Acids, Bases and Salts

Summary
Acids
Electrical conductivity
Any solution's ability to conduct electricity is defined by is charges ions in it. As a result, a strong acid will produce
more charged ions than a weak one, and so it's solution will be a better electrical conductor than a weak acid. The
same goes for strong/weak bases.

Acids in daily life

Ethanoic acid found in vinegar and tomato juice

Citric acid found in citrus foods like lemons, oranges and grapefruit

Lactic acid found in sour milk and yoghurt, and in muscle respiration

Tartaric acid found in grapes

Tannic acid found in tea and ants body

Formic acid found in bee stings

Hydrochloric acid found in stomach juices

Common laboratory acids

Hydrochloric acid (HCl)

Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)

Nitric acid (HNO3)

Dilute acid: solution containing small amount of acid dissolved in water

Concentrated acids: solution containing large amount of acid dissolved in water

Properties of acids

sour taste

hazardous - irritants to skin, causing skin to redden and blister

change the color of indicators - turn blue litmus red

react with metals to produce hydrogen gas - gas is tested with a burning splint which burns with a
'pop' sound

react with carbonates and hydrogencarbonates to produce carbon dioxide - to test this, the gas
produced is bubbled into limewater which forms a white precipitate

react with metal oxides and hydroxides - reach slowly with warm dilute acid to form salt and water

Storage of acids

Acids are stored in claypots, glass or plastic containers as sand, glass and plastic do not react with acids.

If it is stored in metal container, metal would react with acids

Uses of acids

Sulphuric Acid

Used in car batteries

Manufacture of ammonium sulphate for fertilisers

Manufacture of detergents, paints, dyes, artificial fibres & plastics

Hydrochloric acid

can remove rust (iron(III) oxide) which dissolves in acids

Acids are used in preservation of foods (e.g. ethanoic acid)

Acids and hydrogen ions

Acids are covalent compounds and do not behave as acids in the absence of water as water reacts with acids
to produce H+ ions, responsible for its acidic properties

e.g. Citric acid crystals doesnt react with metals and doesnt change colours of indicators; citric acid
in water reacts with metals and change turns litmus red.

Hydrogen gas is formed by acids as H+(aq) ions are present in acid solutions. This means when a solid/gas
acid dissolved in water, they produce H+ ions in it

Chemical eqation: HCl(s) ---(water)---> HCl (aq)

Ionic Equation: HCl(s) ---(water)---> H (aq) + Cl (aq)

However when dissolved in organic solutions, they dont show acidic properties. When metals react with
acids, only the hydrogen ions react with metals, e.g.:

Chemical equation: 2Na(s) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2(g)

Ionic equation: 2Na(s) + 2H (aq) 2Na+(aq) + H2(g)

Basicity of an acid is maximum number of H ions produced by a molecule of acid

dibasic: can replace two hydrogen atoms

tribasic: can replace three hydrogen atoms

Acids

Reaction with water

Hydrochloric acid

HCl (aq) H (aq) + Cl (aq)

Basicity
-

monobasic

Nitric acid

HNO3 (aq) H (aq) + NO3 (aq)

Ethanoic acid

CH3COOH (aq) H (aq) + CH3COO (aq) monobasic

Sulphuric acid

H2SO4 (aq) 2H (aq) + SO4 (aq)

monobasic
-

2-

dibasic

Fizzy drinks

Soft drink tablets contains solid acid (e.g. citric acid, C6H8O7) & sodium bicarbonate

When tablet is added to water, citric acid ionises and the H produced reacts with sodium bicarbonate to

produce carbon dioxide gas, making them fizz

Strong and weak acids

Strong Acids - acid that completely ionises in water.

Their reactions are irreversible.

E.g. H2SO4, HNO3, HCl

H2SO4 (aq) 2H (aq) + SO4 (aq)

2-

In above H2SO4 has completely been ionized in water, forming 3 kinds of particles:

H+ ions

SO4 ions

H2O molecules

2-

Strong acids react more vigorously with metals than weak acids hydrogen gas bubbles are
produced rapidly

Weak acids - acids that partially ionise in water.

The remaining molecules remain unchanged as acids.

Their reactions are reversible.

