below). You can fix errors by editing them in
ArcMapthe Topology toolbar has tools to do this (see Chapter 3, Data Compilation and Editing).

Managing a topology
You can view and manage topologies in geodatabases through ArcCatalogright-click a topology in the Catalog tree
and click Properties. New feature classes can be added to a topology at any time, as can new rules. When the rules or
other properties of a topology are changed, the topology will need to be validated again.
You can also view a summary of the number of errors in a topology from the Topology Properties dialog box. The
summary tells you how many errors exist for each of the topology rules.
Deleting a topology does not delete or modify the participating feature classes themselves; it merely removes the rules
governing their spatial relationships. Copying a topology also copies the feature classes that participate in the topology.
To rename or delete a feature class that participates in a topology, you must first remove the feature class from the
topology. Either that, or delete the topology.

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Right-click a topology to access its properties.

Click to re-validate

Use the General

tab to change the
name or cluster
tolerance.

Use the Feature

Classes tab to add
or remove feature
classes, and to
change their rank.

Use the Rules tab

to add or remove
rules, to save the
rule list, or to load
saved rules.

Use the Errors tab

to view a summary
of topology errors.

The error summary doesnt automatically

appear when you go to the Errors tab. You
have to click the Generate Summary button to
see the list of errors.

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Ensuring attribute data integrity

Attribute data is used throughout ArcGISwhen querying and selecting subsets of data, when symbolizing features
on maps, and in a range of geographic analyses. To make sure your queries and maps are correct and your analyses are
validand that the decisions based on these tools are solidyou need to ensure that the attribute data is as error-free as
possible. ArcCatalog includes several tools for minimizing the amount of typing when entering attribute values, helping
ensure that attribute data is entered correctly in your geodatabase, whether in a feature class or a standalone table. You
can have default values for fields automatically assigned when features are created. You can also create lists of valid
values to select from when editing attributes, or ranges of valid numeric values that entered values can be checked
against. These are known as domains. And you can create subtypes based on categories within a feature class, each of
which can have a different default value or domain. You can assign default values and create domains and subtypes
when you first create a feature class or table, or any time thereafter.

Assigning default values to fields

You can assign a default value to one or more fields in a feature class or table, which is useful if many features or
records will have the same value for the field. When youre editing in ArcMap and adding new features or records,
each feature automatically gets the default value for that field (rather than you having to type it). For example, if youre
adding parcels in a new subdivision, the values for some fields will be different for each parcel (such as the address and
the owner) but some will be the samesuch as the landuse code. You could assign a default landuse code value to that
field and all parcels you add will automatically get that code. You can edit and change the assigned value for a particular
feature later, if necessary.

Click anywhere in the

row to select the field

Enter the default value

for the selected field
by typing in the box

To assign a default value to a field, right-click the

feature class in the Catalog tree and click Properties.
Then select the Fields tab.

Using domains to ensure valid attribute values

For many feature classes and tables, certain fields will have a limited number of possible values. This is often the case
for fields that represent categories or classes of dataa parcel can be assigned one of a limited set of landuse codes;
only certain pipe diameter values are valid for water mains. Similarly, you may want to specify that continuous numeric
values for a fieldsuch as assessed value for parcelsbe limited to a range. Using domains ensures only valid values
are assigned. (Of course, domains dont ensure a particular parcel was assigned the correct landuse code or a particular
water main the correct pipe diameteronly that the assigned value is a valid one.) Domains are essentially a list you
create (a table, actually) of each valid code and its description (known as a coded value domain), or, alternately, a range
you specify within which numeric values must fall (known as a range domain).
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You first create a domain and enter the codes and descriptions, or specify the numeric range. A coded value domain
can apply to any type of attributetext, numeric, date, and so on. The domain type must match the data type youre
creating the domain for (if the field is integer, the domain type must also be integer).

Enter the name

and description

Click in the box to

select the field type

Enter the
minimum and
maximum values
for the range

To create a domain, right-click

the geodatabase in the Catalog
tree and click Properties. Select
the Domains tab on the Database
Properties dialog box.

Enter the code

values and
descriptions

Defining a code domainselect Coded

Values in the Domain Type box.

Defining a range domainselect Range in the

Domain Type box.

You then associate the domain with a field in one or more feature classes or tables in the geodatabase.

Click anywhere in the

row to select the field

Click this box to select

the domain from the list

After creating a domain, associate it with a field by

accessing the properties for the feature class or
table. Right-click the feature class in the Catalog
tree, click Properties, and select the Fields tab.

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Domains are created at the geodatabase level (for the entire geodatabase rather than for a feature dataset or individual
feature class) so they can be assigned to any of the feature classes or tables in the geodatabase. For example, a single
paving type domain could be assigned to both a Paving_type attribute in a highways feature class and a Surface_type
attribute in a streets feature class. Domains are managed using the Domains property page, which can be accessed
from the geodatabases properties dialog box, or from the Feature Class or Table Properties dialog box. The Domains
property page can be used to delete an attribute domain from the geodatabase or modify an existing domain.
Code domains constrain the values you can enter when editing attributes in ArcMapa drop-down menu lets you
choose from the valid attribute values. A range domain doesnt constrain the value that can be entered, but when you
validate your edits, any values that are outside the range will generate a warning so you can fix the error (see Checking
your data for errors in Chapter 3).

Without the domain, values have to be typed

in. Not only does the domain save time, it
also helps prevent data entry errors.
When editing a field with a code domain (in ArcMap), the attribute value is selected
from a drop-down list.

Using subtypes to assign default values and domains

Subtypes are based on categories or classes within a feature class or table, and are a way of assigning default values
and attribute domains without having to create separate feature classes or tables for each category. For example, in a
water network, it may be that transmission water mains can have a pressure between 40 and 100 psi, while distribution
water mains can have a pressure between 50 and 75 psi. Rather than creating separate feature classes for transmission
and distribution water mains, youd create two subtypestransmission mains and distribution mainswithin the
water mains feature class. You could then assign different range domains for the water pressure field to each. Subtypes
can also be used to assign different topology rules to different types of features within a feature class (see the previous
section, Ensuring spatial data integrity).
The subtype for a feature in a feature class or a record in a table is determined by its subtype code value. The field
youre using to define subtypes must be short or long integer. If the values are currently stored as text attributes in
the table (as category values often are), youll need to add an integer field to the table and assign a numeric code to
each category value (see Adding fields and calculating attribute values in Chapter 5). For example, if youre creating
subtypes for a parcel feature class using a general landuse code, and the categories are residential, non-residential,
and undeveloped, youd need to add a new field to the feature class and assign an integer value to each feature based
on its landuse categorysay 0, 1, and 2, respectively. Youd then use this new field to create the subtypes.

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Select the field from the feature class attribute

table or standalone table to use to define the
subtypes.
For each subtype, enter the code (the value
from the subtype field) and a description. The
description will appearinstead of the original
codewhenever you view or display the table.
Each subtype can have its own default values
and domains. Select a subtype by clicking its
row in the upper box, then click in the Default
Values or Domains box for a field to enter a
default value or assign a domain.

To create a subtype, right-click the feature class in the Catalog tree and click
Properties; then select the Subtypes tab on the dialog box.

For convenience, you

can also create a domain
from the subtype dialog
boxit becomes one of
the geodatabase domains,
available to all other feature
classes in the geodatabase.

Subtypes can be modified or deleted using the Subtypes tab. To delete an individual subtype, click the box at the
beginning of the subtypes row and press the Delete key on your keyboard. To delete all the subtypes, click the Subtype
Field drop-down arrow and select <None>.
Once created, subtypes are used in several places in ArcGIS Desktop. When you view the feature class table or
standalone table in ArcCatalog or ArcMap, the subtype name appears in the field, rather than the original value the
subtype is based on.
The original codes for the
Development Code field.

After the subtypes are

created, the subtype
descriptions are displayed.

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When you preview the feature class in ArcCatalog, the features are symbolized by subtypenormally theyre all drawn
using a single symbol. Similarly, when you add the feature class to a map in ArcMap, the features are automatically
symbolized by subtype.

When you preview a feature class that has subtypes, the features are displayed
using a different color for each subtype.

When you edit attributes in ArcMap, the subtype names are displayed in the field. Any default values or domains
youve defined are active. If you change the subtype, any default values are automatically applied and any domains
automatically become available.

When editing the attributes of a

feature in ArcMap, the subtype
descriptions are listed.

If you change a features subtype,

any default values or domains
associated with the new subtype are
immediately applied.

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Building relationships between features and tables

A feature class stores the geometry of geographic features and their attributes. In many cases, youll be able to store all
the descriptive information for the features in the feature class. There may be cases, though where its more efficient to
store information about the features in a separate table, and relate the records in this table to the features in the feature
class, using a common field. One way to do this in ArcGIS Desktop is to create a relationship class in your geodatabase.
The relationship class defines the relationship between the feature class and the related table, or between two standalone
tables.
For example, you may want to store information about the owner for each parcel in a feature class (the owners mailing
address, phone numbers, tax ID, and so on). One person might own several parcels; it would be redundant to store
all that information in the feature class for every parcel that the person owns. Conversely, a parcel might be owned
by several people; it would be difficult to store their names (let alone their other information) in the record for that
parcelyoud have to have multiple fields (owner1, owner2, owner3, and so on). To solve this dilemma, youd create a
relationship class between the feature class of parcels and a table of owners. Each parcel and each owner is listed once,
in their respective tables. A common field in the two tables acts as a key to relate recordsin this example, youd likely
use the parcel ID. When you point at a parcel on a map in ArcMap to see who owns it, ArcMap uses the relationship
class to select and display the related owner records for that parcel. When you select an owner in the owner table,
ArcMap will display all the parcels owned by that person.
Relationship classes are often used to maintain descriptions of category codes. For example, each parcel may have a
landuse code, with the detailed description of the code stored in a related table having one record for each code. If you
need to change or update a particular code description, you just edit the record in the related table.
Relationship classes are also useful if related tables are maintained and updated separately, or if the attributes you need
in a feature class are already stored in another feature class. For example, you may have a feature class of counties, with
the health statistics for each county stored in a separate table that is updated monthly. Rather than continuously updating
the attributes in the counties feature class, you simply create a relationship class to relate the counties to the health
statistics table.
Attribute relationships can also be created using joins and relates in ArcMap (see Joining tables in Chapter 5). These
relationships are stored only with the map in which they are created. Relationships created in the geodatabase are
available for any map and throughout ArcGIS. Setting up a relationship class in the geodatabase has several other
advantages. A relationship class can be set up so when you modify a feature, related features update automatically.
This can involve moving or deleting related features, or updating an attribute. For example, you could set up a
relationship such that whenever you move a utility pole, attached lines and transformers move with it. By setting rules,
a relationship class can restrict the type of relations that are valid. For example, you can specify that a pole may support
a maximum of three transformers.

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Creating a relationship class

You can create a relationship class at the geodatabase level or the feature dataset leveleither way, all the feature
classes and tables in the entire geodatabase are available for the relationship; the only difference is where the
relationship class will reside. Right-click a geodatabase or feature dataset, point to New, and click Relationship Class.
The wizard will prompt you for a name for the relationship class and the participating feature classes or tables, as
well as other properties. You can create a relationship class between a feature class and a standalone table, two feature
classes, or two standalone tables in your geodatabase.

Enter a name for the

relationship class, and
select the origin and
destination feature
classes/tables. In
general, the destination
is the feature class/table
youre relating the
associated table to. In
this example, a table
of owners is related to
parcelsOwners is the
origin and Parcels the
destination.

Specify either a simple or

composite relationship. In
a composite relationship,
if a record in the origin
is deleted, the related
records in the destination
are also deleted. In a
simple relationship this is
not the case.

To create a relationship class, right-click a geodatabase or feature

dataset in the Catalog tree, point to New, and click Relationship
Class. The process is the same either waythe only difference is
where the relationship class will be stored (under the geodatabase, or
under the feature dataset).

Use messages to enable

automatic update of
records between the
feature classes/tables.
You can later set up
rules to specify when and
how updates will occur
(for example, when you
move a feature you can
have features in a related
feature class move
with it).

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Specify whether
one record in the
origin relates to
only one record in
the destination; one
record can relate to
more than one record
in the destination; or
multiple records in the
origin can relate to
multiple records in the
destination.

Specify whether the relationship

class will have attributesthat
is, whether each linked pair of
records has associated fields,
such as the percentage of a
parcel owned by a particular
owner. If Yes, an intermediary
table is created, and the Next
button displays a dialog box in
which you define the fields. Each
record in the table represents a
linked pair of records.

Lastly, specify the

fields in the origin and
destination feature
class/table containing
the common values
used to relate records.
These are known as
keys.

If you specified that the

relationship class contain
attributes or you specified
a many-to-many relate, or
both, an intermediary table
is created. In addition to the
origin and destination keys,
you specify the field(s) in
the intermediary table that
correspond to the origin
and destination keys.

The final panel displays

a summary of the
options you specified.
Click Back to make
changes, or Finish to
create the relationship
class.

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On the first panel of the wizard, you choose one feature class/table to be the origin and another to be the destination.
An edit made to the origin will affect the destination. For example, in the landuse code example above, youd set the
code table as the origin and the parcel feature class as the destination. Deleting a parcel (a destination object) will have
no effect on the code table, and deleting a landuse code (an origin object) will set the value of the code field in the
matching parcel records to Null, which is as it should be, because they no longer have a matching code table record. If
you set the parcels as the origin, deleting a parcel would set the value for that code to Null in the code table; all other
parcels having that code would no longer have a match in the code table.
When you create a relationship class, you specify whether it is simple or composite. In a simple relationship class, if
you delete a record in the origin table, the value for the corresponding record in the related table is set to Null. In a
composite relationship, destination objects cant exist independently of origin objects, so when the origin is deleted, the
related destination objects are also deleted.
You can have origin and destination objects send messages to notify one another when they are changed, allowing
related objects to update appropriately. For example, updating an origin can require related destination objects to
update. If updating an origin requires related destination objects to update, set the message notification direction to
Forward; specify Backward for the reverse. Or, specify Both. Once youve created the relationship, you must then set
up rules for the objects that receive the messages so they can respond.
The type of relateone-to-one, one-to-many, or many-to-manyis known as cardinality. The parcel/owner example
earlier describes a many-to-many relate (one or more parcels can relate to one or more owners); the landuse code
example is a one-to-many relate (one landuse code relates to many parcels); and the county health statistics example is a
one-to-one relate (each county in the feature class has a corresponding record in the health statistics table).
The common fields that relate the feature classes/tables are called keys. The key field in the origin class of a relationship
is called the primary key; the key field in the destination class is called the foreign key. It contains values that match
those of the primary key field in the origin class. The key fields may have different names but must be of the same data
type and contain the same kind of information, such as parcel IDs.
In one-to-one and one-to-many relationships, values in the primary key of the origin class directly relate to values in the
foreign key of the destination class. Many-to-many relationships, on the other hand, create an intermediate table to map
the associations. When the intermediate table is created, only the fields are generated for you. ArcGIS does not know
which origin objects are associated with which destination objects, so you must manually create the rows. Each row
associates one origin object with one destination object.
The intermediate table of a many-to-many relationship can optionally serve a second purposestoring attributes of the
relationship itself. For example, in a parcel database you may have a relationship class between parcels and owners,
where owners own parcels and parcels are owned by owners. An attribute of each relationship could be the percentage
of ownership. If you need to store such attributes, you can add them to the intermediate table when you create the
relationship or anytime after. When youre setting up a one-to-one or one-to-many relationship, you may have the same
need to store attributes of the relationship. If this is the case, you must specify this when you create the relationship so
an intermediate table is created for you.

Specifying the number of allowed linked records

Once youve created the relationship, you can specify rules to refine the cardinality. In a relationship of parcels and
buildings, for example, you might specify that each building must be associated with a parcel, or that a parcel can
contain a maximum of three buildings. This prevents a user from forgetting to associate a building to a parcel or from
associating too many buildings to a parcel when editing data, and ensures the integrity of the relationships between
feature classes and tables.

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In ArcCatalog, right-click an existing relationship class to display its Relationship Class Properties dialog box and click
the Rules tab. If the origin or destination has subtypes, click the subtype you want to apply the rule to. If there are no
subtypes, the relationship rule will apply to all features. Check the boxes for the origin and destination cardinality. Set
the appropriate Min and Max cardinalities for the rule.

Select the origin subtype to participate

in the rule, then select the destination
subtype (make sure the box is
checked). Then specify the number of
allowed linked records. In this one-tomany relate, one private parcel owner
can be linked to anywhere from 0 to 5
non-residential properties. Set the Max
first, since the Min must be less than
the Max.

To create a relationship class rule, right-click the

relationship class in the catalog tree, and click
Properties, then select the Rules tab on the dialog
box.

After youve set up the rules, you can test them in ArcMap with the Validate Features command.

Managing a relationship class

Once youve created the relationship class, it appears in the Catalog tree, and you can inspectbut not changeits
properties by right-clicking it and clicking Properties. You can, however, set and change relationship rules on the Rules
tab. When you delete a feature class or table in ArcCatalog, if that feature class or table participates in a relationship
class, the relationship class is also deleted.

Right-click a relationship class to rename or delete it.

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Accessing table relationships in ArcMap

You can use ArcMap to explore the relationships established by the relationship class. When you identify a feature in
your map, you can see the features or records related to that feature in the Identify results dialog box.
After identifying a feature,
expand the tree associated
with the feature, then click
the ID of the related record to
display the attributes in the
related table.

Expand levels
Select

When you select one or more rows or features in a table, you can open the related table and select the related objects.

To view the attributes in a related table for a selected

set of features, open the feature attribute table, point to
Related Tables and select the related table from the list.

The related table opens

in a new window. Click
the Selected button at the
bottom of the window to
show the records for the
selected features.

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Managing raster datasets in a geodatabase

Rasters store geographic data as a continuous grid of cells, each assigned a value. They are most often used for
continuous phenomena that can be measured at any location, such as rainfall, elevation, or the concentration of ozone
in the air. However, discrete featuressuch as roads or wellscan also be stored as rasters (the cell value indicates
the presence or absence of a feature). Typically, raster datasets are stored in workspaces, along with other files. You
can load them into a geodatabase if you want all your data stored in one database. Storing rasters in a geodatabase may
also make managing multiple raster datasets easier and more efficientyou can ensure the datasets are in the same
coordinate system, for example. Also, storing very large rasters in a geodatabase enables them to display on the screen
rapidly. A geodatabase raster is cut up into smaller tiles (referred to as blocks). When you zoom in, only the blocks for
the current map extent need to be fetched, instead of the entire image.
One way of managing rasters in a geodatabase is to create a raster dataset from one or more existing rasters. This
approach is particularly good for combining adjacent rasters and creating a single dataset (such as combining several
adjacent elevation surfaces to create a single elevation surface for your study area). The other way to manage rasters in
a geodatabase is to create a raster catalog and then load multiple rasters into it. A raster catalog is good for storing and
managing individual rasters as a collection, such as storing coincident rasters representing different themes (elevation,
slope, soil moisture) for a city or county.

Loading rasters into a geodatabase

There are two ways to create a raster dataset in a geodatabase. One way is to create an empty raster dataset and define
its properties, such as cell size and coordinate system, then load one or more rasters into it. Youd typically use this
approach when implementing a geodatabase design and populating the geodatabase with data.
To create an empty raster dataset, right-click the geodatabase, point to New, and click Raster Dataset.

To create an empty raster dataset, right-click the

geodatabase name in the Catalog tree, point to New, and
click Raster Dataset. Define the properties for the new raster
dataset in the dialog box.

You can then load the dataeither a single raster, or multiple rasters that you want to mosaic into a single dataset.
You specify how to handle overlaps, what value to use for no data, and so on.

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After creating the empty raster dataset, right-click it,

point to Load, and click Load Data. Browse to the
dataset to add or to the multiple datasets to mosaic
together. You can also specify how overlapping
input datasets are to be handled, what value to
assign no data cells, and so on. The result is a
single raster stored within the geodatabase.

Another, more ad hoc, approach is to import one or more existing raster datasets directly into the geodatabase. Import
assigns the properties of the output raster dataset using the properties of the input rasters, rather than allowing you
to define them. There are two options for importing rasters. Both are accessed by right-clicking the geodatabase and
clicking Import. If you want to mosaic several adjacent rasters into a single dataset, choose Raster Datasets (mosaic).
As with loading multiple datasets (described above), you can specify how to handle overlaps, assign no data values,
and so on.

To import a raster, or to mosaic several rasters, without first

creating an empty raster dataset in the geodatabase and
defining its properties, right-click the geodatabase, point to
Import, and click Raster Datasets (mosaic). Properties of the
output dataset are derived from the input raster(s).

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If you want to import a single raster dataset, or import several datasets at one time but continue to store them as
individual datasets (rather than mosaicking them into a single dataset), choose the Raster Datasets option.

To import one or more rasters into a geodatabase as

individual raster datasets, right-click the geodatabase, point
to Import, and click Raster Datasets.

The rasters are stored

individually in the
geodatabase.

Creating a raster catalog

A raster catalog lets you manage a group of individual rasters as a collection. The rasters could be a tiled imagesuch
as all aerial photos for a countythat you want to maintain as separate tiles (rather than mosaicking them into a single
dataset); a set of coincident rasters for a location (such as layers for soil type, elevation, rainfall, and so on); a time
series for a location (such as urban versus rural landuse for each decade); or any other collection of rasters you want to
keep together, such as all the output rasters from a GIS analysis project.
You first create and define the raster catalog. Right-click a geodatabase, point to New, and click Raster Catalog.

To create a raster catalog, right-click the geodatabase name

in the Catalog tree, point to New, and click Raster Catalog. In
the dialog box, name the catalog, and specify any additional
parameters.

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After creating the catalog, you load raster datasets into it.

After creating the empty raster

catalog, right-click it, point to Load,
and click Load Data. Browse to
the rasters to add, and add them
to the list.

When you create a raster catalog, a table is created that lists each raster. You can display the table by selecting the
catalog in the Catalog tree, selecting the Preview tab, and clicking the Table option at the bottom of the window. You
can add fields to the table (such as source, creation date, and so on) to track the rasters. Right-click the catalog, click
Properties, and select the Fields tab. Then enter the additional fields as you would for any other table (see Creating
feature classes and tables earlier in this chapter).

When you preview the

table for the raster catalog
you can see that each
raster dataset is stored as
a record in the table. You
can add fields to the table,
such as the creation date,
the source, and so on, to
manage the raster datasets
more efficiently.

The input rasters are stored as

individual datasets within the raster
catalogyou can access the
properties for a dataset by rightclicking it.

You can also perform searches to query the raster catalog. You might do this to find only rasters of a specific date or
having a low percentage of cloud cover on an image. You can search by geography to view only those rasters that
coincide with your area of interest. (See Searching for data and maps earlier in this chapter.)

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Adding specialized datasets to a geodatabase

In addition to the basic geodatabase data types of feature classes, tables, and rasters, you can extend your geodatabase
with datasets that are used for specific applications, such as surface modeling and analysis; modeling the flow of people,
goods, or resources over networks; or locating features or incidents along a street or highway network. Usually, these
datasets are built from feature classes and tables that already exist in your geodatabase. While this section describes
how to define these datasets in your geodatabase, Chapter 3, Data Compilation and Editing, contains information on
how to create and edit the features that the datasets contain.

Creating a terrain dataset for surface modeling

A terrain dataset is used to model surfaces using TIN structures within a geodatabase (see also Creating a TIN surface
in Chapter 5). Terrains are also used to manage massive 3D point collectionsfor example, billion point LiDAR
collections. You define and build the terrain dataset from existing feature classes stored in a feature dataset. You can
also specify scales at which to display the terrain at a lower resolution, so it will draw faster.

To create a Terrain, right-click the

feature dataset containing the
feature classes that will be used to
build the surface, point to New, and
click Terrain.

Select the feature

classes that will be
used to build the
Terrain. These include
spot elevations,
contour lines, and
breaklines (such as
streams or graded
roadbeds).

Specify the number

of pyramid levels.
Pyramids are used
to draw the Terrain
more quickly (but with
lower resolution) when
zoomed out.

Specify how the

feature classes will be
used for building the
Terrain (or accept the
defaults).

The final panel

summarizes the
settingsclick Finish
to build the Terrain
(or Back to make
changes).

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Once the terrain dataset is created, its added to the feature dataset. You can preview the terrain in ArcCatalog, and view
its properties by right-clicking it in the Catalog tree.

The terrain dataset is added to the feature dataset. Select

it and click the Preview tab to display it; right-click and click
Properties to view the terrains properties.

You can display a terrain dataset just as you would a TIN by adding it to a map in ArcMap or to a 3D view in ArcScene.
See Chapter 4, Mapping and Visualization, for more on displaying surfaces.

You can add a terrain dataset to a map in ArcMap or a 3D

view in ArcScene (part of the 3D Analyst extension).

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Creating a network dataset for transportation applications

A network dataset is a collection of edges (any line feature that participates in the network), junctions (where edges
connect), and turns, through which you can model navigation and the flow of people, objects, goods, or resources. Each
network has a set of navigation properties. These include the cost (such as distance or time) to travel along each edge
and to transfer onto another edge; the ability to model one-way, left turn, and other travel restrictions; and the ability
to model multi-modal networks (modeling trips that use a combination of an automobile, a bus, and walking, for
example).
A network dataset uses feature classes as data sources for edges, junctions, and turns. You specify the role each feature
class will play in the network along with its navigation properties. The feature classes that participate in a network must
be in the same feature dataset, and a feature class can participate in only one network dataset at a time.
Enter a name for the network
dataset.

To create a network dataset, right-click the feature dataset containing

the network components, point to New, and click Network Dataset.

Specify which feature

classes will be used to build
the network. It can be as
simple as a single street
feature class, with streets
forming the edges and
intersections forming the
junctions. Or it can include
multiple modes, such as rail
lines, stations, bus routes,
bus stops, and so on.
Specifyfor each feature
classwhere features in the
network can connect. The
default is end points, but you
can have lines connect to
each other at any vertex.

Click the Connectivity button to specify

where lines (edges) will connect and
network junctions will be created.

Specify an elevation field

if multiple edges meet at
a junction, but you want to
limit which other edges they
connect toonly edges
with the same value in
the elevation field will be
considered connected in the
network.

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You can model turns in the

network tofor example
prohibit turns from one street
onto another or to assign a
longer wait time to a left turn
versus a right turn. Turns
are created as a separate
feature class in the feature
dataset.
Attributes are most often used to assign cost (in terms of distance,
time, or money) for travel over the network. You first add an attribute,
and then use the Evaluator to specify where the values come from (for
example, a length field for edges).

You can have the results

of your network analyses
include travel directions.
Use the directions properties
dialog box to change the
default settings for directions.

The final panel summarizes

the network settings. Click
Finish to create the network
dataset, or Back to make
changes.

If you dont specify any attributes when prompted, the wizard will ask if you want to add one based on the length of the
feature. The wizard also recognizes fields with certain names in the feature classes youre building the network from
and automatically associates them with the network attributes (if you add a network attribute named meters it will
automatically be associated with a meters field in a line feature class, if it exists).

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After the network is created (defined), a prompt appears, asking if you want to build it. (You can always build it later by
right-clicking it in ArcCatalog. You might do this if you redefine the network at a later time.)

Click Yes when prompted to go ahead and

build the network dataset.

The network is added to the feature dataset in which it was created. You can preview it and access its properties by
right-clicking the network dataset name in ArcCatalog. The properties dialog box lets you add or remove feature classes
or attributes, change the driving direction parameters, and so on. The network junctions are also added as a separate
feature class in the feature dataset.

The network dataset is added to the geodatabase.

To modify it, right-click it in the Catalog tree and click
Properties. Dont forget to rebuild it afterward (using the
Build option on the context menu).

The network junctions are also added as a geodatabase feature class.

Once your network is complete, you can add it to a map in ArcMap, and perform network analysis, if the Network
Analyst extension is enabled. Open the Network Analyst toolbar using the Toolbars option on the View menu. You
can, for example, find the shortest (or quickest) route between stops, define a service area around a facility, or find the
closest facility to a location. See Creating paths and corridors and Allocating areas to centers in Chapter 5.

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Add the network dataset to a map in ArcMap, and use the tools on the Network
Analyst toolbar to perform analysis, such as finding the shortest route between
several stops.

Creating a geometric network for utilities applications

A geometric network is a set of connected edge and junction features used to model the flow of electricity, water, gas,
stormwater runoff, and so on. Each feature class is assigned a role in the geometric network as a collection of edges or
junctions. The connectivity of the network is defined by geometric coincidencefor example, valves (which are held
as a point feature class) are connected to the endpoints of pipe segments (stored as line features). If the valve is open,
water can flow through it in a specified direction.
Geometric networks are similar to network datasets used for transportation modeling, but have properties that let you
perform analysis specific to utilities applications. You can trace upstream or downstream from a location, find all the
connected elements, find closed loops, and so on. Geometric networks can be analyzed using the Utility Network
Analyst toolbar in ArcMap (see Modeling flow in Chapter 5).

Add the geometric network (in this case, an electric network) to a map in ArcMap,
then use the Utility Network Analyst toolbar to trace flow over the network (click
Toolbars on the View menu). In this example, the map displays the portions of the
network downstream from an outage.

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You can build a geometric network from existing feature classes (the most common approach) or define the parameters
of the network and load data into it later. Geometric networks are created within a feature dataset so you must have
defined and created a feature dataset before creating a geometric network. All feature classes participating in the
network must have the same spatial reference, which a feature dataset ensures. Feature classes can belong to only one
geometric network at a time.

Use the Build Geometric

Network Wizard to create a
geometric network.

To create a geometric network, right-click the feature dataset in the

Catalog tree, point to New, and click Geometric Network (geometric
networks can only be created within a feature dataset).

Specify whether youre

building a network from
existing feature classes, or
youre building an empty
network that youll load data
into later (in which case the
next five panels are skipped).

Select the feature classes that

will participate in the network
(a feature class can participate
in only one network at a time).

The Enabled field (set to either

true or false) is added to each
feature class in the network
to specify whether specific
features can participate in
tracing flow over the network.
The value is initially set to
Trueyou can change this
by editing the feature class
later. This panel is presented
when one or more of the
feature classes already has an
attribute field called Enabled
(it may have previously
participated in a network).
Specify whether to use or
overwrite these values.

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Specify whether to build complex
edges. If No, line features (edges)
will act as simple edges and will
connect only at endpoints. If Yes,
you can specify which line feature
classes will have complex edges
and will connect at endpoints or
where edges intersect (do this if you
want to maintain certain features
as single entities, even if theyre
intersected by other features).
Accept the default to snap features,
unless youve already edited all the
participating features classes to
ensure line ends and junctions are
connected.

Specify whether any of the point

feature classes in the network
represent sources or sinks. Youd
include sources and sinks if youll
be modeling flow through the
network.

Add a row

Assign any weights that will be

used when modeling flow through
the network. These represent
the cost of traversing an edge
(or junction) in the network. You
can then associate weights with
fields in the appropriate feature
class (by accessing the feature
class properties and selecting
the Weight Association tab). The
values in the field are used as
weights.

The final panel displays a

summary of the options you
specified. Click Back to make
changes, or Finish to create
the geometric network.
The geometric network is added to the feature dataset. To see the
list of participating feature classes and their role in the network
along with connectivity rules and weights youve assignedrightclick the geometric network and click Properties.

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Creating an address locator for geocoding

A common way of locating geographic entities is to use street addresses. This is often done for tables of customers,
students, or any other entities that have an associated street address, such as crimes. The process of assigning
coordinates to street addresses is called geocoding. To assist in geocoding, you add an address locator to your
geodatabase. A locator is a combination of one of more feature classes containing addressable features, such as address
range information for street centerlines, and a set of address styles and parameters that direct the matching process.
Each locator dataset is used as the source for matching a single address or a large file of addresses in order to find
address locations. See Assigning locations using street addresses or routes in Chapter 3 for more on geocoding.
Right-click the geodatabase, point to Import, and click Address
Locator. Then pick an address style from the liststyles include
basic formats such as the entire address in a single field, to a
wide range of standardized formats having multiple address
fields.

Use the Address Locator dialog box to specify the parameters

for address matching, such as field names, intersection
separators, and matching rules.

Creating a route dataset for linear referencing

Some GIS applications employ a linear measurement system used to measure distances along linear features, such as
along roads, stream lines, and pipelines. One common example is a highway milepost measurement system used by
departments of transportation for recording pavement conditions, speed limits, accident locations, and other incidents
along highways. Values on the measurement system represent milepost distance from a set location such as a county
line, or distance from a reference marker.
Support for these types of applications is referred to as linear referencing. Linear referencing is implemented in ArcGIS
using route feature classes, which you build from linear features (such as local streets and highways) that have a
common measurement system.
When creating a route feature class, you must define the geometry fields type to be polyline and indicate that it is able
to store measure values. You also need to add a route identifier field. This field uniquely identifies each route. There are
several ways to create routes in ArcGIS. The simplest is to use the Create Routes Wizard in ArcCatalog. (You can also
create a route feature class and then load data into it; use the Linear Referencing tools in ArcToolbox; or create routes
interactively in ArcMap. See Editing routes and geometric networks in Chapter 3 for more on linear referencing and
on creating routes in ArcMap.)
To use the Create Routes Wizard you first need to add the tool to a toolbar in ArcCatalog.
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To add the Create Routes Wizard button to a
toolbar, click Customize on the Tools menu.
Then, on the Commands tab, select Linear
Referencing in the Categories list, and drag
the tool to a location on the Standard toolbar
(or another open toolbar).

You then select the dataset the routes will be created from, such as a roads feature class having route identifiers and
milepost measures, and click the tool to open the wizard.
The input feature class is
automatically entered. From
the drop-down list, select the
field in the input feature class
containing the route identifier
for the features (this field has
to exist in the input feature
classits used to assign
features to a route).

In the Catalog tree, click the feature class youre creating routes from.
Then click the Create Routes Wizard button you just added to the
toolbar.

Specify how the route

measures will be derived.
You can use the lengths
of the features, or use an
existing field (or to-from
fields) in the input feature
class.

Specify whether to create

the route as a feature class
in a geodatabase, or as a
shapefile in a folder.

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Specify the location and
name of the new route.

You can create the route

using all features in the
input feature class, or use
the Query Builder to select
a subset of features. Youd
use a subset, for example,
to exclude features that are
not part of a route (as shown
herefeatures with a route
ID not equal to 0), or to create
routes using only certain route
IDs, or to create routes from
another selected set (such as
a particular road typeonly
highways, for example).
The final panel summarizes
the route parameters. Click
Finish to create the route, or
Back to make changes.

The route is created as a feature class in the feature dataset. As with any other feature class, you can access its properties
by right-clicking it in the Catalog tree.

Right-click the route to access its properties (some of

which you can modify).

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Once the route has been created, you can add it to a map in ArcMap to display and query itfor example, you can point
at a location on a route and get the measurement at that point. You can also assign geographic locations to eventssuch
as accidentsthat have route measurements rather than street addresses or geographic coordinates. The events can then
be displayed on a map. This is a common reason for creating routes. See Assigning locations using street addresses or
routes in Chapter 3 for more on adding route events to a map.

Routes can be used to

assign geographic locations
to events stored in a table
(such as road accidents).
The events need to have
a route ID field and a
measurement field (such as a
milepost number).

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Maximizing the performance of your database

As you add more and more data to your geodatabase and make changes to the data, the speed with which ArcGIS can
search and display the data may suffer. And the size of your geodatabase files may grow. There are several things you
can do to make sure your database can access and display your data quickly and efficiently. Creating indexes can help
speed up queries. If your database includes raster datasets, youll want to make sure youve built pyramids for all the
rasters, so theyll display faster. Finally you can compact your database from time to time to decrease fragmentation of
data on disk and make data searches faster.

Defining or modifying a spatial index

ArcGIS uses spatial indexes to quickly locate features in feature classes. Identifying a feature, selecting features by
pointing or dragging a box, and panning and zooming all require ArcMap to use the spatial index to locate features.
Feature classes in a geodatabase use a system of grids as the spatial index. When you zoom to an area in ArcMap,
ArcGIS finds the features that fall within the grid cells covering that area and displays only those featuresthat way it
doesnt attempt to draw all the features (even those off the edges of the screen).
A feature class in a personal geodatabase has only one grid. Once a feature class is created in a personal geodatabase,
you cannot modify the grid cell size.
feature class in a file or ArcSDE geodatabase can have up to three grids. The additional grids allow feature classes
A
with features of very different sizes to be queried faster. However, for most feature classes only a single grid is
necessary. ArcGIS automatically rebuilds the spatial index after certain operations, to ensure the index is optimal.
However, there may be times when you want to manually recalculate the index or assign grid cell sizes of your own
for example, after adding many polygons that are much larger than existing polygons.

To view, recalculate, or modify a spatial

index, right-click the file or ArcSDE
geodatabase feature class in the Catalog
tree, and click Properties. Then click the
Indexes tab on the Feature Class Properties
dialog box.

Creating an attribute index

Once you have data in a table or feature class, you can create attribute indexes to speed up queries you make on
geodatabase tables and feature classes. It is much faster for the database to use the index to look up a record than to start
at the first record and search through the entire table.
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Attribute indexes can be created for single or multiple fields in a geodatabase feature class or table by accessing the
Properties dialog box in ArcCatalog.

Click the Add button to open the dialog

box. Enter a name for the index, then
use the arrows to add the fields you
want to index to the list. These would be
the ones you search or query frequently.
To create an attribute index, right-click a
feature class in the Catalog tree and click
Properties; then select the Indexes tab.

Creating raster pyramids

Pyramids are reduced resolution representations of your raster dataset used to improve display performance. With
pyramids, a lower-resolution copy of the data displays when drawing the entire dataset. Using lower-resolution data
allows the dataset to draw quickly, while display quality is not noticeably worse. As you zoom in, higher-resolution data
is displayed; performance is maintained because youre drawing successively smaller areas. ArcGIS chooses the most
appropriate pyramid level automatically based on the scale of the map.
Pyramids only need to be built once per raster dataset; after that, they will be accessed each time the raster dataset is
viewed.
When you display a raster for which pyramids have not been built, youre prompted to build them. Its a good idea to
do this. You can also build pyramids for a raster dataset at any time by right-clicking the raster in the Catalog tree and
clicking Build Pyramids.

Right-click the raster in the

Catalog tree and click Build
Pyramids. This opens the Build
Pyramids toolclick OK to
build the pyramids.

Although you are not able to build pyramids on raster catalogs, it is possible to build pyramids for each raster dataset
within the raster catalog.

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Compacting and compressing geodatabases

A file geodatabase is stored as a folder of files on disk, while a personal geodatabase is stored in a single Microsoft
Access (.mdb) file. When you first add data to either of these geodatabases, the data within each file occupies a
continuous space on disk and is accessed efficiently by the software. However, as you delete and add data over time,
the data within each file breaks into increasingly smaller, scattered fragments as data is removed and new data is added
elsewhere in the file. This causes the software to perform more data-seeking operations within each file, slowing the rate
at which the data is accessed. Compacting rearranges how the data is stored in each file, consolidating the data so that it
occupies a single, contiguous space. Compacting also reduces the size of each fileits possible to be able to reduce the
size of a geodatabase by half or more. If you frequently add and delete data, you should compact your file or personal
geodatabase on a monthly basis. You should also compact a geodatabase after any large-scale change, such as deleting a
number of datasets.

To compact a personal or file geodatabase, right-click the geodatabase and click

Compact Database.

File geodatabases can also be compressed to make them smaller. Compressing a geodatabase (especially a large one)
can yield significant storage savings, which can be helpful when youre pressed for disk space or are trying to fit data
onto a CD or DVD.
Once compressed, a dataset looks the same in ArcCatalog and ArcMap as when it was uncompressed. The compressed
data is a direct access format, so you do not have to uncompress it each time you access itArcGIS reads it directly.
A compressed dataset, however, is read-only and therefore cannot be edited or modified, except for changing its name
and modifying attribute indexes and metadata. Compression is best suited for datasets that do not require further
editing. If required, a compressed geodatabase can be uncompressed to return it to its original, readrite format.

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To compress a file geodatabase, right-click the geodatabase and click Compress

File Geodatabase.

In addition to compacting or compressing a geodatabase, you should also run the Windows disk defragmenter on an
occasional basis to maintain overall file system performance. File and personal geodatabase performance can benefit
from this operation just like other types of files can.
The performance of an ArcSDE geodatabase can also become degraded over time as you add and delete features. Thats
because features that are deleted remain as rows in the geodatabase, but are only marked as deleted (so they can be
undeleted, if necessary). To remove the deleted rowsand improve performanceyou need to compress the database
(any deleted rows can no longer be undeleted after the database is compressed).