E.g. CH3COOH, H2CO3, H3PO4

H3PO4 (aq) 3H (aq) + PO4 (aq)

Weak acids react slowly with metals than strong acids hydrogen gas bubbles are produced slowly.

2-

Concentration vs Strength
CONCENTRATION

STRENGTH

Is the amount of solute (acids or

Is how much ions can be

alkalis) dissolved in 1 dm3 of a

disassociated into from acid or alkali

solution
It can be diluted by adding more

The strength cannot be changed

water to solution or concentrated

by adding more solute to solution

Comparing 10 mol/dm and 0.1 mol/dm of hydrochloric acids and 10 mol/dm and 0.1 mol/dm of ethanoic
acids
3

10 mol/dm of ethanoic acid solution is a concentrated solution of weak acid

0.1 mol/dm of ethanoic acid solution is a dilute solution of weak acid

10 mol/dm of hydrochloric acid solution is a concentrated solution of strong acid

0.1 mol/dm of hydrochloric acid solution is a dilute solution of strong acid

Bases and Alkalis

Bases are oxides or hydroxides of metals

Alkalis are bases which are soluble in water

All alkalis produces hydroxide ions (OH ) when dissolved in water.

Hydroxide ions give the properties of alkalis.

They dont behave as acids in absence of water.

Alkalis are therefore substances that produce hydroxide ions, OH (aq), in water.

Laboratory Alkalis

Sodium Hydroxide, NaOH

Aqueous Ammonia, NH4OH

Calcium Hydroxide, Ca(OH)2

Properties of Alkalis

have a slippery feel

hazardous

Dilute alkalis are irritants

Concentrated alkalis are corrosive and burn skin (caustic(i.e. burning) alkalis)

change the colour of indicators: turn common indicator litmus red litmus to blue

react with acids

The reaction is called neutralisation

react with ammonium compounds

They react with heated solid ammonium compounds to produce ammonia gas

(NH4)2SO4 (s) + Ca(OH)2 (aq) CaSO4 (aq) + 2NH3 (g) + 2H2O (l)

react with solutions of metal ions

2+

Barium sulphate, BaSO4 (aq), contains Ba (aq) ions

Ca(OH)2 (aq) + BaSO4 (aq) Ba(OH)2 (s) + CaSO4 (aq)

The solid formed is precipitate the reaction is called precipitate reaction

Strong and weak alkalis

Strong Alkalis: base that completely ionises in water to form OH (aq) ions.

Their reactions are irreversible.

E.g. NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2

Ca(OH)2 (s) Ca (aq) + 2OH (aq)

2+

Weak Alkalis: base that partially ionise in water.

The remaining molecules remain unchanged as base.

Their reactions are reversible.

E.g. NH3

NH3 (g) + H2O (l) NH4 (aq) + OH (aq)

Uses of Alkalis

Alkalis neutralise acids in teeth (toothpaste) and stomach (indigestion)

Soap and detergents contain weak alkalis to dissolve grease

Floor and oven cleaners contain NaOH (strong alkalis)

Ammonia (mild alkalis) is used in liquids to remove dirt and grease from glass

pH and Indicators
Indicators are substances that has different colours in acidic and alkaline solutions
Common indicators:

Litmus

Methyl orange

Phenolphtalein

Indicator

Colour in acids

colour changes at

Colour in alkalis

pH
Phenolphtalein

Colourless

Pink

Methyl orange

Red

Yellow

Litmus

Red

Blue

Screened methyl

Red

Green

Yellow

Blue

orange
Bromothymol blue

pH Scale
A measure of acidity or alkalinity of a solution is known as pH

pH 7 is neutral in pure water

solutions of less than pH 7 are acidic.

The solutions contain hydrogen ions.

The lower the pH, the more acidic the solution is and more hydrogen ions it contains.

solutions of more than pH 7 are alkaline.

The solution contains hydroxide ions.

The higher the pH, the more alkaline the solution and more hydroxide ions it contains.

Measuring pH of a Solution

Universal indicators

It can be in paper or solution form.

Universal paper can be dipped into a solution then pH found is matched with the colour chart.

It gives approximate pH value.

pH meter

A hand-held pH probe is dipped into solution and meter will show the pH digitally or by a scale.

Measures pH water in lakes, water, and streams accurately

pH sensor and computer

A probe is dipped into solution and will be sent to computer through interface used to measure pH of
solution.

The pH reading is displayed on computer screen.

Ionic Equations
Ionic equation is equation involving ions in aqueous solution, showing formation and changes of ions during the
reaction
Rule to make ionic equations:

Only formulae of ions that change is included; ions dont change = omitted

Only aqueous solutions are written as ions; liquids, solids and gases written in full

Reaction between Metals and Acids

Eg. reaction of sodium with hydrochloric acid
2Na (s) + 2HCl (aq) 2NaCl (aq) + H2 (g)
Its ionic equation is written as:
+
+
2Na (s) + 2H (aq) + 2Cl (aq) 2Na (aq) + 2Cl (aq) + H2 (g)
-

Since 2 Cl (aq) ions dont change, theyre not involved in reaction.

As ionic equation is used to show changes in reactions, we omit Cl (aq) ions.
So were left with:
+
+
2Na (s) + 2H (aq) 2Na (aq) + H2 (g)

Reaction between soluble ionic compounds and acids

e.g. Reaction of sodium hydrogencarbonate with hydrochloric acid
NaHCO3 (aq) + HCl (aq) NaCl (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
Its ionic equation is:
+
+
2+
+
Na (aq) + H (aq) + CO3 (aq) + H (aq) + Cl (aq) Na (aq) + Cl (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
+

Since Na (aq) and Cl (aq) ions dont change, we omit them, leaving:
+
2+
H (aq) + CO3 (aq) + H (aq) CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
2+
CO3 (aq) + 2H (aq) CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

Reaction between insoluble ionic compounds and acids

e.g. Reaction between iron(II) oxide and sulphuric acid
FeO (s) + H2SO4 (aq) FeSO4 (aq) + H2O (g)
Its ionic equation is:
22+
2FeO(s) + 2H+ (aq) + SO4 (aq) Fe (aq) + SO4 (aq) + H2O (g)
Note: FeO is written in full as it is solid (although it is an ionic compound)
2-

2-

Since SO4 (aq) ions dont change, we omit SO4 ions, leaving:
+
2+
FeO (s) + 2H (aq) Fe (aq) + H2O (g)
E.g. Reaction between calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid
CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
Its ionic equation is:
+
2+
CaCO3 (s) + 2H (aq) + 2Cl (aq) Ca (aq) + 2Cl (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
-

Since 2 Cl (aq) ions dont change, we omit Cl ions, leaving:

+
2+
CaCO3 (s) + 2H (aq) Ca (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

Reaction producing precipitate

E.g. Reaction between calcium hydroxide and barium sulphate
Ca(OH)2 (aq) + BaSO4 (aq) Ba(OH)2 (s) + CaSO4 (aq)
Its ionic equation is written as:
2+
2+
22+
2Ca (aq) + 2OH (aq) + Ba (aq) + SO4 (aq) Ba(OH)2 (s) + Ca (aq) + SO4 (aq)
2+

2-

Since Ca (aq) and SO4 (aq) ions dont change, we omit them, leaving:
2+
Ba (aq) + 2OH (aq) Ba(OH)2 (s)

Displacement reactions
E.g. Reactions between magnesium with zinc sulphate
Mg (s) + ZnSO4 (aq) MgSO4 (aq) + Zn (s)
Its ionic equation is written as:
2+
22+
2Mg (s) + Zn (aq) + SO4 (aq) Mg (aq) + SO4 (aq) + Zn (s)
2-

Since SO4 (aq) ions dont change, we omit them, leaving:

2+
2+
Mg (s) + Zn (aq) Mg (aq) + Zn (s)

Neutralization

Neutralization is the reaction between acid and base to form salt and water only.