To compress an ArcSDE
geodatabase, right-click
the geodatabase, point to
Administration, and click
Compress Database.

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Data Compilation
and Editing
An overview of data compilation and editing 152
Collecting, importing, and converting GIS data 160

Collecting data in an ArcGIS format

Compiling GIS data in other formats
Compiling raw coordinate data

Assigning locations using street addresses or

routes 165
Geocoding street addresses
Linear referencing

Starting and managing an edit session 172

Starting the edit session
Managing the edit session

Creating and modifying features 176

Creating features
Modifying the shape of a feature
Changing the position of a feature

Editing connected features 181

Connecting line features

Extending a line
Creating an adjacent polygon
Editing features that share a vertex or border

Creating features from a printed or scanned

map 190
Digitizing over a background image
Digitizing from a printed map
Creating features using vectorization

Creating and editing annotation 207

Editing map document annotation
Creating and editing geodatabase annotation

Creating and editing dimensions 218

Editing routes and geometric networks 222
Editing a route dataset
Editing a geometric network

Checking your data for errors 230

Validating attribute values

Validating relationship classes and network connectivity
Validating topology rules

Defining coordinate systems and projecting

datasets 237
Adjusting and integrating datasets 240

Transforming, rubber sheeting, and edge matching

datasets
Copying attributes from one feature to another
Combining datasets into a single dataset

Editing multiuser and distributed

geodatabases 248

Editing an ArcSDE geodatabase using nonversioned data

Editing using versioned data
Creating and editing multiple geodatabase versions
Creating geodatabase replicas for distributed editing

Adding and editing attribute data 201

Using the Attributes dialog box

Using an attribute table to add or edit attributes
Editing attributes for datasets having table relationships
Adding fields to a table

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

An overview of data compilation and editing

Once youve designed your GIS database, you need to collect the data that it will contain.
The data you collect may be the most valuable asset in your GIS, since it underlies all the
maps youll make and analyses youll undertake. While its time consuming to collect data
from various sources or create the data from raw informationnot to mention making sure
the data is as accurate and current as possiblethe effort will ensure that your data, and
the products you create from it, are sound. You may also need to process some of the data
you collecteither before or after you put it in your databaseto make sure you can use
it to make maps and do analysis. You may need to correct or add individual features, add
fields, update attribute values, change the coordinate system of a dataset, combine adjacent
datasets into a single one, make sure coincident datasets register correctly, and so on.

GIS data sources There are a variety of ways to collect the data that will go into your GIS database. In the
course of your GIS projectseven for a single projectyoull likely use all of them.

Get existing data in an ArcGIS format

GIS data formats that ArcGIS can read directly include geodatabases, shapefiles, and
coverages. You might get this from other ArcGIS users, download them from a GIS data
clearinghouse, or buy them from a commercial data provider. You can copy this data right
into your database in ArcCatalog, add it to a map in ArcMap, or use it for analysis with
ArcToolbox tools (although youll first want to verify the quality and usefulness of the data
for your purposessee The process for compiling GIS data in this section). ArcGIS also
recognizes a range of raster data formats (used for digital elevation models, orthophotos,
and satellite images) you can load into your database or add to a map.

ArcGIS datasets youre likely to acquire include geodatabases, shapefiles,

images, layer files, and even map documents, all listed here in ArcCatalog.

Get digital GIS data in another format and import or convert it

While there is a huge amount of data available in an ArcGIS format, you may also come
across GIS data that is in another data format. This might be data created in another GIS
program, data from a related application such as CAD software, or data in a standard
format used by a government agency or other organization (such as the digital line graph,
or DLG, format used by the U.S. Geological Survey). ArcGIS includes tools that recognize
many standard formats and let you import the data into a geodatabase. You can even create
your own tool to import custom formats.

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CAD data, including AutoCAD drawing files
(such as the building footprints, parcels, and
road casings shown here) and MicroStation
design files, can be imported to ArcGIS.

Convert tabular data to GIS data

Some of the data youll need may be for features that have a geographic location, but have
not yet been assigned geographic coordinates so they can be mapped. Examples include a
table of customers or students with a home address, a table of crimes with a street address
or intersection, or a list of traffic accidents with a milepost marker. ArcGIS includes tools
to read a street address or a measure along a route (such as mileposts), assign geographic
coordinates, and create a feature class or shapefile from the data. You might also receive
data as a list of features with associated coordinates, such as a table of earthquakes with a
latitude/longitude coordinate, or a list of coordinates transmitted by a wolf wearing a GPS
receiver and a radio transmitter. ArcGIS lets you import tables of coordinatesin various
formatsand create a dataset you can store in your database and display on a map.

Features stored in tables (such as this Excel table) and having a street address
or other locator can be assigned coordinates and displayed on a map in ArcGIS.

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

Create GIS data from scratch in ArcGIS

If you havent been able to get the data you need in a digital format, you can create the
datasets. In most cases, youll draw features right on the screen in ArcGIS, using existing
data (such as an aerial photo or satellite image) as a backdrop, guide, and spatial reference.
For example, to create a dataset of streets as line features from an aerial photo stored as an
image on your computer, youd display the photo and trace over the streets to create the
lines. If the information is on an existing printed map, you can trace over its features on a
digitizing tablet to create a GIS dataset. This was the main method of data compilation in
the early days of GIS, when most geographic information was in the form of paper maps.
Now its mainly used to fill in holes in your database when the data isnt available from any
other sourcesuch as for local historical data. Printed maps and aerial photos can also be
scanned and then automatically converted to vector GIS datasets.

You can create features in ArcGIS by digitizing. In this example, the ArcScan for
ArcGIS extension is used in an ArcMap edit session to create features (blue line)
by tracing over a scanned parcel map.

Make new data from existing GIS data

Some of the data youll require can be constructed or derived from datasets youve already
loaded into your database. This might be a specialized dataset built from a collection
of other features, such as a transportation network constructed from streets, highways,
intersections, bus stops, and so on. Or, it may be a dataset you derive by processing an
existing datasetyou might clip streams for your study area out of a larger dataset of
streams, or you might process an elevation surface to create a raster dataset of slope
steepness (see Chapter 5, Geographic Analysis, for more on processing datasets to create
new ones).

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A surface showing steepness of slopes (below) can be derived

from an elevation surface (left), using tools in ArcGIS.

The process for Compiling and editing GIS data is a loosely structured process that includes a number
compiling GIS data of tasks. You may not perform these tasks in just this order, but youll want to make sure

youve at least considered each of these points. You may also find that while building the
database your various datasets will be at various stages in the process. And you may also
find youll have to revisit earlier tasks as new data is available. Keeping a GIS (or any)
database current is an ongoing process. Developing a system to track your datasets and
where they are in the process will be very beneficial (metadata can help with this, or even a
spreadsheet).

Set up a workspace structure and database design

Before collecting data, you need to know what data to collect. Your database design process
will result in a list of required datasets. Having the workspace structure or geodatabase
in place will allow you to keep the data organized as you compile it. The section An
overview of geographic data management in Chapter 2 includes a discussion of how to set
up a workspace structure and design a GIS database.
Once youve completed the database design, its a good idea to listfor all the required
datasetswhere the data is going to come from, if you know. That will help focus your
search. For example, you may already know that some of the data you need is only on
printed maps that youll need to scan or digitize. You may be aware of some GIS datasets
available from a local agency or that you will need to buy from a commercial provider. For
other datasets, you may not know if they already existeither in digital form or on paper
so youll have to initiate a search.

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

ESRI Data & Maps

Search for existing data

Once you know what data you need, you need to find it and collect it one place. If you
dont already know that it exists and where it is, you will need to search for it. There are
several places where you can start your search.
The ESRI Data & Maps CDs and DVDs contain basic global and national level data
for parts of the world, such as hydrography, transportation networks, administrative
boundaries, and demographic information (see the appendix in this book). These datasets
are useful if youre working at a national or global scale. However, you may need more
specialized data (such as vegetation types, air quality readings, or health statistics), or more
detailed data (a coastline dataset, for example, is often very generalized for display on a
national map), especially if youre working at a local or regional scale.
GIS data clearinghouses

There are several global and national GIS data clearinghouses set up on the internet (for
example, www.geodata.gov). You can search by data theme or by location, or both. Some
of the data is free, while other data you have to purchase. Again, the key is finding data that
is detailed enough for your needs. Many states and regions have set up clearinghouses for
local data. Data that you download or obtain may have restrictions on its use. Youll want to
check this for all data you obtain, but especially data you download from a clearinghouse.

geodata.gov is a U.S. government clearinghouse where you can search for, and
download, data and maps.

Local or regional agencies

Many local government agencies are willing to share their GIS data if you contact them
directly. Some data you may have to purchase, usually at a relatively low price that covers
the distribution costs. Once you start building your own GIS datasets you may find that
agencies are willing to exchange data they have for data they need. A good way to find data
is through local and regional ESRI user groups, many of whom hold regular meetings.

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Commercial data providers

There are many companies that sell GIS data. Sometimes this is public domain data that a
company has updated or corrected with newer or more accurate information (streets are a
good example); or sometimes the company has compiled information from various sources
in one dataset and used it to create new information, such as retail lifestyle categories for
ZIP Codes. They may also process the data or use models to make predictions, such as
projected population growth for counties. Some data you can buy is from companies that
go out and collect raw data, such as satellite imagery or aerial photography. Commercial
sources can be found at some of the clearinghouses, in GIS magazines and other
publications, at GIS conferences, and by searching on the internet.

Regardless of the source, youll want to make sure you get information about the data:
The coordinate system its in
The date it was collected, and when it was updated
For attributes, the descriptions of category codes and the units of measurement for
numeric fields
The resolution of the data (the appropriate scale at which it can be displayed)
The owner of the data (if not the provider) and any restrictions on its use

This is usually in the metadata documentation that either comes with the data or is available
at the clearinghouse. But in some cases youll get data without documentation, so make
sure the provider gives you at least these basic details.
Import or convert existing datasets, as necessary
In many cases, the data you obtain will already be in one of the formats ArcGIS can
directly read and use (a geodatabase, a shapefile, an ArcInfo coverage, or a supported
raster format). However, youll probably get at least some data that is another GIS format,
some other digital format, in a table with a geographic locator (such as a street address), or
otherwise needing to be converted or imported before you can add it to your database and
use it with ArcGIS.

Use ArcCatalog to import datasets.

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Create additional datasets

Once youve collected all the available data, you may still be missing some datasets you
need. If there is source datasuch as an existing printed mapyou can digitize it. If not,
you may have to collect the data in the field, or pay someone to do it. Or, you may have
to substitute other available data that may not be your first choice (for example, lower
resolution satellite imagery). Or, do without.
Since similar data is often available from different sources, there will be decisionsand
trade-offsalong the way. You may have to decide between obtaining an existing GIS
dataset that is out of date (and either updating it or using as is), and digitizing a recent map
to have the latest information. The first option is faster and less expensive, but you may end
up with lower quality data.

Make sure the datasets are integrated

The next step is to make sure you can use all the data for its intended purposes. To do
this, you need to make sure the various datasets youve obtained from various sources
fit together. First, youll want to make sure the datasets can all be displayed in the same
geographic space. While they dont have to all be in the same coordinate system, they at
least have to have a spatial reference defined so ArcMap can display them together on
a map (ArcMap will project data on the fly). ArcGIS data should already have a spatial
reference defined; if youve imported data, youll have to define it. However, its usually a
good ideaat least for a database youre building for the long haulto put all the data in
the same coordinate system. It will minimize registration problems between datasets, and
you wont have to worry about it as youre making maps and doing analysis.

Then youll want to make sure that the features in different coincident layers match up as
closely as possiblefor example, you dont want street centerlines stored in one dataset
to cross over any parcels stored in another dataset. Even if the features are in the same
coordinate system, the data may have been collected by different agencies at different times
and at different resolutions (or with varying quality control). Usually, youll have more
confidence in the accuracy of one of the datasets. Youll use this one as the control, and
adjust the other datasets to match it. In the end, you may have to edit and move individual
features, but adjusting one dataset to another can at least get the features close to the right
location.

Finally, to make sure the data covers your area of interest, you may need to match tiled
datasets to build a continuous dataset for your study area. This is often the case for national
databases stored in quadrangle sheets, such as hydrology or elevation data. Conversely,
if you have a dataset that covers a large area, you may want to clip out the portion that
pertains to your study area (clipping data is covered in Chapter 5see Extracting a portion
of a dataset).

Make sure the data has all the attributes you need
During the database design process, you identified and listed all the attributes each dataset
should have. The attributes will at least partially drive your search for dataif there are
choices, youll want to use the dataset that has more of the attributes you need.

If you collected data from another source, youll likely need to add attribute fields and
assign valuesfor example, assigning your own paving codes to a street dataset you
bought. If youre creating the data yourself, adding attributes is a major part of the process.

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Attribute editing is done in ArcMap. You can update the attributes of existing
features, or enter the attribute values for newly created ones.

Make sure the data is as correct as possible

It goes without saying that youll want your database to be as error-free and up-to-date
as possible, within your time and money constraints. The better your data, the better your
maps and analyses, and the better the decisions based on them. The goal, of course, is to
have your data reflect as accurately as possible whats actually on the ground. Youll likely
spend some time editing both individual features and their associated attributes. Youll
move features to the correct location or change their shape, connect features that need to
be connected, add missing features and delete ones that no longer exist (or shouldnt have
been there in the first place). ArcGIS has tools to check for errors and validate any edits
youve made. Part of this involves checking the data against any topology or attribute rules
you set up when you designed your geodatabase (see Ensuring spatial data integrity and
Ensuring attribute data integrity in Chapter 2). As mentioned before, keeping a database
current and accurate is an ongoing process.

Create any extended or derived datasets

Once youre confident in the quality of your data, youll create any extended or derived
datasets you need in your database. These might be datasets constructed from existing
features, such as a bus route built from streets and bus stops, or a water system built from
pipes, junctions, and pumps. You might also use geoprocessing tools to derive new datasets,
such as creating a slope or hillshade surface from an elevation raster, or building watershed
boundaries from an elevation raster and a streams dataset.

Document the data

Documenting your data is necessary so anyone in your organization who uses the data
will know what theyre dealing with. And it will be invaluable when you revisit the data at
some point in the future. Its also critical if you end up sharing your data with other users,
or publishing it on the internet. Documenting data is more efficient if you do it as you go
along, working with each dataset. The metadata tools in ArcCatalog make it relatively
easy (see Documenting your database with metadata in Chapter 2). While metadata
documentation can be extensive, you should include at least the basic pieces of information
listed above under Search data sources for existing data.

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Collecting, importing, and converting GIS data

A lot of data is available in a format ArcGIS can use directly (shapefiles, geodatabases, coverages, rasters, and some
CAD data). This is especially true of basemap data such as hydrology, street networks, elevation, administrative
boundaries, and so on. You may get data, though, that is not yet in a format ArcGIS can use. Or, you may want to
convert ArcGIS data to another format to share with other GIS users. ArcGIS Desktop lets you import or export a wide
range of both feature and raster data.

Collecting data in an ArcGIS format

You can add data to a mapor use it in an analysisfrom any source or workspace youve connected to if its already
in ArcGIS format (see Finding and connecting to data in Chapter 2). You may want to copy the data into your own
workspace. Use the copy and paste functions in ArcCatalog to copy data to the location you want. The data can only
be copied to an appropriate destination location (the Paste function will be grayed out if you cant copy the data to that
location). Alternatively, you can click and drag datasets in the Catalog tree. Shapefiles, geodatabases, tables, and images
can be copied from one folder to another. Feature classes can be copied from one geodatabase to another.

Once youve connected to a data source, or downloaded data

from the Internet, copy the data into your project workspace or
geodatabase. Right-click a dataset and click Copy, then rightclick the destination and click Paste.

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Shapefiles, tables, and images cant be directly copied into a geodatabase, but rather must be imported. Conversely, data
held in a geodatabase cant be copied to a folder, but must be exported to another format (for example, youd export a
geodatabase feature class to a shapefile).

Right-click a geodatabase to import a shapefile

(use the Feature Class option), table, or raster. The
multiple options let you create a list of datasets to
import at one time.

Right-click a feature class or other geodatabase

dataset to export it to a format outside the
geodatabase (or to another geodatabase). You can
also export shapefiles, tables, and rasters to other
formats by right-clicking them in the Catalog tree.

ArcToolbox contains a number of tools that also perform these (plus other) import and export operations to convert
ArcGIS and related data between formats. For example, you may want to convert a dataset of soil type polygons to a
raster dataset to use in analysis. The tools are particularly useful for converting data within a script or model.
The Conversion Tools toolbox
contains toolsets for converting
between a variety of feature and
raster formats.

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Compiling GIS data in other formats

ArcGIS Desktop lets you work directly with a number of other, non-ESRI geographic data formats. You can add a wide
range of image formats to your ArcCatalog workspaces and can add the data to a map in ArcMap to display it. These
include common raster formats such as DEM (used for digital elevation models), various ERDAS formats (used for
satellite images), and MrSID (a compressed raster format often used for very large datasets), as well as common
graphic formats including BMP, TIFF, JPEG, and GIF. A complete list can be found in the Data Support in ArcGIS
section of the Desktop Help.

ArcCatalog recognizes and displays image data, such as this

satellite image in ERDAS format (above) and an aerial photo
in TIFF format. These images can also be added to maps in
ArcMap and displayed with other data, with no data conversion
required.

Similarly, ArcGIS Desktop recognizes several common CAD formats, including AutoCAD DXF and DWG formats,
and MicroStation DGN formats. You can manage the CAD drawing in ArcCatalog, display it on a map in ArcMap,
or use it with many of the tools in the toolbox for analysis or other geoprocessing tasks (however, it cant be edited in
ArcGIS unless you import it into a geodatabase feature class or shapefile). Each layer in the drawing is displayed as a
separate layer in ArcGIS Desktop (even though theyre part of a single entitythe CAD drawing). In some cases, you
may want to convert a single layer in the drawing to an ArcGIS dataset (shapefile or feature class)you may only need
that layer for your maps or you may need to edit it for use in analysis. Right-click the layer in the Catalog tree, point to
Export, then click the format you want to export to (geodatabase feature class or shapefile). Alternatively, you can use
the conversion tools in ArcToolbox.

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ArcGIS Desktop recognizes this AutoCAD drawing in its

original format. It appears in the Catalog tree, and can be
displayed on a map in ArcMap. Each layer in the drawing is
listed or displayed as a separate layer in a group layer.

ArcGIS supports other feature data formats through the ArcGIS Data Interoperability extension. The Quick Import and
Quick Export tools in the Data Interoperability toolbox in ArcToolbox allow you to import data to a geodatabase feature
class from a wide range of vector formats, including DLG, MIF, MGE, and many others. The Data Interoperability
extension also allows you to create custom converters.
On the Quick Import dialog box, specify the
geodatabase that will hold the imported data, and
click the ellipses to specify the input dataset.

Quick Import is located in

the Data Interoperability
Tools toolbox (you
must have the Data
Interoperability extension
licensed and enabled).

On the Specify Input Data Source

dialog box, click the ellipses next
to the Format box to open the
Formats Gallery. Choose the
format from the list, then, on the
dialog box, enter the input dataset
name (or browse to it).

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

Compiling raw coordinate data

Some GIS data may be in tabular or list form, but have geographic coordinates associated with the features. Often
this is data that has been directly captured in the field using GPS or another device. GPS units calculate their position
using signals from satellites (and sometimes base stations). If you have a table of point features with associated x,y
coordinates, you can import the data to a layer in ArcMap, and then create a dataset by exporting the layer (see Adding
data to a map in Chapter 4). You can also stream coordinate data directly to ArcMap via a GPS connected to a laptop
computer or Tablet PC running ArcGIS Desktop. By capturing the streamed coordinates in a log, you can save them as
point or line features in a geodatabase feature class or shapefile.
Use the GPS toolbar in ArcMap to input data directly from a GPS unit (click View,
point to Toolbars, and click GPS).

The GPS Position window shows you

your real-time position, altitude, speed,
and heading using the GPS input.

Use the GPS Connection Setup dialog box to

specify the communication parameters for the
GPS receiver.

Use the Log Setup dialog box

to create a new log to capture
GPS data points as a shapefile
or geodatabase feature class.
You can specify the streaming
options, such as how often
to capture coordinates, or a
minimum sampling distance.

When you create a new log, you specify

which fields to includethese will
become the initial fields for the shapefile
or feature class.

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Assigning locations using street addresses or routes

ArcGIS includes tools to read a street address or a measure along a route, assign coordinates, and create a geodatabase
feature class or shapefile from the data. The process of assigning coordinates using an address is called geocoding.
Geocoding is mostly used to assign locations on a map to a table of features that have a street address, such as
customers, students, businesses, or even crime scenes. Linear referencing is the process of assigning locations to
featuresusually events, such as accidentsalong a route dataset, using measurements such as distance from
mileposts.

Geocoding street addresses

To geocode a table of addresses, you need reference data (usually a dataset of streets with address ranges for each
block). The reference data is used to create an address locator that can be used to match the addresses (see Adding
specialized datasets to a geodatabase in Chapter 2).

This table of customers includes a

street address that can be used to
assign coordinates and create point
features. The features can then
be displayed on a map or used in
analysis.

This dataset of streets has been prepared for use in geocoding. The elements of the address have
been placed in separate fields, and include the address range for each street segment for the left
and right sides of the street, the prefix direction, prefix type, the name itself, the street type, suffix
direction, and the ZIP Code on both the left and the right side of the street. All these elements are
used to find as close a match as possible for each street address in the customer table.

An address locator specifies the reference data to use, as well as parameters and queries that direct the matching
process. For each address in the table, ArcGIS attempts to find the best match against the reference street features
stored in the address locator. When it finds a match, it assigns coordinates to a new feature in the output dataset. The
coordinates locate the feature to the correct side of the street and in the best estimated location based on the street
number and the range of addresses for that street segment. So an address of 150 W Elm St. would be located halfway
along the 100200 block of West Elm Street.
The Address Locator specifies the reference
data (street dataset) and the names of the
fields in the dataset containing the various
address elements. It also lets you set the
matching options and additional output fields
in the output dataset. Address locators can
be created in a folder (workspace) or within a
geodatabase, and can be used with shapefiles
or feature classes.

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You can geocode in either ArcCatalog or ArcMap. Right-click the table containing the addresses in the Catalog tree
(ArcCatalog) or the table of contents (ArcMap).
To geocode in ArcCatalog, in the Catalog tree right-click the table containing the
addresses, then specify the address locator to use.

In the dialog box, specify the field

in the table that contains the street
address (if its a standard name
such as ADDRESSit will be
selected automatically). Also specify
the name and location of the output
dataset that will be created. Click OK
when youre ready to geocode the
addresses.

To geocode addresses in ArcMap, add the table containing the addresses to be

geocoded, and the streets (optional) to your map. Right-click the table (select
the Source tab to see it in the table of contents) and click Geocode Addresses.
Use the Add button on the dialog box to specify the address locator to use.

Use the Geocoding Options dialog

box to temporarily override the
settings in the address locator, if
necessary.

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There may be more than one possible match for an address. Each potential matching street candidate is assigned a
score based on how closely it matches the address, and the address is then matched to the candidate with the best score.
The more complete the addresses in the table (with correct prefixes, street types, name spellings, and so on) and the
more accurate your streets dataset, the better the results. After running a first pass you have the option of relaxing the
parameters and re-geocoding the addresses that didnt match, or matching addresses interactively.

When the geocoding is complete, the

Review/Rematch Addresses dialog
box is displayed (in ArcMap, the new
features are also added to the map).
The dialog box tells you how many of
the addresses in the table were able
to be matched. It also lets you modify
the geocoding options (click Geocoding
Options) and rematch the addresses
that didnt match the first time.

You also have the option of

matching addresses interactively
(in this example, there were
two possible matchesyou can
use the dialog box to select the
correct one).

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You can also rematch addresses later, in either ArcMap or ArcCatalog. To rematch in ArcMap use the Tools menu, or
right-click the results in the table of contents.

To rematch addresses at a later time, click the Tools menu,

point to Geocoding, click Review/Rematch Addresses, and
select the geocoded result feature class you want to work with.
(You can also run the initial geocoding from the Tools menu.)

Or, right-click the result in the table of contents, point to Data, and click Review/
Rematch Addresses (as shown above).

To rematch addresses in ArcCatalog, right-click the output dataset in the Catalog tree. The Geocoding tools in
ArcToolbox also allow you to perform all the geocoding tasks, from creating an address locator, through geocoding and
rematching addresses.

The Geocoding Tools

toolbox contains tools for
geocoding addresses.

To rematch the addresses in ArcCatalog, right-click the output dataset in the

Catalog tree and click Review/Rematch Addresses.

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Linear referencing
If you have a route dataset youve built from other features (streets, intersections, and so on) you can add data from an
existing table that contains measurements along the route (see Adding specialized datasets to a geodatabase in
Chapter 2 for more on creating route datasets). The records in the table are referred to as events. The measurements are
used to locate the events and display them on a map. Events can be points (such as accident locations) or lines (such as
sections of highway with poor paving condition). Departments of transportation, for example, often create and maintain
such event tables. The measures can be distance from the beginning of the route or markers along the route, such as
milepost numbers. Route events are added to a map in ArcMap. You can then symbolize or query the events as you
would any other features.
Point event tables must contain the route ID of each event (which route its associated with) and a measure along the
route, such as the distance from the start of the route. Before adding the events, add the route dataset and the event table
to the map.
To add route events to a map, select Add Route Events on the Tools menu.

A point event table contains the route ID, the measure along
the route, and any other attributes associated with the event
in this example, the events are automobile accidents that
occurred along highways.

In the dialog box, specify the route

dataset and field containing the route
ID. Then specify the event table and
the fields containing the route ID and
route measure.

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Once added, the route events are stored with the map document. To save the events as permanent features, export them
to a dataset.

The events (accidents) are added as points on the map, along the routes. To save
them as features in a dataset, right-click the events layer in the table of contents,
point to Data, and click Export Data.

Line events must have fields containing the start point and an end point, in addition to the route ID. In the example
below, the start and end points are represented by a from milepost field and a to milepost field.
Events can also be added by right-clicking the event table in the table of
contents and clicking Display Route Events.

Line event tables must contain fields for the start and end points
(milepost markers, in this example), as well as the route ID.

To add line events, specify Line Events

as the type, and enter the fields
containing the start and end points.

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The line events are added to the map as a new layer. Export the events to save them as a dataset.

The route events (representing sections of highway with poor paving condition, in
this example) are added to the map.

The Make Route Event Layer tool in the Linear Referencing Tools toolbox performs the same function as the Add
Route Events tool in ArcMap. Its useful for assigning locations to events within a script or model. The Linear
Referencing toolbox contains a number of other tools for working with routes and route events.

Make Route Event Layer

is found in the Linear
Referencing toolbox in
ArcToolbox.

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Starting and managing an edit session

At some point in building and maintaining your database, youll need either to correct errors you discover in the data
or update the existing data with newer information. For example, you may need to modify the shape of a road thats
recently been surveyed, or update a parcel thats been split. You do this by editing the geographic features interactively
in ArcMap. Many of the same editing tools are also used for creating new featureseither in a new, empty dataset or in
a dataset containing features, such as adding a new subdivision to a parcel dataset.
The editing tools and settings are located on the Editor toolbaryou need to open the toolbar in ArcMap before editing.
You use the toolbar to start an edit session, add or modify features, save your edits, and end the session. During the edit
session, other ArcMap functions are still availableadding layers to the map, zooming, panning, changing symbology
of features, and so on. The only difference is that layers are available for editing, as long as the edit session is open. As
you edit the data, even though the data appears as a layer in ArcMap, youre actually editing the underlying data source.
After you close the edit session the layers can no longer be modified until the next time you open an edit session.

Starting the edit session

Once you have added the data you want to edit to a map in ArcMap, youll open the Editor toolbar and start an edit
session.
Editor Toolbar button

To start an edit session, click the Editor Toolbar button to

display the Editor toolbar. Then click the Editor drop-down list
and click Start Editing.

You might see one or both of these windows when you start editing. Youll see the one
on the left if the datasets youve added to ArcMap reside in different geodatabases or
folders. You can only edit the data in one workspace (geodatabase or folder) at a time
(you can still display and snap to all the layers on the map). Youll see the window on
the right if the coordinate system of any of the datasets youre editing is undefined or
does not match that of the map (defined by default as the coordinate system of the
first dataset you add to the map).

Next youll choose the workspace and data frame (if more than one) containing the datasets you want to edit, and
choose the target layer (the one youll be working on) using the Target drop-down listyou can switch between targets
during a single edit session. Youll probably also want to set the snapping environment, to make sure new (or modified)
features snap to existing onesthis ensures features connect to each other correctly.

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Stop editing
and close the
session

The Source tab on the table of

contents is useful if your map contains
datasets stored in different folders or
geodatabasesit shows you which
layers are in which.

Use the Target drop-down list to select the dataset

to which the edits will be applied (the list contains
only those datasets in the geodatabase or folder you
specified). You can switch between layers during an edit

The Snapping Environment dialog box lets you specify which

layers can be snapped to as youre creating or modifying
features. All the layers on the map are available for snapping.
Use the check boxes to specify for each whether features can
be snapped to vertices, edges (lines or polygon borders), or
end points of existing features. Features will snap to existing
features in the same layer or another layer. You can access
and change the snapping settings anytime during an edit
session.

During the edit session, you can use the Undo button (on the Standard toolbar) to undo your last action. Use the Editor
drop-down menu to save your edits. Just saving a map document does not save the edits to the featuresyou need to
specifically save the edits in your edit session. You can choose to quit an edit session without saving your changes.

Managing the edit session

ArcMap includes several options for making your edit session more efficient. Open a magnifier window to get a closer
view of a small area without changing the map extent. Click and drag the window over the area you want to magnify.
To open a magnifier window, click Magnifier on the Window menu.
Click the title bar and drag the magnifier
windowcenter the crosshairs over the area you
want to magnify. When you release the mouse
button the area under the window is magnified.

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When you release the mouse button, the area under the window is magnified, centered on the crosshair. You can move
the magnifier window and drag it while holding on to the same sketch or modification already in progress. Use the dropdown menu to change the magnification level. You can also set the window to magnify as you drag itselect Update
While Dragging from the pull-right menu. In this mode, the magnifier window is like moving a magnifying glass over
the map.

Use the drop-down menu to change the magnification. Click Update While
Dragging to use the magnifier window like a magnifying glass.

Many editing functions have keyboard shortcuts associated with them, including those on the context menus. These can
minimize the use of your mouse and speed up your edits. For example, with the Sketch tool active, you can press the F6
key to quickly enter the coordinate location of the point or vertex you want to place. See Getting started with editing
in the Desktop Help for a list of keyboard shortcuts. Sometimes you may need to enter lengths or other measurements in
units different from your map units. In many dialog boxes throughout the editing environment that require you to enter
a distance value, you can specify values in a different unit of measure by simply typing a unit abbreviation after the
number. For example, if your map units are feet, by default, ArcMap will assume any distance values you enter are in
feet. However, you can simply add m after your input value so ArcMap knows you the value you entered is actually
in meters.
If you need to enter distances in a measurement
unit other than the one the map is in, simply type
an abbreviation for the unit after the distance value.
In this example, the map units are meters, and the
distance is entered in feet (ft.). ArcMap does the
conversion on-the-fly.

The options for adding segments and vertices

can also be accessed using keyboard shortcuts
(such as Ctrl+L to enter a length). Shortcuts can
be more efficient than using the menu, especially if
youre entering many vertices by typing angles and
distances.

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Click Options on the Editor drop-down menu to access settings for the edit session. You can set the snapping tolerance,
specify the symbol to use to highlight selected features, or customize the Tasks list, and so on.

Click Options on the Editor

menu to access the settings
for the edit session.

The General tab lets you specify the snapping

tolerance, in pixels or map units. Make the
tolerance larger if youre having trouble
snapping to any feature; make it smaller if
youre having trouble snapping to the correct
feature.

The Topology tab lets you specify the symbol

to use for selected topology elementsclick a
symbol on the tab and use the Symbol Selector
dialog box to change the color and size of
the symbol (see Chapter 4 for more on map
symbols).

The Edit Tasks tab lets you rearrange or

remove tasks from the Task list on the Editor
toolbar.

If you specify a sticky tolerance distance (on the General tab), when you move a selected feature, the feature will stay
put until the cursor has moved the specified distancethis helps you avoid inadvertently moving a feature.

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Creating and modifying features

There are many different editing tasks youll need to perform, and there are often several ways to complete the same
task. This section presents a few of the most common ways to create new features, modify the shape of an existing
feature, or reposition features. See the Desktop Help for additional tasks and a full discussion of editing options.

Creating features
To create either point, line, or polygon features you set the Task to Create New Features. The type of feature youre
editing is determined by the Target layerthe dataset youre creating the new feature within.

The Task drop-down menu lists

the most common editing tasks
youll do. Specify Create New
Features to add features to an
existing dataset or to a new,
empty dataset.

For point features, youll click the Sketch tool on the toolbar, and then click on the map to enter the location of the
point.

The Sketch tool

Click to create the point feature

To create a point feature, click the Sketch tool, then click

where you want to place the point.

The point feature you created is the currently selected

featureright-click it for options.

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Creating line and polygon features involves creating a sketch which is a temporary representation of the feature
showing the segments and vertices. When you create the vertices in a sketch (typically, by clicking with your mouse),
the segments between vertices are added for you automatically. Once youre satisfied with the shape of the sketch, you
need to finish the sketch to complete the features geometry and actually create the feature. There are several ways that
you can finish a sketch, including double-clicking with your mouse, choosing the command from a context menu, and
using a keyboard shortcut (F2). There are also a variety of options for entering vertices, in addition to clicking with the
mouse.
To add a line feature, click the Sketch tool, then click the location of the start point.
Click to add each vertex and define the shape of the line. The segments between
vertices are drawn automatically. The last vertex you added is shown in red.

Start point

Right-click while adding

vertices to a line or polygon
and you get options for adding
the next segment or vertex,
as well as for finishing (or
deleting) the line. The same
menu can be displayed for
point features, but most of the
options are not available.
These options let you add a segment or
vertex by entering a distance, angle, x,y
coordinate pair, and so on. Type the values,
then press the Enter key to add the vertex.

These options let you add a segment parallel

or perpendicular to a selected feature.

Use these options to delete the current

sketch or finish it and create the feature.

To create a polygon feature, click the

Sketch tool, click a starting point, and
add vertices to define the shape of the
polygon. As you add vertices, a segment
rubberbands from the last vertex added
to the start point to maintain the closed
shape. When creating polygons or lines,
right-clicking a vertex will display more
options. To finish the polygon, right-click
and click Finish Sketch, or just double-click.

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In addition to the Sketch tool, other tools are available from the Editor toolbar to add point features or line vertices and
segments using arcs, distance, and so on. You can switch tools at any time while creating a sketch.

Arc
Intersection
Midpoint
Distance-Distance

Tangent
End Point Arc
Trace

The Sketch tool lets you add a point or

vertex by clicking a location. The dropdown menu next to the tool displays the
Sketch Tool Palette, which lets you select
other tools for creating points and vertices.

Direction-Distance

The tools let you create curved segments; create a segment by tracing over an existing feature (with an optional offset
distanceuseful for creating parallel lines); place a vertex at the midpoint of a line you draw, or at the intersection of
two lines; or create a vertex at a given distance and direction.

Modifying the shape of a feature

To modify the shape of a feature, the feature must be currently selecteduse the Edit tool to select the feature. To
modify the shape by moving a vertex, set the Task to Modify Feature. (Double-clicking a feature selects it and sets the
Task to Modify Feature so you can start editing verticesone of many editing shortcuts.)

To move or delete a vertex, use the Edit tool to

select the feature you want to modify, and set
the task to Modify Feature. Click and drag a
vertex to move it, or right-click it and click Delete.
To insert a vertex, place the cursor where you
want to add the vertex, right-click to display the
context menu, and click Insert Vertex.

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You can also reshape a line or polygon using a sketch. Set the Task to Reshape Feature. Make sure the first and last
segments of the sketch intersect the feature youre reshaping. Vertices will be added where the sketch intersects the
feature, and the sketch segments you draw will replace the segment(s) of the feature between these vertices.

To use a sketch to modify a feature, use

the Edit Tool to select the feature, and
set the task to Reshape Feature. Click
the Sketch tool (or any of the sketch
options) and add vertices, making sure
the first and last segments intersect the
feature youre reshaping.

When you click Finish Sketch, the segments you drew are
added to reshape the feature.

Changing the position of a feature

To move, copy, delete or rotate a feature, first select it using the Edit tool. To move it, click and drag it to a new
location. To copy a feature, right-click it and select Copy, then right-click again and click Paste (or use the Windows
standard Ctrl+C and Ctrl+V). The copy is placed on top of the original feature, but is currently selecteddrag it to a
new location. To delete a selected feature, right-click and click Delete, or press the Delete key on your keyboard. To
rotate a selected feature, click the Rotate tool on the Editor toolbar. Then click and drag the cursorthe feature rotates
around its center.

Edit tool

To move a feature, select

it using the Edit tool, then
click and drag it.

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Right-click a selected feature to

delete it, or to copy and paste (feature
attributes are also copied). To copy
and paste between layers, set the
Target to the layer youre copying
from, and Copy; then set the Target
to the layer youre pasting into, and
Paste.

Rotate

Click the Rotate tool, then drag the

cursor to rotate a selected feature
around its center, or press A on your
keyboard to enter a specific angle.

You can drag a box to select multiple features, or hold the Shift key while clicking. You can then move, copy, or delete
the selected features.

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Editing connected features

Whether youre creating features in a new dataset or adding features to an existing one, at some point youll likely need
to edit lines that connect (or should connect)such as connecting a new road to an existing oneor to create adjacent
polygons that share a bordersuch as parcels or administrative boundaries. You might also need to move a shared
vertex or border, thereby moving or reshaping the connected features. You perform these tasks in an edit session in
ArcMap.

Connecting line features

To add a line that connects two existing lines, you snap the end points of the new line to the existing lines (either at a
vertex or anywhere along the edge). You may also need to split the existing lines where the new line connects, to create
intersections (for example, if youll be using a dataset of streets for routing delivery trucks).

Make sure the task is set to Create New

Feature and the Sketch tool is active. This end
of the line connects to a vertex on the existing
linemove the cursor over (or near) the vertex,
right-click, point to Snap To Feature, and click
Vertex.

The other end of the new line connects to an existing

line where there is no vertex. Place the cursor over
the line, right-click, point to Snap to Feature, and
specify Edge as the feature to snap to. (Alternatively,
you could set the snapping environment to Vertex
and Edge for the streets layer; then the new line will
snap automatically, which is more efficient if youre
adding many lines.)

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Right-click the vertex you added and click Finish

Sketch to finish the new line.

Next youll split the existing line where you

connected. First, set snapping to Vertex and
Edge for the streets layer. That will ensure the
line gets split at the right placeright at the
vertex where the new line connects.

Split

Click the Split tool on the toolbar, place the cursor

over the vertex, and click to split the line. (You
could also have split the line first, then specified
Endpoint when using Snap To Feature to add the
new line.)

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When you select the line on the right, you

can see that the original line has indeed been
split. Youd split the first line that the new line
connects to in a similar manner.

Extending a line
You can extend a line to connect to another line. One way to do this is using the Extend tool on the Advanced Editing
toolbar.

Click the Editor drop-down list, point to More

Editing Tools, and click Advanced Editing.

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Select the line you want to extend the other lines

to, using the Edit tool on the Editor toolbar. When
you do, the tools on the Advanced Editing toolbar
become available.

Click the Extend Tool button, and click the line you
want to extend.
Extend Tool

The line extends and snaps to the selected line.

Point to any other lines you want to extend (you can
keep extending lines as long as the Extend tool is
active). To stop, select another tool, or select the
Edit tool (on the Editor toolbar).

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Creating an adjacent polygon

To add a polygon adjacent to an existing polygon, you simply make sure the sketch for the new polygon crosses the
existing polygon at least twice.

Make sure the task is set to Auto-Complete Polygon,

and set snapping to Vertex for the polygon layer
youre editing.

Click to start

Click to end

Add vertex

Add vertex

Click the Sketch tool and click the vertex on the existing
polygon where you want the new polygon to connect. Continue
adding vertices using the Sketch tool (or any of the other
options for adding vertices), then click a vertex on the existing
polygon to close the new polygon. Double-click the vertex to
finish the sketch (or right-click and click Finish Sketch).

The shared border is automatically added to the new polygon

to complete it.