From ionic equation, we know that the reaction only involves H ions from acids with OH ions from alkali to

form water .
E.g. NaOH + H2SO4 forms Na2SO4 + H2O
H2SO4 (aq) + NaOH (aq) --> Na2SO4 (aq) + H2O (g)
Ionic equation is:
+
H (aq) + OH (aq) H2O (g)
Plants dont grow well in acidic soil. Quicklime (calcium hydroxide) is added to neutralise the acidity of soil according
to equation:
Acid (aq) + Ca(OH)2 (aq) --> Ca(acid anion) (aq) + H2O (g)

Reaction between Base and Ammonium Salts

E.g. Reaction between NaOH and NH4OH
NaOH (aq) + NH4Cl (aq) --> NaCl (aq) + NH3 (g) + H2O (g)
Ionic equation:
+
NH4 (aq) + OH (aq) NH3 (g) + H2O (g)

Oxides
Acidic oxide

Oxides of non-metals, usually gases which reacts with water to

produce acids, e.g. CO2, NO3, P4O10, SO2

Basic oxide

Oxides of metals, usually solid which reacts with water to produce

alkalis, e.g. CaO, K2O, BaO

Amphoteric oxide

Oxides of transition metals, usually solid, which reacts with

acids/alkalis to form salt and water, e.g. Al2O3, FeO, PbO

Neutral oxide

Oxides that dont react with either acids/alkalis, hence do not form
salts, e.g. H2O, CO, NO

Preparation of Salts
Soluble

Insoluble

All Nitrates

All sulphates except -->

BaSO4, CaSO4, PbSO4

All Chlorides except -->

PbCl2 (soluble in hot water),

AgCl, HgCl2

Potassium, Sodium,

Ammonium salts
K2CO3, Na2CO3, (NH4)2CO3

All other carbonates

K2O, Na2O

All other oxides

Preparation of insoluble salts - ionic precipitation

Insoluble salts, e.g. BaSO4, CaSO4, PbSO4, PbCl2, AgCl and most carbonates

involves mixing a solution that contains its positive ions with another solution that contains its negative ions

E.g. Preparation of BaSO4

First BaCl, since it contains wanted barium ion, is reacted with H2SO4, since it contains wanted sulphate ion,
to produce solid BaSO4 & aqueous KCl.

BaSO4 then separated from KCl by filtration, leaving filtrate KCl & BaSO4 left on filter paper.

Salt is washed with water to completely remove KCl & filter paper is squeezed with another filter paper to dry
BaSO4.

Preparation of soluble salts

1. By Metal Hydroxide and Acid

This method is suitable for soluble metal hydroxides called alkalis. - titration

KOH (aq) + HCl (aq) --> KCl (aq) + H2O (l)

3

25.0 cm acid, as standard solution, is placed in conical flask using pipette.

Add a few drops of indicator & titrate with alkali from burette until indicator changes colour, showing all acid
has just reacted.

Volume of alkali added is measured.

Prepare new 25.0 cm acid again with pipette & add same volume of alkali as before to prevent excess

alkali/acid because both reactant & product are aqueous.

Next, the product is evaporated to dryness to obtain the salt.

2. By reacting metal with acid

This preparation is suitable for the more reactive metals like Mg, Zn, Fe, Al (but not Na, K and Ca).

In general, the metal is added to the acid until there is no further reaction. (when no more bubbles of hydrogen
gas are produced)

Excess metal is then filtered out, and the clear filtrate is then evaporated until crystals form.

E.g. Reacting Zn with H2SO4 to prepare ZnSO4

Zn (s) + H2SO4 (aq) --> ZnSO4 (aq) + H2O(l)

Zn is added to H2SO4 until in excess to ensure no more H2SO4 is present.

Then the mixture is filtered off to separate Zn from ZnSO4.

The filtrate (ZnSO4) is then placed in evaporating dish to evaporate most of water then its cooled after
ZnSO4 crystals are formed.

The crystals then filtered and squeezed between filter papers to dry.

3. By reacting metal oxide with acid

Nearly all the metal oxides react with acids, but most require warming,

This method is especially suitable for those metals which do not react with dilute acids.

eg, copper metal has no reaction with dilute acids but copper(II) oxide, if warmed with dilute acids, forms salts

E.g. Reacting CuO with Acids

CuO (s) + H2SO4 (aq) --> CuSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)

Add excess copper(II) oxide to the warm sulphuric acid so that all the acid is neutralised. The unreacted oxide
is then removed by filtering.

The filtrate is a blue solution of copper(II) sulphate.

The crystals are obtained by concentrating the solution by evaporation, and then leaving it to cool.