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Editing features that share a vertex or border

If you want to move a vertex at which two or more features connect and have them all adjust accordingly, you need
to establish a topology. A topology makes explicit the connection between features. This allows you to move a vertex
to which several lines connect (known as a node) and have all the line end points move with the nodewithout the
topology, moving the vertex would move only the end point of the selected line while the endpoints of the other lines
remained in place. One way to establish a topology is within a geodatabase, usually as part of the geodatabase building
process, as described in Chapter 2 (see Ensuring spatial data integrity). A geodatabase topology is stored with the
data and is in effect on any map the data is added to. Sometimeseven if a geodatabase topology doesnt exist for a
datasetyou want to be able to make a topological edit for that dataset. If a geodatabase topology has not been defined
for the dataset, you can create what is known as a map topology in ArcMap. The map topology is stored only with the
current mapnot with the data.

Map Topology button

To use map topology to edit connected features, point to More Editing

Tools on the Editor toolbar, and click Topology. The Topology toolbar
opens. Click the Map Topology button, and check the boxes for the
layers you want to add to the topology.

Topology Edit tool

Click the Topology Edit tool on the Topology toolbar, then click
the node you want to move, to select it.

Click and drag the node to its new location. The end points of
the connected lines move with the node, but the other vertices
of the lines stay put.

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If the dataset youre editing does have a geodatabase topology defined, you add the topology to your map, and then use
the tools on the Topology toolbar to edit the connected features. Editing connected features in a geodatabase topology is
the same as for a map topologyfor lines connected at a node, click the Edit Topology tool, select a node, and drag it to
its new location.

To edit connected features using a

geodatabase topology, add the topology to
your map.

Youll be prompted to add to the map the feature classes

that participate in the topologyclick Yes.

When you open the Topology toolbar,

youll see that the topology you added is
listed. Youll also notice that additional
tools are active that are not available for
map topologyspecifically, tools that let
you validate your geodatabase topology
rules (these tools are discussed later in this
chapter).

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You also use the Topology Edit tool to move or reshape a shared boundary between two polygons that participate in a
topology (either a map or geodatabase topology). While the shared boundary looks like a single line, that line is, in fact,
stored with each polygon. If you moved the boundary without having created a topology, only one of the lines would
move, creating either a gap or an overlap.

Add the geodatabase topology to the map, or use the Map Topology
button on the Topology toolbar to make sure topology is turned on for
the polygon layer.

Modify Edge

Topology Edit tool

Click the Topology Edit tool

and select the border you want
to modify. The Show Shared
Features button displays a list of
features that share the border.
Click a feature on the list to flash
it on the map and confirm its the
one you want to edit (the check
boxes determine which features
participate in topology edits).

Set the Task to Modify Edge under the Topology Tasks

group; or just double-click the selected borderthe Task is
automatically set to Modify Edge. Once the task is set, the
vertices for the shared border are visible.

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Click a vertex and drag it to a new position. You can also

reshape a shared borderusing a sketchby setting the task
to Reshape Edge.

When youre done modifying the border,

right-click a vertex and click Finish Sketch.

When you finish the sketch, the new shared border is displayed.

If you select the polygon, you can see its new shape.

You can use map topologies and geodatabase topologies concurrently. The active topologies appear in the drop-down
list on the Topology toolbar; you can switch between them during an edit session.

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Creating features from a printed or scanned map

Youll likely obtain most of your GIS data already in an ArcGIS format, or by importing it or interactively creating
it on-screen. However, in some cases, the data you need may only be available on an image, such as an orthophoto,
satellite image, or scanned map. While the image is in raster data format (pixels), what you may want to create are
vector featurespoints, lines, or polygons. ArcGIS contains tools for tracing over an image on-screen to create
geographic featuresa process known as digitizing. In other cases, you may need to create features in the GIS from
a printed map. You can digitize the map using a digitizing tablet, or scan the map and automatically create geographic
features. These tasks are all performed in ArcMap.

Digitizing over a background image

You can use a scanned map or drawing, aerial photo, orthophotograph, or satellite image as a background in ArcMap,
and create features (such as streams, roads, or building footprints) by tracing over the objects in the image. Some aerial
photos and satellite images are already spatially referencedthat is, the extent of the image in geographic space is
known. If this is the case, you can simply use the editing tools described in the previous sections to trace over the image
and create featuresthe new features will be stored in x,y coordinates in geographic space.
On the other hand, if the image is in page or screen unitslikely the case for a scanned map or drawingyou need to
place it in geographic space (see GIS data concepts in Chapter 2). This is known as georeferencing, and is performed
by associating locations on the image (control points) with the corresponding coordinates in geographic space. You can
type the coordinates (if known) or create a link between a control point on the image and the corresponding location
on an existing spatially referenced dataset. There is a range of situations you might encounter when georeferencing
an image. Heres the process if the image has control points marked on it, the control points are labeled with their x,y
coordinates, and the coordinates are in the same coordinate system as the existing dataset.

Add the image to the map, along with the

dataset youll be adding features to. If you
zoom to the image (right-click it in the table of
contents and click Zoom To Layer), you wont
see the existing features, since the image is
still in page units, and the features are in map
units.

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Now zoom to the location on the existing

parcels layer corresponding to the location of
the image.

To add links and transform the image, youll

use the Georeferencing toolbar. Click the
View menu, point to Toolbars, and click
Georeferencing.

Use Fit To Display to show the image in roughly

the same location as the existing featuresthat
will make it easier to work as you add links.

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Add Control Points

Using a magnifier window makes it easier to see the

control points on the image (see Creating and modifying
features). Click the Add Control Points button. To add a
link, click the control point on the image....

Click here

....then right-click to enter the x and y coordinates

for that control point.

The image adjusts as you add links. To

review the links youve created, click the
View Link Table button. You can remove
errant links by selecting them in the table
and clicking the X button. When youre
satisfied with the registration of the image
to the existing features, click Update
Georeferencing on the Georeferencing
drop-down menu.

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You can then draw the new features by tracing

over the image using any of the editing tools
described earlier in the chapter.

If the coordinates on the image are in a different coordinate system than the existing dataset, youd create a new point
feature class or shapefile in that coordinate system, create the control points as point features in this new dataset at the
x,y locations indicated on the image, and then project the dataset to the coordinate system youre using. Youd then
be able to link the control points on the image to the control point feature class in the correct coordinate system and
transform the image. Youd click the control point on the image, as shown below, thenrather than entering the x,y
coordinates to create the linkyoud click the corresponding control point feature.

To enter links using a layer of

control points, after clicking the
Enter Control Points button on
the Georeferencing toolbar,
click the control point marked
on the image, then click the
corresponding point feature on
the control points layer.

Click here first

then click here

In some cases there may be control points on the image, but no coordinates indicated. Hopefully, the control points will
be at recognizable features, such as street intersections, or the peak of a hill. Youd then find the corresponding features
in your dataset, create the links, and transform the image. If there are no control points on the image, youll have to try
to identify features on the image that you can link to corresponding features on a dataset you have. Streets and street
intersectionsif anyare good candidates.

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Digitizing from a printed map

To digitize directly from a printed map, you use a digitizing table connected to your computer. ArcGIS converts
positions on the table surface into digital x,y coordinates as you trace them with a handheld puck (a pen or mouse-like
device). As with creating features interactively or on-screen digitizing, you use a digitizing table within an edit session.
With a digitizing table installed, the Digitizer tab is available on the Editing Options dialog box. The digitizing puck is
initially in mouse modeyou can click menus and buttons on the computer screen. You can still use a mouse connected
to your computer as you normally would, as wellhaving the digitizing table in mouse mode just allows you to access
the ArcMap interface using the digitizing puck. Set the Enabled option to put the digitizing table in digitize mode.
The first step is to register the mapwhich is in page units on the digitizing tableto geographic space. Your map must
have control points drawn on it for which you know the x,y coordinates. To register the map, you enter the point on the
digitizing tablet, then type in the x,y coordinates for that point.

The Enabled option

To register a map, click a control

point on the mapthe location
(in page units) will appear. Type
the corresponding geographic
x,y coordinate values in the X
Map and Y Map columns; an
RMS error for that control point
will appear. As you add points,
a cumulative RMS error is
displayed.

When you install a digitizing table, the Digitizer

tab appears on the Editing Options dialog box.
Check the Enabled box to set the digitizer to
digitize mode.

After youve entered the control points and their coordinates, ArcMap displays an error report. The error report includes
two error calculations: a point-by-point error and a root mean square (RMS) error. The point-by-point error represents
the distance deviation between the transformation of each input control point and the corresponding point in map
coordinates. The RMS error is an average of those deviations.
ArcMap reports the point-by-point error in current map units. The RMS error is reported in both current map units
and digitizer inches. If the RMS error is too high, you can re-enter the appropriate control points. To maintain highly
accurate data, your RMS error should be less than 0.004 digitizer units (often inches or centimeters) or the equivalent
scaled distance in map unitsthe ground units in which the coordinates are stored. For less accurate data, the value can
be as high as 0.008 digitizer units.

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To start digitizing features, select the Sketch tool on the Editor toolbar. Since youre creating the features by tracing,
the other options for entering vertices are unavailable (such as creating a curve or entering a direction and distance).
You can, however, use snapping to have vertices you enter snap to existing features displayed on the screen. To digitize,
you trace over the printed map, by either clicking points on the puck (point mode) or by simply moving the puck over
the feature you want to digitizewithout clickingand having ArcMap automatically add vertices (stream mode). The
stream tolerance specifies the distance interval between vertices added in stream mode. You can also specify that points
be grouped when addedwhen you undo or delete the previous entry, the whole group of points will be deleted (not
just the last one entered). That way you dont have to delete the points individually to erase a line segment.

To use the digitizer in stream

mode, first click the General
tab on the Editing Options
dialog box, and enter a stream
tolerance (in map units) and the
number of points to group.

Then, with the Sketch tool

selected, right-click anywhere
on the map, and click Streaming
on the context menu. You can
then use the F8 key to switch
between point and stream mode.

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Creating features using vectorization

Vectorization is another method of digitizing features. The ArcScan for ArcGIS extension enables you to automatically
create features from a scanned image youve added to your map. As with digitizing, you create features within an edit
session. You need a dataset (feature class or shapefile) to create features within. It can be a new, empty dataset, or a
dataset with existing features that youre adding more features to.

To open the ArcScan toolbar,

click the View menu, point to
Toolbars, and click ArcScan.
In order to use the ArcScan
tools, you need to have the
ArcScan extension enabled
(click Extensions on the Tools
menu). You also need to be in
an edit session.

You can vectorize the image either by tracing or by using automatic batch vectorization. Youd trace if the image is
of poorer quality or has lots of text or extraneous pixels that might end up as features you dont want. If your image is
fairly clean, you can remove any unwanted pixels (either by painting over them or by selecting and deleting) and then
create the vector lines (or polygons) using automatic vectorization.

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With either method, the first step is to set the snapping environment to make sure the lines you create snap to the pixels
in the image. When using ArcScan, snapping is specified in two placeson the Raster Snapping Options dialog box,
and on the Snapping Environment dialog box.

First set the snapping tolerance

(in pixels) on the Raster Snapping
Options dialog box (click the button
on the ArcScan toolbar).

Then set raster snapping

on the Snapping
Environment dialog box.

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To trace over the lines on the image, use the Trace tool on the ArcScan toolbar. The Editor toolbar must also be
displayed, and an edit session must be openclick Start Editing on the Editor toolbar, and select the Target dataset to
create the features within.

Trace tool

Click the Trace tool, then click on a raster line to start tracing; as you click along
the line, vertices are added. Right-click and click Finish Sketch to create the vector
line.

The line you just created is the currently selected feature, and you can continue
to edit it using any of the other editing tools. Or, continue tracing with the Trace
tool.

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To use automatic vectorization, youll first want to remove any extraneous pixels, such as text or other graphics on the
image.

Use the Raster Painting tools to interactively delete unwanted pixels, such as text.

Or, use Cell Selection to create a query statement that selects all the unwanted
cells at one time. Then use the Erase Selected Cells option on the Raster Cleanup
menu to delete the cells.

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Then preview the vectorization, and use the Generate Features option to create the lines or polygons.

You can preview the vectorization to make sure you removed all the unwanted
cells. Use the Generate Features option to perform the vectorization and create
the features.

The result is a dataset of lines or polygons.

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Adding and editing attribute data

Attributes store descriptive information for geographic features. Theyre used to symbolize and label features on a
map, to create reports and graphs, and for analysis. A large part of data compilation involves adding attribute values
to features either in a new dataset youre creating or updating the values in an existing dataset. You use the same tools
for bothall within ArcMap. You can enter specific values, or calculate values using a mathematical expression. If
necessary, you can also add fields to a table while editing.

Using the Attributes dialog box

The Attributes dialog box is designed for quickly adding or editing one or more attributes for features. It is available
within an edit session, and is accessed from the Editor toolbar (see Creating and modifying features earlier in this
chapter). Click the Attributes button to open the dialog box. The box is initially empty, until you select a feature (or
features) to edit, using the Edit tool on the toolbar.

To edit attributes using the

Attributes dialog box, open
the Editing toolbar, start an
edit session, and click the
Attributes button on the toolbar.
The box is empty until you
select a feature, or features,
to edit.

The selected features are listed in the left panel; click a feature to display and edit its attributes in the right panel.
When you select a feature (using the Edit tool on
the Editing toolbar), its attributes appear in the
box. Select and type over a value to change it
(grayed-out attributes are controlled by ArcGIS
and cant be edited). When you select an attribute
for which domains or subtypes have been defined,
a drop-down list allows you to select the value.

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To select several features and display them in the box simultaneously, press the Shift key while selecting, or drag a box
using the Edit tool. When you click a feature in the list, it flashes red on the map.

To select several features

and add them to the dialog
box, press the Shift key while
selecting. Click a feature in the
list (left panel) to view and edit
its attributes.

To assign a value to all the selected features, click the layer name at the top of the list. You can then click the Value field
next to the attribute and enter the valueall the features in the list will be assigned this value.

To assign the same attribute

value to all the selected
features, click the layer name.
The values column is blank,
but when you click next to an
attribute, you can enter the
value.

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Use the Fields tab on the Layer Properties dialog box to set the Primary Display Fieldfeatures are listed by the values
in that field (youll usually use a name or unique identifier). Right-click a feature in the list to flash it on the map or
zoom to it.
Use the Fields tab on the Layer Properties dialog box to specify which attribute
to use to identify features in the Attributes dialog box. Select the attribute values
that will appear in the list using the Primary Display Field drop-down list.

When you select a feature in the list,

it flashes on the map. You can also
right-click to highlight a feature, or
zoom to it.

If youre adding attribute values for newly created features, the values for each field are set to <Null>, except for
fields for which default values have been defined or fields calculated and maintained by ArcGIS (shown in gray in the
dialog box). Type over the <Null> to enter a valid value. Use the drop-down menus to assign values to fields for which
domains or subtypes have been defined.

Select and type over a <Null> value setting to

change the value.

Domain values and subtypes are available from

drop-down menus when you click in the Value
column for that attribute.

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Using an attribute table to add or edit attributes

You can also assign values using the attribute table for a layer (to open the table, right-click the layer in the table of
contents and click Open Attribute Table). When viewing a table outside an edit session, the column headings have a
gray background. If the table is open during an edit session, the fields available for editing have a white background for
the column heading, while the fields maintained by ArcGIS and which cant be edited maintain a gray column heading.
Also, the editing icon (pencil) appears at the bottom of the table, next to the Options button, to indicate an edit session
is open. To edit a value, simply click the value you want to change in the table and type over it.
To open an attribute table, right-click the
layer in the table of contents and click Open
Attribute Table.

Type over a value in the table to change it.

Right-click the gray box at the beginning of a

row to highlight that feature on the map, or to
zoom or pan to it.

An advantage of using the attribute table is that you can calculate values for multiple features at one timeeither for
all features, or a selected set. (The Show Selected button at the bottom of the table window displays only the selected
features, if any, making it easier to see the features youre calculating values for.) To do this, you create an expression
using a combination of constants, mathematical or logical operators, and values in other fields in the table. For example,
you might calculate the value per square foot of parcels by dividing the assessed value of each by its area. Right-click
the field column heading and use the Field Calculator to create the expression and calculate the values (the value youre
calculating can be of any typenumeric, text, and so on).
To calculate values for all features (or a
selected set) for a field, right-click the column
heading for the field and open the Field
Calculator. Complete the expression in the
lower box.

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You can edit values in the attribute table outside an edit session, but only by using the Field Calculatornot by entering
individual values in a column. When you calculate values outside an edit session youll get a warning message telling
you the Undo button is unavailable.
When you use the Field Calculator outside of an edit
session, youll receive this warning message. If you
want to undo your edits, youll need to recalculate new
values, or delete the field and add it again.

Use the Fields tab on the Layer Properties dialog box to control which fields appear in the table (this is useful if the
table contains many fields, and youre only editing one or a few of them).
Before, all fields are visible in the table.

After setting the visible fields, only the specified fields are displayed.
To open the Layer Properties dialog box, right-click a
layer in the table of contents, and click Properties. On
the Fields tab, select the fields you want to be visible in
the table.

You can also hide a field by right-clicking the column heading and clicking Turn Field Off. To show the field again,
check it on the Layer Properties dialog box, or click Options on the table and click Turn All Fields On (this will, of
course, show all hidden fields).
Hide a field from the table by rightclicking the column heading and
clicking Turn Field Off.

Editing attributes for datasets having table relationships

If youre editing an attribute table that has a related table (that is, a relationship class has been definedsee Building
relationships between features and tables in Chapter 2), you can access and edit the records in the related table from the
original table. For example, if you have a table of landowners that is related to a parcel feature class, you can select a
parcel feature, use the relationship class to find the owner of that parcel, then edit the attributes in the owner table. You
can edit a related table using either the Attributes dialog box or the attribute table.
Some relationship classes have rules that control how features can be related. After you edit related geodatabase
features or tables that have relationship rules, you can validate your edits to check that the related objects still conform
to the relationship rules (see Checking your data for errors in this chapter).
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To edit a related table using the Attributes

dialog box, click the plus sign next to a feature
to list any related tables.

When you click the related table for a feature,

the related record is displayed. You can
edit the values as you would for the feature
attribute table.

To open a related table when editing using the table

window, click Options, point to Related Tables, and
click the name of the related table you want to edit.

The related table opens; you can

edit the values as you would in the
feature attribute tableby entering a
value in a column, or right-clicking a
column heading and using the Field
Calculator.

Adding fields to a table

If you need to add a field to the table, use the Options menu. You cannot do this while in an edit session (if necessary,
save your edits, stop editing, add the field, and then restart the edit session). See also Adding fields and calculating
attribute values in Chapter 5.

To add a field to a table, click Options, and click Add

Field. Define the field properties in the Add Field dialog
box.

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Creating and editing annotation

ArcGIS provides several options for displaying text on a map to describe particular features or add general information
to the map. One simple option is to use map labels which are created from feature attribute values and are placed
automatically (see Labeling features in Chapter 4). Another option is to create annotation. With annotation, the
position, text string, and display properties of text can all be edited. Using annotation allows you to select and position
individual pieces of text. This provides flexibility in the appearance and placement of your map text. Annotation can be
stored with a specific map (map document annotation) or stored in a geodatabase, enabling the same map text to be
placed on different maps (geodatabase annotation).

Editing map document annotation

Map document annotation can be quickly created by converting labels on your map (see Labeling features in
Chapter 4). It is stored in the map in which it was created. You edit map annotation using the tools on the Draw toolbar,
as you would other graphics (you can use these same tools to create map document annotation). To edit an individual
annotation, select it using the Select Elements tool. You can then drag it to a new position or rotate it using the Rotate
tool. Press the Delete key to delete the annotation, or right-click and click Delete.

Select map annotation using

the Select Elements tool.
Select Elements

Rotate

udt_ch03.indd 207

Drag selected map annotation to

reposition it. Use the Rotate tool
to rotate it around its center point.

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To change the font, size, or color of the annotation, use the tools on the Draw toolbar.

Text font

Text size

Text color

Right-clicking displays additional options.

Right-click a selected annotation to display editing options.

Creating and editing geodatabase annotation

Geodatabase annotation is stored as a feature class in a geodatabase. Because of this, it can be added to different maps
and accessed by anyone in your organization who has access to the geodatabase. Geodatabase annotation also has a
wider range of editing options than does map annotation.
There are two types of geodatabase annotationstandard and feature linked. Standard annotation is independent of
features in the geodatabase. For example, you might have a piece of standard annotation that labels a mountain range
or a neighborhood in a citythe annotation simply marks the general area on the map. Feature-linked annotation is
associated with the feature it is describing. The text reflects the value of a field or fields from the feature to which its
linkedif an attribute value is updated, the linked annotation is also updated. You might use feature-linked annotation
to identify particular features like streets, buildings, or rivers. If you move, copy, or delete a feature, the annotation is
moved, copied, or deleted with it. In addition, with feature-linked annotation, as you create new features annotation will
be created automatically.
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A quick way to create geodatabase annotation is to convert existing labels on a map in ArcMap, the same way you
would when creating map document annotation. By default, the annotation is feature linked (since youre creating it
from labels associated with the features) but you can uncheck the box to make it standard annotation. When you create
geodatabase annotation you specify a reference scale. This is the map scale at which the annotation will appear at its
assigned font size (the size will increase when you zoom in and decrease when you zoom out on the map).

On the dialog box, select the

option to store annotation
in a database. By default,
annotation is feature linked.
The annotation feature class
will be created in the same
geodatabase or feature
dataset as the feature class
youre creating annotation
from.

To create geodatabase annotation from map labels, right-click

the layer you want to create annotation for and click Convert
Labels to Annotation. Youll first want to make sure the labels
are the size you want for the scale theyre displayed at (this
becomes the reference scale).
The annotation is added as a new
layer to the map (it initially looks
the same as the labels it was
created from, but you can now
select and edit individual text).

Another way of creating geodatabase annotation is to create an empty feature class, in ArcCatalog, and then create
annotation within the feature class using ArcMap. Youd use this method when creating a structure for your geodatabase
as part of the geodatabase design process as described in Chapter 2. Creating an annotation feature class is described on
the next page.

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Enter a name and (optionally)
an alias for the feature class.
From the drop-down list,
specify the type as Annotation
Features.

Specify the reference scale for

the annotation.
To create an empty annotation feature class in ArcCatalog, rightclick a feature dataset (as shown here) or a geodatabase, point to
New, and click Feature Class.

You can specify more than one

class for the annotationyou
might create one class for
major roads and another for
local streets if the annotation
symbols will be different for
each class. You also specify the
symbol for each class here.

The new annotation feature class

(Street_anno) appears in the
Catalog tree, in the feature dataset
it was created in. At this point, there
are no annotation featuresyou
need to edit the feature class in
ArcMap to add them.

The required fields are

automatically created, so
just click Finish to create the
annotation feature class.

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After you specify the feature class type as annotation, youre given the option of making it feature linked, and
specifying the feature class to link it to. If you do create feature-linked annotation, youll be given additional options
for specifying editing behavior and annotation placement. If you create annotation at the geodatabase level youll
be presented with additional panels prompting you to specify the coordinate system for the annotation, and the x,y
tolerance. And if youre creating annotation in a file or ArcSDE geodatabase, youll be given the option of entering a
configuration keyword. See Creating feature classes and tables in Chapter 2 for more on these settings.
You edit geodatabase annotation in an edit session in ArcMap (see Starting and managing an edit session earlier in this
chapter). Once youve added the annotation feature class to your map, open the Editor toolbar and start the edit session.
You can use the Editor toolbar to perform some basic editing on existing annotation. Use the Edit tool to select the
annotation to edit. You can then drag to move it, or use the Rotate tool to rotate it. As with any edit session, the Undo
and Redo buttons are active.
Edit tool

Rotate tool

Use the Edit tool on the Editor

toolbar to select and move
geodatabase annotation. Use
the Rotate tool on the toolbar
to rotate selected annotation
around its center point.

Right-click the annotation to display more options, including Copy and Delete. Click the Attributes option (or click
the Attributes button on the toolbar) to change the appearance of the annotation, or to change the text (by typing in the
box).

Right-click selected annotation

to display more options. Click
the Attributes option or the
Attributes button on the toolbar
to change the annotation text
and symbol.

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For additional editing options, or to create new annotation, open the Annotation toolbar from the Editor drop-down list.
Point to More Editing Tools, and click Annotation.

Open the Annotation toolbar by

clicking More Editing Tools, then
Annotation on the Editor drop-down
list.

When you select annotation using the Edit Annotation tool on the Annotation toolbar, a blue box (known as the
bounding box) appears around the annotation. The box provides several options for interactively editing the annotation.
Click and drag the lower left or lower right corner of the box to rotate the annotation (the annotation pivots around the
opposite corner).

The bounding box around the

annotation lets you rotate the
textclick either small arc that
appears in the lower left and
right corners and drag to rotate
the box. When you release the
mouse button the text is rotated.

Edit Annotation tool

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Click the red triangle at the top of the box and drag the cursor up or down to interactively increase or decrease the text
size. Click the crosshair in the center of the box and drag the cursor to move the text.

When you select the red

triangle in the box, the cursor
changes to a vertical line with
arrowheads. Drag the cursor up
to increase the text size; drag it
down to decrease the text size.

Right-click to display more options, including changing the curvature of the annotationyou can change it from
straight (that is, straight-line at any angle) to horizontal or curved, for example.

Right-click selected annotation

to display a context menu
with additional options. The
Curvature setting lets you
change the annotation type.

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To create new annotation, first make sure the Target on the Editor toolbar is set to the layer to receive the annotation.
Then select the Construction type from the drop-down list on the Annotation toolbar.

To create annotation, first

choose the annotation
Construction type from the
drop-down list.

Type the annotation text in the Text box, then click the Sketch tool on the Editor toolbar and place the annotation on
the map. Each time you click, annotation is placed on the map (so you can place the same annotation text in multiple
locations). To stop placing annotation, click any tool on the Editor toolbar or on the Annotation toolbar.
Sketch tool

Type the text for the annotation

in the Text box, then select the
Sketch tool. Use the cursor
to place the annotation in the
correct locationthe text is
previewed as you drag it. For
Horizontal annotation, the
text is placed when you click
the cursor. You can continue
placing the same annotation
text in other locations.

Type the text here

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For Horizontal, Straight, and Leader Line you can also click the appropriate button at the left end of the Annotation
toolbar to place the annotation.
Each type of construction works slightly differently. When placing Straight annotation, click to place the center point,
then drag around the center point to the desired angle, and click again to place the annotation. Curved annotation lets
you enter the vertices of a line along which the annotation will be placed. For the Follow Feature construction, click a
feature the annotation will be parallel to, then click again to locate the annotation along that feature.
For Leader Line, click the location of the leader line end point, then drag to place the annotationthe leader line
stretches to the annotation as you drag it.

To place Leader Line

annotation, click near the
feature the annotation is for,
then drag the text to the desired
locationthe leader line
stretches as you drag the text.
Click to place the annotation
text.

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The text symbol used for the annotation is one of the symbols specified when you created the annotation feature class.
Right-click an annotation to change the text symbol or leader line for that specific annotation. These symbols are stored
in whats known as the annotation symbol collection.
To modify the symbol for a particular piece of
annotation, select the annotation using the Edit
tool on the Editor toolbar, right-click, and click
Attributes. Choose another symbol from the
symbol collection using the drop-down list in the
Attributes dialog box or use the buttons to change
the font, size, and so on. Click the Leader button
to modify the leader line.

Click the Symbol

button on the
Editor dialog
box to open the
Symbol Selector
and specify the
leader line color
and thickness.

Use the Editor box to set the gap between the leader line and the
text, the leader line type, and other options.

You set the symbol for leader line annotationalong with other properties of the annotationon the Annotation tab of
the Attributes dialog box (existing leader line annotation wont change).

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Click Options on the Editor

drop-down list to specify the
annotation settings, including
the leader line symbol to be
used for annotation youre
adding.

On the
Annotation tab,
click the Leader
button to open
the Editor
dialog box and
set the leader
line properties
for leader line
annotation you
add.

You can add new annotation symbols to the symbol collection at any time in ArcCatalog. Right-click the annotation
feature class in the Catalog tree and click Properties. Then click New on the Annotation tab.

Use the Symbol Selector to choose a new text

symbol to add to the annotation symbol collection.

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

Creating and editing dimensions

Dimension features are a specialized type of geodatabase annotation for showing lengths or distances on a map. A
dimension may indicate the length of a side of a building or land parcel, or it may indicate the distance between two
features, such as a fire hydrant and the corner of a building. Dimension features are stored in dimension feature classes
in a geodatabase. You need to create a dimension feature class before creating the dimension features themselves.

Enter a name and (optionally) an

alias for the feature class. From the
drop-down list, specify the type as
Dimension Features.

To create an empty dimension

feature class in ArcCatalog,
right-click a feature dataset or
geodatabase, point to New, and
click Feature Class.

Specify the reference scale for the

dimensions. This is the map scale
at which the dimensions will appear
at their assigned font size (the size
will increase when you zoom in
and decrease when you zoom out
on the map). Also specify whether
to accept the default style, create
one, or import one from an existing
dimensions feature class.

If youre creating a file or ArcSDE

geodatabase, at this point youll
be given the option of entering
a configuration keyword (see
Creating feature classes and tables
in Chapter 2).

If you select the option to create a style, click the

New Style button on the wizard panel to open the
Dimension Style Properties dialog box. Specify
the symbols and spacing for the dimension and
extension lines, the dimension text symbol, and
so on.

The required fields are automatically

created, so just click Finish to
create the dimensions feature class.
It is added as a new feature class
in the feature dataset you created it
in. (You can also create dimension
feature classes at the geodatabase
level.)

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Dimension features are added to a dimension feature class in ArcMap, within an edit session. First, add the dimensions
feature class to your map, along with the features for which youre adding dimensions (the parcels, streets, buildings,
or other features). Then open the Editor toolbar, and start an edit session. Specify the Task as Create New Feature, and
specify the Target layer as the dimensions feature class; youll also want to set the snapping environment to the vertices
of the features youre dimensioning. Then open the Dimensioning toolbar which contains tools for creating dimension
features.

To open the Dimensioning toolbar,

click the Editor drop-down menu,
point to More Editing Tools, and
click Dimensioning. The options on
the toolbar are active only during
an edit session.
Click Snapping on the Editor drop-down menu
to set the snapping environment. Check the
box under Vertex for the layer youre creating
dimensions for or other layers you want to snap to.

Use the Construction drop-down list on the Dimensioning toolbar to specify the dimension type.

Specify the type of dimension

from the Construction dropdown list.

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The dimension features are based on points that you input with the Sketch tool. An aligned dimension, for example,
requires three points: the start point, the end point, and an offset point. Select the Sketch tool on the Editor toolbar,
then enter the points on the map to create the dimension. As you move the mouse, you will see that the new dimension
dynamically draws itself with the cursor location as the end dimension point. When you click the final point, the
dimension position and text are fixed.

Click third

Click first

Click second

To create an aligned dimension

feature, click the vertex
corresponding to the beginning
of the dimension line; click the
vertex corresponding to the end
of the line; then move the cursor
perpendicular to the line to set
an offset and click to finish the
dimension feature.

You can create aligned, simple aligned, horizontal linear, vertical linear, or rotated linear dimension features.

Aligned

Simple aligned

Horizontal linear

Vertical linear

Rotated linear

There are several tools on the toolbar that allow you to create new dimension features from a selected feature (these
are available from the Autodimension palette). You select the dimension type, then select the featurethe dimension is
created automatically.

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If more than one style is defined for the dimension feature class, select the one to use from the drop-down menu on the
Dimensioning toolbar. To override the current dimension style for a particular dimension feature, right-click the feature
and click Attributes. The dialog box lets you change the dimension style.

To override the default style for a selected dimension

feature, right-click the feature and click Attributes. Then
change the settings in the Attributes dialog box.

You can add more styles at any time in ArcCatalog (except when the dimensions are being edited in an edit session in
ArcMap). Right-click the dimension feature class in the Catalog tree, and click Properties. On the Dimensions tab, click
New to open the Dimension Style Properties dialog box, and define the properties of the new style.

To create a new dimension style for a dimension

feature class, right-click the feature class in
the Catalog tree, click Properties, and click the
Dimensions tab. Click New. After entering a name
for the style, the Dimension Style Properties
dialog box will open.

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

Editing routes and geometric networks

Routes and geometric networks are collections of line features and junctions, or intersections, used to represent
transportation and utility networks. You create both types of datasets using ArcCatalog (see Adding specialized
datasets to a geodatabase in Chapter 2). ArcMap contains tools for interactively editing the datasets to add or delete
features.

Editing a route dataset

Routes are collections of linear features built from existing features such as roads or pipelines. Theyre often used to
manage subsections of an existing line datasetfor example, to indicate different pavement conditions along stretches
of a highway. They are also used to assign geographic locations to events stored in a table (see Assigning locations
using street addresses or routes earlier in this chapter). You can modify an existing route datasetor add features to an
empty dataset you created in ArcCatalogusing tools in ArcMap. Routes are edited within an edit session, using tools
on the Editor toolbar and the Route Editing toolbar.
First, add the route dataset to your map. Then open the Editor toolbar and click Start Editing on the Editor drop-down
menu. Set the Target layer to be the route dataset. You can use the Edit tool to select a route, then right-click to delete
the route or click Attributes to modify its attributes (such as the route ID).
If youre adding features to the route (as opposed to merely deleting them or modifying their properties) youll want to
also add the dataset containing the base features (such as a streets dataset). Set the Task to Create New Feature. Then
open the Route Editing toolbarpoint to More Editing Tools on the Editor drop-down menu, and click Route Editing.

To open the Route Editing

toolbar, click the Editor dropdown menu, point to More
Editing Tools, and click Route
Editing. The options on the
toolbar are active only during an
edit session.

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To create a new route, select the base features that will comprise the route using the Edit tool on the Editor toolbar.
Press and hold the Shift key to select multiple features. Once youve selected all the features to include in the route,
click the Make Route button on the Route Editing toolbar.

Make Route

To create a route, use the Edit

tool to select the features that
will comprise the route. Then
click the Make Route button on
the Route Editing toolbar.

In the Make Route dialog box, specify the start point of the route (where the measuring will start from) and how the
distance will be obtained (the default is to use the distances calculated from the geometry of the features in the route).
An easy way to specify the start point is to simply click on the map. First, click the arrow button in the dialog box.

Click to point at the start point on the map.

The Make Route dialog box lets

you specify the start point of the
route and how measures will be
obtained (calculated from the
feature geometry, using a field
associated with each feature,
or using values you enter). You
can also specify a conversion
factor and a start measure other
than zero, if necessary.

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Youre prompted to click near the end point of the selected base feature that defines the start of the route. When you
move the cursor near the point on the map, it will snap to the point.

To enter the start point of the

route (the point from which
measures will be calculated)
move the cursor near the start
pointthe cursor will snap to
the pointthen click.

After youve specified the start point, the dialog box reappears. Set any other parameters in the dialog box (or accept the
defaults) and click Make Route at the bottom of the dialog box.

After setting the start point,

the Make Route dialog box
reappearsset any other
parameters, then click the Make
Route button on the dialog box
to create the route.

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Once the new route has been created in the target feature class, the selected set of input linear features will become
unselected and the new route will become selected. This is so you can set the attributes, such as the route identifier. The
route identifier is used when locating events along the routeeach event in the event table includes the route identifier
so it can be assigned to the correct route. To assign the route identifier (and any other attributes), right-click the selected
route and click Attributes. Type in the box next to the route identifier field to assign the route identifier.

Right-click the newly created route, which is

currently selected, and click Attributes. In the dialog
box, enter the route ID (the field must already exist).

The Linear Referencing toolbox in ArcToolbox contains tools for building routes and locating events. The Create
Routes tool, for example, lets you create a route dataset. The tools are useful when building routes and locating events
within a script or model, but they can also be used on their own.

The Create Routes tool in the

Linear Referencing toolbox
lets you create routes from
a set of base features by
entering the input and output
datasets, along with other
parameters, in a dialog box.

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Editing a geometric network

Geometric networks are used to represent utility networks such as electrical networks or water systems. They are
built in ArcCatalog, using existing featuresfor example, transmission lines, capacitors, transformers, and so on, for
an electrical network (see Adding specialized datasets to a geodatabase in Chapter 2). A defining characteristic of a
geometric network is that it stores and maintains the connectivity between the various features in the network.
Geometric networks are edited in an edit session in ArcMap. Add the network to your map (when you do, all the feature
classes that comprise the network are added to the map). You can delete features or modify the attributes for a feature in
the network as you would any other feature. Select the feature using the Edit tool on the Editor toolbar. Right-click to
delete or copy it (keeping in mind that deleting a feature may impact the connectivity of the network). Click Attributes
to modify its attribute values.
Because the connectivity between features in the network is inherent, when you move a feature, the features to which it
is connected move with it to maintain the connectivity.

To edit a geometric network, open the Editor

toolbar, and click Start Editing on the Editor
drop-down menu. Use the Edit tool on the
toolbar to select the feature to work with.

When you drag to move a feature, the junction

at which the feature connects to other features
moves with it, and the connected features
stretch accordingly.

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There may be cases where you need to move a feature without changing the position of features its connected to (for
example, to move the position of a transmission line without moving the position of the pole its connected to). To do
this, you need to first disconnect the feature. Open the Geometric Network Editing toolbar from the Editor drop-down
menu. Then select the feature to disconnectusing the Edit tool on the Editor toolbarand click the Disconnect button.

To disconnect a feature from the network, open

the Geometric Network Editing toolbar (click
the Editor drop-down menu and point to More
Editing Tools).

Disconnect

With the feature selected, click the Disconnect

button on the toolbar.

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Now when you move the feature, the connected features stay put. To reconnect the feature to the network, snap an end
to a feature on the network, and click the Connect button on the toolbar.

When you move the disconnected feature, it

floats free of the network.

Connect

To reconnect a feature to the network (or

connect a new feature), snap the feature to an
existing network edge or junction, and click the
Connect button on the toolbar.

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When adding a feature to a geometric network, youll want to set the snapping environment so that all layers in the
network have snapping on. That will ensure new features snap to existing ones, thus maintaining network connectivity.

When adding features to a

geometric network, set snapping
on for the network layers. Point
features should have Vertex
checked; line features should have
Vertex and End checked (as well
as Edge, if required).

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Checking your data for errors

ArcGIS Desktop contains several tools to help you check for errors in your geodatabase that may have been introduced
during editing or when importing data. These validation tools work within an edit session in ArcMap (see Starting and
managing an edit session earlier in this chapter for a discussion of starting an edit session). The Validate Features tool
checks for invalid values for subtypes or attribute domains, as well as invalid relationship classes and broken network
connectivity. The Topology toolbar lets you check and verify any topology rules youve established for specific datasets.

Validating attribute values

The Validate Features tool on the Editor toolbar checks the values of domains and subtypes to make sure theyre valid
(see Ensuring attribute data integrity in Chapter 2 for a discussion of creating domains and subtypes). When editing
subtypes and coded value domains using the Attributes dialog box, a drop-down menu lets you select from a list of
valid values to ensure that acceptable values are entered (see Adding and editing attribute data earlier in this chapter).
However, it may be the case that there are attribute values in a field that pre-date the creation of the coded value domain
or subtype. Also, values entered using the field calculator in the table window are not restricted to those defined in the
coded value domain or subtype, so errors may creep in if values are entered using this method. For range domains, the
values that can be enteredusing either the Attributes dialog box or the field calculator in the table windoware not
restricted when you enter them, so, again, errors may occur. The Validate Features tool finds any invalid domain or
subtype values that occur in the table, for the selected feature(s), and displays a message.
After starting an edit session, use the Edit tool to select the feature(s) to be validated. Then click the Editor drop-down
menu and click Validate Features. If a single feature is selected, the message indicates the nature of the problem.

To check for invalid subtypes or attribute domain values, open an edit session
and use the Edit tool to select the feature to check. Then select Validate
Features on the Editor drop-down menu. A message is displayed indicating the
error. If there are no errors, the message indicates that all features are valid.

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Right-click the feature to open its attribute dialog box and correct the value.

Right-click the selected feature and click Attributes to

correct the invalid value.

If more than one feature is selected, the message tells you how many features have invalid values; only those features
remain selected. Select one of these features and run Validate Features again to get an explanation of why the feature is
invalid (or just open the Attributes dialog box for the feature and see for yourself).

You can select multiple features before

running Validate Features. The message
will indicate how many features have
invalid values. Features with no errors
are unselected, leaving selected only the
features having invalid values.

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To open the Attributes dialog box, click the Attributes button on the toolbar, or right-click one of the selected features
and click Attributes. The selected features are listed in the left panel; click a feature in the list to display and edit its
attributes.

Select a feature from the

list in the left panel of
the Attributes dialog box
to display the features
attributes and correct any
errors.

Validate Features checks for the different types of errors sequentially, so if a feature has errors of more than one type
it will generate a message if you run it again. For example, if a feature has an invalid subtype and an invalid domain
value, it will generate an error when the invalid subtype is encountered. If you fix the error and re-run Validate Features,
a message will be generated when the invalid domain value is encountered.

Validating relationship classes and network connectivity

Validate Features will check to make sure any relationship class rules youve set up in your geodatabase are not broken.
For example, in an electric network, there may be a relationship class between substations and feeders, with a rule that
a substation cannot have more than two feeders. Validate Features will check to ensure there are no violations of the
rule (a substation has no more than two feeders associated with it). Select the feature or features to validate, then click
Validate Features on the Editor drop-down menu. Validate Features displays a message indicating that all features are
valid, or that it has found a rule that has been broken, and the cause. In this case, the tables or features would have to be
edited to modify the relationships between the features.

Validate Features can be used to check for

relationship class rules that have been broken.
In an edit session, select the feature to validate
(using the Edit tool on the Editor toolbar). Then
select Validate Features on the Editor dropdown menu. In this example, four feeders are
connected to a substation, when a maximum of
two are allowed.

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Similarly, Validate Features will evaluate connectivity for a geometric network. In an electric network, for example, a
substation might be able to connect only to a primary line. If a substation is added and connected to a secondary line,
running the Validate Features tool will reveal this, and display a message. To correct the error, the feature would have to
be deleted or moved to connect to a differentprimaryline.

Use Validate Features to check the correct

connectivity between feature classes in a
geometric network (in this example, a substation
on an electrical network is connected to the
wrong type of transmission line).

Validating topology rules

A topology is a set of rules that define the spatial relationships between features. The rules ensure, for example, that
parcels dont overlap or that census tracts completely nest within counties. If youve made edits to a feature that
participates in a topology, you need to validate the topology to identify any violations of the rules that have been
defined for the topology.
ArcMap includes tools for validating geodatabase topology. (The tools are not available for map topology. For more
on geodatabase topology see Ensuring spatial data integrity in Chapter 2. For more on map topology, see Editing
connected features in this chapter.)
Topology validation occurs within an edit session in ArcMap, using the Topology toolbar. After starting an edit session,
click the Editor drop-down menu, point to More Editing Tools, and click Topology.

Open the Topology toolbar

in ArcMap to validate
geodatabase topology.

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If there is more than one geodatabase topology on your map, use the drop-down list to select the one you want to
validate.
The toolbar includes three buttons that let you validate topologythey vary only in the extent of features they will
validate. You can validate feature topology within a selected area on the map, within the current extent of your map, or
the entire topology. When you click one of the three Validate Topology buttons, ArcMap checks the features against the
topology rules in the geodatabase. Any features that violate the rules are highlighted in red on the map. After validating,
use the Error Inspector to list the errorsclick the button on the toolbar to open the Error Inspector window. Use the
drop-down list to specify which errors to search for and list (based on the rule thats been broken), or select Errors from
all rules. Then click the Search Now button on the window.

Click one of the Validate Topology buttons on the toolbar

to validate the selected topology. Errors are highlighted
in red. In this example, there are two parcel overlap
errors, a street overlap, a pseudo node (a vertex that
connects two line segmentsit may be unnecessary),
and several dangles (a dangle is a vertex at the end of a
line segmentsome of these might be acceptable and
should be marked as exceptions).
Selected area

Current extent
Entire topology

Click the Error Inspector

button on the toolbar to open
the Error Inspector window.
Then select the topology rules
from the drop-down list.

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When you select an error in the list, the corresponding feature is highlighted in black on the map. You can use the Error
Inspector to manage the errorsyou can sort the errors by any of the fields in the table so you can work with all the
errors of a given type. You can also limit the errors shown in the table to errors of a given type, errors that occur in the
currently visible map extent, or errors that have been marked as exceptions (that is, are acceptable, even though they
violate a topology rule).

When you select an error

in the Error Inspector table,
the corresponding feature
is highlighted on the map,
in black. Right-click a row to
zoom or pan to that feature.
Click a column heading to sort
by that column.

Once you identify errors, use the tools on the Topology toolbar to fix them. In many cases, you can use the Fix
Topology Error tool on the toolbar to resolve errors. When you use the tool to select a feature that has an error, and then
right-click, applicable predefined fixes are displayed in the context menu. For example, if the error is an overlapping
polygon, the Merge fix is available. If you click Merge, you can select which of the overlapping polygons will be
merged into the other. The same menu is displayed when you select and right-click an error in the Error Inspector
window.

Click the Fix Topology Error tool on

the toolbar, then right-click a selected
feature on the map. You can zoom or
pan to the feature, or select a fixin this
example, selecting Merge lets you pick
the duplicate line to delete.

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You can also use ArcCatalog to validate an entire topology. Its a good idea to do this when you first build the topology
in ArcCatalog (see Ensuring spatial data integrity in Chapter 2). Right-click the topology in the Catalog tree, and click
Validate. Errors will be displayed when you click the Preview tab.

After validation, topology errors appear in ArcCatalog when you select the
Preview tab.

When you open a map that contains the topology, in ArcMap, any errors ArcCatalog identified will be highlighted in
red.

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Defining coordinate systems and projecting datasets

The spatial reference for a feature class describes its coordinate systemfor example, geographic, UTM, or State
Planeits spatial domain extent, its resolution, and its tolerance. When youre building your geodatabase, you assign
the spatial reference when you create feature classes and feature datasets (see Creating feature classes and tables and
Ensuring spatial data integrity in Chapter 2). If youve received data from an outside source, the data may have a
spatial reference, but it may not yet be defined in ArcGIS. Or, the dataset may be in a different map projection than the
rest of your data. ArcGIS includes tools to define coordinate systems and to project datasets to other map projections.
To see if a dataset has a defined coordinate system, right-click the dataset in the Catalog tree and click Properties, then
select the XY Coordinate System tab. If the coordinate system is undefined, the name will say Unknown (or Assumed
Geographic if the coordinates are in degrees of latitude and longitude), and the Details box will be empty. If the spatial
reference is not included in the documentation that accompanied the dataset, youll need to contact the source and get
the spatial reference information.
You define a coordinate system by selecting a predefined coordinate system, importing one from another dataset, or
defining the parameters for the coordinate system yourself to create a new one. You can do this in ArcCatalog (as shown
on the next page) or using the Define Projection tool in ArcToolbox.

The Define Projection tool in the Projections and Transformations toolset lets
you define a datasets coordinate system. On the Define Projection dialog box,
enter the input dataset and click the button next to the Coordinate System box
to open the Spatial Reference Properties dialog box. The options for assigning a
coordinate system are the same as when using ArcCatalog.

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To assign the coordinate system for a dataset in ArcCatalog, right-click the

dataset in the Catalog tree and click Properties.

On the Properties dialog box, select

the XY Coordinate System tab to
display the options for assigning a
coordinate system to the dataset.

The Select option lets you choose a

predefined coordinate systemeither
projected or geographic.

The Import option lets you assign the coordinate

system by using the coordinate system of an
existing dataset.

The New option lets you

enter parameters to create a
custom projected or geographic
coordinate system.

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Defining a coordinate system does not change the coordinates of the datait merely makes the coordinate system
known to ArcGIS. If you need to change a datasets coordinate system to a different onefor example, to be consistent
with the rest of your geodatabaseuse the Project tool. This may be the case if you receive data from another agency
or other source that doesnt use the same coordinate system youre using for your geodatabase. Feature classes stored
in a geodatabase feature dataset must have the same map projection as the feature dataset (see Ensuring spatial data
integrity in Chapter 2).

The Project tool lets you convert a dataset from one coordinate system to
another (the coordinate system for the dataset youre converting must already
be defined). The options for assigning the coordinate system to convert to are
the same as when defining a coordinate systemselect from a predefined
one, import one from an existing dataset, or define a custom one. You can
also modify the existing one, or select or import one and then modify it. When
projecting a dataset, a new dataset is created in the new coordinate system.

The Projections and Transformations toolset contains additional tools for defining, projecting, and spatially adjusting
rasters.
The Raster toolset under
Projections and Transformations
(in the Data Management toolbox)
contains tools for projecting and
adjusting raster datasets.

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Adjusting and integrating datasets

Inconsistencies between GIS datasets obtained from different sources sometimes require you to perform additional
work to integrate new data with the rest of your data. Some data may be distorted or rotated with respect to your base
data and need to be transformed or rubber sheeted (stretched or warped) to match the base data. Or you may need to
make sure features at edges of map sheets match up before the datasets are appended. You may want to transfer attribute
values from one feature to another (often used to assign values to new features or to replace values with more accurate
or current ones). This work is often in preparation for combining adjacent datasets to create a continuous dataset.

Transforming, rubber sheeting, and edge matching datasets

ArcGIS includes a number of tools that let you match up features in different datasets with each other. This is often
needed when youve imported data from another source, such as a CAD drawing, or if you need to combine adjacent
map sheets. The transform operation rotates and scales features to a set of control points; the rubber sheet operation
stretches and warps features; and edge match lets you ensure that features meet up across map sheet edges. These are
collectively known as spatial adjustment operations.
Spatial adjustment is done within an edit session in ArcMap. Open the Editor toolbar and start an edit session (see
Starting and managing an edit session earlier in this chapter). Spatial adjustment tools are located on the Spatial
Adjustment toolbarclick the Editor drop-down menu, point to More Editing Tools, and click Spatial Adjustment.
Once you open the Spatial Adjustment toolbar, the process is essentially the same for transforming, rubber sheeting, and
edge matching. The steps are:
1 Set the snapping environment for adding links
2 Specify the features to be adjusted
3 Specify the adjustment method
4 Create links between the features youre adjusting and the target features
5 Preview the adjustment
6 Adjust the features
The following example of transforming parcels to a new location shows these basic steps. The new parcels (shown in
purple) need to be rotated and scaled to fit into the empty plot along the right edge of the map.

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Set the snapping environment from the Editor drop-down menu. In this case, snapping is set for vertices for the new
parcels and the existing parcelsthis will make it easy to snap links to the corresponding vertex in each layer. Then
open the Spatial Adjustment toolbar.

Set the snapping environment

for the datasets youll be creating
links between.

On the Editor drop-down menu,

point to More Editing Tools, and
click Spatial Adjustment.

Next specify the layers that will participate in the adjustment (in this example two layers will be transformed at the
same timethe NewBuildings layer and the NewParcels layer). Then set the spatial adjustment method.

Click Set Adjust Data

to specify the datasets
that will participate in the
adjustment.

On the Spatial Adjustment drop-down

menu, click Adjustment Methods to
specify the type of transformation or
adjustment youre doing.

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The next step is to add a link from a vertex on the source layer (the one youre transforming) to the corresponding
vertex on the destination layer. Youll likely want to add at least four links to ensure a successful transformation.

Click the New

Displacement Link
button on the Spatial
Adjustment toolbar,
then click the from
point and to point to
create each link.

New Displacement Link

To preview the result, open the Adjustment Preview window. You can also open the Link Table to display a list of the
links. The table shows you the accuracy of the transformation (as indicated by the RMS errorthe lower, the better).
You can also delete errant links here, and then click the Add Link button to replace them with the correct link, if
necessary.

Click Preview Window on the drop-down

menu to open a window showing how the
result of the adjustment will look. You can use
the zoom and pan toolseither in the preview
window or the mapto get a closer look.

Click the View Link Table

button on the toolbar to
display the list of links. Rightclick a link to flash it on the
map, zoom or pan to it, or
delete it.

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3 Data Compilation and Editing

If the preview looks good and the links are accurate, click Adjust on the Spatial Adjustment drop-down menu to go
ahead and transform the features.

Click Adjust on the Spatial Adjustment

drop-down menu to adjust the features.

When you click Adjust, the features are displayed in their new position. You can
use the Undo button on the Standard toolbar, if necessary.

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

To rubber sheet one set of features to match another, set the Spatial Adjustment method to Rubbersheet. You can also set
the rubber sheeting method. Use Natural Neighbor when you have a few links, widely spread. The Linear method works
best when you have many links, uniformly placed.

To rubber sheet one dataset to

another, set the Spatial Adjustment
method to Rubbersheet.

Click Options on the Spatial Adjustment drop-down

menu and set the Adjustment method to Rubbersheet.

Click the Options button on the dialog

box and specify the rubbersheet method.

To edge match features in two adjacent map sheets, set the Spatial Adjustment method to Edge Snap. Then open the
Adjustment Properties dialog box to specify (on the Edge Match tab) which features will snap to whichthe features
in the source layer will snap to those in the target layer. You can also specify (on the General tab) the edge match
methodSmooth (the default), or Line. The Line option moves only the last vertex on each line thats being adjusted;
the Smooth option adjusts the entire line, providing a smoother effect along the matched edge.

To edge match two datasets,

set the Spatial Adjustment
method to Edge Snap.

On the Edge Match tab,

specify the source and target
layers. The source layer will
adjust to the target layer.

Click Options on the Spatial Adjustment drop-down

menu, and set the Adjustment method to Edge Snap,
then click the Options button on the dialog box to
specify the method.

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3 Data Compilation and Editing

To create the links for edge matching, click the Edge Match tool on the Spatial Adjustment toolbar, and draw a rectangle
that encompasses the edge to be matchedthe links will be created automatically. Youll want to zoom to areas where
features are bunched together to make sure the links are linking the correct features (use the link table to delete any
incorrect links, then add them manually using the New Displacement Link button). You also need to select the features
that will be matcheduse the Edit tool on the Editor toolbar to draw a rectangle encompassing the edge to select the
corresponding features in both layers.

Use the Edge Match tool to draw a rectangle

around the area to matchthe links are
automatically created. Then use the Edit tool
on the Editor toolbar to select the features to
include in the edge matching processthe
selected features are highlighted. When you
click Adjust from the Spatial Adjustment dropdown menu, the features are matched.

Edit Tool

Edge Match

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

Copying attributes from one feature to another

The Attribute Transfer tool, also on the Spatial Adjustment toolbar, lets you copy the attribute values from a feature in
one dataset to a feature in another dataset. Youd do this, for example, to add street names and types to a new dataset of
streets that extends existing streets before combining the datasets.
First, set the snapping environment, using the Editor drop-down menu (for line features, set the snapping to Edge). Then
click Attribute Transfer Mapping on the Spatial Adjustment toolbar. In the dialog box, specify the source layer (the layer
the attributes will be copied from) and the target layer. Select a source field in the left panel then the corresponding
target field in the right panel, and add them to the list (this lets you copy attributes even if the fields arent named the
same). Include only those fields for which you want attribute values transferred.
By identifying the target feature (in red,
left) before transferring attributes, you can
see it has no values for Name and Type.

For attribute transfer between

line features, set snapping to
Edge for both the source and
target datasets.

Click Attribute Transfer Mapping on

the Spatial Adjustment drop-down
menu. In the dialog box, select
the source field name and the
corresponding target field name,
then click Add to add the pair to the
match list. Do this for each field.

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3 Data Compilation and Editing

To copy the attributes, click Attribute Transfer on the Spatial Adjustment toolbar. Then, on the map, click a location
on a source layer feature, and then click the target feature to receive the attribute values. The values are immediately
copied to the target.

Click here....
....then click here

First click the Attribute Transfer

tool on the toolbar (below). Next,
click the source feature, then
click the target featurethe
attribute values are immediately
assigned to the target.

After transferring attributes, the target feature has the

same Name and Type values as the source feature.

Attribute Transfer

Combining datasets into a single dataset

Often, the ultimate goal of spatial adjustment and attribute transfer is to combine datasets containing the same type of
feature to create a single dataset that covers your entire area of interest. For example, you may have edge matched a
set of hydrology map sheets that need to be appended to create a continuous dataset. Or, you may have rubber sheeted
datasets of new streets and parcels that fill a previously undeveloped area and want to drop them into the existing
datasets. The Merge and Append tools in ArcToolbox are used for this. The Merge tool combines all the input datasets
you specify into a single, new dataset. Append is similar, except it adds the datasets you specify to an existing dataset.
In both cases, the types of features must be the same in all input datasets (all points or all lines, for example).

The Merge tool, located in the General toolset (Data Management

toolbox) lets you combine two or more datasets of the same type
into a single dataset. Specify the input datasets, and the name and
location of the output dataset.

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

Editing multiuser and distributed geodatabases

Many organizations need to maintain large geodatabases that require frequent or continuous updating, such as a citys
parcel database. This often entails having several people editing the database concurrently. When you start an edit
session to edit a file geodatabase or personal geodatabase, or a workspace containing shapefiles, no one else can edit
that data while your edit session is active (as soon as you stop the edit session, the data is available for others to edit).
The entire geodatabase or workspace is said to be locked during editing. An ArcSDE geodatabase, on the other
hand, can be edited by several people at the same time. This is one of the main reasons for using ArcSDE. ArcSDE
accesses data stored in a DBMS, such as Oracle, SQL Server, DB2, or Informix (see An overview of geographic data
management and Creating a geodatabase in Chapter 2 for more on creating an ArcSDE geodatabase).
There are several approaches to using ArcSDE to enable multiuser editing. One approach allows editors to work on
the same dataset at the same time, but if an individual feature is edited by one editor, it is locked for editingno other
editors can change it, until the first editor saves the edits.
Another approach allows editors to work on the same dataset and even the same features simultaneouslywhen the last
editor saves edits, any conflicts are listed (if one editor moved a point to new location, and another editor moved the
same point to a different location, for example). The conflict then needs to be reconciled before the final edits can be
saved in the geodatabase.
A third approach is to create a different viewor versionof the geodatabase for each editor, and let them work on
their version independently. When an editor finishes edits and posts them to the mainor publishedgeodatabase, any
conflicts are listed and can be reconciled. A version is simply a view of a geodatabase, rather than a copy of the data
in itno matter how many versions of the geodatabase you create, there is still only a single copy of the geodatabase.
Each version lists or displays all the datasets in the geodatabase.
Versioning has a number of other advantages: you can create multiple versions of a geodatabase for sub-tasks or
different phases of a project that can be edited separately from the original database, without having to create and track
separate copies of the data (this is especially useful for very large geodatabases). You can create archive versions of
a database to preserve a snapshot of the geodatabase at a given time. Versioning also allows you to perform editing
operations that span several days or weeksfor example, adding all the parcels in a new subdivision. The editor
maintains the edits in progress in a separate version and can continue to make changes and updates; when complete, the
edits are posted to the published geodatabase (this process is referred to as a long transaction).
A fourth approach is to create full copies of a geodatabaseknown as replicaswhich can be stored and edited
separately. The replicas are then synchronized to make sure all the geodatabases are the same, and everyone is working
with the same data. Using replicas may be efficient when the editing is done at multiple office locations or in the field,
or when different departments or organizations are responsible for updating one portion of the geodatabase.
The approach you use depends on the size and requirements of your database and the nature of the GIS work your
organization does. In practice, you may end up combining some or all of these approaches. You might, for example,
create replicas, and then create versions from each replica, some of which are set up for multi-user editing, and some
not.
The Geodatabases and ArcSDE topic in the Desktop Help system includes various multiuser editing scenarios.
There are two mechanisms at play when you set up an ArcSDE geodatabase for multi-user editing: there can be multiple
versions of a geodatabase; and each individual dataset in a geodatabase can be registered to allow several people to edit
that dataset simultaneously.
An ArcSDE geodatabase can have a single version or multiple versions. When you create an ArcSDE geodatabase,
a version is created named Default, so every ArcSDE geodatabase has at least one version. This version often
represents the published geodatabase. If necessary, you can then create additional, named versions from the
Default version (or from other versions you create). Usually, you maintain and update the Default version over
time by posting changes to it from other versions. You can also edit the Default version directly, just like any other
version. But unlike other versions, it cant be deleted.
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Each dataset in an ArcSDE geodatabase can be registered as versioned, or not. Registering a dataset as versioned
allows two or more editors to edit and modify the same feature at the same time. If a dataset is not registered as
versioned, several editors can still edit the dataset simultaneously, but an edited feature is locked until the editor
who modified it saves the edit. With nonversioned data there are no possibilities for edit conflicts since a modified
feature must be saved before another editor can modify it. Once you register a dataset as versioned, it is registered
for all versions of the geodatabase you create (recall that there is only one copy of the dataset in the geodatabase,
so any settings for a dataset apply across versions). You can edit versioned and nonversioned datasets in the same
geodatabase, based on your requirements. If you need to edit feature classes that participate in a topology or a
geometric network, you need to register the datasets as versioned in order to edit them. Registering a dataset as
versioned also allows it to be enabled for archiving. The date and time of each edit, or series of edits, is stored with
the dataset, which then lets you view the state of the geodatabase on any given date (see the Desktop Help for more
on geodatabase archiving).
Depending on the multiuser editing scenario you establish, you might implement one or both of these mechanisms. For
example, you might edit the default version of the geodatabase, with all of the datasets in the geodatabase registered as
versioned (you might do this if you only need to maintain a single version of the geodatabase, but need to have several
people editing it).

Editing an ArcSDE geodatabase using nonversioned data

Your organization may not need multiple versions of a geodatabase, but rather only the ability to have several people
editing the geodatabase concurrently, for occasional edits. One way to do this is to set up the geodatabase for multi-user
editing using the default version with nonversioned data. With this approach, the source data is edited directly and you
dont have to manage separate versions of the geodatabase.
To edit using nonversioned data, first make sure the data is not registered as versioned (this is, in fact, the default when
data is imported to, or created in, an ArcSDE geodatabase). In ArcCatalog, right-click the feature class or standalone
table in the Catalog tree and click Properties. In the Versioning section on the General tab, make sure the dataset is
listed as not currently versioned.

To make sure the dataset is

not registered as versioned,
right-click it in the Catalog tree
and click Properties. Select the
General tab on the properties
dialog box and check the
Versioning status at the bottom
of the pageit should indicate
the data is not registered as
versioned.

The Versioning status

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

When youre ready to start editing in ArcMap, display the Editing Options dialog box and uncheck the Edit a Version
check box (this box is checked on by default). Then edit the data using any of the edit tools, as you would any other
dataset.

Uncheck this box

Before starting your edit session in ArcMap, click Options on the Editor dropdown to open the Editing Options dialog box. On the Versioning tab, uncheck the
Edit a version box.

Usually this approach is used to allow people to edit different portions of a dataset at the same time (note that ArcSDE
Personal Edition allows only one editor at a time, in any case). When one editor completes an operation (completing a
polygon, for example), the feature locks. The feature remains locked until this editor either saves the edits or quits the
edit session without saving. While the feature is locked, the other editors edit operations on the feature are blocked, and
the hourglass cursor displays in their ArcMap edit sessions. The hourglass continues to display until either the lock is
released or the request for the lock times out (a setting in the underlying DBMS, if supported). Different DBMSs handle
these locking issues in slightly different ways. Because of this data locking, you can edit simple data onlypoints,
lines, polygons, annotation, and relationships. You cannot edit feature classes in a topology or geometric networks with
this approach. (Thats because when you edit a feature in a network or topology, not all the features in the network or
topology are lockedthere is the potential for other editors to edit another part of the network or topology in a way that
conflicts with your edits.)

Using nonversioned data for multiuser editing is useful when editors are working on different parts of the dataset. In this example, one editor is
updating parcel boundaries on one section of the city (left) while another editor is updating parcel attributes in another part of the city (right).

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3 Data Compilation and Editing

Editing using versioned data

Using versioned data allows two or more editors to edit the same features at the same time, without feature locking. It
also allows multiuser editing of topologies or geometric networks. To edit versioned data, you register as versioned
each individual dataset that will be edited. In ArcCatalog, right-click the dataset in the Catalog tree, and click Register
As Versioned. Youre presented with a window that gives you the option of moving the edits to base. This option is
applicable when youre editing multiple geodatabase versions (as discussed later in this section) rather than just the
default version, as you are hereleave it unchecked.

To edit versioned data, firstin the

Catalog tree, in ArcCatalogright-click the
dataset you want to edit and click Register
As Versioned. When prompted whether to
use the option to move edits to base, leave
the box unchecked (youre editing the
basethe default versionso this option
doesnt apply in this case). When you click
OK, the dataset is registered.

Now when you check the Versioning status on the properties dialog box, the dataset is listed as registered as versioned
(notice also that the Register As Versioned option on the context menu is now unavailable).

You can confirm that the

dataset is registered as
versioned on the General
tab of the Feature Class
Properties dialog box.

The Versioning status

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

When youre ready to start your edit session in ArcMap, you need to make sure the Edit a Version option is checked on
the Versioning tab of the Editing Options dialog box (this is the opposite of using nonversioned data).

Check this box

When youre ready to start an edit session, click Options on the Editor dropdown to open the Editing Options dialog box. On the Versioning tab, check the
box to Edit a version of the database. Youre presented with a range of options
relating to saving edits and resolving conflicts.

When you register a dataset as versioned, a couple of tables (known as delta tables) are created to store the changes
to the datasetone for additions and one for deletions. ArcGIS uses an ID (known as a State ID) for each version to
keep track of which changes belong to which version. When an edit is made in a version, the change is tagged with that
versions State ID when its stored in the delta table. When the editors save their edits, the changes are posted to the
geodatabase, but all the changes continue to be maintained in the delta tables. The delta tables can get quite large over
time, so you need to compress the geodatabase on a regular basis (see Maximizing the performance of your database
in Chapter 2).
Two or more editors concurrently editing the same feature or features can edit without any locking during their
respective edit sessionsits as if theyre editing their own version. (In fact, they are editing temporary, unnamed
versions created from the Default version that are discarded at the end of the edit session.) When the editor saves his or
her edits, the edits are saved in the Default version.

When editing versioned data, two editorsrunning two separate edit sessionscan edit the same feature simultaneously. In this example,
the editor running the edit session on the left has moved a point feature to the lower center of the map (blue dot). The editor on the right has
moved the same feature to a location farther to the left. They each see their own version of the dataset. If one of the editors saves the edit,
when the other editor saves the edit there will be a conflict.

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3 Data Compilation and Editing

In a perfect world, and with good planning and editing procedures, none of the edits made by different editors would
conflict with each other. Editors working on the dataset concurrently will either work on different sets of features in
different parts of the geographic area, or will work sequentially, with one editor entering more recent information; or
perhaps one editor will edit the geometry of features while another will edit the attributes. However, with several editors
working on the same data at the same time, there is the potential for edits made on the same feature by two (or more)
editors to conflict with each other. For example, suppose two people are editing a feature class of points representing
building locations, and one moves a point to one location and the other editor moves the same point to a different
location. The first editor then saves edits. When the second editor saves edits, the Conflicts window will appear,
indicating a conflict in the edits. Click the Conflict Display button to open a panel that lets you view the conflicting
editthe previously saved edit (the pre-reconcile edit) is shown on the left while the current edit (the one thats causing
the conflict) is shown on the right.
If there are conflicts between
edits, the Conflicts window will
appear when the second editor
saves the edits. Use the Conflict
Display button to display panels
showing the two edited versions.
Select a conflict in the left panel
to display the details.
Click to display or close
the lower panels

Right-click the feature listed in the left panel, or any of the rows in the right panel, to display additional display options.
You can also select a solution to the conflictuse the pre-reconcile edit, use the conflict edit, or discard them both and
go back to the location of the feature before either of the edits (the common ancestor).
Right-click a conflict in either panel
for more options. The Display option
lets you show any combination of
the versions of the edited feature
on the current mapthe original
version, the previously saved edit, or
the conflict edit. The list also lets you
choose a solution (or, you can go
back and edit one of the versions in
an edit session so the versions are
consistent).

Pre-edit

Edit

Conflict

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

Creating and editing multiple geodatabase versions

If you have several editors working over multiple edit sessions (days, weeks, or longer), or if you want to edit
subprojects or phases of a project separately while leaving the published geodatabase intact, you can create multiple
versions of a geodatabase. There are a number of issues to consider when deciding whether, and how, to create multiple
versions, including:
How to structure the versions, whether parallel (such as when having multiple editors work on the same database),
sequential (such as when editing phases of a project), or hierarchical (such as when editing several subprojects)
How to resolve edit conflicts between versions
Which version to post edits to, and how often
Youll base these decisions on the editing procedures and workflows youve established.
The Default version is created when you create an ArcSDE geodatabase. The first derived version you create is from
this Default version. You can create additional versions from the Default version or from any of the versions you create.
You could, for example, create versions corresponding to phases of a projectthe version for the next phase would be
created from the version for the previous phase.
You create new geodatabase versions with ArcCatalog or ArcMap. When you create a version, you specify its name, an
optional description, and the versions permission. You set the permission to ensure only those users who need to edit
the data have access to it, thus providing a level of quality assurance and security. The options are:
Privatethe owner may view the version and modify available datasets.
Publicanyone may view the version and modify available datasets.
Protectedanyone may view the version, but only the owner may modify available datasets.
To create a geodatabase version in ArcCatalog, right-click a geodatabase in the Catalog tree and click Versions to open
the Version Manager dialog box. Then right-click the version from which you want to derive the new version, and click
New.
To create versions of an ArcSDE geodatabase using
ArcCatalog, right-click the geodatabase in the Catalog tree
and click Versions. In the Version Manager, select the existing
version from which the new version will be created (initially
there is only onethe default version). Right-click the version
and click New. Then, in the dialog box, enter the name of the
new version and (optionally) a description. Then specify the
permission to assign to the version.

Creating a version does not change which version is currently displayed in the Catalog tree (only one version
is displayed at a time). When you open the Version Manager, you can see all the versionsfor which you have
permissionthat have been created for that geodatabase.
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3 Data Compilation and Editing

After creating a new version,

the previous version will still be
displayed in the tree. Right-click the
geodatabase and click Versions to
see a list of all the versions for that
geodatabase.

To display and work with a different version in the Catalog tree, right-click the geodatabase and click Change Versions.
Then select the version to display from the list that appears. (You can think of viewing versions like viewing pages lined
up exactly behind each otherwhen you change to a page, that page is brought to the front so you can view and work
with it. The other pages are still there, lined up behind the front page.)

To change the version you want to display

and work with in the Catalog tree, right-click
the geodatabase and click Change Version.
Then select from the list the version to
display. (This option is only available for the
Personal or Workgroup editions of ArcSDE.)

When you change a version, the

contents of the geodatabase look the
same as the previous versiononly
the geodatabase name is different
(it includes the version name). The
tables that are listed contain the
differences between the versions
(once edits are made).

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

To alter the permission of a version (or change its description), right-click the version and click Properties.

To change the
description or
permissions for a
version, open the
Version Manager,
right-click the version
you want to modify,
and click Properties.

To display a version in ArcMap, you add data to your map just like you would add any other data. The data initially
added comes from the version specified in the database connection properties dialog box. You can then switch to the
version you want to display and edit. (Alternatively, you can display the version you want to work with in ArcCatalog,
and then drag and drop the datasets from that version onto your map in ArcMap.)
When you add data from a geodatabase
with versions in ArcMap, the version
youre currently connected to is displayed
in the Add Data dialog box (double-click
the geodatabase to display the datasets).
You can then change to another version
after adding the data. If you add data by
dragging from ArcCatalog, you can add any
dataset from the currently displayed version
in the Catalog tree.

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3 Data Compilation and Editing

To change versions, click the Source tab at the bottom of the table of contents, right-click the geodatabase, and click
Change Versions. Then select the version to display. When you switch from one version to another, all datasets present
in the map change to be those in the version to which youve switched.

To change versions in ArcMap,

first select the Source tab at the
bottom of the table of contents.
Then right-click the geodatabase
in the table of contents, and click
Change Versions. In the dialog
box, select the version you want
to change to.

The Versioning toolbar in ArcMap also lets you manage versions. On the Editor drop-down menu, click More Editing
Tools, and click Versioning (you dont need to be in an active edit session to do this). You can also open the toolbar
from the View menu (click Toolbars and click Versioning).

To open the Versioning toolbar,

click More Editing Tools on the
Editor drop-down menu, and
click Versioning. Or, click the
View menu, point to Toolbars,
and click Versioning (at the
bottom of the list).

From the toolbar you can manage existing versions, create new ones, or change versions (if the geodatabase is currently
selected on the Source tab; otherwise, this button is unavailable).

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

The Versioning toolbar lets you manage versions within ArcMap,

as you would in ArcCatalog. You can open the Version Manager,
create new versions, or open the Change Versions window.

When editing a geodatabase version, you can edit a versioned or nonversioned dataset, as described above (once a
dataset is registered as versioned, it will have that status across all geodatabase versions). When you register data as
versioned, you have the option to move edits to base (youd choose to move edits to base if the updates need to be
shared with other applications that access your RDBMS). If you register with the option to move edits to base, edits to
the Default version save to the base tables (the tables containing the actual datasets), while edits to all other versions
save to the delta tables but are moved to the base tables when you post to the default version. If you dont use this
option, all edits save to the delta tablesincluding those made to the Default version. When you create a second (or
third) version of the geodatabase, new delta tables are not createdrather all changes for all versions go into the same
set of delta tables, and are tracked by version, using the State ID.
When editing versioned data with multiple versions, the concepts are basically the same as when editors are editing a
single version. However with multiple versions, when editors save their edits, the edits are saved only in their version.
When theyve finished the edits, they reconcile them with other versions, at which point any conflicts are revealed and
can be reviewed.

After making edits, click the

Reconcile button to see if your
edits conflict with any others that
have been made to the target
version. You can opt to use the
edit currently in the target version,
or use the one in the edit version
that youre working with.

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3 Data Compilation and Editing

Once the edits are reconciled, the editor can post them to the target database (often the default version). Posting cannot
be undone, since you are applying changes to a version you are not currently editing. This process allows editors to
conduct ongoing edits over several edit sessions (so-called long transactions) without having to save the edits in the
published database until all the edits are done. Reconciling, resolving conflicts, and posting edits are all done from the
Versioning toolbar.

Post

Once any conflicting edits are reconciled, click the Post button to save the edits
in the target version (usually the Default version).

After posting, you can continue to make edits and then reconcile and post edits again, as necessary. Once editing is
completed, the version can be deleted, if its no longer neededopen the Version Manager, right-click the version,
and click Delete. You can delete a version provided all the versions derived from it are first deleted. Only the versions
owner (or the ArcSDE administrator) can delete a version.
ArcToolbox also contains a number of tools for creating and managing geodatabase versions and versioned datasets.
These can be used in scripts and models to automate data management tasks.
The Versions toolset in the Data
Management toolbox contains tools
for creating and managing versioned
geodatabases and datasets.

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

Creating geodatabase replicas for distributed editing

Creating geodatabase replicas allows you to create copies of data across two or more geodatabases, make changes to the
geodatabases separately, and then synchronize the changes so the geodatabases remain consistent with each other. As
you might imagine, creating, synchronizing, and managing replicas is a fairly involved process that requires planning,
preparation of the data, and coordination between the sites that will maintain the replicas. There are also a number of
options for the type of replicas to create and methods for synchronization. The Desktop Help includes a full discussion
of tasks and steps for using replicas.
When you create a replica, youre creating a relationship between two geodatabases. The replica in the geodatabase
from which the data originated is referred to as the parent replica. The replica in the geodatabase where the data is
copied to is referred to as the child replica. Three types of replicas allow you to control whether the parent replica,
the child replica, or both replicas have the ability to send and receive changes: check out/check in replicas; one way
replicas; and two way replicas.
A check out/check in replica allows for one-time synchronization. Changes can only be sent from the child replica to
the parent replica. Parent replicas must be ArcSDE geodatabases while child replicas can be ArcSDE, file or personal
geodatabases. Check out/check in replication is useful for field editing where an area of the geodatabase is replicated,
edited in the field, and synchronized with the parent replica. If additional field edits are required, another child replica
must be created.
A one way replica allows changes to be sent multiple times, but only from the parent replica to the child replica.
The data on the parent is editable, but the data on the child is considered read-only (any edits to the child replica are
overwritten during synchronization if they conflict with edits to the parent replica).
Two way replicas allows changes to be sent multiple times from the parent replica to the child replica or from the
child replica to the parent replica. If the same feature is edited in both geodatabases it is detected as a conflict when
the replicas are synchronized. You can choose a reconcile policy during synchronization to define how conflicts are
processed.
The first step in preparing data for replication is to make sure the datasets you would like to replicate are registered as
versioned (see the discussion earlier in this section). For one way and two way replication, each replicated dataset will
also need to have a Global ID column. A Global ID column is a field which cannot be edited that contains a unique
identifier for each row (feature) in a dataset. (Global ID fields are not necessary for check out/check in replication
because the Object ID that each feature in a dataset has is sufficient to maintain feature identity during one-time
synchronization.) To add Global IDs, use the Add Global IDs command in ArcCatalog.

To add Global IDs to a dataset that

will participate in one-way or two-way
replicas, right-click the dataset in the
Catalog tree and click Add Global IDs.

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Replicas are created in ArcMap, using the Distributed Geodatabase toolbar. When you click the Create Replica button, a
wizard opens to lead you through the process.

To create a replica, open the Distributed Geodatabase

toolbar in ArcMap. Click the View menu and point to
Toolbars.

Open the Create Replica

Wizard from the Distributed
Geodatabase toolbar. Specify
the type of replica on the first
panel (Check out/Check in,
one way, or two way). Then on
the second and third panels,
specify the name of the replica
and where it will be stored,
and the actions to take after
the replica is created (for
example, you can have the
wizard create a new map
containing the replica).

Synchronizing replicasafter changes are madeis also done from the Distributed Geodatabase toolbar. Clicking the
Synchronize Changes button opens a wizard that leads you through the process. You specify the two geodatabases to
synchronize, the direction changes will be sent (if youre synchronizing a two-way replica), and how to handle edit
conflicts.

After the replica has been

edited, open the Synchronize
Changes Wizard from the
toolbar to synchronize edits
with the parent replica or
any other replicas. The
Distributed Geodatabase
toolbar contains additional
tools for managing replicas.

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Replicas can also be synchronized and managed in ArcCatalog. Right-click the geodatabase containing the replica and
click Distributed Geodatabase. ArcToolbox also contains a full set of tools for creating, synchronizing, and managing
replicas. These are located in the Distributed Geodatabase toolset in the Data Management toolbox.

You can also synchronize and

manage replicas in ArcCatalog.
Right-click a replica in the
Catalog tree and click Distributed
Geodatabase.

The Distributed Geodatabase

toolset in the Data Management
toolbox contains tools for creating,
synchronizing, and managing
replicas.

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

Mapping and
Visualization
An overview of mapping and visualization 264
Adding data to a map 273

Dragging and dropping from ArcCatalog

Adding data from a folder or other connection
Adding data directly from the internet
Adding x,y coordinate data
Adding datasets having different coordinate systems

Drawing graphics on a map 305

Using the Draw toolbar

Drawing shapes and text
Modifying a graphic
Creating graphics from features

Creating a map layout 309

Controlling whats drawn on the map

Managing data layers

Working in layout view

Setting up the page
Navigating the layout
Working with multiple data frames
Using map templates

Setting the map extent and scale 279

Adding and arranging map elements 313

Working with layers 277

Identifying and locating features 283

Identifying a feature on a map
Identifying a feature using MapTips
Locating a feature by searching
Locating features via an attribute table

Symbolizing data 288

Assigning symbols to layers

Shortcuts
Assigning symbols using cartographic representations

Using attributes to symbolize features 292

Displaying quantities using a classification scheme
Displaying categorical data using unique symbols
Using charts to compare quantities

Saving and reusing symbol definitions 296

Saving a map layer as a layer file
Importing symbol definitions from a layer or layer file

Creating and storing custom symbols 298

Saving a modified symbol
Accessing styles and stored symbols
Creating a new symbol in the Style Manager

Labeling features 300

Using map labels

Managing labels on multiple layers
Advanced label placement using Maplex
Using annotation to label features

Adding titles, text, and legends

Adding scalebars, north arrows, and neatlines
Modifying map elements
Aligning elements
Using grids and guidelines
Navigating the layout
Using draft mode

Creating a graph 318

Using the Graph Wizard to create a graph

Adding a graph to a layout
Modifying a graph
Managing graphs

Creating a report 321

Creating a basic report in ArcMap

Using Crystal Reports

Creating relief maps and perspective views 325

Creating a shaded relief map
Creating a perspective view

Creating dynamic views and animations 328

Navigating ArcScene and ArcGlobe
Capturing a navigation path as an animation
Creating an animation by capturing individual views
Saving and modifying an animation

Creating a time series animation 333

Creating a time series animation using the Animation toolbar

Creating an animation using Tracking Analyst

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

An overview of mapping and visualization

Maps are the primary means for communicating geographic information. ArcMap is the
primary application in ArcGIS for making maps. ArcMap is where you display and query
datasets, where you display the output from your geographic analysis, and where you create
finished maps for printing or for publishing over a network or on the internet.
Beyond maps, storing geographic data in digital format on a computer gives you other
ways of displaying information, such as perspective views, globe views, and animations.
ArcScene and ArcGlobeincluded with the ArcGIS 3D Analyst extensionallow you
to create perspective and globe views. The animation toolbar in ArcMap, ArcScene, and
ArcGlobe allows you to capture a sequence of maps or views and play them back as an
animation. The Tracking Analyst extension provides advanced capabilities for displaying
and animating temporal data.