The crystals formed can be removed by filtration.

As copper(II) sulphate crystals contain water of crystallisation, it is important not to evaporate the solution to
dryness.

4. By Reacting Metal Carbonate with Acid

Similar to that involving metal oxide and acid, but this time, no heat is required.

The carbonate fizzes and gives of carbon dioxide gas.

Excess carbonate must be added to ensure that all the acid is neutralised

The solution is then filtered to remove unreacted carbonate and evaporate to concentrate the solution for
crystallisation

E.g. Reacting CaCO3 with Acids

K2CO3 (s) + H2SO4 (aq) --> K2SO4 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

The same process is used as reaction of acid with metal, just that carbon dioxide is produced.

Carbon dioxide can be tested by bubbling it into limewater which will turn limewater colourless to milky.

Properties and uses of Ammonia

produced from nitrogen reacted with hydrogen

For producing: fertilisers, nitric acid, nylon, dyes, cleaners and dry cell

The Manufacture of Ammonia: The Haber Process

The Process: Nitrogen and hydrogen are mixed together in ratio 1:3, where nitrogen is obtained from
air and hydrogen is obtained from natural gas, and passed over iron catalyst.

Since the reaction is reversible so H2 and O2, reproduced from decomposition of produced NH3, are
passed over the catalyst again to produce ammonia.

Conditions for Manufacturing Ammonia

to have high yield of ammonia we should have:

Higher pressure

Lower temperature
o

But in practice, we use lower pressure of 200 atm and higher temperature of 450 C. This is because:

Using low temperature is too slow to reach equilibrium

Using high pressure involves safety risk and higher cost

Ammonia as fertilizers
Plants need nitrogen as one of component for growth and ammonium fertilizers contain nitrogen for that.
% content of nitrogen in ammonium fertilizers
E.g. Ammonium sulphate, (NH4)2SO4, and urea, (NH2)2CO, are 2 kinds of fertilizers. Deduce, in terms of
nitrogen content, which of these fertilizers best for plants.
% mass = (total mass of element / total mass of compound) x 100
(NH4)2SO4 = (28 / 132) x 100 = 21.2% of N
(NH2)2CO = (28 / 60) x 100 = 46.7% of N
Therefore, (NH2)2CO is a better fertilizer since it contains more nitrogen.

Problems with Ammonia

Eutrophication is the increase in organic content of water when fertilizers leach into soil and washed into
rivers and streams.

When excess fertilizers washed away by rain, nitrate ions in it gets into rivers and helps aquatic plants like
algae to grow swiftly.

When too much algae, water turns murky and sunlight would not penetrate into water to help their growth
which in turn lead to deaths of algae.

Decay of this organic matter uses up oxygen, hence killing aquatic animals.

Then even more algae dies and even more animals die

Water pollution results from runoff of fertilizer use, leaching from septic tanks, sewage and erosion of natural
deposits.

ions from nitrogen in soil leaches down the soil into groundwater due to its solubility.

Since groundwater is our drink source, when humans drink this water, they will get seriously ill and babies
may suffer breathlessness to death

MCQ Questions
1. Which of the following gases cannot be removed from the exhaust gases of a petrol powered car by its
catalytic converter?
a. carbon dioxide
b. carbon monoxide
c. hydrocarbons
d. nitrogen dioxide
2. An excess of dilute sulphuric acid reacts with both aqueous barium hydroxide and aqueous barium chloride.
In what way are the two reactions the same?
a. a gas is produced
b. an insoluble salt is produced
c. the final pH is 7
d. water is produced
3. In separate experiments, an excess of aqueous sodium hydroxide or aqueous ammonia was gradually
added to a solution X. In both experiments, a precipitate was obtained which dissolved in an excess of the
added reagent. What could X contain?
a. copper(II) nitrate
b. iron(II) nitrate
c. iron(III) nitrate
d. zinc nitrate
4. Which of the following is a property of ethanoic acid but is not a property of sulphuric acid?
a. it reacts with copper(II) oxide
b. it reacts with sodium carbonate
c. it reacts with magnesium
d. it burns in air