The process for As with other GIS tasks, creating a mapwhether for simple display of your data or for
creating a map in creating a finished cartographic product for publicationis a process. Before creating your
ArcMap map, youll want to give some thought to the purpose of the map and its design:
Who is the audience for the map? Are you making the map for your own use or to
share with a few peers, or will it be presented to a larger group of people? Is the
audience professional, or the general public?
What geographic area, or areas, does the map need to show? What is the map scale?
Do you need to include a reference map showing a larger area? The map area (or
extent) and the scale will help determine how much detail to show on the map.
Are there standard symbols or colors that are required (often the case in particular
industries)?
How will the map be displayed or distributed? Will it be in a PowerPoint
presentation, in a printed report, displayed on a wall, or distributed over the internet?
The size and media will determine how much additional information is requiredsuch
as legends, titles, labels, and so on.

These are just some of the issues youll want to consider. Several resources for learning
more about map design and production are listed in the appendix.

There are a few basic steps used to create almost all maps. For a specific map, you may
skip some of these, or you may perform additional, more advanced tasks. Making a map is
often an iterative process, so you may not always follow the steps in this order.

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Open ArcMap
When you open ArcMap (from ArcCatalog or from the ArcGIS program group on the Start
menu), youre prompted to create a new map or open an existing one. The table of contents
is initially empty except for a default data frame (named Layers), and the display window is
blank.
A new, empty map

When creating a new map, you add GIS data to this empty map. The data can be:
stored locally on your computer, either on disk or on a CD/DVD
from a shared database or GIS server you connect to
on the Internet

In any case, the data must be in a format ArcMap can read directly, such as a geodatabase
feature class, a shapefile, or a compatible raster format (see An overview of data
compilation and editing in Chapter 3).
Find and connect to GIS data
The next step is to find the data (from whichever source) and set up a connection to it, if
necessary. ArcCatalog provides an efficient way of doing this, since you can quickly see
and preview large amounts of GIS data (See Finding and connecting to data in Chapter 2).
You can also search for data from within ArcMap.

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Add data to your map

After youve found the data you want, you add it by dragging it from ArcCatalog, or by
browsing to it in the ArcMap Add Data dialog box. You can also add data directly from the
Interneteither from the Geography Network, or by entering the URL of a site containing
geographic data.
Search for, preview, and connect to data in
ArcCatalog, then drag the dataset to ArcMap.....

....or search for and add data in

ArcMap, using the Add Data button....

....or add data directly from the Internet.

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Reset the map extent

By default, the map display is set to the extent and coordinate system of the first dataset
you add. Depending on the extent of the individual datasets, and the order in which you add
them to the map, you may need to change the map extent for the display window to show
the area youre interested in. Two quick ways to do this are to use the navigation tools to
zoom and pan, or to zoom to a specific layer. You can also set a fixed map scale or extent.
Navigation tools

Use the navigation tools

to zoom and pan, or rightclick a layer in the table of
contents to zoom to it.

Modify the map display

You may also want to change the layer drawing order, set transparencies, or give layers
more descriptive names (only the layer in the map is renamed, not the underlying dataset).
Type over a layer name
in the table of contents
to rename it; drag layers
up or down in the table of
contents to change the
drawing order; double-click
a layer name and select
the Display tab to set the
transparency.

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Assign symbols
When data is added to the map to create a layer, a default symbol is assigned. The next step
is often to change the symbols to make the map easier to read or to assign symbols based
on attribute values (categories or class ranges).
Click a symbol in the table of
contents to change the color.
Double-click a layer name
and select the Symbology tab
to change the symbol, or to
symbolize by categories or
classes; select the Labels tab
to label features.

If youre creating a map to use for interactive query or to display the inputs and outputs
from an analysis, youll likely use simple symbols that make the map easy to read on the
computer screen. If youre creating a map for publication, youll likely spend more time
on assigning symbolsperhaps using a set of standard symbols or even creating custom
symbolsto ensure the map effectively presents all the information you want to convey
to the readers. In any case, youll want to choose symbols with some thought for how they
represent the layers and how they appear with each other.

Create labels and graphic objects

You may also want to label features with descriptive information, or add graphic objects to
highlight aspects of the map.

For a simple map being used to display data, basic map labels or graphic text will suffice
to identify features. If youre creating a map for publication, youll probably want to create
annotation, which lets you place and edit each text string individually (see Creating and
editing annotation in Chapter 3).

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Organize the data

Data is added to the active data frame (there is only one to begin with, but you can insert
more). Use additional data frames to group datasets or to create multiple data views on a
single map (especially useful for published maps).
Use the Insert menu to add
data frames. Right-click a layer
name to copy or delete it.

If youre making a map to explore and query your data, at this point the process is pretty
much complete. Youll likely continue to work with the mappossibly changing data
classification schemes, removing or adding datasets as necessary, performing queries,
making measurements, summarizing attribute values, creating charts and reports, and so on.

If youre making a map for publication, youll undertake a few additional steps.

Create a map layout

The first step in creating a map for publication is to create a map layout on the page. To do
this you switch to layout view, which shows you how the data frames will appear on the
page. You can move and resize data frames, and add new ones to show multiple data views
on a single page.
Use the View menu to switch
to Layout View. Then select
a data frame on the page to
move or resize it.

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In fact, if you know your map is for publication, its a good idea to have a sense of the
layout you want before you start creating the map. Youll want to at least set up the page
size and orientation (on the File menu). And, while you can insert new data frames and
move layers around after youve added data to your map, its more efficient to create all the
data frames up front and place the data in the appropriate data frame as you add it to the
map.
Add map elements
Finally, youll add map elements to the page, such as legends, titles, neatlines, scalebars,
and north arrows. You might also add charts, reports, text blocks, and logos. Once youve
arranged the various elements, youre ready to print the map or publish it to the Internet.
Use the Insert menu to add
legends, titles, and so on. To
move an element on the page,
select and drag it.

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Visualization Visualizations, such as perspective views, animated fly-overs and globe views, and
other ways of time-series animations, can be an effective way of presenting information, especially to
looking at GIS data audiences not accustomed to reading specialized maps.

Perspective views are created using the ArcScene application in ArcGIS 3D Analyst.
3D Analyst allows you to navigate through the scene interactively as well as capture and
store animated fly-throughs. For realism, 3D symbols, such as trees or light poles, can be
added to the scene.

Use an elevation surfaceor any other surface with z valuesto create a base
for the perspective view. Then drape other layers on top.

ArcScene also lets you extrude features to create, for example, a 3D model of buildings in a
city, or a perspective view of a thematic map.

ArcScene lets you extrude features to create 3D mapsin this case, showing
the relative population of each county.

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Globe views are created using the ArcGlobe application, included in ArcGIS 3D Analyst.
A key feature of ArcGlobe is the ability to reveal more detailed layers of information as you
zoom in. As with ArcScene, you can work interactivelyrotating the globe, zooming in
and outand capture the navigation path as an animation.

The default view in ArcGlobe includes a shaded relief image of the earth. Add
your own local, regional, or global layers.

Maps in ArcMap can also be used to make animations. The Animation toolbar lets you
capture a series of increasingly zoomed in views, or create an animation that pans across
a region. Time-series data can be viewed using the Animation toolbar or using Tracking
Analyst. You can step through the data, or create, store, and replay animations. You might
animate the path of a storm over several days, for example, or the population growth in
each county over several decades.

Use Tracking Analyst to animate movement or change over timein this case,
the path and strength of a storm.

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4 Mapping and Visualization

Adding data to a map

There are several ways to add a dataset to a mapdrag it from ArcCatalog, use the ArcMap Add Data dialog box
to browse to it, add data directly from the Internet, or add a table of features that have fields containing geographic
coordinates. When you add a dataset, it becomes a layer on the map. Once youve added a layer you can display the
dataset and its associated attributes. A layer references the underlying dataset, so on a single map you can have multiple
layers created from the same data, each drawn with different symbols or representing different attributesfor example,
one layer of census tracts showing population and another layer of the same tracts showing median income.

Dragging and dropping from ArcCatalog

You can drag data from any folder or connection that appears in ArcCatalog (in either the tree view or in the Contents
panel) and drop it onto the display window or table of contents in ArcMap. The data is added as a layer on the map. See
Finding and connecting to data in Chapter 2.

Select and drag a

dataset from the
ArcCatalog tree
view....

....to ArcMap

The dataset is added as a layer on the map.

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If youre adding data to an existing map, you can drag it to a specific position in the table of contents so it draws on top
of (or beneath) other layers.

Drag the parks dataset from ArcCatalog to a position above

parcels in the table of contents to have parks draw on top.

Adding data from a folder or other connection

In ArcMap, use Add Data on the File menu, or the Add Data button, to locate and add data to the mapany connections
you have established show up on the list. You can also add a new connection, as well as display the thumbnails for
the datasets or a list with dataset details such as file type. In other words, the Add Data dialog box is like a miniArcCatalog.
Use either the Add Data
button on the toolbar or the
Add Data option on the File
menu to open the dialog
box....

....then navigate
to the dataset you
want to add.

Open a new folder

connection

Use the buttons

on the right to
view icons, a list,
or thumbnails

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Adding data directly from the internet

To add data directly from the Internet, use Add Data from GIS Portal on the File menu. If you know the URL of a
metadata server, such as a regional GIS data clearinghouse, you can enter it and go directly there to access available
data. Or, you can go to the Geography Network and search or browse for data to add to your map. Much of the data is
free; some requires a fee to download.
Select Add Data from GIS Portal on the File menu to go directly to the
Geography Network or to enter the address of a Web site.

The Geography Network lets you search for, and download, GIS data.

Enter the URL of an ArcIMS metadata service,

such as a regional GIS data clearinghouse.

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Adding x,y coordinate data

To add data from a table of locations, such as data collected with a GPS unit, use Add XY Data on the Tools menu.
Each location must have associated x and y coordinates stored in separate fields, as well as a unique identifier.

Use Add XY Data on the Tools

menu to open the dialog box and
specify the name of the table,
and the fields containing the
coordinates.

Adding datasets having different coordinate systems

The coordinate system for the data frame youre adding layers to is that of the first layer added, by default, but you
can also set the coordinate system manually. If youre adding data from various sources, rather than data stored in a
single geodatabase, the coordinate system of the dataset might not match that of the data frame. If a spatial reference
is defined for a dataset youre adding, ArcMap projects the layer on the fly (the spatial reference of the underlying data
is not modified). If a dataset does not have the same underlying geographic coordinate system as the data frame or if
the dataset youre adding does not have a spatial reference defined, warnings are displayed. See Defining coordinate
systems and projecting datasets in Chapter 3 for a discussion of assigning a spatial reference to a dataset.
This warning means the
dataset youre adding
does not have the same
geographic coordinate
system as the other
data in the data frame
ArcMap projects it on the
fly, but it may not register
correctly.
This warning means the dataset youre
adding does not have a spatial reference
definedif it is, in fact, in the same
coordinate system, it will correctly register;
otherwise, it may not.

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Working with layers

When you add a dataset to a map, a layer is created. In the course of making your maps, youll add and remove layers,
turn them on and off, change the drawing order, and so on, to display exactly the data you need to see and work with.

Controlling whats drawn on the map

You use the table of contents to control how the layers are displayed. Use the check boxes to turn layers on and off. Use
the + and - signs to display or hide a layers legend. When you add data to create a layer, the layer is assigned a position
on the table of contents based on its data type. For example, lines are added above polygons, and points are added
above lines.
New layers are positioned above existing layers of the same type. The order in the table of contents determines the
drawing order on the mapa layer draws on top of layers listed below it in the table of contents and under layers above
it.) Change the drawing order by clicking a layer name in the table of contents and dragging it to a new position.

Turn layers on and off

Drag a layer to change the
drawing order (a layer draws
on top of those listed below it)

Display or hide the legend

Managing data layers

The table of contents is also where you rename, copy, or remove layers from the map. Since a layer points to an
underlying dataset, if the dataset is moved or deleted, the link is broken and the layer cant be drawn on the map (a red
exclamation mark next to a layer in the table of contents indicates this). Use the layers properties dialog box to reset
the source (right-click the layer name and click Properties at the bottom of the context menu) or click the exclamation
mark. The properties dialog box also lets you access all of a layers properties, including how its symbolized, which
features are displayed, and so on. It can also be opened by double-clicking a layer name.

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Layers can be copied as layers on the same map, saved as layer files to be added to other maps, or exported to new
datasets (youd do this to create a new dataset containing a selected set of features in a layer, to be used in analysis). To
save a layer file, or export it, right-click the layer name to display the context menu.
Right-click a layer name and click Copy; then
right-click the data frame and click Paste Layer(s).

Select and
type over to
rename

Broken link

A red exclamation mark next to

a layer in the table of contents
indicates the link is broken. If the
source has been moved, right-click
the layer, click Properties and select
the Source tab. Click Set Data
Source and navigate to the dataset.

Export layer to a
dataset
Save symbolized
layer to a file

Individual layers within a data frame can be grouped by creating whats known as a group layer. The layers can then
be managed as a unit. When you turn the group layer on, all the layers in it are displayed. Group layers are especially
useful if there are many layers on your map, or if you have layers that are always displayed together on maps. Using
group layers is also an efficient way to share data and maps. A group layer can be copied or saved as a fileall the
layers in the group are saved or copied together. To create a group layer, right-click a data frame name in the table of
contents and click New Group Layer. You then drag individual layers under the group layer, or copy and paste them.
To create a group layer, right-click the
data frame name in the table of contents
and click New Group Layer. Then drag
or add layers under the group layer.
Click the group layer check box to turn
all the layers on or off. If the group is on,
individual layers under it can be turned
off; if the group is off, the layers under it
will not be displayed.

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Setting the map extent and scale

The map extent and scale determine the geographic area that is displayed on the map. ArcMap includes a number of
ways to set the map extent. You can zoom in and out and pan the display, step through or save extents.
Create a Bookmark
from the View menu
to save and return to
the current extent.

Zoom In (click or drag)

Fixed Zoom In
Pan
Back (Previous Extent)

To zoom to a layers extent, right-click

the layer and select Zoom To Layer.

Zoom Out (click or drag)

Fixed Zoom Out
Zoom to Full Extent (all layers)
Forward (Next Extent)

You can undock this

toolbar and let it float, or
dock it along any edge of
the ArcMap windowas
you can with any of the
toolbars.

The My Places option on the Tools menu lets you create a list of frequently visited locations that you can zoom or pan
to. The places can be created from the current map extent or from a selected feature (or features). Unlike bookmarks,
which are stored with the current map document, your My Places list can be accessed from any ArcMap map document,
ArcScene view, or ArcGlobe view.

Access your My Places list from the Tools menu. You can view and add to the list
from any map, scene, or view.

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By default, the full extent of the first dataset you add to a data frame becomes the initial extent of the map display (for
that data frame). If you add a dataset that extends beyond that initial extent, only features within the extent will be
visible (use the Full Extent tool to zoom out to the extent of all layers).

The display is set to the extent of the parcel layer. The streets layer extends
beyond this extent.

The current map scale is displayed in the scale box at the top of the ArcMap window. To specify a map scale, type the
scale in the scale boxthe map display is adjusted to the new scale. The drop-down list lets you pick from standard
map scales; any scale you type in is added to the top of the list so you can quickly get back to it. You can also customize
the list by adding or removing scales. You often set a particular map scale when creating a map for printing or
publication.
Use the scale box to set a map scale.

Click Customize This List

to remove scales from the
drop-down list or add your
own scales to it.

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You can also control the scale at which layers are displayedsome layers (usually more detailed ones) can be set to
display only when youre zoomed in to a small area.

With a minimum scale set to 1:20,000, parcels are displayed when the extent is
zoomed in to 1:15,000 (above) but arent displayed when the extent is zoomed
out to 1:40,000 (below). A small scalebar appears under the grayed-out check
box for the layer to indicate the layer is outside the visible scale range.

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To view the data at several scales at once, use a Magnifier/Viewer window. In Magnifier mode, the window magnifies
whatever it is over when you drag and release the windows title bar (in Update While Dragging mode it acts as a
magnifying glass as you move the window over the display). In Viewer mode, the window takes a snapshot of whatever
it is over. When you drag the window, the snapshot stays in it, so you can view one area or scale while continuing to
zoom and pan in the main display window. A Viewer window allows you to pan or zoom, display the full extent of the
map, or display the previous extent (or next extent). Its essentially a free-floating display window. You can open as
many of these windows as you want.
An overview window shows you the location of the current extent within the full extent of the data frame.
Overview window
Open Overview and Magnifier/
Viewer windows from the Window
menu. Click and drag the windows
title bar to position the window. To
resize the window, drag an edge.

Magnifier window

Viewer
window

You can toggle a window between Magnifier and Viewer mode by clicking the menu button on the window.

Click the menu button on a Viewer

window to flash the location in the main
display window. Use the Pan tool on the
Tools toolbar to pan within the viewer
window; then use Pan To Location to
pan to that area in the main display
window.

Click the menu button on a Magnifier

window to switch to Update While
Dragging mode. You can also switch a
window between Magnifier and Viewer
mode.

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Identifying and locating features

Maps in a GIS are sometimes referred to as smart maps becauseunlike paper mapsyou have the ability to point
at something on the map and get information about it (specifically, all the information about the feature stored in the
layers attribute table). Conversely, you may know something about a feature, such as its name, but not know where
it is on the mapyou want to enter the features name and locate it on the map. ArcMap includes several tools for
identifying and locating features.

Identifying a feature on a map

Use the Identify tool to point at a feature on the map and display its attribute values. The information appears in the
Identify Results box. Once youve identified a feature you can click it in the Identify box and it will flash on the map.
Hold down the Shift key while clicking a feature to add it to the list of identified features (otherwise it will replace the
previous feature), or drag the cursor to create a box around the features you want to identify.

Identify tool

When you click a feature on

the map its attributes appear
in the Identify Results box.

Press and hold the Shift or Ctrl key

while clicking features to add them
to the results box. You can also add
several features at once by dragging to
create a box around them.

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You control which layers to identify features fromchoose all layers, a subset, or a specific layer (the topmost layer in
the table of contents is the default).

Use the drop-down list to specify

the layer(s) from which you want to
identify features.

By default, all the attribute values for the identified feature are listed. The fields listed in the box can be controlled using
the Fields tab (uncheck the fields you dont want displayed).

The Fields tab on the Layer Properties dialog box lets you specify which fields will
appear in the results box.

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If youre having trouble picking the feature you want, change the Selection tolerancechoose Options from the
Selection menu (setting a larger selection tolerance will select features farther from the cursor).

Selection tolerance

Identifying a feature using MapTips

A quick way to identify features is to use MapTips. When MapTips is turned on for a layer, placing the cursor over
a feature displays the features name (or other attribute). If MapTips is on, the tip will also appear when you use the
Identify toolyou can make sure you have the right feature before clicking it to display the additional attributes.
To turn on MapTips, right-click a layer
and select Properties to open the Layer
Properties dialog box, then check the
Show MapTips box on the Display tab.
Show MapTips

Set the attribute to be displayed

by specifying the Primary Display
Field on the Fields tab.

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Locating a feature by searching

Use Find on the Edit menu (or the Find tool on the Tools toolbar) to locate a feature by typing an attribute value. Once
youve found the feature you want, you can flash it on the map or zoom to it.

Use Find on the Edit menu to search for

a feature by attribute value. You can also
find named places, such as states or cities,
within your map extent, street addresses,
or locations along a route (if youve already
defined onesee Adding specialized
datasets to a geodatabase in Chapter 2).

Right-click a feature in the

results list to display options
including Flash on map,
Zoom To feature, Identify, and
more.

Locating features via an attribute table

There may be instances when you prefer to locate a feature (or several features) on a map by scanning through a layers
attribute tableto find several features by name or ID, for example. Once youve found a feature in the table, rightclick the gray box at the beginning of the row to flash that feature on the map. You can also zoom or pan to the feature,
or display the Identify window.

To use an attribute table to locate

a feature on the map, right-click
the gray box at the beginning of
the features row, and select an
option from the menu.

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To locate a feature and have it stay highlighted on the map, select it in the layers attribute table. Click the gray box (or
right-click and click Select/Unselect). To select multiple features and highlight them, press the Ctrl key while clicking
the gray box next to each features record in the table.

When you select a feature in the

layers attribute table, the feature
stays highlighted on the map until
you select another feature.

Press and hold the Ctrl key while clicking to

select multiple features and highlight them.

With this method, youre actually creating a selected set, so when youre done highlighting features youll want to clear
the selection (see Selecting a subset of features and Working with a selected set in Chapter 5 for more on feature
selection).

Right-click the gray box next

to any selected feature and
click Clear Selected.

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Symbolizing data
Specifying the symbols you use to draw features on a map lets you ensure that the map is easy to read and conveys
the information you want. For some audiences, standard symbols are immediately recognizable. Different feature and
attribute types are drawn using different types of symbolspoints with marker symbols of a specific size and color,
lines with symbols of a specific width, pattern, and color. Areas can be drawn using an outline, or filled with a pattern or
color.

Assigning symbols to layers

hen you add a layer to a map, ArcGIS assigns a default symbolall features in the layer are drawn using the same
W
symbol. To change the symbol, right-click the layer name and click Properties to display the Layer Properties dialog
box. Then choose the Symbology tab. (You can also get to the Layer Properties dialog box by double-clicking the layer
name in the table of contents.) Pick a method of symbolizing the features, then specify the symbol(s).

Layer Properties dialog box for point features.

Select a predefined symbol

from this panel in the
Symbol Selector dialog box.

The Symbol Property Editor lets you modify all the

properties of the symbol. You also use this dialog box to
create custom symbols.

Use these
options to
modify basic
properties of the
current symbol.

Adding a style gives you more

predefined symbols to choose from
just click the style on the list. ArcGIS
provides a number of styles; you can
also create your own (see Creating
and storing custom symbols).

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You can also draw features using symbols based on the attribute values of the featuresfor example, roads of type
Highway would be drawn using a wider line symbol than roads of type Local (see the next section, Using
attributes to symbolize features).
Raster datasets that represent categories, such as vegetation types, are initially displayed using a default color for each
category. Raster datasets that represent continuous values, such as elevation, are initially displayed using a grayscale
color ramp, with lower values drawn in darker shades. If the raster is a multiband image, such as a satellite image, it
draws in its defined RGB values. As with feature datasets, these symbols can be changed via the layer properties.
The specific options in the Layer Properties dialog box depend on the type of data youre symbolizing and the method
youre using.
Layer Properties for line data

Layer Properties for raster data with

continuous values

Layer Properties for polygon data

The symbol specifications are stored with the map, so once youve saved the map, the data will be symbolized the same
way the next time you open the map. You can also store symbol specifications to use on other mapssee Saving and
reusing symbol definitions later in this chapter.

Shortcuts
Clicking a symbol in the table of contents lets you specify symbols directly, without opening the Layer Properties
dialog box.

Symbol Type

Left-click opens

Right-click opens

Corresponding Symbol Selector Dialog

Color Palette

Color Selector dialog

Color Palette

Marker
Line
Area Fill

Classified or
categorized raster

Stretched raster
Select Color Ramp dialog

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Assigning symbols using cartographic representations

Assigning symbols to map layers in ArcMap lets you to portray features using basic properties such as color, line width,
pattern, and so on. Sometimes, though, youll need to depict the featuresand the relationships between themin
a more realistic way. For example, you might want to create a transportation map showing overpasses, bridges, and
tunnels. On a map of voting districts you might want to more clearly portray adjacent boundaries, rather than simply
showing a single shared line. Or, on a map of building locations, you might want to rotate the building symbols
(representing point locations) to face the street theyre on. Cartographic representations allow you to do this.

Houses, roads, streams, and parks symbolized in map layers.

Using cartographic representations for the various
feature classes, bridge symbols are added around road
symbols where streams and major roads intersectwith
stream lines ending at the bridgeand small squares
are placed at house locations and are oriented along the
roads they face.

A cartographic representation is a set of rules, overrides, and graphical edits that allow you to represent geographic
features cartographically without having to change the shape or location of the underlying data (which is, after all, an
accurate representation of the features in geographic space). For example, if a road runs parallel to a river, it may be that
at the map scale youre using, the two lines appear to touch or cross. You can use a cartographic representation rule to
ensure that the road is offset from the river when drawn on the map (without having to actually move the location of the
road or the river, which could affect other maps or any geographic query or analysis you perform).
Cartographic representations in ArcMap also include a series of tools to perform graphical edits directly in the GIS
without having to export the cartography to a graphics packagefor example, removing a portion of a line that
obscures another feature. Cartographers refer to this as map finishing and editing.

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Cartographic representations are created within a geodatabase. They are stored as columns in the feature class attribute
table and in system tables in the geodatabase. A quick way to create a cartographic representation is to convert the
symbology for an existing layer on a map. Once youve converted the symbology, you can edit the representation, if
necessary.

To create a feature representation

for a feature class from existing
map symbology, right-click
the feature class in the table
of contents and click Convert
Symbology to Representation.

You can store multiple representations of the same feature class. For example, you could have one representation of
parcels for a local zoning map and another representation for a general plan map. You select the representation you want
after you add the feature class to a map (using the Symbology tab on the Layer Properties dialog box). This approach
eliminates having to create and store several layer files for a feature class, each having different symbology.

After adding a feature class

to a map, open the Layer
Properties dialog box and
select the Symbology tab. Any
defined feature representations
will appear under the
Representations heading
select the one you want to
use. You can also modify the
representation here.

Cartographic representations are useful if you create maps for publicationespecially if the same feature classes are
displayed using different symbology on different maps. Anyone in your organization who has access to the geodatabase
also has access to the symbology for a feature class.
You can also create a representation directly in a feature class, using ArcCatalog. This method also gives you the option
of importing the symbology from an existing layer file.
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Using attributes to symbolize features

When you add a dataset to a map, ArcMap draws all the features using the same symbol. Often youll want to draw
the data symbolized by an attribute value (almost always the case for contiguous areas). The symbol used to draw
each feature (the marker size, line width, or area color fill, for example) is determined by the value of a feature for a
particular attribute.

Displaying quantities using a classification scheme

Many numerical attribute values can reflect measurementsfor example, population counts or percentages,
measurements of rainfall, and so on. Such values can be classified into ranges of values, and each range assigned a
symbol for display purposes. When you specify the attribute value to use, a default classification is assigned. You can
modify the classification scheme, the number of ranges, and the class breaks.

Right-click a layer and click Properties

to open the Layer Properties dialog
box; select the Symbology tab.

Specify a classification scheme and number of

classes, and ArcMap will set the class breaks for you.

Choose a symbol type under Quantitieswhen you

specify a field containing the numeric values, ArcMap
assigns a default classification.

Drag the class break lines on the histogram to set breaks

manually, or type the break values in the box on the right.

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Select a color ramp from the drop-down menu, or set the color of a class by double-clicking it to display the Symbol
Selector.

Change the label by

selecting and typing over it.
Right-click in the
box for more symbol
options.

Double-click a symbol to display

the Symbol Selector dialog box and
specify a new symbol. To create a
custom color ramp, set the starting
and ending colors then select Ramp
Colors from the context menu (above).

Normalize your data to account for differences between features. Normalization divides the values of one attribute by
those of another to create a ratio. For example, if youre mapping counties that vary in size, you might normalize the
population by the area of each county (to map density of people per square mile), or normalize the number of seniors by
the total population of each county to map the percentage of seniors in each.
Normalization field

The classification on the left uses the number of seniors in each

county. The classification to the right normalizes the number of
seniors by the total population of the county to map the percentage
of seniors in each county.

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Displaying categorical data using unique symbols

When symbolizing using categories, a unique symbol is assigned to each valueall features with that category value
are drawn using the symbolfor example, all agricultural parcels green, all commercial parcels yellow, and so on. Pick
a color scheme from the drop-down menu, or assign colors to each category by double-clicking a color to display the
color palette.

On the Layer Properties dialog box,

choose an option under Categories,
then specify a Value Field.

Use the Add All Values button to

symbolize all categories.

Use the Add Values button

to display a list from which
you can choose values
any values not listed will be
drawn using the <all other
values> symbol.

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Using charts to compare quantities

Symbolizing each feature with a chart is a way of comparing two or more quantities (bar charts) or showing quantities
that are proportions of a whole (pie charts). For example, a dataset of counties might have fields for age groupsunder
5, 517, 1821, and so oncontaining the number of people in each group. You could use these fields to create pie
charts showing the relative number of people in each age group, for each county.

Select a chart type, then specify the

fields to include by selecting and using
the arrow to move them to the right
column.

Heres where you

modify the graphic
properties of the chart,
such as the outline color
and thickness.

You can make the

charts the same
size, or vary the size
based on a value,
such as the sum of
values for a field.

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Saving and reusing symbol definitions

Once youve assigned symbols to a layer, theres a distinct possibility youll want to apply the same symbols to the
same features on another map, or to similar features on the same or a different map. For example, you may want to
symbolize rivers the same way on all the maps you create. ArcMap provides several ways to save and reuse the symbol
definitions so you dont have to reassign the symbols each time you display the features.

Saving a map layer as a layer file

The symbol definitions for a layer are stored with the mapthe layer will be drawn with these symbols the next
time you open the map. To display the same set of features with the same symbols on a different map, save the layer
as a layer file. This creates a file with a .lyr extension. The file references the source data and contains the symbol
definitions.

To save the layeras

symbolizedto add to other
maps, right-click the layer name
and select Save As Layer File.

You can then add the layer file to a new map as with any other data source. Layer files are indicated by a distinctive
icon.

Layer file

Use the Add Data button (or Add Data on the File menu) to add
a layer file to a map. The features are added to the map, drawn
with the symbols you defined.

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Importing symbol definitions from a layer or layer file

You can also assign the symbols to similar features from a different dataset, on the same or another map. This is useful
if you want to symbolize the same type of features for a different geographic area (whereas adding a layer file is useful
for adding the same set of features to different maps). The field and attribute values youre using to symbolize the
features have to correspond to the ones in the layer file.

Click Import on
the Symbology
dialog box....

....then specify the source layer (to

import symbols from a layer on the
same map) or layer file to use....

....and the field in the target

layer corresponding to the field
in the source layer.

In the dialog box, click Apply to assign the

symbols, or OK to assign the symbols and
close the dialog box. The symbol definitions
are automatically updated.

If the symbol definitions are for features that have been classified or categorized, the classes or categories will also be
imported and applied.
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Creating and storing custom symbols

ArcMap contains a wide variety of symbols, including sets of symbols used in specific industries. However, there may
be cases when you need to use symbols that arent provided with ArcMap. You can modify existing symbols as you
create a map, and save them, or you can design and create symbols from scratch.
Symbols in ArcMap are stored in what are known as style files. When you start ArcMap two of these are loaded
automaticallya set of basic symbols called ESRI.style, and a personal style file (stored in Documents\Settings). The
personal style file is initially empty. You can load additional styles provided with ArcMap (see Symbolizing data
earlier in this chapter).

Saving a modified symbol

A quick way to create custom symbols is to modify existing symbols and save them in your personal style file. They
then appear in the symbol palette with the other symbols that are currently loaded. Youd do this if you want to keep the
symbols and use them with other features and other maps.

When you modify the current

symbol and save it (with
a name) it appears in the
symbol palette and is stored
in your personal style.

Accessing styles and stored symbols

Style files are accessed and managed using the Style Manager. Heres where you can edit, copy, and delete symbols.
You can move the symbols in your personal style into another style file, or you can create a new style and move
symbols into it. A style organizes each symbol type (marker, line, text, and so on) in a different folder.
The specific properties you can set depend on the type of symbol. Here are some examples of the properties for several
symbol types.
Color ramp editor

Color editor

Scalebar editor

Text editor

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The Style Manager is accessed from the Tools menu. The left panel displays the folders for the currently loaded styles;
the right panel displays the individual symbols for the selected style and folder.

Open the Style Manager from

the Tools menu.

Right-click a symbol
to work with it.

The Symbol
Property Editor
lets you modify
symbols.

Creating a new symbol in the Style Manager

Select a style to
add to the Style
Manager, or create
a new style.

The Style Manager also lets you create symbols from scratch. Since ArcMap includes many symbols, you may only
need to do this if you use very specific, unique, or very complex symbols. Even then, in many cases its more efficient
to start with an existing symbol and modify it. You can, if necessary, create new symbols from picture files (bitmaps or
EMFs) or from characters in any font installed on your computer (set the Type to picture or character, respectively).

Right-click anywhere in the display window

for the selected folder and click New to
open the Symbol Property Editor and
create a new symbol.

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Labeling features
Feature labels make your map easier to read and understand. Labels range from simple text you add to a map as you
explore your data to highly stylized labels used in cartographic production.

Using map labels

A map label is any value stored in a layers attribute table and rendered as text on a map. A quick way to display labels
is using the Label Features option on a layers context menua default field, placement, and font are used. Use the
Labels tab on the Layer Properties dialog box to access all the label settings for that layer.

Right-click a
feature and
select Label
Features
default settings
are used.

Label Features

Use a script to create labels with

multiple fields or custom text.

The Labels tab on the

Layer Properties dialog
box lets you specify all
the label settings.

Placement options depend on the

type of feature youre labeling. You
can also specify how to handle label
conflicts between layers.
The Label Style Selector lets you
access additional label symbols.

Use Scale Range to turn symbols

on and off as you zoom in or out on
the map.

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All features in the layer are labeled using the same text font, size, and color. (By default, labels dont draw if they would
overlap.)
While you can change the text symbol for all the features, you cant modify the symbol, text, or position of individual
labels. You can, however, define categories of features within a layer and label each category differentlymajor roads
could have a large label and minor roads a small one. You can also use this method to label only certain categories (for
example, only major roads).
Use SQL Query to select
features to add to each class.

When you select Define classes as the method,

additional options are available.

To label an individual feature with its name or other attribute use graphic textspecifically, the Label tool (see the
next section Drawing graphics on a map). This tool is useful for labeling one feature, or a few. It also lets you use a
different text symbol for each.

Managing labels on multiple layers

While you can manage each layers labels from the table of contents, the Label Manager lets you modify the label
settings for the various layers within a data frame from a single dialog box. It also includes options for managing
label placement by giving labels for certain layers higher priority or greater weight (labels with a higher weight take
precedence over those with a lower weight).

Right-click the data frame name

and select Labeling to display
label management options.

Use Label Manager to see and modify all label classes.

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These options are also available from the Labeling toolbar (click the View menu, point to Toolbars, and click Labeling).

The Labeling toolbar

Labels will remain the same size as you zoom in or out on the map. If you want the labels to get larger or smaller as
you change the map scale, set a reference scale for the data frame. The reference scale specifies the map scale at which
the size of the labels on the map matches the defined size of the labels in page units, such as points. Typically, youll
set a map scale (or interactively zoom) to show your area of interest, set the reference scale, and create the labels using
an appropriate text size for the current display. When you zoom in or out, the label text size will increase or decrease,
accordingly.

To set a reference scale, right-click the data frame

containing the features youre labeling, point to Reference
Scale, and click Set Reference Scale. The reference scale
will be set to the current map scalelabels will appear at
their specified text size at this scale.

With a reference scale set, labels will be larger than their specified text size when
you zoom in, and smaller when you zoom out beyond the reference scale.

Advanced label placement using Maplex

The Maplex for ArcGIS extension enhances cartographic design with a sophisticated set of rules that automatically
modify labels so they can be placed correctly. Maplex can save time by automating much of the work of manual label
placement. The text placement rules include positioning, label fitting, and conflict resolution. You can also create rules
for text stacking, font reduction, curving, and abbreviation. These rules are useful when youre creating complex maps
for publication that include many features and numerous levels of labeling. Theyre accessed via the Label Manager and
Layer Properties dialog boxes.

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Maplex is included with an ArcInfo license. Once the extension is enabled (see The ArcGIS Desktop framework in
Chapter 1), select the Maplex labeling engine (the default is the ESRI standard labeling engine).

Select Maplex as the labeling

engine from either the Data
frame Properties dialog box or
from the Labeling toolbar.

When the Maplex labeling engine is used, the

Placement Properties dialog box gives you
additional options for label position, fitting, and
conflict resolution, as well as for label ranking.

In this example, rules have been defined to stack labels and to ensure they
dont overlap streets.

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Using annotation to label features

Annotation allows you to place and edit text individually. This is useful if you need to control the exact positions of
labels. A quick way to create annotation for all features in a layer is to convert existing map labels using the Convert
Labels to Annotation option on a layers context menu. You can then select and work with the individual text strings.
Annotation automatically scales with the features as you zoom in or out (a reference scale is setusing the current map
scalewhen you convert labels to annotation).

Right-click a layer in the table of contents and

select Convert Labels to Annotation.

The Label tool described above is also a way of quickly creating annotation for individual features (as opposed to all
features at once).
Map document annotation is stored only with the particular map in which it is created. If the annotation will be used on
different maps, create geodatabase annotation. The annotation is stored as a separate feature class in the geodatabase
and can be accessed by many users (see Creating and editing annotation in Chapter 3).

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Drawing graphics on a map

Adding graphics to your map can clarify the information that the map conveys. For example, you might add circles on
top of the data on your map to draw attention to particular features, outline a study area with a polygon, or add lines that
point to potential locations for new stores. Graphics are saved in the map document.

Using the Draw toolbar

Graphics are created using symbolsmarkers, lines, fills, colors, and textthat you access from the Draw toolbar. By
default the Draw toolbar appears at the bottom of the ArcMap window. As with all toolbars, you can move and dock it
anywhere on the window, or let it float.

Set the text font

properties here.

Use these buttons to set the text,

fill, line, and marker colors.

Use the drop-down

lists to display shape
and text options.

The Drawing menu

lets you arrange
selected graphics and
set default graphic
symbol properties.

Specify a custom color.

Click the menu button to
change the color model.

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Drawing shapes and text

The tools on the Draw toolbar for creating shapes and text work just like tools in a drawing program.

Click the text position

and type in the box.

Click and drag to

create a rectangle.

New Rectangle tool

Text tool

Click and drag

graphics to
move them.

Drag a handle to
resize the graphic.

Select Elements

Click to enter the

vertices of a polygon.

New Polygon

Use the Edit Vertices

tool to move a vertex by
clicking and dragging.

Edit Vertices

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The text drop-down menu provides a variety of options for placing text.
Label feature using
callout box

These three tools let you create a polygon,

rectangle, or circle containing text that flows
within the shape or is in multiple columns.
Label feature
with attribute

Spline text

Any shapes or text you draw while in Data view are drawn in geographic spacethey move and scale with the
geographic data as you pan and zoom. They appear in both Data and Layout view. Any shapes or text you draw while
in Layout view are drawn in page spacethey move and scale as you pan and zoom on the layout page. Theyre stored
with the layout and appear only in Layout view.
You can add graphics to a data frame (in geographic space) while in Layout view by clicking the Focus Data Frame
button on the Layout toolbar (you can also double-click the data frame on the page or right-click and click Focus Data
Frame).

Modifying a graphic
Each graphic object has a context menu that lets you work with the object. Right-click the object to display the menu.
Use the Properties option to modify the objects symbology.

Right-click any graphic shape or text to

display more options. Choose Properties
to set the color, font and position. (You
can also double-click the graphic to open
the Properties dialog box.)

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Creating graphics from features

An alternative way to create graphics is to convert features to graphic objects. Youd do this if, for example, you want to
highlight a particular feature but dont need or want to create a new layer containing only that feature. Youd select the
feature, convert it to a graphic, and modify its properties to assign a new symbol and color.

Right-click a layer and select Convert Features to Graphics to turn geographic

features into graphic objects.

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Creating a map layout

Map layouts are used to compose a finished map for printing or publication. When you create a layout, you arrange the
various map elementsthe geographic data itself (contained in a data frame), as well as explanatory information, such
as titles, legends, scalebars, and so on. The ultimate goal is to present the necessary information as simply and clearly as
possible.

Working in Layout View

Layout View shows you how the map page will look, and lets you display rulers and grids to help you arrange the map
elements (see the next section, Adding and arranging map elements). Select Layout View on the View menu. The
buttons at the bottom of the ArcMap window also let you switch between Data and Layout view.
Data View

Switch to Layout View from the View menu.

Setting up the page

Data View

Layout View

The page setup defines the size and orientation of the final map, the printer youll be using, and other settings.

To specify the page parameters, right-click

anywhere in the display window and click
Page and Print Setup (or select Page and
Print Setup from the File menu).

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Navigating the layout

Layout View has its own set of navigation tools that work on the page, contained on the Layout toolbar. They are
distinguished from the data navigation tools by the page icon. You can work with the data in the data frame in Layout
View just as you would in Data Viewany changes you make in the Data View are reflected in Layout View. However,
its often easier to switch to Data View to work with the data and then switch back to Layout View to work with the
page layout.

These tools work with the

data inside the data frame
just like in Data View.

Pan the
data in the
data frame

Layout
toolbar
These tools work
with the entire
pagetheyre
activated only in
Layout View.
Pan the page
in the display
window.

Working with multiple data frames

Multiple data frames are often used to display an area of interest in one frame and a reference map showing the location
of the area in another framein this case, the data frames have different map scales and extents. Multiple data frames
are also used to show different views of the same geographic areain this case, the data frames have the same scale
and extent.
Add new data frames to a map from the Insert menu. A quick way to make a map showing different views of the same
area is to copy and paste a data frame, then modify how the data is displayed in each frame.
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Select Data Frame from the

Insert menu to add a new
data frame to the page.

Drag the data frame to move it;

drag a handle to resize it.

Right-click the data frame and select Properties

to explicitly set the size and position.

When working with multiple data frames, many operations, such as creating a legend, apply to the active frame. The
data frame thats currently active has a dotted line around it and its name is bold in the table of contents. Click a data
frame on the map, using the Select tool, to make it active. Or, right-click the name in the table of contents and click
Activate.

Each data
frame
appears
as a set of
layers in
the table of
contents.

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Using map templates

Once you compose your map, you can save the layout as a template. Thats useful if you make sets of maps showing the
same information for different areas, such as a book of parcel maps for a city. The template stores the layout (data frame
arrangement, map elements, and so on) as well as any data layers on the map (so your template can include base layers
you want to appear on every map). When you start a new map by opening a template, ArcMap reproduces the template
as a new map document and keeps the original template document intact. Map templates have a file extension of .mxt to
distinguish them from map documents (.mxd).

Select Save As on the

File menu....

....then specify ArcMap

Template as the file type.

ArcMap also provides a number of standard map templates. You can select one of these when you open a new map.

When you open a new map you have a choice of predefined templates.

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Adding and arranging map elements

Map elements explain the information on your map to the map reader. They can also make the map easier to read.
The goal in adding and arranging map elements is to create a map thats attractive and easy to understand. Too much
information or too many boxes and other elements just obscures the information youre trying to convey.
Map elements are essentially graphic objectssome more complex than othersso they can be moved and re-sized
like any other graphics. You can modify how theyre drawn using the properties dialog box for the element orin some
casesusing the tools on the Draw toolbar. Titles, text, and neatlines are simply graphics. Legends, scalebars, and north
arrowswhile composed of graphic objectsare derived from the geographic data in the data frame. Any changes to
the data that is displayed will be reflected in these map elements.
Map elements are added to the page in layout view, using the Insert menu.

Map elements are added

from the Insert menu.

Adding titles, text, and legends

Titles and text appear on the layout as soon as you choose the option on the Insert menu. You can then modify the text
using the tools on the Draw toolbar. If wizards are enabled in your ArcGIS installation, the Legend Wizard will appear
when you insert a legend (to enable wizards, click the Tools menu, click Options, andon the General tabcheck the
box to turn Wizard Mode on). The wizard steps you through setting up the legend. Otherwise, a default legend will
appear on the layout immediately, and you can use the Properties option to change its settings (right-click the legend).
Titles appear by default as the
name of the map file, centered
at the top of the page.

To modify titles or text, type in

the box, then press Enter. Drag
the text to move it; use the Draw
toolbar to change the font size.

The legend content comes from

the table of contentslayers that
are currently displayed on the map
appear in the legend; to change
the name of a layer in the legend,
rename it in the table of contents.
To resize a legend, drag one of its
handles, or change the text size on
the Draw toolbar.

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Adding scalebars, north arrows, and neatlines

When you insert a scalebar, scale text, north arrow, or neatline from the Insert menu, a symbol selector dialog box
appears. When you select the element you want and click OK, its added to the page. As with any other symbol you can
customize north arrows and scalebars (click the Properties button on the dialog box).

When you insert any of these

elements, a dialog box or symbol
selector appearsselect the symbol
you want and click OK to add it to the
map page.

If your map has more than one data frame, when you add a scalebar or north arrow that map element relates to the
active data frame (different data frames on a single map can have different scales and orientations).
The Insert menu also lets you add picture files, such as a photo, a scanned image, or a bitmap logo, or embedded
objects, such as a Microsoft Word document. You can double-click the object to open its applicationany changes to
the object are automatically reflected on the map page.

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Modifying map elements

Click and drag an element to move it; use the handles to re-size an element. Right-click any selected element to display
its Properties dialog box. You can also use the tools on the Draw toolbar to modify the selected elementselect a
neatline or box and use the Draw tools to change the fill or outline.
Right-click any map element and select
Properties to modify the element or set
an explicit position or size.

Aligning elements
To align elements, select the elements, then use the Align option on the Drawing menu. Or right-click the selected
elements and use the options on the menu that appears.

Select one or more elements,

then right-click a selected
element to access the options;
or open the Drawing menu to
access the same options.

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Using grids and guidelines

You can set up a grid or guidelines to make sure elements line up. You can use these purely as visual aids, or have the
elements snap to the grid, guidelines, or the ruler.
Right-click anywhere on the layout to access guide,
ruler, and grid options, including snapping.

Click the ruler to set a guide. Drag

the arrow to move the guide;
right-click the arrow to clear it.

Navigating the layout

As you work with the map elements, youll likely want to zoom in and out, and pan across the page. Use the special
page navigation toolsrather than the data navigation toolswhen moving around the page. These are located on the
Layout toolbar.

Zoom Page

Use the Zoom Page tool to zoom in on

the layout page (as opposed to zooming
in on the map data in the data frame).

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Using draft mode

Draft mode displays the map elements (except for text) as empty boxes containing the name of the element, so the
display refreshes faster. Using draft mode for arranging elements may be easier and fasterat least for an initial
layoutespecially if your map is complex. Draft mode also provides a schematic view of your layout.
Right-click anywhere on the
layout to toggle to draft mode
(or use the Toggle Draft Mode
button on the Layout toolbar).

Toggle Draft Mode

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Creating a graph
Graphs are created from within ArcMap, and are derived from values stored in a layers attribute table (or other table
that has been added to the map). Graphs provide a visual summary of attribute values and can add useful information to
your map.

Using the Graph Wizard to create a graph

Create a new graph from the Tools menu or open a table and use the Options button.

Access the Graph Wizard either from the Tools menu or from a tables
Options menu.

The wizard lets you specify the type of graph, the

field values to include, and graph elements such
as title and legend. When youre done, the graph
appears in its own window.

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Adding a graph to a layout

Once youve created a graph, you can add it to your map layout (you can also print, save, or export the graph to a
graphics file). Access these options by right-clicking the graph window title bar.

Right-click the graph window title bar and

click Add to Layout. This menu is also
where you print, save or export the graph.

You can move and resize

the graph just like any
other map element.

Modifying a graph
To modify an existing graph, right-click the graph window title bar and select Properties, or Advanced Properties.
Right-click the graph window title bar and
select Properties, or Advanced Properties.

Use Advanced Properties to access all the

properties of the graph.
Properties is the same as the
Graph Wizard, only presented
as a dialog box with two tabs.

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Managing graphs
The Graph Manager lets you access the graphs associated with a map. Click Tools, point to Graphs, and click Manage.

Right-click a graph in
the list to access the
management options,
including open, print,
and export.

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Creating a report
Reports in ArcMap let you listand optionally summarizedata contained in tables. As with graphs, they are derived
from the fields in a layers attribute table or other table that has been added to a map. ArcGIS Desktop also includes
Crystal Reports for creating presentation-quality reports.

Creating a basic report in ArcMap

The basic process for creating a report is to specify fields to include from a table, using the Fields tab on the Report
Properties dialog box.
Access the Report Properties dialog box from either
the Tools menu or from a tables Options menu.

Select the layer or table, then use the

arrow keys to move the fields you want
to include to the right column.

When you click Generate

Report, the report is displayed
in the Report Viewer window.

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Once the report is generated, you can print or export the report, or add it to your map layout.

On the Report Viewer you

can print the report, export
it to PDF or text, or add it to
your map.

When you add the report the view

switches to Layout View (if youre not
already there). Once the report appears
on the layout, you can move and resize
it just like any other map element.

Use the tabs on the Report Properties dialog box to customize the report.

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This tab lets you group sections of
the report by category. Choose a field
containing the category values.
Title
Group Title

Summary

You can sort any of the fields.

Update Settings

Click this button at any point to expand

the dialog box window and see a preview
of the report. You can continue setting
parameters, but youll need to click the
Update button on the preview panel to
see the changes.

Numeric values can be summarized.

The Display tab is where

you set the parameters
for how the report will
look. Click in a Value box
to change a setting.

Change colors and fonts

by clicking the button at
the right side.

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Using Crystal Reports

The report tool included with ArcMap is meant for creating basic reports that can be added to a map layout. You can
optionally install Crystal Reports for creating presentation-quality reports (however these reports exist as files outside
ArcMap and cant be added to a map layout). The Crystal Reports wizard (if installed) is available from the Reports
option on the Tools menu in ArcMap.

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Creating relief maps and perspective views

Shaded relief maps and perspective views are useful for visualizing features that have height above or depth below the
earths surface. The tools to create these maps and views are included in the ArcGIS Spatial Analyst and ArcGIS 3D
Analyst extension products.

Creating a shaded relief map

Shaded relief maps are usually derived from raster elevation surfaces, such as a digital elevation model. You create a
hillshade view from the surface using tools in the Spatial Analyst or 3D Analyst extensions (available via ArcToolbox).
The appearance of the hillshade layer depends on settings such as azimuth, altitude, and z-factor (the Hillshade tool
provides default settings). You then display other layers on top of the hillshadethe classic shaded relief map uses an
elevation layer symbolized using a color ramp and displayed using a transparency setting.

Use the ArcToolbox Hillshade

tool to create a relief map
from the elevation surface.

Then display the elevation surface on top

of the hillshade, using a transparency
settingright-click the elevation surface
in the table of contents, select Properties,
and click the Display tab on the Layer
Properties dialog box.

Set transparency here.

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Creating a perspective view

Perspective views are created in the ArcScene application provided with the 3D Analyst extension (available from the
ArcGIS program group on the Start menu, if 3D Analyst is installed). You add datasets to a blank scene, similar to
creating a map in ArcMap. To add a third dimension to the display, you specify an attribute associated with each feature
that can be used as (or to calculate) a height or depth for the feature (known as a z value). Z can be a height or depth
measurementsuch as an elevation on the earths surface, the height of a building, or the depth of a pipelineor it can
be a quantity, such as the population of each county.
Terrain views require an elevation surface, upon which other layers can be draped. These additional layers dont require
z valuesrather their elevations are established with reference to the underlying elevation surface.
When creating the view, you choose the viewers angle and altitude, as well as the vertical exaggeration and
illumination (3D Analyst provides default settings). Once youve created the initial view, you can navigate by panning,
rotating and changing the altitude, and zooming in or out, to create the view you want.

Open the Scene Properties to set

parameters for the perspective view,
including vertical exaggeration to
make the difference in elevations
more apparent.

Open the Layer Properties for the elevation surface

(by double-clicking the layer name), and specify
the elevation layer as the one from which to obtain
heights (on the Base Heights tab).

Open the Layer Properties for the

layer you want to drape and specify
on the Base Heights tabthe
elevation layer as the one from which
to obtain heights.

Specify an offset to slightly raise draped

features above the surface and make them
easier to see.

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You can create 3D maps by extruding features, such as counties extruded by population or building footprints extruded
using building height. The attribute values are used as relative heights in the view. You can also combine perspective
views with extruded features (to show buildings on a hillside, for example).

To extrude features open the Layer

Properties dialog box andon the
Extrusion tabmake sure the box at the
top is checked. Then enter the field name
in the box. Or click the Calculator button
to open the Expression Builder and pick a
field name or create an expression.

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Creating dynamic views and animations

Dynamic views and animations are great presentation toolsespecially when presenting geographic information
to audiences not used to working with complex maps. Globe views are useful for providing context for your area
of interest, as well as for presenting global geographic phenomena. The ArcGIS 3D Analyst extension contains two
applications that let you create dynamic views and animationsArcScene and ArcGlobe. Both applications are
available from the ArcGIS program group on the Start menu, if the 3D Analyst extension is installed. You can also
create animated maps in ArcMap to show a changing view of your data.

Navigating ArcScene and ArcGlobe

Once youve created a view in ArcScene (see Creating relief maps and perspective views), use the Navigate button to
change the viewing angle and altitude, or use the Fly Over tool to move continuously through the scene.
Navigate

Fly over

The Navigate button lets you change the

viewing angle and altitudehold down the
left mouse button, and drag the cursor. In
fly mode, click anywhere on the scene to
start moving; left-click to speed up, rightclick to slow down. The Fly speed indicator
in the lower left corner of the window gives
you a reference.

In ArcGlobe, a shaded relief image of the earths surface appears by default when you first open the application. The
additional layers you place on the globe can cover any geographic extentthey dont have to be global. ArcGlobe has
two navigation modes you toggle between. In globe mode the navigation tools let you spin the globe to view different
portions of the earths surface. In surface mode, you navigate across the surface, similar to navigating a view in
ArcScene. ArcGlobe also lets you walk through the landscape, as well as fly over it.

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Navigate

Fly/Walk over

Toggle Globe/Surface Mode

Globe mode lets you spin the globe.

Surface mode lets you travel over the surface.

Capturing a navigation path as an animation

ArcScene and ArcGlobe let you record the path of your navigation and play it back as an animation. You do this using
the Animation toolbar (click the View menu, then select Toolbars and select Animation). Press Record, then start
navigating through the scene as described above. The navigation is recorded as you move through the view or spin the
globe. Press the Escape button on the keyboard to stop navigating, then click the Stop button on the Animation Controls
to stop recording. Click Play to replay the animation.

Open the Animation toolbar

from the View menu in
ArcScene or ArcGlobe.

The Animation Controls

let you record and play
back animations.

Play

Stop

Record

Click the Record button to start capturing the

animation; click Stop when youre done navigating,
then click Play to replay the animation.

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Creating an animation by capturing individual views

You can use the Animation toolbar to create an animation in ArcMap, ArcScene, or ArcGlobe by capturing a snapshot
of each static view (the map, scene, or globe view) in a sequence (these are known as keyframes). You then play back
the captured framesthe interim frames are automatically filled in to create an animation. Youd use this method to
animate panning across or zooming into a map.
Capture

Use the navigation tools to set up a scene, then click Capture on the Animation toolbar to create a keyframe. When youre done capturing frames,
use Play on the Animation Controls toolbar to play the animation (zooming on a topographic map draped over a surface, in this example).

Youd also use it to capture a series of static views in a scene or globe view (rather than capturing a navigation as
described earlier), and then play them back. This would let you animate, for example, changing layers on a globefrom
shaded relief, through country boundaries, to population density.
You can also animate changes to the map, scene, or globe displayfor example, you might gradually increase
the transparency of one layer to reveal a layer beneath. To do this, you create the keyframes by setting the display
parameters and then creating a frame. Click Create Keyframe on the Animation drop-down menu. Set the Type to Map
Layer (ArcMap), Layer (ArcScene), or Globe Layer (ArcGlobe) and select the layer youll be animating (the Source
object). Then click New to create a new track. Set the layer properties for the first frame (for example, you might
change the transparency or symbology in the Layer Properties dialog box), and enter a name for the frame. Then click
Create. Change the layer settings, enter a name for the next frame, and click Create again. Repeat this process for each
frame; click Close when youre done.

Use Create Keyframe to animate

changes in the properties of a
layer (such as symbology or
transparency settings). Click
the New button to create a new
track; then change the layer
display settings and name each
keyframe before creating the
frame. All the frames will be
contained in the track.

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When you play the animation, the interim frames are created. In this example, the transparency of
the elevation layer increases to reveal the hillshade layer beneath, creating a shaded relief map.

To animate a sequence of layers, add the layers to the map and select Create Group Animation on the Animation dropdown menu. When you play the animation, the layers will display in sequence (from top to bottom in the table of
contents). Youd do this, for example, to create an animation of the locations of different types of crimes in a city, by
police beat.

Use Create Group

Animation to animate
a sequence of layers
on your map.

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Saving and modifying an animation

The animation is only active during the current ArcMap, ArcScene, or ArcGlobe session, unless you save it. You can
reload a saved animation to run in another session. Use the Animation Manager to edit animations (to remove unneeded
keyframes, for example). You can also export an animation to a video file (.avi or .mov) that can be played in other
software programs.

Use the Animation drop-down

menu on the toolbar to Save an
animation (or load a saved one).
Save

The Animation Manager lets you edit the animation.

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Creating a time series animation

ArcGIS Desktop lets you dynamically displayand create animations fordata that has a time element. You can
animate the path of a feature that moves through space over time (such as a vehicle or a storm), the occurrence of events
or phenomena over a period of time in a region (such as earthquakes, or crimes), or the change in static features over
time (such as counties that increase or decrease in population each year). Time series animations can be created using
the Animation toolbar in ArcMap, ArcScene, or ArcGlobe. The ArcGIS Tracking Analyst extension provides additional
options for displaying and animating temporal data.

Creating a time series animation using the Animation toolbar

Any layers youve added to a map in ArcMap, a scene in ArcScene, or a globe view in ArcGlobe can be animated using
the Animation toolbar, provided they include a field defined as Date field type or containing date and/or time data as a
text string in one of several standard formats. Open the Animation toolbar from the View menu (point to Toolbars, and
click Animation). You first create a new track containing a start keyframe and an end keyframe.

Set the Type to Time Layer

Select the layer to animate

Click New to create a track
The keyframe name is automatically filled in
Click Create to create the
start keyframe

To create a time-based animation using the Animation toolbar, click Create

Keyframe on the Animation drop-down menu. Then create a new track and the
start and end keyframes.

The keyframe number

automatically increments
Click Create to create the
end keyframe

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Next you modify the track properties to specify the field containing the date/time data, specify the format (if the data is
stored as a text string), and calculate the time values for the keyframes (this is the range for the automation). You can
then modify the keyframe properties to control the playback.

Use the Animation Manager to specify

the settings for the animation. On the
Tracks tab, select the newly created
Time Layer track. Then click Properties.

On the Time Track Properties tab, specify the field containing the
date/time data. Use the drop-down menu to specify the format of
the data (if the field is defined as a Date type, you dont need to
specify the format). Then click Calculate Times.

On the Keyframes tab, alter the time interval and units to use,
based on your date/time field values. Use the default start and
end times, or alter them to shorten the animation time.

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To display the animation, use the Animation Controls dialog box or the Time View tab slider in the Animation Manager.
Use the options on the Animation drop-down menu to save the animation or export it to a movie file (.avi or .mov) you
can play in a media player.

Play

Use the slider on the Animation Manager Time View tab to play the
animation. Or open the Animation Controls dialog box and use the
Play button.

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Creating an animation using Tracking Analyst

The ArcGIS Tracking Analyst extension allows you to display temporal data dynamically or capture an animation.
Tracking Analyst accepts a wide range of date/time formats. It also has advanced options for symbolizing temporal data,
viewing animations, and interacting with temporal data (for example, it will capture a live data feed to track objects in
real time). The Tracking Analystif enabledis accessed from inside ArcMap, via the Tracking Analyst toolbar. You
load a dataset containing a time element to create a temporal dataset using the Add Data button on the Tracking Analyst
toolbar.
Use the Add button on the Tracking Analyst
toolbar to open the Add Temporal Data Wizard.

Any geographic data having a date and/or time stamp can be used with
Tracking Analyst.

The wizard asks for the field containing the date

and time data, and the format its in.

Once a temporal layer has been added, use

the Playback Manager to run the animation.

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There are a number of options for displaying the datayou can animate the time series, drag the red bar to manually
step through the frames, or pick a specific date from the calendar to see the conditions on that day and time.
The Symbology
tab on the Layer
Properties
dialog box lets
you control the
display for
example, color
code crimes by
police beat.

Drag the red bar to step through time,

or use the playback controls.

Use the calendar to

see the conditions on
a specific date.

The Symbology tab also lets you control the time-based

displayfor example, whether features stay on the map
as the animation plays, or only appear during a brief time
window.

Use the Animation tool to create and save an animation. Animations are saved as a movie file that can be played using
any media player.

Open Animation Tool from the Tracking

Analyst toolbar to generate an animation
and save it as a movie file that can be
played in any media player.

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Geographic
Analysis
An overview of analysis in ArcGIS Desktop 340
Working with tabular data 348

Exploring tables in ArcMap

Exploring tabular data in ArcCatalog
ArcToolbox tools for working with tabular data

Adding fields and calculating attribute values 352

Using ArcMap to add a field and calculate values
Using ArcCatalog to modify a table
ArcToolbox tools for working with fields

Joining tables 355

Appending tables using a common field

Relating tables using a common field
Appending tables using spatial relationships

Selecting a subset of features 360

Selecting features interactively
Selecting using feature geography
Selecting using feature attributes
Specifying the selection method

Working with a selected set 365

Saving the selection
Exporting the selection
Other places the selected set is active

Extracting a portion of a dataset 369

Measuring distances between features 379

Measuring distance on a map
Calculating distance between features
Buffering features

Calculating distance over a surface 383

Creating paths and corridors 386
Modeling a path over a surface
Modeling a path over a network

Allocating areas to centers 391

Creating areas around centers
Creating service areas using a network

Modeling flow 395

Modeling flow over a network

Modeling flow over a surface

Creating raster surfaces 398

Creating an interpolated surface
Creating a density surface

Creating a TIN surface 402

Deriving data from an elevation surface 404
Calculating surface volume 409
Analyzing visibility 412

Cropping feature datasets

Splitting feature datasets
Extracting raster data
Sampling raster data

Measuring line of sight

Creating a viewshed
Measuring solar radiation

Overlaying geographic datasets 373

Calculating the center and dispersion

Analyzing directional trends

Overlaying feature datasets

Overlaying raster datasets

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Analyzing spatial distributions 416

Identifying patterns and clusters 419

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

An overview of analysis in ArcGIS Desktop

GIS analysis covers a wide range of tasks and applications, from simply calculating values
for a new field in a table, to modeling complex processes such as the flow of water over
terrain or using statistics to perform spatial pattern analysis. The ultimate goal of analysis is
to get more information from your data to make better decisions.
ArcGIS Desktop lets you perform geographic and spatial analyses on a variety of datasets:
tables, feature classes, rasters, terrains, TINs, network datasets, and geometric networks.
The tools to perform these analyses are found in several toolboxes in ArcToolbox, as well
as on specialized toolbars in ArcMap and in several ArcGIS Desktop extension products
ArcGIS Spatial Analyst, ArcGIS 3D Analyst, and ArcGIS Network Analyst.

Types of GIS The GIS analysis functions in ArcGIS Desktop can be grouped into several fundamental
analysis types of operations: tabular analysis, data extraction, overlay analysis, distance analysis,
surface creation and analysis, and statistical analysis.

Tabular analysis
Tabular analysis includes basic functions such as sorting or finding the frequency of values,
modifying tables by adding and calculating new fields, and establishing and managing
relationships between tables.

Calculating a frequency distribution of

values is an example of basic tabular
analysis.

Data extraction
Data extraction is a component of most analyses. It includes extracting a subset of features
for analysis or clipping a study area out of a larger dataset, as well as dissolving or
generalizing to create fewer, larger features from many small ones.

Parcels that fall completely or partially within

the flood zone have been selected and saved
as a new layer.

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Roads have been clipped by the study area

boundary to create a new dataset of roads
that fall within the study area.

Overlay analysis
Overlay analysis allows you to combine layers that share a geographic extent (or at least
overlap) to create a new layer that has the attributes of the input layers. This lets you find
relationships between features on different layers. You can, for example, identify features
that meet some combination of criteriato site a new facility or subdivision you might
overlay layers of slope, vegetation, and soils, and then select locations that are on level
terrain, not forested, and on buildable soils.

Use overlay to append fields from multiple layers to find features

meeting specific criteria.

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Distance analysis
ArcGIS Desktop includes a variety of distance analysis functions that allow you to measure
the distance between features, find the features within a given distance of other features
(buffer), create a continuous surface of distances from a set of features (such as distance
from roads or streams), or find the optimum path over a network of linear features (streets
or pipelines) or over terrain.

A buffer of streams

A surface of distance from

streams

The shortest path between three

stops on a street network

Surface creation and analysis

Surface creation functions let you create a surface of spatially continuous values from a set
of sample measurements or observations (interpolation, or density), or create derived layers
from a surface (slope, aspect, contours, or a hillshade view). Surface analysis functions
include specialized tools for predicting the flow and dispersion of water or other materials
over a surface, calculating volumes (such as cut and fill), performing visibility analysis, or
calculating the amount of solar radiation received at each location.

A continuous surface created from a

set of sample point values.

A surface of road densitydarker

orange indicates higher density.

Line-of-sight analysisgreen indicates areas

visible from the observer point.

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Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis ranges from tabular statistics, such as finding the mean or standard
deviation of a set of values in a table, to functions that measure the characteristics of a
distribution of geographic features (such as the center or directional trend), to spatial
statistical tools that identify patterns formed by features (or their associated attribute
values) and let you determine the probability the pattern did not occur by chance.

The standard deviational ellipse for

burglaries (showing the directional
trend)
Summary statistics have been calculated for each landuse class
showing the number of parcels in that class, the size of the smallest and
largest parcel, the average parcel size, and the total area in the class.

The map on the right shows statistically significant clusters of census tracts with many senior citizens
(orange) or few (blue), calculated from the percentage of seniors in each tract (shown in the map on the left).

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

ArcGIS Desktop ArcGIS Desktop provides a range of tools to perform analysis operations. The tools
analysis tools described in this chapter are some of the most commonly usedthere are many more

tools available. Many of the tools are generic and can be applied to any application or
industry. Some are more application specific (such as functions for analyzing groundwater
movement).

Most tools for analyzing vector (feature) data are provided with ArcGIS Desktop (if
you have an ArcInfo license). Most tools for analyzing surfaces (rasters and TINs) are
included in several different ArcGIS Desktop extension products.
Tools for analyzing features
ArcMap functions for analyzing feature data include tabular analysis, available from the
menus associated with table views, and some data extraction functions, available from the
Selection menu. ArcToolbox functions include tabular analysis, data extraction, feature
overlay analysis, feature distance analysis, and statistical analysis.

The Utility Network Analyst toolbarincluded in ArcMapallows you to trace flow

over electric, water, or other utility networks. You can trace upstream or downstream, find
loops, find connected features, and so on.

Network Analyst, an extension product, provides functionality for distance analysis along
connected linear features such as in transportation networks.

Tools for analyzing surfaces

Three ArcGIS Desktop extension productsSpatial Analyst, 3D Analyst, and
Geostatistical Analystprovide tools for creating and analyzing surfaces. While they
include some overlapping functionality, they were each developed to meet the needs of
analysts requiring specific capabilities for their application.

Spatial Analyst includes tools for analyzing the relationships between rasters. These
can be rasters representing surfaces of continuous values (such as elevation, slope,
temperature, or precipitation), or rasters representing contiguous areas (such as soil types,
vegetation types, land cover, or geology). Along with tools for managing and processing
rasters, Spatial Analyst includes functions for raster data extraction, overlay analysis, and
distance analysis, as well as for surface creation and analysis.

3D Analyst provides functionality for surface creation and analysis. 3D Analyst also
includes visualization tools for creating perspective and globe views (see Creating relief
maps and perspective views and Creating dynamic views and animations in Chapter 4).

Geostatistical Analyst provides advanced functionality for creating continuous surfaces

from a set of sample points. It also includes tools for interactive data exploration to
aid in the selection of appropriate interpolation parameters. These are accessed from
the Geostatistical Analyst toolbar in ArcMap. The Geostatistical Analyst toolbox (in
ArcToolbox) contains a set of geostatistics tools that can be used in scripts or models.

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Tabular
Analysis

This table summarizes some common types of GIS analysis and where the specific
functionality is located in ArcGIS Desktop.

ArcMap

ArcToolbox
Tools

Sort field

Value frequency

Summarize by
other field(s)

Field summary
statistics

Network
Analyst
Extension

Spatial Analyst
Extension

3D Analyst
Extension

Geostatistical
Analyst
Extension

Surface
interpolation

Surface
interpolation

Surface density

TIN creation

Surface
analysis

Surface
analysis

Advanced
surface
interpolation
(kriging)

Field summary
statistics
Data
Extraction

Interactive
feature
selection
Select features
by attribute

Clip/Split
features

Extract raster
cells by attribute
or geometry

Update features

Extract raster
cell values to
point features

Select features
by attribute

Select features
by location
Overlay
Analysis

Feature overlay

Combine
rasters
Raster overlay
Cross-tabulated
areas

Distance
Analysis

Measure
distance tool
Select features
within distance

Buffer features
Point-to-feature
distance
Allocation

Utility network
trace
Surface
Creation and
Analysis

Shortest/
Least-cost
path and
allocation over
a transportation
network

Euclidean and
cost distance
Shortest and
least-cost path
and allocation
over a surface

3D visualization
Statistical
Analysis

Geographic
center/
dispersion
Pattern/Cluster
analysis

Raster cell,
neighborhood,
zonal, and
multivariate
statistics

Predictive
surfaces
Exploratory
spatial data
analysis

Directional
trend analysis

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In many cases, youll combine different types of analysis to perform more complex
analyses. A suitability analysis, for example, may involve distance analysis and surface
creation to generate input layers, data extraction to clip out the study area, tabular analysis
to reclassify feature values, overlay analysis to combine layers, and data extraction to select
polygons meeting the criteria and to dissolve the selected polygons to create the final areas.

An example of a suitability model, built using the ModelBuilder interface

Models and scripts are often used to automate the analysis process. You can easily change
the parameters of the analysis by opening a tool in the model or editing the script. You can
then rerun the analysis without having to run all the individual tools. Models and scripts are
also a good way to document, store, and share your analysis methods.

The underlying engine for analysis is geoprocessing. Broadly, geoprocessing involves

applying a function, or set of functions, to existing data to get new data. Most of the
geoprocessing functions in ArcGIS Desktop are provided through tools in ArcToolbox.
Some functions appear as menu options in ArcMap. Accessing and using geoprocessing
functionsincluding building models and scriptsis discussed in the section The ArcGIS
Desktop framework in Chapter 1.

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The GIS analysis GIS analysis is a process that follows a basic set of steps. The actual methods you use can
process be simple or complex, from selecting features having a given value to building a model to
combine many layers of data. For simple methods, such as a selection to extract features
from a dataset, you might intuitively implement the process as a single operation, rather
than as distinct steps.

Frame the question

You start an analysis by figuring out what information you need. This is often in the form
of a question. Where were most of the burglaries last month? How much forest is in each
watershed? Which parcels are within 500 feet of this liquor store? Being as specific as
possible about the question youre trying to answer will help you decide how to approach
the analysis, which method to use, and how to present the results.
Other factors that influence the analysis are how it will be used and who will use it. You
might simply be exploring the data on your own to get a better understanding of how a
place developed or how things behave; or you may need to present resultsto policy
makers or the public for discussion, for scientific review, or in a courtroom setting. In the
latter cases, your methods need to be more rigorous, and the results more focused.
Prepare your data
The type of data and features youre working with helps determine the specific method you
use (for example, your forest and watershed data might be stored as polygons, or rasters).
Conversely, if you need to use a specific method to get the level of information you require,
you might need to obtain additional data. You have to know what you have (the type of
features and attributes), and what you need to get or create. Creating new data may simply
mean calculating new values in the data table or obtaining new layers. Understanding the
data that goes into the analysis will help you interpret the results.
Choose a method
There are almost always two or three ways of getting the information you need. Often,
one method is quicker and gives you more approximate information. Others may require
more detailed data and more processing time and effort, but provide more exact results.
For example, you can find parcels within 500 feet of a school as the crow fliesby simply
creating a bufferor within 500 feet walking along streets and paths (a more involved
network analysis). You decide which method to use based on your original question and
how the results of the analysis will be used.
Process the data
Once youve selected a method, you perform the necessary steps in the GIS. This often
involves running several functions in sequence. For example, to find the amount of forest
in each watershed, you might extract the area of interest from the forest layer, convert it
from raster to polygons, overlay it with the watershed boundaries, then do tabular analysis
to calculate the total forest in each watershed. In the case of statistical analysis, youll also
want to calculate the statistical significance of your initial results.
Investigate and analyze the results
Looking at and questioning the results help you decide whether the information is valid
or useful, or whether you should rerun the analysis using different parameters or even
a different method. GIS makes it relatively easy to make these changes and create new
output. You can compare the results from different analyses and see which method provides
the most accurate information.

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Working with tabular data

An important part of analysis is working with the data in tables. These can be standalone tables, or attribute tables
associated with feature or raster data. You may want information about the values in a table for its own sake or in
preparation for other analysis. For example, youd want to identify any outliers (extreme high or low values) before
creating a surface or performing pattern analysis, since outliers can skew the results of your analysis.

Exploring tables in ArcMap

To sort a field or summarize the values by another field, open the table in ArcMap and right-click the field name.

Right-click a field name to

display exploratory tools
including sort, and summarize.

The Summarize dialog box lets you

get summary statistics for one field by
other fieldsfor example, total area
of each landuse type. The results are
saved in a new table and added to
the map.

Right-click a layer name and select

Open Attribute Table.

Right-click the summary

table name in the table
of contents (using the
Source tab) and click
Open to display it.

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Right-clicking a field name in the table window in ArcMap also allows you to calculate summary statistics for the
fieldsuch as the minimum and maximum values, the mean value, and so on. The results are displayed in a window
that also includes a histogram showing the distribution of values.

The Statistics window gives you information about the

distribution of values.

When you open a table, by default ArcMap includes all the fields, with the values in their original data formats. To
specify which fields to display in the table window, to assign an alternate name (alias), and to format data values (to
show fewer decimal places, for example), use the Fields tab in the Layer Properties dialog box.

Use the Fields tab on the Layer Properties dialog

box to specify which fields to display in the table,
and to create an alias for the field name.

Click the box with ellipses to

format numeric valuesthis
changes only the display, not
the actual stored values.
Type in here to create an alias.

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You can also hide a field by right-clicking the column heading and clicking Turn Field Off.
With a table open,
right-click a column
heading to hide that
field.

Use the Options button on the table window to set the font type and size for the entire tableclick Appearance on the
menu, then change the settings in the Table Appearance dialog box.

Change the text font and size of an individual table from the
tables Options menu.

Use the Options settings on the Tools menu to specify the appearance of all tables in the map document.
Tabular data can be displayed graphically in ArcMap using graphs. Graphs present a visual summary of attribute values.
ArcMap also lets you create a finished report from tabular data. Graphs and reports can be printed or added to a map
layout. See Creating a graph and Creating a report in Chapter 4.

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Exploring tabular data in ArcCatalog

You can also sort fields and get summary statistics in ArcCatalog, using the Preview tab. This is a quick way to get a
sense of the distribution of values.

Right-click a field name in table

preview mode to access sorting
and statistics options.

ArcToolbox tools for working with tabular data

ArcToolbox includes tools for calculating summary statistics and a frequency table for a field. The results are written
to tables you can add to a map or preview in ArcCatalog. Having the information in a table is useful if you need to save
the information or use it in additional analysis. The tools are useful for including in models and scripts.
The Summary Statistics tool lets you specify
which fields and statistics to include. The
results are written to a record in a table.

The Frequency tool

calculates the number of
occurrences of each value
for the specified field, or
unique combinations of
values for multiple fields.
You can optionally include
summary fieldsthe result
is similar to the Summarize
option in ArcMap.

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Adding fields and calculating attribute values

Fields are usually added to attribute tables and populated with values when building a geodatabase. When performing
analysis, though, you may find you need to add fields to a table and assign or calculate values. For example, you might
reclassify detailed categories into general ones, or calculate percentages or densities from existing fields to map or use
in your analysis. The usual process for this is to create a new field in the table and then calculate the new values for the
field. In some casessuch as when reclassifying categoriesyoull select subsets of features before calculating values.

Using ArcMap to add a field and calculate values

Youll likely be working in ArcMap to perform your analysis. To add a field, open the table, click Options, and click
Add Field. Right-click the column heading for the newly added field to calculate values for the field.

Specify the
field name,
type, and
properties.

Use the Options menu on the table window to add a field.

Right-click the field name and select Field Calculator;

then use the calculator to build the expression.

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When you calculate values, youll get this warning, unless youre in an edit session.

If you calculate values outside an edit session, you cant revert to the previous values for that field (you can always
rerun the calculation and overwrite the values you just calculated). The advantage of calculating values in an edit
session is that you can undo the calculation if necessary, using the Undo button on the Edit menu. You cant, however,
add or delete fields while youre in an edit sessionyoull need to add the field before starting the session. Editing a
table also allows you to assign values to features individually (using the Edit Table button on the Editor toolbar). See
Starting and managing and edit session and Adding and editing attribute data in Chapter 3.
Edit

To edit a table in an edit session, click the Edit button to open the Editor toolbar,
then select Start Editing from the drop-down menu.

Calculating values inside an edit session is the same as outside except that the
Undo button is available on the Edit menu.

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Using ArcCatalog to modify a table

ArcCatalog also allows you to add fields to a table and calculate values, in the table preview window. Youd use
ArcCatalog for this if you were reviewing and preparing your datasets prior to performing analysis in ArcMap and
know there are certain fields you will need. If a layer is already open in ArcMap, you cant add or delete fields in
ArcCatalog (a warning message is displayed). The reverse is also true.

Use the Options

button in the
table preview
window to add
a field.

ArcToolbox tools for working with fields

ArcToolbox contains tools for adding and deleting fields in a table, calculating values, and setting a default value for a
new field. The parameters are the same as for creating fields and calculating values using ArcMap or ArcCatalog. The
ArcToolbox tools are particularly useful when youre working with tables in a script or model.

Tools for working with

fields can be found
in the Fields toolset,
located in the Data
Management toolbox.

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Joining tables
Often in analysis youll need to join the attributes contained in two separate tables. Youd do this when assigning the
attributes in a standalone table to geographic features so you can map or analyze the features using the additional
attributes. For example, you may want to join health statistics for a set of counties, stored in a standalone table, to the
attribute table for a map layer of counties. You join the tables using a field they have in common, such as county name.
You can then display the counties symbolized by the values for a particular statistic, such as the number of flu cases in
each.
Another type of joina spatial joinis used to join the tables of two map layers using the spatial relationship between
features. Spatial join lets you, for example, assign demographic attributes to stores (point features) based on the census
tract (polygon) they fall within.

Appending tables using a common field

Join appends the joined attributes to the original table for as long as the join is established (use Remove Join to delete
the join). If you export the new layer to a dataset, the joined attributes will be saved in the datasets attribute table. Join
can be used with one-to-one or many-to-one relationships (see Building relationships between features and tables in
Chapter 2 for a discussion of types of tabular relationships).
Right-click a layer name, select Joins and Relates, and click Join.

In the Join Data dialog box specify

the table you want to join and the
common field between the two
tables.

The attributes of the join table are added to the input table.

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Once the tables are joined, you can use the appended attributes anywhere you access attribute valuesfor example, to
symbolize features (see Using attributes to symbolize features in Chapter 4).

The fields in the joined table are

listed in the Fields drop-down list
on the Symbology tab.

To permanently save the appended attributes in a single table, export the layer to a new dataset.

To save the joined attributes

permanently in a new table, point
to Data and click Export Data.

Use the Joins &

Relates tab on the
Layer Properties
dialog box to manage
all joins youve
established for the
layer.

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To join tables within a script or model, use the ArcToolbox Add Join tool. In this case, the join is in effect only for the
duration of the ArcMap or ArcCatalog session.

Add Join is also available

as an ArcToolbox tool, in the
Data Management toolbox.