5. Which salt could be prepared by a method involving crystallization as the final stage?
a. barium sulphate
b. calcium carbonate
c. silver chloride
d. sodium nitrate
6. An element X forms a hydroxide which dissolves both in acids and in alkalis. What could X be?
a. aluminium
b. calcium
c. copper
d. iron
7. Under suitable conditions, hydrochloric acid reacts with each of the following substances. Which reaction
gives a colorless solution only?
a. calcium carbonate
b. iron(II) hydroxide
c. potassium hydroxide
d. silver nitrate
8. After acidification with dilute nitric acid, a colorless solution of X reacts with aqueous silver nitrate to give a
white precipitate. What could X be?
a. calcium iodide
b. copper(II) chloride
c. lead(II) chloride
d. sodium chloride
9. Two tests were carried out on a colorless liquid X. X turned anhydrous copper(II) sulphate from white to
blue. X reacted with calcium, giving hydrogen. What could X be?
1. dilute hydrochloric acid
2. ethanol
3. water
a. 1 only
b. 1 and 2 only
c. 1 and 3 only
d. 1, 2 and 3
10. Which of the following is a characteristic property of alkalis in aqueous solution?
a. they liberate ammonia from ammonium salts
b. they liberate carbon dioxide from carbonates
c. they give hydrogen with any metal
d. they turn universal indicator red
11. A mineral X dissolves in dilute hydrochloric acid, giving off a gas which turns limewater milky. When
aqueous ammonia is added to the colorless solution, a white precipitate is formed. The precipitate dissolves in
an excess of aqueous ammonia to give a colorless solution. What is X?
a. calcium carbonate

b. copper(II) carbonate
c. zinc carbonate
d. zinc sulphide
12. Aqueous sodium hydroxide reacts with a metal ion producing a colored precipitate. This precipitate
changes color on standing. What is the ion present?
a. Al

3+

b. Cu
c. Fe

2+

2+

d. Zn

2+

13. A bee sting is acidic. Which household substance will neutralize a bee sting?
a. damp bicarbonate of soda pH 8
b damp common salt pH 7
c. lemon juice pH 5
D. vinegar pH 4
14. An excess of sodium hydroxide is added to an aqueous solution of salt X and boiled. Ammonia gas is only
given off after aluminium foil is added to the hot solution.
What could be X?
a. ammonium chloride
b. ammonium nitrate
c. sodium chloride
d. sodium nitrate
15. Which ion reacts with aqueous ammonia to give a precipitate that dissolves in an excess of ammonia?
a. Al

3+

b. Fe
c. Fe

2+

3+

d. Zn

2+

16. A solid element conducts electricity. The element burns in air to form a white solid. This white solid
dissolves in water to give an alkaline solution. What is the element?
a. aluminium
b. calcium
c. carbon
d. copper
17. Which calcium compound does not increase the pH of acidic soils?
a. calcium carbonate
b.calcium hydroxide
c. calcium oxide
d. calcium sulphate
3

18. What is the concentration of hydrogen ions in 0.05 mol/dm sulphuric acid?
a. 0.025 g/dm
b. 0.05 g/dm
c. 0.10 g/dm

d. 2.0 g/dm

19. A solution X forms a white precipitate with dilute sulphuric acid and also with aqueous silver nitrate. What
could solution X contain?
a. barium chloride
b. barium nitrate
c. magnesium chloride
d. magnesium sulphate
20. Which of the following is a reaction of dilute hydrochloric acid?
a. ammonium chloride reacts to give ammonia
b. calcium carbonate reacts to give carbon dioxide
c. copper reacts to give hydrogen
d. universal indicator paper turns blue
21. Which compound in solution produces a precipitate with aqueous ammonia that does not dissolve when
an excess of ammonia is added?
a. copper(II) sulphate
b. iron(II) chloride
c. potassium hydroxide
d. zinc chloride
22. A white compound produces a mixture of gases when heated. This mixture turns moist Universal Indicator
paper red and relights a glowing splint. What does this mixture contain?
a. an acidic gas and hydrogen
b. an acidic gas and oxygen
c. an alkaline gas and hydrogen
d. an alkaline gas and oxygen
23. Which of the following describes a step in the preparation of insoluble barium sulphate from aqueous
barium chloride and dilute sulphuric acid?
a. add dilute sulphuric acid until no more gas is produced
b. add the indicator methyl orange
c. collect the precipitate of barium sulphate by filtration
d. evaporate the filtrate until it crystallises

24. Solid R is gradually added to aqueous solution S. The changes in pH are shown in the graph

What are R and S?