Relating tables using a common field

Relate can be used with one-to-many or many-to-many relationships. Rather than appending the attributes, Relate only
stores the relationship (or link) between the tables (it cant append the attributes to the original table since there may be
many records in the related table pointing to a single record in the original table)the related records are accessed on
demand, when you select a feature or record in the original table.

Relate is accessed by right-clicking

a layer name. The relate is a link
stored with the mapso in addition
to specifying the related table and the
common field between the two tables,
you specify a name for the relate.

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To access the related table, select a feature

(or features) in the layers attribute table,
select Related Tables from the Options
menu, and click the name of the relate.

The corresponding records

are selected in the related
tableyou can get statistics,
summarize, or calculate
values for those records.

With both Join and Relate, the relationship is stored with the map, rather than in the database, so if you add the datasets
to another map, the join or relate will not existyoull need to re-create it. If necessary, you can create relationships
within your geodatabase that will persist from map to map (see Building relationships between features and tables in
Chapter 2).

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Appending tables using spatial relationships

Spatial join allows you to assign the attributes from one set of features to another, based on the spatial relationship
between the featuresfully contained within, intersecting, or within a distance. The type of relationship available for
the join depends on the types of data youre joining. The attributes of the joined dataset are appended to the table of
the input dataset, and saved as a new dataset that is added to the map. One reason to do a spatial join is simply to add
an attribute to a feature, such as adding the county name (in a polygon layer of county boundaries) to auto accidents
(points). Another is to be able to summarize the data, such as summarizing the number of accidents in each county.
Spatial join
is accessed
from the Join
optionuse
the drop-down
menu to specify
join based on
spatial location.

Attributes of features
that meet the spatial
criteria are joined. In this
example, information
about the parcel each
building sits on has been
added to the building
layers attribute table.

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Selecting a subset of features

Selection is used to extract a subset of existing features from a dataset. Youd select features to analyze the subset of
features separately from the full dataset or to create a new dataset containing only the selected features. Selections are
created by selecting features interactively on a map, by using features from other layers that overlap or are near the
features you want to select, or by selecting features that match attribute values you specify. The selected set can be
modified by adding to the selection, removing from it, switching it with the unselected set, and so on.

Selecting features interactively

Use the Select Features tool to select features interactively by pointing at them on a map in ArcMap. Click to select a
single feature.

Click a feature on the map to

select it; press and hold the
Shift key to add features to the
selected set, or remove them.
Select
Features

Selected features are

highlighted on the map
and in the table.
Click Show Selected to view only the selected features.

Drag the tool to select features intersecting a rectangle.

Drag to select
adjacent features.

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By default, layers are selectable when added to a map, so if you have multiple layers on your map, when you point at
a feature or drag to create a selection rectangle, all features at that locationfrom any of the layerswill be selected.
You can work with the selected features for each layer separately; however, you may want to select features only from
a specific layer, rather than all layers. To specify which layer(s) to select features from, use the Set Selectable Layers
option on the Selection menu, or use the Selection tab at the bottom of the table of contents. If a layer is selectable,
features will not be selected unless it is also currently displayed (it is checked on in the table of contents).
Use Set Selectable
Layers on the Selection
menu to specify which
layers features can be
selected from.

Use Options on the

Selection menu to
change the search
tolerance, highlight color,
and other settings.

The Selection tab

at the bottom of the
table of contents is
another way of setting
selectable layers.

A default color is used to highlight selected features. Change the selection highlight color for an individual layer using
the Layer Properties dialog box for that layer.

The Selection tab on the Layer Properties dialog box

lets you specify a unique highlight symbol or color for an
individual layer.

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Selecting using feature geography

Use the Select By Location option on the Selection menu in ArcMap to select features in one layer based on their
geographic relationship to features in another layer (to select parcels containing public buildings, for example)
Open the Select By Location dialog
box from the Selection menu.

The Select Layer By Location

tool in ArcToolbox (in the
Data Management toolbox)
performs the same function as
Select By Location.

The dialog box lets you

specify the layer(s) to select
from, the spatial operator, and
the layer to use to create the
selection.

Spatial operatorsavailable from

the drop-down listinclude overlay,
adjacency and distance.

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Selecting using feature attributes

Another way of extracting a subset of features is to select them based on an attribute value, or combination of values.
This approach is often used to select features that meet some criteria youve defined. You create a query statement using
the field name, Boolean operators (equal to, greater than, and so on), and the attribute value.

Open the Select By Attributes dialog

box from the Selection menu....

The dialog box lets you build a SQL

query using logical operators
choose fields from the top panel
and choose values from the list in
the middle-right panel. Your query
statement is constructed in the
lower panel (you can also enter
explicit values here).

....or from the Options menu

on a layers attribute table.

Selecting using attributes is also available in ArcToolbox. The tool dialog boxes are similar to the ArcMap selection
dialog boxes. The tools are useful for performing selections from within a script or model.

The Extract toolset in the Analysis toolbox

contains two tools for selecting using
attribute values. Use Select for feature
attribute tables; Table Select can be used
for feature attribute or standalone tables.
The Select Layer By Attribute
tool is in the Layers and Table
Views toolset in the Data
Management toolbox.

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Specifying the selection method

Once youve created a selected set, you can specify whether subsequent selections create a new selected set (the
default), are added to the current set, removed from the set, or selected from the current set (to create a subset of the
selection).
For interactive selection using the Select Features tool, the
Interactive Selection Method is set on the Selection menu.

For selecting
by location or
attributes, the
Method is set using
drop-down menus
on the dialog box.

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Working with a selected set

Once youve created a selected set, options for working with and managing the set are available from the Selection
menu in ArcMap and from the context menu for each layer for which there is an active selection.

You can calculate

summary statistics for
the selected seteither
from the Selection
menu, or from the
layers attribute table
(right-click a field name).

This option
clears all
selected features
for all layers

Right-click a layer name and click Selection to access options for clearing the selection for that
layer, for switching the selected and unselected features, or for selecting all features in the layer.
The same options are also available from the layer tables Options menu.

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Many of these options are also available from the Selection tab at the bottom of the ArcMap table of contents. Rightclick a layer name to access the options. The Selection tab also shows you which features have active selections and
how many features are selected, and lets you set selectable layers (using the check boxes).

On the Selection tab, right-click a layer containing selected features to work with
the selected set.

Saving the selection

When you save your map, any current selections are also saved and are active when you reopen the map. If you want to
save the current selection to add to other maps, right-click the layer in the table of contents and click Save As Layer File
(all the features in the layer will be saved, but the current selection will be active when you add the layer file to another
map). To save only the selected features as a separate layer on your map, use Create Layer From Selected Features. You
can then save this new layer as a layer file for use in other maps.
Use Create Layer From Selected Features to save only the
selected features as a new layer on your map.

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Exporting the selection

To save the selected features as a new dataset, export them. Do this if you want to use the subset of features in other
analyses or distribute the dataset to other GIS users. Use Export on the layers attribute table to export only the attribute
data for the selected features.

Click the Options button on the

layers attribute table and use
Export to save the selected
records to a new table.

Right-click a layer and use Export

Data to save the selected features as
a new dataset. Make sure the Export
option is set to Selected features.

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Other places the selected set is active

The current selection is active throughout your ArcMap session, including when summarizing or calculating attribute
values in a table, and when printing a map.
When summarizing
values you have the
option of using only
selected features.

Values can
be calculated
for selected
features only.

Selected features are active in Layout View

and will be highlighted when you print a map.

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Extracting a portion of a dataset

Extraction uses an existing dataset, or geometry you define, to extract a portion of another dataset. Data extraction
is used to clip data to a study area boundary, split a dataset into map sheets, or extract an area of interest for further
analysis, such as when running a model for a portion of your study area. A new dataset is created containing the
extracted datathe original dataset is not modified. Unlike data selection, which creates a temporary selected set, data
extraction extracts data directly to a new dataset. Also unlike data selection, features are split or clipped where they are
intersected by the geometry youre using for extraction. All of the data extraction tools are found within ArcToolbox.

Cropping feature datasets

The Clip tool allows you to crop a dataset using the boundary of a polygon dataset. Features are split where they
intersect the cropping boundary, and the portion outside is discarded. Clip is mainly used to crop datasets to a study area
boundary for mapping or analysis.
The Clip tool, in the Extract toolset (Analysis toolbox), crops
datasets to a dataset boundaryin this example, roads, streams,
and lakes have been clipped by the study_area dataset.

The inverse of Clip is the Erase tool. Erase discards the features (or portions of features) within the boundary and is
used to remove portions of a dataset.
Erase, in the Overlay toolset (Analysis toolbox), removes
features from the area inside the dataset boundary.

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Splitting feature datasets

The Split tool divides a dataset into multiple datasets using polygon boundaries. Its often used to create map sheets
from a single large dataseta dataset of map sheet boundaries is used to split the dataset.

The Split tool, in the Extract toolset (Analysis toolbox), breaks a dataset into multiple
output datasets. The values in the Split Field are used to define and name the output
datasets (in this example the two map sheets were named north and south).

Extracting raster data

Tools for extracting a portion of a raster dataset are provided as part of the Spatial Analyst extension. The tools allow
you to use an existing feature or raster dataset, or a shape you define (a rectangle, circle, or polygon), to extract a
portion of the raster dataset. These tools are mainly used to create a subset of the dataset for use in a model (perhaps for
testing purposes) or other analysis, or to distribute to other GIS users.

The raster extraction tools, located in the Extraction

toolset (Spatial Analyst toolbox), let you clip out
a portion of a raster dataset. In this example, a
rectangledefined by its coordinateswas used
to extract a portion of an elevation surface. You can
also define a circle or polygon, use the boundary
of an existing feature or raster dataset (Extract by
Mask), or use a set of point features to extract raster
data.

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The Extract by Attributes tool allows you to extract cells based on an attribute value, or combination of values. You
create a query statement using the field name, Boolean operators (equal to, greater than, and so on), and the
attribute value(s). This is useful if you need a subset of values for your analysisfor example, you may want to analyze
the relationship between vegetation and elevation for a certain elevation range.

The Extract by Attributes tool lets you extract just those cells
that match the attribute value(s) you specify. In this case, cells
having an elevation between 2500 and 3000 meters were
extracted.

Use the Query Builder dialog

box to create the Where
clause (query statement).
Click the field names and
operators, and type the values
(or select from a list) to build
the statement.

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Sampling raster data

Spatial Analyst also includes tools for sampling a raster dataset. Sampling is useful for creating a subset of data for use
in other, usually statistical, analyses, such as regression analysis. Rasters represent spatially continuous dataif you
used the value of every cell, much of the data would be redundant (since adjacent cells often have the same or very
similar values). This could skew the results of the analysis. Creating a sample from the raster allows you to capture the
variation in data values without introducing redundant data.
A dataset of random point features is used to sample a
raster dataset of vegetation. There are over 2 million cells
in the raster, but only 11,300 sample points.

The Sample tool finds the values at each

point for a list of rasters you specify. It
writes the valuesalong with the x- and
y-coordinates of each pointdirectly to a
table you can use in other analyses.

The Extract Values to Points tool creates a new

point feature dataset (containing all the input point
features). It adds the value of the input raster at
each point to the new datasets attribute table.

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Overlaying geographic datasets

Overlay analysis merges two or more coincident or overlapping datasets to create a new dataset having the attributes
of all the input datasets. Overlay analysis is used to assign the attributes of features in one dataset to features in a
coincident dataset, for example, to assign the adjacent land cover type to each segment of road. Overlay is also used to
summarize the data in one dataset by the features in anotherto calculate the total area of each landuse type within a
flood zone youd overlay the parcel layer with the flood zone layer and then sum the areas of the resulting polygons by
landuse type. Another common use of overlay analysis is to combine the characteristics of several datasets into one. You
can then find specific locations or areas that have a certain set of attribute valuesthat is, match the criteria you specify.
For example, youd overlay layers of vegetation type, slope, soil type, and so on, to find areas suitable for building a
new subdivision. The type of data youre overlayingfeatures or rastersdetermines the methods and tools youll use
and the results youll get.

Overlaying feature datasets

The feature overlay functions split features in the input layer where theyre overlapped by features in the overlay
layernew areas are created where polygons intersect; lines are split where polygons cross them. These new features
are stored in the output layerthe original input layer is not modified. The attributes of features in the overlay layer
are assigned to the appropriate new features in the output layer, along with the original attributes from the input layer.
Feature overlay tools are located in ArcToolbox, in the Overlay toolset (in the Analysis toolbox).

When layers are overlaidas with Intersecta

new layer is created. The features in the new
layer have all the attributes of both original
layers.

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Conceptually, the various tools are similarthey differ by the feature types they allow you to overlay, by whether you
can overlay multiple layers at one time, and by which input and overlay features are maintained in the output layer.

Parcels (the input layer) and a flood zone polygon (the overlay
layer).

The output of Intersect is only featuresor portions of features

common to both the input and overlay layers.

The output of Union contains the features of both the input and
overlay layersfeatures are split where they overlap.

Identity maintains the input featuresfeatures are split where

overlapped by the overlay features.

Symmetrical Difference is the inverse of intersectit excludes

features common to both input layers.

Update replaces the input features with the overlay features.

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Intersect and Union can be used to overlay many layers at one time.

Use Union to append fields from multiple layersin this example,

slope, soil types, and vegetation typesto find features meeting
specific criteria. New polygons are created where input polygons
overlap.

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Overlaying raster datasets

Raster overlay tools are located in several toolsets in the Spatial Analyst toolbox. The Combine tool (in the Local
toolset) assigns a value to each cell in the output layer based on unique combinations of values from several input
layers. The input values are also added to the output layers attribute table.

Combine assigns values based on unique combinations of values on

the input rasters. You can then select or extract the cells that meet
your criteria.

Another approach is to mathematically combine the layers and assign a new value to each cell in the output layer. This
approach is often used to assign a suitability or risk value to each category in a layer and then add the layers, to produce
an overall suitability or risk value for each cell. For example, to find areas suitable for development, you might assign
values of 1 (low suitability) to 7 (high suitability) to the various slope values in a raster of slopes. Youd do the same for
rasters of soil type and vegetation type. When you add the rasters (using the Map Algebra tool) the cells in the output
raster have values ranging from 3 (not suitable) to 21 (highly suitable).
The various layers can also be assigned a relative importance (the values in each layer are multiplied by that layers
weight value before being summed with the other layers). The Weighted Overlay tool lets you do this.

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Map Algebraamong other
thingslets you add layers
representing different criteria.

Weighted Overlay lets you

assign relative importance to
the various criteria.

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Spatial Analyst contains many other tools for processing, combining, and summarizing raster data. Some let you
combine raster and feature data. For example, the tools in the Zonal toolset let you summarize the values in a raster by
categories (or zonesall cells having the same category value, whether adjacent or not, constitute a zone) in another
raster or feature layer. Youd use the Zonal Statistics tool to calculate the mean elevation for each vegetation type in a
study area.

Zonal Statistics (in the Zonal toolset)

summarizes cell values for a raster
layer (elevation, in this example) for
areas representing each category in
another layer (vegetation types). You
can choose from several statistics.

The output is a new raster layercells coincident with

each vegetation type area are assigned the same mean
elevation value (for example, all cells representing conifer
forest in the input layer would receive the same mean
elevation value in the output layer). A related tool, Zonal
Statistics as Table, outputs a table listing a range of
summary statistics for the input value raster (shown above).

The Tabulate Area tool, also in the Zonal toolset, calculates cross-tabulated areas between two datasets representing
zones (or categories). These can be both raster, both feature, or one raster and one feature dataset. Youd use Tabulate
Area to calculate the amount of each land cover type in each ownership category.

Tabulate Area (in the Zonal toolset) cross-tabulates

areas between a layer of zones and classes (land
cover types and ownership classes, in this example).
The result is a table showing the area of each zone in
each class.

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Measuring distances between features

Finding distances is one of the most basic types of geographic analysis. ArcGIS Desktop provides a variety of tools for
finding the distance between two locations, finding which feature or features are nearest another feature, and defining
the area within a given distance of features.

Measuring distance on a map

The Measure tool in ArcMap lets you measure the distance between two locations or along a path. Click the start
location and double-click at the end location. To measure a path, click as many locations as you want along the way,
then double-click to end the path. The distance is displayed in the default display units of the mapyou can change
the units using the drop-down menu on the Measure dialog box. When measuring a path, the length of each segment
is displayed along with a running total. Using the Measure tool is a quick way to interactively display distance. The
Measure tool also lets you calculate the area of a polygon you draw, or display the coordinates of a point feature.

Snap to Features

Use the drop-down

menu to change the
display units.
Measure

Use the Measure tool to quickly find the distance between features. The distance
of each segment, and the total distance, are displayed in the Measure dialog box.

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Calculating distance between features

ArcToolbox includes tools that calculate distances between features. The Near tool assigns to each input point the
distance from that point to the nearest point or line in another feature class. You can then select, for example, all points
within a certain distance of roads, or calculate the average distance of the points from a road. The Point Distance tool
creates a table of distances between each point in one feature class and every point in another feature class.

For each point in a layer, Near finds the nearest

point (in the same or a separate layer) or linein
this example, the nearest street to each building.

Near adds two fields

(NEAR_FID and NEAR_
DIST) to the input layers
attribute table to store the
feature ID of the nearest
feature, and the distance to
that feature.

Buffering features
A buffer identifies the area within a given distance of a feature or set of features. The Buffer tool in ArcToolbox creates
a new geographic feature that defines the boundary of that area. You can add the buffer area to the map to create a
graphic display of distance. You can also use the buffer area thats created to select other featuresfor example, all the
parcels within 600 feet of a school.

The Buffer tool (in the Proximity

toolset) creates a boundary area
at a given distance surrounding
each feature.

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The Buffer tool provides several optionsyou can use an attribute value to define the buffer distance, and erase the
intersecting buffer boundaries that may be created around multiple features.
Use the Field option on the Buffer dialog box to specify a field
in the input datasets attribute table containing the distance
to buffer each feature. In this example, the BUFF_DIST field
specifies the buffer distance, based on the type of building.

The Dissolve Type option on the Buffer dialog box lets you erase
overlapping boundaries when buffering multiple features.

The Multiple Ring Buffer tool lets you create buffers of multiple distances at one time.

The Multiple Ring Buffer tool is in

the Proximity toolset in the Analysis
toolbox. Enter a distance in the
Distances box, then click the plus
sign to add it to the list. As with
the Buffer tool, you can erase
overlapping boundaries, using the
Dissolve option.

The resulting buffers are

stored in a single layer
each feature (buffer)
includes its distance as an
attribute.

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Linear features and areas can also be buffered using the Buffer or Multiple Ring Buffer tools.

A set of street segments representing a parade route has been

buffered to show the area within 200 meters of the route.

200-meter buffers around park polygons

The Select By Location option in ArcMap and the Select Layer By Location tool in ArcToolbox let you essentially
create a temporary buffer for creating a selected set of features. No new buffer feature is createdthe buffer is simply
used to find features within the specified distance (see Selecting a subset of features earlier in this chapter).

Select By Location on the ArcMap Selection menu lets you enter

a buffer distance within which features are selected. This option
essentially performs a buffer and select on-the-fly; no buffer
feature is created.

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Calculating distance over a surface

ArcGIS Desktop includes tools that let you calculate distance from features as a raster surface of continuous values.
Each cell in the raster is assigned the distance to the nearest feature in another layer. For example, you can assign
to each cell the distance to the nearest stream. Using a distance surface lets you perform your analysis with a finer
gradation of distances than does a buffer (where you only know that a location is either within the buffer or outside it
you dont know the actual distance from the feature). It also gives you flexibilityyou create the distance surface once,
and specify the criteria in your analysis (as opposed to creating new buffers each time you want to change the distance
criteria). The Euclidean Distance tool in the Spatial Analyst toolbox is used to create distance surfaces.

The Euclidean Distance tool in the Distance

toolset (Spatial Analyst toolbox) is used to
create a raster surface showing distance
from streams.

In addition to Euclidean distance, you can create a surface based on other factors and combine that with distance to
get a measure of the cost involved in traveling toward or from features. The cost could be time, money, or effortfor
example, its harder for deer to travel through thick brush than open grassland. Creating a cost distance surface is
particularly useful for analyzing potential paths or corridors. The Spatial Analyst Cost Distance tool is used to create a
cost surface, as illustrated on the next page.

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A cost distance surface is
created using the Cost Distance
tool. The tool takes as input a
cost surface (below) and the
layer containing the features
youre calculating distance to or
from (streams, in this example).

A cost surface is required to create

a cost distance surfaceoften cost
values are assigned to an existing layer
using the Reclassify tool, or multiple
layers combined using the Weighted
Overlay tool. In this example, relative
cost values are assigned to the various
types of vegetation, based on the effort
to traverse each type.

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The Path Distance tool, also located in the Spatial Analyst Distance toolset, is similar to Cost Distance, but it allows
you to specify additional parameters, including the cost of traveling up and downhill, and other vertical and horizontal
factors.
The Euclidean Distance (Straight Line) and Cost Distance (Cost Weighted) functions are available on the Spatial
Analyst toolbar in ArcMap, as well as in the Spatial Analyst toolbox.
The Straight Line option
performs the same function as
the Euclidean Distance tool.

The Cost Weighted option

performs the same function as
the Cost Distance tool.

Another tool, Surface Length, which is provided with the ArcGIS 3D Analyst extension (in the Functional Surface
toolset), measures the total length of a line over an elevation surfacetaking into account elevation changerather
than over an assumed flat plane. This would be useful, for example, to predict actual miles traveled over mountainous
terrain, and resulting fuel costs.

Original
length

Length
over
surface

The Surface Length tool calculates the length of each

lineor line segmentover an elevation surface. It
adds a field (named SLength, by default) containing
the new length values.

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Creating paths and corridors

ArcGIS Desktop includes a number of functions that allow you to model the best path or corridor between two or
more locations. These functions are based on distance and the resistance involved in traveling between the locations.
In general, the goal is to find a solution that minimizes costs. Cost can be measured in terms of distance, money, time,
effort, or even social values such as historical importance (a proposed highway that passes through a ruin may be too
costly from a societal standpoint).
There are two types of paths you can model using GIS: paths over a surface, and network paths.

Modeling a path over a surface

Modeling a path over a surface is useful when creating new infrastructure, such as a highway, pipeline, or power line.
Its also useful for modeling the movement of objects that dont travel over a fixed infrastructure. For example, you
could create a managed wildlife corridor between two protected natural areas.
The main tool for creating a path over a surface is Cost Path. Cost Path requires, in addition to the location of the
destination, two input layers: a cost distance layer and a backlink layer. (A backlink raster layer is an interim layer that
several different distance functions use to calculate least cost. It essentially calculates the least cost direction from each
cell toward the destination location.) These are in turn created using the Cost Distance tool, which requires the origin
location and a cost surface layer (see the previous section, Calculating distance over a surface). The cost distance and
backlink layers can also be created using the Path Distance tool, which allows you to specify additional parameters
such as wind resistance and the extra distance incurred in traveling uphill and downhill. These tools are located in the
Distance toolset, in the Spatial Analyst toolbox (ArcGIS Spatial Analyst must be enabled to use them).
The output from Cost Path is a raster dataset. If necessary, you can convert the raster path to a line feature using the
ArcToolbox Raster To Polyline tool, in the From Raster toolset (conversion toolbox). Creating a path using Cost Path is
illustrated on the next page.
Similar functions are available from the Spatial Analyst toolbar in ArcMap. The Cost Weighted function takes the
origin point and a cost surface as input, and creates a cost distance surface and a cost direction surface (comparable to
a backlink layer). These then become input to the Shortest Path function, along with the destination point. The output
from Shortest Path is a shapefile, rather than a raster.

Origin layer

The Cost Weighted and

Shortest Path functions on
the Spatial Analyst toolbar
can be used to create a
path over a surface. To
get started, you need two
layers representing the
origin and destination
locations, and a cost
surface raster layer.

Destination layer

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A path over a surface is created using the Cost Path tool. The result
is a raster surface containing the least cost path. Cost Path takes
as input a layer that contains the destination (end point) of the path,
a cost distance surface, and a backlink surface. Here, the path and
destination are shown along with the cost distance and backlink
layers in the background.

Use the Cost Distance (or

Path Distance) tool to create
the cost distance layer (above
left) and backlink layer (above
right). The input to this tool is
a layer containing the origin of
the path (start point) and a cost
surface (bottom).
A cost surface can be created by
reclassifying one or more existing raster
surface layers (using the Reclassify tool,
in the Reclass toolset). If more than one
layer is used, all the layers should be
reclassified using the same scale (one to
five, for example). The layers can then
be weighted and combined using the
Weighted Overlay tool or using the Single
Output Map Algebra tool. In this example,
layers of slope, protected areas, and
vegetation have been combined to create
a cost surface with values ranging from 3
(low cost) to 13 (high cost).

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The Cost Path tool creates the single least cost path over a surface between two locations. An alternative is the Corridor
tool, which assigns each cell the cumulative cost involved in reaching that cell from two locations (or, a cost for
reaching either of the locations from that cell). By classifying the cell cost values or selecting cells that have a value less
than a certain cost, you can create potential corridors between the locations. This is useful for modeling the movement
of wildlife or for creating several potential alternative paths for infrastructure (a highway or pipeline). The corridor tool
takes two input cost distance rasters (created using Cost Distance or Path Distance) and creates a cumulative cost raster.
Use the Corridor tool in the Spatial Analyst
toolbox to create a least-cost corridor between
locations. In this example, the lightest areas
represent the least cost corridors.

The input to Corridor is two

cost distance surfacesone
created for each location
you want to link. These
are created using the Cost
Distance or Path Distance
tool (described earlier).

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Modeling a path over a network

In ArcGIS Desktop, a network dataset is used to represent transportation infrastructure such as roads or railroads.
Objects can move only along the lines that comprise the network. Examples of modeling paths over a transportation
network include finding the best path for a truck from the fire station to a fire or the best route for a delivery truck.
Network paths can simply connect two points, or can include stops along the way. See Adding specialized datasets to a
geodatabase in Chapter 2 for more on creating network datasets.
The Network Analyst extension allows you to create paths and routes. Open the Network Analyst toolbar in ArcMap
click the View menu, point to Toolbars, and click Network Analyst (the extension must be enabled in order to use the
toolbar).

After adding the network dataset to your map, click the Network Analyst dropdown menu and click New Route. The new routeand all its elementsare
added to the table of contents.

Create Network Location

Click to add a stop

Click the Create Network Location tool, then add the origin and destinationand
any stops along the wayby clicking network edges or junctions.

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Solve

When youve added all the stops, click the Solve button to create the optimum
path between all the stops.

Select/Move Locations

To modify the route, add more locations or select and move or delete a location,
and then click Solve again to calculate the new optimum path.

Any costs you built into your network when it was createdsuch as travel timeor any barriers you add (such as a
closed street) will be taken into account when you create the path.

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Allocating areas to centers

Allocation is used to delineate areas of influence, market areas, or service areas around a location or set of locations
(referred to as centers). Often, the centers represent locations that people travel to (a library) or from (a fire station).
Essentially, allocation assigns the area nearest each center to that center. As with other distance measures, nearest can
be defined in terms of straight-line distance or cost (time, money, effort).

Creating areas around centers

The Create Thiessen Polygons tool in the Proximity toolset (Analysis toolbox) creates a polygon around each input
location. The polygon represents the area closest to each location.

The Create Thiessen

Polygons tool creates a layer
of polygons around a set of
input pointseach polygon
represents the area closest
to the point at its center.

The Euclidean Allocation tool in the Distance toolset (Spatial Analyst toolbox) is similar to Thiessenexcept it creates
a raster (instead of polygons) and assigns each cell to its nearest center.
The Euclidean Allocation
tool assigns each cell to
its nearest center, using
straight-line distance.
The cell value is a unique
identifier associated with
each center (the fire station
ID, in this example).

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The same function is available on the Spatial Analyst toolbar in ArcMap (point to Distance on the drop-down menu, and
click Allocation).

The Cost Allocation and Path Distance Allocation tools (in the Spatial Analyst Distance toolset in ArcToolbox) allow
you to use costs rather than straight-line distance when assigning cells to their nearest center. The inputs for these tools
are similar to the corresponding distance tools (Cost Distance and Path Distance).
The Path Distance
Allocation tool allows you
to use cost factors such
as slope and elevationin
addition to straight-line
distanceto assign cells to
centers. The result is more
representative of the effort
required to travel from (or
to) the center.

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Creating service areas using a network

If youve built a network dataset, you can use the Network Analyst toolbar in ArcMap to create a service area delineated
by traveling along streets (or other network features) to or from the center.

Create Network Location

Click to add a center

After adding the network dataset to your map, click the Network
Analyst drop-down menu and click New Service Area. The new
areaand all its elementsare added to the table of contents.
Click the Create Network Location tool, then add the centers or
facilities by clicking network edges or junctions.

When youve added all the centers, click the Solve

button to create the service area around each center.

Solve

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You can change the symbols used to delineate the service areas by clicking them in the table of contents. To change
the parameters of the allocation, right-click the service area in the table of contents and click Properties. You can, for
example, change the maximum distance for the service areas (on the Analysis Settings tab).

Use the Layer Properties dialog box to change the maximum

distance....

....then click Solve to create the new service areas.

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Modeling flow
Modeling flow lets you see how water or other materials move from a source point (or points) through a network or
over a surface. You can see, for example, which portions of an electrical network will be affected if a transformer
switches off, or where water falling on a hillside will accumulate.

Modeling flow over a network

Utility networks are represented in ArcGIS Desktop using geometric network datasets (see Adding specialized datasets
to a geodatabase in Chapter 2). Once youve built a geometric network, you can trace the flow over the network from
one or more source points. You can find connected features, find closed loops, trace upstream or downstream, and so on.
To do this, you use the Utility Network Analyst toolbar in ArcMap. To open the toolbar, click the View menu, point to
Toolbars, and click Utility Network Analyst.

Click the Flags drop-down menu on

the Utility Network Analyst toolbar to
add a source at a junction or along
an edge, or to place a barrier on the
network. Select the flag, then click the
location.

Once youve placed your sources,

select the trace task.

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Solve

The results are displayed when

you click the Solve button.

Click the Analysis drop-down

menu to clear the results or flags,
and to access the analysis options
(for example, to limit the trace to
selected features or to change the
symbology for the results).

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Modeling flow over a surface

The Hydrology toolset in the Spatial Analyst toolbox contains tools for modeling the flow of water over an elevation
surface. You can, for example, define hydrologic basins, identify stream channels, or calculate the distance along a flow
path. Another set of tools models the flow of water or other material (such as a contaminant) through the subsurface.
These tools are included in the Groundwater toolset in the Spatial Analyst extension.
The Basin tool (left) calculates hydrologic basins, or watershed areas. The Flow Accumulation tool (right) can be used to identify and create stream
networks. The results of the these tools are rastersyou can convert the basins to polygons and the streams to linear features.

Basin, Flow Accumulation, and

other tools in the Hydrology toolset
take a flow direction surface (left)
as input. This surface is in turn
derived from an elevation surface
(bottom), using the Flow Direction
tool.

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Creating raster surfaces

Raster surfaces represent phenomena that have values at every point across their extent. They are created from values
sampled at a limited set of locations, such as surveyed height values (for an elevation surface), or temperatures collected
at weather stations (for a temperature surface). ArcGIS Desktop includes tools for interpolating values between the
sampled locations to create a continuous surface.
Another type of surface created from sample points shows concentration per unit area (density), such as crimes per
square mile. Unlike an interpolated surface, a density surface doesnt predict a value at each locationthere may, in
fact, not have been any crimes within a particular square mile area during the time period being analyzed. Rather, the
density surface provides an indication of the distribution of features or values.

Creating an interpolated surface

Interpolation tools create a continuous surface from samples with measured values, such as elevation or chemical
concentration. There are several interpolation tools, and each has a variety of parameters that influence the resulting
surface. The tools are included in both the Spatial Analyst toolbox (Interpolation toolset) and the 3D Analyst toolbox
(Raster Interpolation toolset).

The same set of surface interpolation tools (including Natural Neighbor) is

available in both the Spatial Analyst and 3D Analyst extension products.

The Topo to Raster tool is specifically designed to create elevation surfaces. It allows you to input elevation contours,
spot heights, and streams to create an accurate digital elevation model (DEM).

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Different interpolation techniques can produce different output surfaces from
the same input data, although the broad pattern will be similar. The maps to the
left show examples of each tool applied to a set of sample points representing
readings at air pollution monitoring stations. The specific parameter choices
will influence the results. A particular technique may be suited to particular
data or applications.
Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) and Natural Neighbor interpolation estimate
surface values for each cell using the value and distance of nearby points.
IDW

The interpolated values for IDW surfaces are calculated as a weighted average
of the values of a set of nearby points. The influence (weight) of nearby points
is greater than that of distant points (the weight decreases as the distance
increases).
Natural Neighbor interpolation is like IDW interpolation, except that the data
points used to interpolate the surface values for each cell are identified and
weighted using a Delaunay triangulation, as in a TIN. Natural Neighbors
interpolation works reliably with much larger datasets than the other
interpolation methods.

Natural Neighbor

The Spline and Trend tools interpolate best-fit surfaces to the sample points
using polynomial and least-squares methods, respectively.
Spline interpolation fits a mathematical surface through the points that
minimizes sharp bending; it is useful for surfaces that vary smoothly, such as
water table heights.
Trend surfaces are good for identifying coarse scale patterns in data; the
interpolated surface rarely passes through the sample points.
Kriging is an advanced surface creation technique that is most useful when
there is a spatially correlated distance or directional bias in the data. It is often
used in soil science and geology.

Spline

Several of these tools are also available from the 3D Analyst and Spatial
Analyst toolbars in ArcMap.

Trend

Kriging

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Geostatistical interpolation techniques allow the creation of predicted value surfaces and the interpretation of levels
of certainty about the predictions based on confidence levels. The Geostatistical Analyst wizard (included in the
Geostatistical Analyst extension) allows surface creation using a number of different methods, including Kriging,
Cokriging, Radial Basis Function, Inverse Distance Weighted, Global Polynomial, and Local Polynomial interpolation
methods. Geostatistical Analyst lets you analyze how well these various methods will predict values for your particular
data.
Using Geostatistical Analyst for Inverse Distance weighting

The wizard lets you specify the

interpolation method to use and the
model parameters, and shows you
how well the model youve defined
will predict the surface values.
The specific parametersand the
corresponding wizard panels
depend on the method you specify.

The Geostatistical Analyst toolbar also includes tools for detecting bias or patterns in your data, including histograms,
normal QQ plots, and trend analysis.
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Creating a density surface

Density tools produce a raster surface that represents how much or how many of something there are per unit area. You
might use density surfaces to represent the distribution of a wildlife population from a set of observations, or the degree
of urbanization of an area based on the number of roads.
The Density toolset in the Spatial Analyst toolbox includes tools for creating density surfaces for point and line features.
Point Density and Line Density search around each cell (within a neighborhood you specify), calculate the density for
that neighborhood, and assign the density value to the cell. This is known as a simple density surface. Kernel Density
fits a smooth curved surface over each input feature, with the surface value diminishing from the feature and reaching
zero at the maximum search radius distance. It adds the values of these kernel surfaces to calculate a value for each cell
in the resulting density surface. The Kernel Density tool accepts either points or lines.

A simple density surface of population created using the Point

Density tool from a layer of census block centroids.

A kernel density population surface created using the Kernel Density

tool.

The Spatial Analyst toolbar in ArcMap also lets you create a density surfacethe dialog box accepts either points or
lines and will calculate a kernel density or a simple density surface.
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Creating a TIN surface

A TIN, or triangulated irregular network, is a surface data structure composed of triangular facets defined by nodes and
edges. They are usually used to represent terrain. The terrain heights are derived from spot elevations that are used as
initial nodes in the triangulation. The shape of the TIN surface is controlled by the triangulation of these spot elevations.
TINs capture the variation in a surface better than do rastersthe spot elevations can be irregularly distributed to
accommodate areas of high variability in the surface and their values and exact positions are retained as nodes in the
TIN. This makes TINs well-suited to engineering applications (such as calculating cut and fill). When creating the TIN,
you can include other features, such as streams or ridge lines, to refine the TIN surface (these become breaklines that
define the edges of triangular facets). Polygons, such as lakes, can be included to create flat planes in the surface.
TIN surfaces are created using the 3D Analyst extension. The Create/Modify TIN option on the 3D Analyst toolbar
displays a dialog box that lets you specify the input datasets and parameters. The new TIN surface is automatically
added to the display.

To create a TIN, point to Create/Modify TIN on the 3D Analyst

dropdown menu and click Create TIN From Features. In the
dialog box, specify the layer containing the spot elevations, and
any other features to use in creating the TIN.

You can also create TINs using the Create TIN and Edit TIN tools in the 3D Analyst toolbox (TIN Creation toolset).
Create TIN creates an empty TIN datasetyou specify the spatial reference for the dataset. You then use the Edit TIN
tool to add points and breaklines to create the contents of the TIN (the faces, edges, and nodes). These tools are useful
for creating TINs inside a script or model.

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Use the Create TIN tool to create an

empty TIN dataset and specify its
spatial reference...

...then use Edit TIN to add points,

breaklines, and other features to define the
TIN surface.

TINs are often best visualized as a 3D surface in ArcScene. Once youve created the TIN (using ArcMap or
ArcToolbox), add the TIN to the scene. Since the 3D Analyst toolbar is available in ArcScene, you can also create TINs
within ArcScene.
When you add a TIN to a map or a scene, a default rendering is used. In ArcMap, the default is an elevation color ramp.
In ArcScene, the faces of the TIN triangles are drawn using a single symbol (although the TIN is drawn in shaded
relief). Use the Symbology tab on the Properties dialog box (in either ArcMap or ArcScene) to change the rendering.
You can draw the faces using a color ramp for elevation, slope, or aspect; you can also draw the edges of the triangles,
the nodes (derived from the original input points), and any breaklines you may have used to create the TIN.

Click Add on the Symbology tab of the Layer Properties dialog box to display the Add Renderer dialog box. Select
the renderers you want to add to the list, then click the Add button on the dialog box. Select a renderer from the list to
display and modify the symbols.

You can create and store a TIN-based surface within a geodatabase by building a terrain dataset (see Adding
specialized datasets to a geodatabase in Chapter 2.
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Deriving data from an elevation surface

Surfaces are constructed from x, y, and z (height) values. This allows you to perform geographic analysis that takes into
account height above (or depth below) a flat plane. Once youve constructed an elevation raster surface or TIN, you can
derive new datasets that represent characteristics of the surface, such as slope and aspect.
Tools that allow you to derive new surfaces from an elevation surface include Contour, Slope, Aspect, Hillshade,
and Curvature. The derived datasets are useful for input to other analyses, such as overlay analysis, as well as for
visualization and cartography. The tools are located in the Surface toolset in the Spatial Analyst toolbox and the Raster
Surface toolset in the 3D Analyst toolbox.

The surface analysis tools are found in both the

3D Analyst toolbox (Raster Surface toolset) and
the Spatial Analyst toolbox (Surface toolset).

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The Aspect tool calculates the direction of the slope face
for each cell. The aspect of a surface typically affects the
amount of sunlight it receives (among other factors).

The Contour tool extracts lines of constant value (isolines) from

a raster surface. The TIN Contour tool extracts a line feature
class of contours from a TIN surface.

The tools use an elevation surface as input.

Curvature calculates whether a given part of a surface is

convex or concave. Convex parts of surfaces, like ridges, are
generally exposed and drain to other areas. Concave parts
of surfaces, like channels, are generally more sheltered and
accept drainage from other areas.

The Slope tool calculates the maximum rate of change from

a cell to its neighbors, which is typically used to indicate the
steepness of terrain.

Hillshade shows the intensity of lighting on a surface given a light source

at a particular location; it can model which parts of a surface would be
shadowed by other parts.

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The derived surfaces can be combined with the original elevation surface, or with each other.

Displaying contours on top of the elevation surface adds detail to the

map.

The hillshade surface is often displayed under the symbolized

elevation surface to create a shaded relief map. Set the transparency
of the elevation surface using the Display tab on the Layer Properties
dialog box.

Viewing the surfaces in perspective, using ArcScene, can help you visualize the surface characteristics.

Displaying the Slope surface in perspective lets you easily see the
areas of steepest and flattest slope (see Creating relief maps and
perspective views in Chapter 4).

This perspective view of the Aspect surface shows north-facing

slopes (blues) and south-facing slopes (yellows).

Contour, Slope, Aspect and Hillshade can also be accessed from the Spatial Analyst toolbar in ArcMap and the
3DAnalyst toolbar in ArcMap or ArcScene.

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When accessing the tools via the toolbars, the default for the output is a temporary raster, which is automatically
added to the map or scene, but not saved. That allows you to preview the analysis parameters and preview the output.
To make a temporary raster permanent, right-click the layer name in the table of contents, point to Data, and click Make
Permanent. Alternatively, you can create a permanent raster initially by typing a name for the output raster in the dialog
boxthe raster will be saved in the working directory (set using Options on the Spatial Analyst drop-down menu). Or,
type a full pathname to override the working directory setting.

Default

The default output for Slope and other surface

analysis tools accessed from the toolbar is a
temporary raster. Enter a raster name if you
want to create a permanent output raster.

If you accept the default of a temporary output raster, and later want to save it,
right-click the layer name, point to Data, and click Make Permanent. Alternatively,
save the map to make all the temporary rasters permanent (they will be given a
default name and stored in the working directory).

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The tools on the 3D Analyst toolbar accept TINs as input, in addition to rasters. The output is still a raster surface for
Slope, Aspect, and Hillshade, and line features for Contour.

The surface analysis tools on the 3D Analyst toolbar accept TINs

as input, as well as rasters.

The ArcToolbox versions of the TIN tools are located in the TIN Surface toolset, in the 3D Analyst toolbox.

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Calculating surface volume

ArcGIS Desktop includes a set of tools used to calculate volume from surface information. The tools calculate the
difference in volume between a raster or TIN surface and another surface. Depending on the tool, the other surface
might be specified by a horizontal plane at a given elevation or by a second raster or TIN surface. Volume calculations
are typically used in hydrology and civil engineering applications.
The Surface Volume tool is used to calculate volume of a surface above or below a horizontal plane at a specific
elevation. Youd use this tool, for example, to calculate the volume of water in a section of river channel at a particular
flood stage or to calculate the volume of additional water when a reservoir is near capacity versus its normal level. This
tool is available on the 3D Analyst toolbar (as the Area and Volume function) and in the 3D Analyst toolbox (Functional
Surface toolset), and can be used on raster or TIN surfaces. The output of the tool is the resulting surface area and
volumes, which are displayed on the screen. You can optionally specify to write the results to a text file.

The results

The Surface Volume tool

calculates the volume between
the surface and a flat plane. In
this example, Surface Volume
calculates the area of the
surface of the water and the
additional volume of water were
the surface to rise three meters
above the river bed.

The Cut/Fill tool (illustrated on the next page) is used to calculate the volume differencenegative or positivefor
before and after surfaces of the same area. This tool is used, for example, to calculate the volume of earth that must
be dredged from a river channel to improve navigation. Cut/Fill is in the Spatial Analyst toolbox (Surface toolset) and
the 3D Analyst toolbox (Raster Surface toolset). Its also available on the Spatial Analyst and 3D Analyst toolbars in
ArcMap or ArcScene. The versions of the tools contained in Spatial Analyst accept rasters as input; the versions in
3DAnalyst accept TINs (the toolbar version also accepts rasters). In all cases, the results of Cut/Fill are presented as a
raster of the difference between the two layers. Cells are grouped into zones (contiguous cells representing cut areas, fill
areas, or no difference areas), and the attribute table for the raster layer stores the volume for each zone.
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This example shows elevation surfaces of a subdivision
before and after grading for a new cul-de-sac.

The resulting Cut/

Fill raster layer
(draped over the
after surface)
shows where
material was
removed (blue)
and where it was
added (red).

The after surface is subtracted from the before surface, so if the surface has dropped (a cut), material has been removed
and the calculated volume is positive. By summing the positive volume you get the total cut volume. Conversely,
summing the negative volume gives you the total fill volume.
To get the total cut volume, select the records having
a positive volume and calculate statistics for those
records (see Selecting a subset of features and
Working with a selected set in this chapter) .

Total cut volume

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The TIN Difference tool compares two TINs and identifies each area where the second TIN is above, below, or at the
same level as the first TIN. It creates polygon features corresponding to each of these horizontal areas, and codes each
polygon as representing an area above, below, or the same. It also calculates volumes above or below these horizontal
areas and the second TIN, and assigns them to each polygon.
TIN surface showing elevation of a stream valley.

The second TIN (shown here on top of the elevation TIN) was
created from stream profiles for a fifty-year flood.

TIN Difference creates polygons

indicating where the second TIN is
above (a value of 1), below (a value
of -1), or at the same level as the
first TIN (a value of 0).

By selecting the polygon(s) with

a value of 1 (water level above
the original surface), the fifty-year
floodplain area is delineated (shown
here in blue on top of the original
elevation surface).

The TIN Polygon Volume tool calculates the volume difference and surface area for each polygon in a layer relative to a
TIN surface. Each polygon represents a horizontal area at an elevation specified in a height field. The volume above or
below this planar area to the TIN surface is added to the polygon layers feature attribute table, along with the surface
area of the polygon.
As with the other surface analysis tools, when the tool is accessed from the toolbar the default output is a temporary
layer. Enter a file name to create a permanent layer initially, orafter creating the temporary layer (which is added
to the map or scene automatically)right-click it in the table of contents and click Make Permanent, if you want to
saveit.

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Analyzing visibility
Several tools included with ArcGIS Desktop allow you to calculate which portions of a surface are visible from specific
locations. These tools can be used, for example, to site fire lookout towers or find the route for a transmission line that is
not visible from a scenic area. Some related tools measure the amount of solar radiation reaching the surface.

Measuring line of sight

The Line Of Sight tool identifies whether or not one location is visible from another, and whether or not the intervening
locations along a line between the two locations are visible. Line Of Sight is available in 3D Analyst, and works with
both raster and TIN surfaces. The tool supports offsets, which allows you to specify the height above the ground of the
observer and target points. The Line of Sight button on the 3D Analyst toolbar lets you enter the observer and target
points interactively. The result is a graphic line that is stored with the map.

Click the Line of sight button on the 3D Analyst toolbar, enter

optional offsets, then click the observer location and target
location on the map.

The result is a graphic line showing which portions of the line of sight are visible
from the observer location (green) and which are not (red). The target point is
likewise color coded as visible or not.

The Line Of Sight tool is also included in the 3D Analyst toolbox (in the Functional Surface toolset). The input for the
tool is a two-point line. The observer location and target location are defined by the direction the line was digitizedthe
start point is used as the observer location. The output is a line feature. The advantage of having an output line feature
is that you can use the line in further analysis. For example, you could buffer the visible segments to create a view
corridor, or overlay the line with land cover to find out which land cover types are visible from the observer point along
the line of sight. You also can control the symbology for the lineto make it wider, for example, or change the color
scheme.
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The input to the Line

Of Sight tool in the 3D
Analyst toolbox is an
elevation surface and
an existing two-point
line feature.

The result is a multi-part linevisible

sections are assigned a value of 1
(yellow); nonvisible sections have a value
of 2 (red).

Creating a viewshed
The Viewshed tool shows which portions of a surface are visible from one or more observer points. The output is a new
raster, with cells coded as either visible or not visible. Viewshed is available on the 3D Analyst and Spatial Analyst
toolbars, as well as in both the 3D Analyst toolbox (Raster Surface toolset) and the Spatial Analyst toolbox (Surface
toolset).

Viewshed combines an elevation surface with a point or line

layer containing one or more observer points. The result is a
raster layer showing which portions of the elevation surface are
visible from the point location(s).

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The Observer Points tool (available in both the 3D Analyst and Spatial Analyst toolboxes) is similar to Viewshed.
However, it tracks which portions of the surface are visible from each point, or combination of points, and codes the
output raster cells accordingly.

Observer Points tracks which portions of

the surface are visible from each point, or
combination of points. In this example, blue
cells are visible from point 1 only, yellow cells
are visible from point 2 only, green cells are
visible from either point 1 or point 2, and
orange cells are visible from point 3. No cells
are visible from all three points.

Both the Viewshed and Observer Points tools also allow you to specify observer and target offsets, as well as
parameters that let you limit the directions and distance each observer can view.

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Measuring solar radiation

A related set of tools is used for measuring the amount of solar radiation (measured in watt hours per square meter)
received at each location across a surface, or at specific locations. The tools, Area Solar Radiation and Points Solar
Radiation, are located in the Solar Radiation toolset in the Spatial Analyst toolbox. In addition to the input elevation
surface, you specify the time period for which to calculate the solar radiation, and the interval. For Area Solar
Radiation, you can create a single, total solar radiation surface, or a separate surface for each interval.
Area Solar Radiation creates a raster surface showing the total amount
of solar radiation received at each location (that is, for each cell).

In this example, for a one month

period for a dataset located in the
northern hemisphere, south-facing
slopes receive the most solar
radiation (orange) while north-facing
slopes receive the least (blue).

The output for the Points Solar Radiation tool is a dataset of point features, with the solar radiation readings stored as
values in the datasets attribute table.

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Analyzing spatial distributions

ArcGIS Desktop includes statistical tools to analyze spatial distributions and trends. These tools allow you to go
beyond visual analysis of mapsthe calculations use the locations of features and the distance between them, as well
as attribute values (in some cases). One set of tools calculates the center and dispersion of a set of features. Other tools
calculate the directional trend of features.

Calculating the center and dispersion

The Mean Center tool calculates the average of the x-coordinates and y-coordinates of all the input features (usually
points). The result is a new layer containing a single point (the center). The Standard Distance tool measures the
dispersion or concentration of features around the mean center. These tools are located in the Spatial Statistics toolbox,
in the toolset titled Measuring Geographic Distributions.

The Mean Center tool creates a new point

feature representing the location of the
average x-coordinate value and average
ycoordinate value of the input features.

The Standard Distance tool uses

the mean center to calculate the
extent to which the distances
between the center and the
features vary from the average
distance. The calculated
distancewhich represents a
standard deviation in map unitsis
used as the radius of a circle to
represent the standard distance
graphically on a map.

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You can specify an attribute value in the tool dialog box to calculate the weighted mean center (the center will be pulled
toward the features with the highest values). For example, you might calculate the center of business locations weighted
by the number of employees at each business to find a likely location for a transit stop. The weighted central feature and
weighted standard distance can also be calculated by specifying an attribute value.

The standard distance is useful for comparing distributions. In this example, the standard distance circle for commercial burglaries (left) is clearly
smaller than the one for residential burglaries (right), indicating that commercial burglaries are more concentrated around their mean center.

Analyzing directional trends

The Measuring Geographic Distributions toolset also includes tools for measuring spatial trends. The Standard
Deviational Ellipse tool provides a measure of the directional trend of a set of features. The ellipse, which is created as
a new feature, is calculated from the mean center. The attribute table for the ellipse includes the x- and y-coordinate of
the center, along with the length of each axis, and the angle of rotation. You can specify that the ellipse be calculated
using one, two, or three standard deviations. One standard deviation shows the area of concentration of features; three
standard deviations shows the area covered by most of the features. The orientation of the ellipse is the same, regardless
of the number of standard deviationsonly the size is different. As with the standard distance, you can specify an
attribute value to calculate the weighted standard deviational ellipse.
The standard deviational ellipse shows the orientation of discrete features (usually points). In this example,
the standard deviational ellipse for commercial burglaries (using two standard deviations) shows the area
where the majority of the burglaries occur. It could be used to decide where to deploy officers.

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The Linear Directional Mean tool calculates the mean direction of a set of line features, based on the direction of each
line. Optionally, the tool calculates the mean orientationthe direction the line points is not considered, only its trend
(eastwest, for example). Mean direction could be used to calculate the downstream trend of a stream network (in this
case, the direction the stream segments point is important); mean orientation could be used to calculate the trend of elk
migration paths (you dont care which direction the elk move, only the orientation of the paths). When you calculate the
directional mean, the circular variance is also calculated. The circular variance is a measure of the extent to which the
lines all point the same direction (or in different directions). The closer to 0, the more the lines point the same direction;
the closer to 1, the more variability there is in the direction of the lines.
The linear directional mean shows the average direction (or orientation, optionally) of a set of line features. The output is a line feature, which you
can draw as an arrow. The length of the line is the average length of the input features, and its placed at the mean center. The attribute table for the
directional mean line includes the angle of rotation, the coordinates of the center, and the length of the line. It also includes the circular variance.

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5 Geographic Analysis

Identifying patterns and clusters

ArcGIS includes tools that allow you to identify spatial patterns in your data. Sometimes, apparent patterns you can see
when you look at a map will vary depending on how features are symbolized or how values are classified into ranges.
The Desktop tools use statistical methods to identify and analyze patterns in the underlying data. They alsoin many
casescalculate the statistical significance of the results. This score tells you how confident you can be that any trend
or pattern identified by the tool is not due to chance. All of these tools are located in the Spatial Statistics toolbox in
ArcToolbox.
The tools in the Analyzing Patterns toolset identify whether a set of features (usually points) or values associated with
features (usually polygons) form a clustered, dispersed, or random pattern.
The Average Nearest Neighbor tool is used to identify patterns in a set of discrete features such as points.

The Average Nearest Neighbor tool indicates

whether discrete features (points, usually)
form a clustered or dispersed pattern. If
you check the option to Display Output
Graphically, a temporary window appears
that shows the nature of the pattern (upper
bar) and the significance level of any pattern
(lower bar). Close the window to finish the tool
processing and write the output to the status
window.

Graphical display
of output

The output values

In the example above, the Nearest Neighbor tool has calculated that commercial burglaries in this area are clustered,
and there is a less than 1 percent likelihood the pattern is due to pure chance. That is, you can be 99 percent sure the
burglaries are, in fact, clustered.

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

Morans I and GetisOrd General G identify patterns formed by values associated with featuresoften contiguous
features, such as census tracts or counties. They produce a single statistic that summarizes the pattern formed by the
spatial distribution of values. Morans I looks at whether features with similar values cluster or are interspersed.
GetisOrd General G identifies whether any clustered pattern is due to clustering of high values or low values.

Morans I calculates whether similar values cluster or are

interspersed, more than you would expect due to random
chance. In this example, census tracts having a high
percentage of senior citizens occur in clusters, and there is a
less than 1 percent likelihood that this is due to random chance.
The results are written to the tools status window and can
optionally be displayed graphically.

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5 Geographic Analysis
The tools in the Mapping Clusters toolset show where clusters occur. The Anselin Local Morans I tool calculates a
statistic and significance value for each feature that indicates how similar that features value is to those of neighboring
features. It shows areas (clusters) where neighboring features have similar values (either high values or low values) and
areas where there is a mix of high and low values. The GetisOrd Gi* tool also calculates a statistic and significance
value for each feature. However, Gi* identifies clusters of high values and low values (hot spots and cold spots).

Local Morans I assigns a statisticand a

significance valueto each feature, based on
its similarity to its neighbors. These are added
to each features record in the output layers
attribute table. You can then map these values to
show where features with similar values cluster
(orange tracts in this example) or where high and
low values are interspersed (blue tracts).

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Additional Resources for Learning

and Using ArcGIS Desktop

Here are some additional sources of help and information available to you as you learn and
use ArcGIS Desktop.

Data ArcGIS comes with a number of geographic data sets you can use to start making maps

quickly. These are found on the ESRI Data & Maps Media Kit. The data sets consist of
global or national base map data, and include:

World
Continents
Countries
Cities
Lakes/Rivers
Ecoregions

Topography and bathymetry

Shaded relief
150 meter resolution satellite imagery
Latitude and longitude grids
Demographics

Europe
Countries

Provinces

Cities/Urbanized areas

Roads/Railroads
Waterbodies
Demographics

Canada
Provinces

Cities/Municipalities
Indian reserves

Highways/Railways
National/Provincial parks
Waterbodies

Mexico
States

Cities/Municipalities
Roads/Railroads

Elevation contours
Water bodies/Rivers and streams

Cultural features
Highways/Roads
Detailed streets (StreetMap USA)
Water bodies/Rivers and streams
State Plane Zones
USGS Topographic Quad Series Indexes

United States
States


Counties


Cities/Populated places

ZIP Codes


Census tracts/Census block groups
County population data

Congressional districts

See the data Media Kits for a complete list of datasets.

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

Tutorials Quick-start tutorials are available for the various applications and functions within ArcGIS.

They can be accessed from within the ArcGIS Desktop Help systemlook under Getting
more help in the Getting Started section of the Help contents (or search using the
keyword Tutorials). The tutorials are in PDF format and require Adobe Acrobat to view
them. The sample data to use in conjunction with the tutorials is installed optionally from
the ArcGIS Desktop software installation media. The default location for the tutorial data is
the arcgis\ArcTutor folder.
ArcGIS application overview tutorials
Using ArcCatalogorganizing, previewing, and managing geographic datasets
Using ArcMapmaking maps, and querying and analyzing geographic data
Using ArcReaderviewing and querying maps published with ArcGIS Publisher

Data management and processing tutorials

Building geodatabasesdesigning and building a geodatabase for storing and
managing geographic data
Editing geodatabasescreating and editing specialized geodatabase feature classes
Editing GIS featurescreating and editing feature geometry and attributes, and
performing spatial adjustment
Geocoding in ArcGISassigning geographic coordinates to locations or events from a
list of street addresses
Geoprocessing in ArcGISworking with tools for managing and analyzing
geographic data
Linear Referencingdefining, managing, and analyzing routes over GIS networks
Representationscreating cartographic representations for rules-based symbology

Extension product tutorials

Tutorials are also available for most of the ArcGIS extension products.
Data compilation extensions

ArcScan for ArcGISimporting scanned data

ArcGIS Data Interoperabilityconverting geographic data between various formats
Using Survey Analystmanaging land survey data
StreetMapworking with street and address data
Schematicscreating schematic views of GIS networks and tabular data
Mapping and visualization extensions

Maplex for ArcGISplacing label text for cartographic production

Using Publishercreating and publishing map documents for use with ArcReader
Using 3D Analystcreating 3D perspectives and globe views
Using Tracking Analystworking with mobile features, and creating time-based
displays and animations
Geographic analysis extensions

Using Spatial Analystanalyzing and modeling geographic data

Geostatistical Analystmodeling surfaces from sample points
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Appendix
Books ESRI Press publishes a variety of GIS-related books, including ESRI software workbooks,

such as Getting to Know ArcGIS Desktop, and industry-specific case studies and
applications. Several ESRI Press books cover the concepts and methods behind many of the
geodatabase design, map design, and geographic analysis tasks presented in this book:
Modeling Our World: The ESRI Guide to Geodatabase Design describes the various
models for representing geographic data and the various components of a geodatabase.
Designing Geodatabases: Case Studies in GIS Data Modeling describes the
geodatabase design process in detail and provides examples from a variety of
industries.
Designing Better Maps: A Guide for GIS Users covers the basics of map design and
production, including layout, fonts and text, symbols, and color selection.
The ESRI Guide to GIS Analysis, Volume 1: Spatial Patterns & Relationships describes
the use of maps for visual analysis, including types of maps, classification schemes,
and use of perspective views. It also covers basic GIS analysis tasks, including feature
selection, overlay analysis, and distance analysis.
The ESRI Guide to GIS Analysis, Volume 2: Spatial Measurements & Statistics
describes concepts, methods, and tools for statistical analysis of geographic
distributions, patterns, clusters, and directional trends.

Courses from ESRI

ESRI Press is online at http://gis.esri.com/esripress.

ESRI provides both instructor-led and online courses. These cover a wide range of topics
and levels, from introductory courses on ArcGIS, to advanced database management and
programming classes. Online offeringsat the Virtual Campusalso include courses on
industry-specific applications. Go to Training at www.esri.com.

Conferences and Finally, other ArcGIS users are a great source of information and help. ESRI user groups
user groups exist in many places around the world, and many of them hold local, regional, or national

conferences and meetings. ESRI also sponsors an annual International User Conference, as
well as other regional user conferences. These conferences provide a great opportunity to
learn from other users experiences. For more information see Events at www.esri.com.
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Index
Symbols
3D Analyst. See ArcGIS 3D Analyst

A
Add Field 206, 352. See also Fields
Add Join 357
Add Link 242
Address locator 63, 79, 80, 142, 16566, 168
Add Route Events 169, 171
Adjust 24045
Aerial photo 132, 154, 162, 190
Align
map elements 315
model elements 43
Allocation 345, 39194
Animation 264, 27172
Animation toolbar 32935
ArcGIS Tracking Analyst 51, 33637
Annotation 20, 28, 268, 304
geodatabase 83, 108, 20817, 218, 250
map document 20708
Anselin Local Morans I 421
Append 247
ArcCatalog 2, 7, 8, 15, 46, 52, 53, 55, 57
and ArcMap 265, 266, 273, 274
and ArcToobox 35, 36, 38, 43
building geodatabases 10245, 147, 148, 20910,
217, 218, 221, 222, 226, 236, 291
data compilation 157, 159, 160, 162, 166, 168
described 2934
distributed geodatabases 260, 262
geographic data management 67, 72, 75, 76, 85,
87101
multiuser geodatabases 249, 251, 254, 256, 258
ArcEditor 47, 52
ArcGIS 3D Analyst 50, 264
animations 328
displaying TINs 135, 403
perspective views 32526
surface analysis 34445, 385, 409, 41213, 414
surface creation 398, 399, 40204, 406, 408

ArcGIS Data Interoperability 47, 163

ArcGIS Desktop extensions 46, 4751
ArcGIS Geostatistical Analyst 35, 50, 344, 345, 400
ArcGIS Network Analyst 51, 13839, 340, 344, 345,
389
ArcGIS Publisher 49, 56
ArcGIS Schematics 48
ArcGIS Spatial Analyst 35, 49, 340, 344, 345
allocation 392
distance analysis 38385
modeling flow 397
path analysis 38688
raster overlay 37678
shaded relief 325
surface analysis 409
surface creation 39899, 401, 404, 406, 407
visibility analysis 413, 414, 415
ArcGIS Tracking Analyst 51, 272, 333, 33637
ArcGlobe 264, 272, 279
animations 32832, 333
ArcInfo 47, 48, 52, 303
ArcMap 213, 14, 46, 49, 52, 53, 55, 56, 57, 72
and ArcCatalog 29, 31, 34
and ArcToolbox 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 43
animations 32832, 33335
data selection 36068
data validation 230, 23334, 236
described 1528
digitizing 190, 19495
editing in 17289, 20129, 25459, 261
geographic analysis 345, 346
mapping 264327
quick tour 214
selection 36068
spatial adjustment 240
tabular data 34859
ArcReader 49, 56
ArcScan for ArcGIS 47, 154, 196200
ArcScene 75, 135, 264, 271, 272, 279, 326, 32830,
332, 333, 403, 406, 409
ArcSDE geodatabase. See Geodatabases

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Using ArcGIS Desktop

ArcToolbox 2, 14, 15, 29, 31, 46, 52, 53, 55, 59, 72, 92,
142, 152, 340, 345, 346
data compilation 16163, 168, 171, 225, 237, 247
data extraction 36972
described 3545
distance analysis 38088, 39192, 397
distributed geodatabases 262
multiuser geodatabases 259
overlay analysis 37378
quick tour 1013
selection 363
shaded relief 325
spatial statistics 41621
surface analysis 40911, 41315
surface creation 39899, 401, 40306, 408
tabular data 351, 354, 357
ArcView 52, 96
ArcView GIS 76
Area 409
Area Solar Radiation 415
Aspect 40406, 408
Attribute index 14647, 148
Attributes
defined 64
displaying 31, 51, 68, 7374, 8788, 129, 273,
28385, 34851
documenting 51, 97, 157
editing 28, 34, 180, 20106
graphs 31819
in geodatabases 78, 83, 10506, 107, 124
labels 30001, 307
reports 32123
selecting by 1112, 28687, 363
summarizing 28, 34849, 365
symbolizing features using 268, 288, 289, 29395,
327
transferring between features 240, 24647
Attributes dialog box 20103, 20506, 216, 221,
23032
Attribute table
defined 18
editing attributes in 20406
selecting features in 287
viewing 910, 26, 31, 8788, 129
See also Fields; Tables
Attribute Transfer 24647
Average Nearest Neighbor 419

B
Basin 397
Bookmarks 279
Buffer 342, 345, 38082
Build Pyramids 147

C
CAD 56, 75, 110, 15253, 162, 240
Cartographic representation 29091
Center. See Mean Center; Central feature
Central feature 417
Charts 295
Classification
numeric values 29293
Clip 369
Clusters 343, 345, 42021
Cokriging 400
Color
custom 305
specifying 28889, 305
Combine 376
Command line 3839, 40, 41, 55
Configuration keywords 107, 109, 211, 218
Connect
databases in ArcCatalog 2930, 85
geometric network editing 228
model elements 43
Connections
ArcCatalog 29, 8586, 103, 256, 265, 27374
Connectivity 79, 139, 141, 226, 229, 230, 23233
Connect to Folder 85
Contents tab 30, 87
Contour 404, 405, 406, 408
Contour lines 81, 134, 405, 406, 408
Control points
coordinate system 72
digitizing 19093, 194
spatial adjustment 240
Converting
coordinate systems 239
data formats 66, 152, 153, 157, 160, 161, 162
features to graphic objects 308
labels to annotation 209, 304
symbols to cartographic representations 291
Coordinates. See Geographic coordinates

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Index
Coordinate systems
assigning 34, 82, 10709, 158, 23739
data frames 276
defined 6972
feature datasets 78, 11314
viewing 94
Copying
annotation 208, 211
ArcCatalog entries 30, 32, 9394, 160
attributes 24647
data frames 31011
features 17980, 226
layers 269, 27778
symbols 298
Corridor 386, 388
Cost Allocation 392
Cost Distance 38384, 385, 38687, 388
Cost distance surface 384, 388
Cost Path 38688
Cost surface 384, 387
Cost Weighted 386
Coverages 33, 56, 75, 76, 77, 78, 95, 152, 157, 160
Create/Modify TIN 402
Create Layer From Selected Features 366
Create Network Location 389, 393
Create Routes 142, 143, 225
Create Thiessen Polygons 391
Create Thumbnail 89
Create TIN 402, 403
Create TIN From Features 402
Crystal Reports 321, 324
Curvature 404, 405
Cut/Fill 40910

D
Data extraction 340, 345, 346, 36972
Data frames 22, 172, 265, 270, 282, 301, 302
active 24, 269, 31114
adding data to 267, 278, 280
defined 16
layout view 2325, 307, 30912, 313, 316
Data Interoperability extension. See ArcGIS Data
Interoperability extension
Datasets
defined 17, 66
Data view 5, 15, 23, 27, 307, 309

Datum 72
DBMS 56, 80, 103, 107, 111, 248, 250
Define Projection 237
Deleting
annotation 207, 211
ArcCatalog entries 30, 32, 93, 128
data frames 269
domains 121
features 28, 177, 17980, 226
fields 111, 112
geodatabase versions 259
links 242, 245
subtypes 122
symbols 298
topology 117
DEM 49, 162, 325, 398
Density 345, 398, 401
Desktop Help 1, 14
described 5761
Digitizing 76, 82, 154, 158
by scanning 196200
on-screen 19093
using a digitizing table 19495
Dimensions 21821
Directional trend 343, 345, 416, 41718
Disconnect
databases 2930, 86
geometric network features 227
Display tab
Layer Properties 27, 267, 285, 325
Report Properties 323
table of contents 22
Distance analysis 342, 344, 345, 37994
Distance surface 383 See also Euclidean Distance; Cost
Distance
DLG 75, 152, 163
Domains
attribute 79, 82, 104, 11921, 123, 201, 203, 23032
spatial 114, 237
Draw toolbar 30507
with annotation 20708
with map elements 313, 315

E
Edge match 240, 24445
Edges 173, 181
network 136, 137, 139, 141, 228
TIN 402, 403
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Using ArcGIS Desktop

Editing
annotation 20717
attributes 20106
dimensions 21821
distributed. See Geodatabases
features 17689
multiuser. See Geodatabases
routes and networks 22229
symbols 29899
Edit session
managing 17375
starting 17273
Edit Table 353
Edit TIN 40203
Edit tool 179, 211, 245
Elevation surface 325, 4046
Environment Settings 40
Erase 369
ERDAS 162
ESRI Developer Network 61
ESRI Press 81, 425
ESRI Support Center 60, 61
Euclidean Allocation 391
Euclidean Distance 383, 385
Events 64, 333
in linear referencing 79, 145, 165, 16971, 222, 225
Export 33, 162, 163, 170, 171, 278, 322, 367
Exporting
animations 332, 335
datasets 33, 47, 16061, 16263
geodatabase schema 103
graphs 31920
layers 18, 170, 171, 278
maps 27
metadata 101
models 45
reports 322
selected sets 28, 367
Extend 18384
Extension products. See ArcGIS Desktop extensions
Extract. See Data extraction
Extract by Attributes 371
Extract Data 106
Extract Values to Points 372

F
Feature classes
creating in a geodatabase 10708, 11012
defined 65, 66
Feature datasets
creating 78, 11315
defined 75
Field Calculator 20405, 352, 368
Fields
adding to a table 34, 53, 11012, 206, 352, 354
calculating values for 201, 20405, 35253, 368
default values for 119
defining 107, 109
deleting 111, 112, 352
formatting 349
hiding 205, 349, 350
primary display field 203
summarizing values in 31, 88, 34849, 351
viewing 94, 205
Fields tab
ArcCatalog 112, 119, 120, 133
ArcMap layers 203, 205, 284, 285, 349
Report Properties 321
File geodatabase. See Geodatabases
Find 27, 88, 286
Find Now 91, 92
Flow 342, 344, 39597
Flow Accumulation 397
Flow Direction 397
Frequency 340, 345, 349, 351

G
Geocoding 142, 16568
Geodatabases
ArcSDE 80, 85, 102, 103, 109, 110, 111, 146, 149,
211, 218, 248, 249, 254, 260
compacting 148, 149
compressing 14849, 252
copying 160
creating 8184, 10206
creating datasets in 10745
data models 61, 81, 82, 84, 103
defined 76, 7780
distributed 248, 26062
file 80, 102, 110, 14849, 211, 218
importing data into 16163
multiuser 248, 24959
personal 80, 102, 110, 146, 148, 149

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Index
Geodatabases (continued)
replicas 248, 26062
versions 80, 248, 249, 25459
viewing contents of 87
Geographic coordinates 6972, 153. See also Tolerance
Geography Network 85, 86, 98, 266, 275
Geometric networks 340, 395
creating 13941
defined 79, 139
editing 22629
modeling flow over 39596
multiuser editing 249, 250, 251
validation 233
Geoprocessing 3536, 40, 61, 67, 159, 162, 346
Georeferencing 69, 108, 190
Georeferencing toolbar 191, 193
Geostatistical Analyst. See ArcGIS Geostatistical
Analyst
GetisOrd General G 420
GetisOrd Gi* 421
GIS servers 29, 85, 95, 265
Global Polynomial 400
Globe view 271, 272, 32829
GPS 153, 164, 276
Graphic objects 15, 21, 23, 2627, 268, 30508, 313
Graphic text 2021, 268, 301, 305, 307
Graphs 31820
Group layer 22, 163, 278

H
Help. See Desktop Help
Hillshade 325, 331, 40406, 408

I
Identify 27, 87, 129, 28385, 286
Identity 374
Images 65, 75, 77, 162, 289
digitizing from 154, 190
importing 13233, 161
symbolizing 289
Importing 33, 157
CAD data 16263
coordinate systems 108, 113, 23739
fields 111
geodatabase schema 10304
metadata 101

Importing (continued)
rasters 13132
symbol definitions 291, 297
Index. See Attribute index; Spatial index
Internet 29, 56, 159, 160, 264, 270
adding data from 265, 266, 275
finding data on 85, 156
Interpolation 344, 345, 398400
Intersect 373, 374, 375
Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) 399, 400

J
Join 35557
Junctions 136, 138, 139, 141, 222, 226, 228

K
Kernel Density 401
Keyword. See Configuration keywords
Kriging 345, 399, 400

L
Labels 15, 268, 30002
converting to annotation 20709, 304
defined 2021
See also Maplex for ArcGIS
Layer
defined 1718
properties 27
Layer file 278, 29697
defined 18
Layout toolbar 310, 316
Layout view 2, 3, 5, 2325, 27, 269, 30910, 313
Legends 309, 311, 313
LiDAR 79, 108, 134
Linear Directional Mean 418
Linear referencing 79, 14245, 165, 16971, 225
Line Density 401
Line of Sight 41213
Links
georeferencing 19093
spatial adjustment 240, 24145
Link Table 192, 242
Load Data 105, 131, 133. See also Importing
Local Morans I. See Anselin Local Morans I
Local Polynomial 400
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Using ArcGIS Desktop

M
Magnifier/Viewer window 17374, 192, 282
Make Route Event Layer 171
Map Algebra 377, 387
Map document
defined 15
opening 265
saving edits in 173
Map elements 3, 5, 2324, 270, 309, 312, 31317
Map extent 16, 173, 267, 27980, 282
Map layout 3, 16, 23, 26970, 30912, 316, 317
Maplex for ArcGIS 48, 30203
Map projection 71, 23739
Map scale 279, 28082
Map templates 312
Map Tips 285
Mean 349
Mean Center 41617
Measure 379
Merge 247
Metadata 98, 99, 100, 101
editing 99100
formatting 99
printing 9798
viewing 8, 31, 72, 88
Mileposts 64, 108, 142, 143, 145, 165, 169, 170. See
also Linear referencing
ModelBuilder 4245
Models
data 6465
geoprocessing 40, 4245, 346
georelational 74
See also Geodatabases
Morans I 420
MrSID 162
Multiple Ring Buffer 38182
MyPlaces 279

N
Natural Neighbor 398, 399
Near 380
Neatlines 270, 314
Network
spatial 48, 51. See also Geometric networks; Network
datasets

Network Analyst. See ArcGIS Network Analyst

Network datasets 79
analysis with 38990, 39394
creating 13639
New Displacement Link
New Group Layer
New Route 389
New Service Area 393
Nodes
TIN 402, 403
topology 186, 187, 234
Normalization 293
North arrows 3, 31314

O
Observer Points 414
Open Attribute Table 9, 204, 348
Orthophotos 77, 152, 190
Overlay analysis 341, 344, 345, 346, 37378
Overview Window 282

P
Pan 25, 27, 204, 267, 279, 282, 286, 310, 316
Pasting 2
in ArcCatalog 94, 160
features 17980
layers 278
Path Distance 385, 38687, 388
Path Distance Allocation 392
Paths 342, 345, 38690
Patterns 343, 345, 41920
Personal geodatabase. See Geodatabases
Perspective views 50, 271, 32627, 328, 406
Point Density 401
Point Distance 380
Points Solar Radiation 415
Preview tab 31, 8788
adding a field 112, 354
raster catalog 133
summary statistics 351
topology errors 236
Printing
maps 4, 368
metadata 99
graphs 319, 320
reports 322

432

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Index
Project 239
Projection. See Map projection
Pyramids
raster 147
terrain 134

Q
Query Builder 12, 144, 371
Quick Export 163
Quick Import 163

R
Radial Basis Function 400
Rasters
analysis 345
building pyramids for 147
described 6566, 71, 74
extracting a subset 37071
overlaying 37678
projecting 239
sampling 372
storing in a geodatabase 78, 13033
symbolizing 289
viewing properties 95
Raster catalog 13233, 147
Reference scale 20910, 218, 302, 304
Relate 35758
Relationship class
accessing in ArcMap 129
creating 12428
described 79
editing attributes 20506
managing 128
validating 232
Remove Join 355
Replicas. See Geodatabases
Reports 32124
Representations. See Cartographic representations
RMS error 194, 242
Rotate
annotation 207, 211
feature 179, 180
Routes 13839
creating 14245
editing 22225
linear referencing 16971
Rubber sheet 240, 244

S
Sample 372
Satellite image. See Images
Save As Layer File 296, 366
Scale. See Map scale; Reference scale
Scalebars 314
Scanning 82, 154, 19093, 196. See also ArcScan for
ArcGIS
Scripts 4042, 45, 61, 161, 171, 225, 300, 346
Search
ArcCatalog 9092
ArcToolbox 37
Desktop Help 57
Geography Network 275
Select 363
Select By Attributes 12, 363
Select By Location 362, 382
Selected set
adding to/removing from 364
and layer files 18
calculating values 204, 368
clearing 287, 365
defined 17
exporting 278, 367
related tables 129
saving 366
summarizing 365, 368
viewing 22, 204, 360
zoom to 1314
Select Features 360, 364
Selection
by attribute 12, 363
by location 362
edit session 20102, 204
in attribute tables 287
interactive 360
related tables 129, 358
setting selectable layers 22, 361
Selection tab 22, 361, 366
Select Layer By Attribute 11, 12, 363
Select Layer By Location 362, 382
Service areas 138, 39194
Shaded relief 49, 272, 325, 328, 331
Shapefiles 56, 76, 77, 78, 152, 160
importing to a geodatabase 161
Shortest Path 386
Sketch tool 176, 177, 178, 214
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Using ArcGIS Desktop

Slope 40408
Snapping
digitizing 195
editing dimensions 219
editing features 17273, 175, 18182, 185
geometric networks 141, 229
spatial adjustment 240, 241, 246
topology 11517
vectorization 197
Solar radiation 415
Sort 345, 348, 351
Source tab 22, 166, 173, 257, 278
Spatial adjustment 24047
Spatial Analyst. See ArcGIS Spatial Analyst
Spatial index 146
Spatial join 355, 359
Spatial reference 34, 88, 97, 114, 140, 158, 237, 276.
See also Coordinate systems
Spatial statistics 41621
Spheroid 72
Spline 399
Split
datasets 345, 370
features 182
SQL (structured query language) 12, 73, 301, 363
Standard deviation 343, 348
Standard Deviational Ellipse 417
Standard Distance 41617
State Plane 71, 237
Statistics 10, 88, 343, 345, 349, 351
Style
address 142
dimension 218, 221
metadata 31, 97, 100
symbol 20, 288, 29899
Subset 340, 352, 360, 367
Subtype 79, 119, 12123, 128, 201, 203, 23032
Suitability analysis 346, 373, 376
Summarize 348, 351, 368
Summary statistics 345, 351, 365
Surface
analysis 345, 40415
creation 345, 398403
See also Elevation surface; Rasters
Surface Length 385
Surface Volume 409

Symbology tab 6, 268, 28889, 291, 29294, 295, 297,

337, 403
Symbols
annotation 21011, 21617
assigning to layers 6, 9, 54, 268, 28889, 29295
cartographic representations 29091
custom 29899
defined 1820
graphic objects 305
importing 297
labels 30001
map elements 314
saving 296
subtypes 123
Symbol Selector 6, 9, 54, 216, 217, 288, 293
Symmetrical Difference 374

T
Tables 7374, 78
appearance of 350
creating 109
editing attributes in 20405, 206
exporting records 367
joining 35559
related 79, 12429, 20506, 35559
selecting features in 12, 287
standalone 78, 109, 124, 348, 355
viewing 31, 88, 348
See also Attributes; Attribute table; Fields
Table Select 363
TabletPC 164
Tabular analysis 340, 344, 345
Tabulate Area 378
Temporal data 51, 333, 336
Terrains 79, 13435, 340, 403
Text. See Graphic text
Thiessen polygons 391
Thumbnails 33, 87, 89
Time series 333, 337
TIN (triangulated irregular network) 344, 345, 40203,
404, 405, 408, 409, 411, 412
TIN Contour 405
TIN Difference 411
TIN Polygon Volume 411
Titles 270, 313

434

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Index
Tolerance
cluster 11516, 117, 118
selection 285
snapping 175
stream 195
XY 107, 113, 211
Topology
defined 78
editing 18689
geodatabase 11518, 186, 187
map 186
validating 23336
Topo to Raster 398
Trace 344, 345, 39596
Trace tool 198
Tracking Analyst. See ArcGIS Tracking Analyst
Transform 24143. See also Georeferencing
Transparency 27, 325, 330
Trend 399
Turns 13637

Visibility analysis 342, 41214

Volume 40910, 411

W
Weighted Overlay 37677, 384, 387
Workspaces
creating 93
defined 75
organizing data in 7677, 9394, 160

Z
Zonal Statistics 378
Zoom 1314, 267, 279, 286, 316

U
Undo 173, 205, 243, 353
Union 35, 374, 375
Update 374
Utility Network Analyst toolbar 139, 344, 395
UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) 71, 237

V
Validate Features 23033
Validation
attribute values 23032
geometric networks 233
relationship classes 232
topology 115, 117, 118, 23336
Vector data 65, 108, 163, 190, 344
Vectorization 196
Versions. See Geodatabases
Versioned datasets 249, 25153, 258, 259, 260
Versioning 80, 248. See also Geodatabases; Versioned
datasets
Vertex
digitizing 195, 198
editing 17778, 18687
snapping 115, 173, 241
Viewshed 413, 414
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