R
a insoluble metal oxide
b insoluble non-metal oxide
c soluble metal oxide
d soluble non-metal oxide

S
hydrochloric acid
sodium hydroxide
hydrochloric acid
sodium hydroxide

25. Two solutions are mixed in a beaker and the mass of the beaker and the contents is then recorded at various
times. The graph shows the results.

What could be the two solutions?

a. aqueous copper(II) sulphate and aqueous ammonia
b. aqueous sodium carbonate and dilute nitric acid
c. aqueous sodium hydroxide and aqueous zinc sulphate
d. dilute hydrochloric acid and aqueous sodium sulphate
26. Element L burns in air giving a product that dissolves in water producing an alkaline solution. What is element L?
a. carbon
b. iron
c. sodium
d. sulfur
27. In an accident at a factory, some nitric acid was spilt. Which substance, when added in excess, neutralises the
acid without leaving an alkaline solution?
a. aqueous ammonia

b. aqueous sodium hydroxide

c. calcium carbonate
d. water
28. Which statement does not describe a property of a weak acid in solution?
a. it forms a salt with sodium hydroxide
b. it has a pH of between 8 and 9
c. it is only partly dissociated into ions
d. it reacts with sodium carbonate to give off carbon dioxide
29. An aqueous solution of a sulphate is made from a solid hydroxide, of a metal M, by the reaction:
M(OH)2 (s) + H2SO4 (aq) ----> MSO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l)
For which hydroxide would the method not work?
a. barium hydroxide
b. copper(II) hydroxide
c. iron(II) hydroxide
d. magnesium hydroxide
3

30. In an experiment, 4.0 cm of 1.0 mol/dm aqueous copper(II) sulphate was mixed with 8cm of 1.0
3

mil/dm aqueous sodium carbonate.

CuSO4 + Na2CO3 ---> Na2SO4 + CuCO3
What did the reaction vessel contain when the reaction was complete?
a. a colourless solution only
b. a green precipitate and a blue solution
c. a green precipitate and a colourless solution
d. a white precipitate and a blue solution
31. Which of the following compounds dissolves in water to give a solution with a pH greater than 7?
a. calcium carbonate
b. copper(II) hydroxide
c. sodium hydroxide
d. sulphur dioxide
32. Waste water from a factory was found to have a pH value of 2. Which substance could be used to neutralise the
waste water before it is released into a river?
a. ammonium sulphate
b. lime
c. oxygen
d. sulphur dioxide
33. Which of the following gases will not turn moist blue litmus paper red?
a. carbon dioxide
b. chlorine
c. hydrogen chloride
d. nitrogen monoxide

34. Which of the following correctly describes the solution formed and the gas evolved when potassium reacts with
water?
Solution

Gas

a.

alkaline

neutral

b.

acidic

neutral

c.

alkaline

acidic

d.

neutral

neutral

35. Which of the following compounds can be classified as a normal salt?

I. K2SO4
II. Zn(OH)Cl
III. NaHCO3
IV. CH3COONa
a. I and II only
b. II and IV only
c. I, II, and III
d. I and IV only

MCQ Answers
1. a
2. b (a white precipitate of barium sulphate produced in both cases)
3. d
4. d (ethanoic acid is an organic compound that contain carbon atoms in its molecule that can burn in air to form
carbon dioxide)
5. d (sodium nitrate is the only soluble salt. The rest are insoluble and are obtained by filtration)
6. a (aluminum oxide is an amphoteric oxide that reacts with both acids and alkalis)
7. c
8. d (since X is a colorless solution, it does not contain transition metal ions. The white ppt is likely to be AgCl)
9. c
10. a
11. c
12. c
13. a
14. d (for ammonium nitrate, ammonia gas would also be evolved when it is boiled with sodium hydroxide. Boiling the
sample in sodium hydroxide and aluminium foil is a chemical test for identifying nitrate ions)
15. d
16. c
17. d
18. c
19. a
20. b
21. b
22. b
23. c (when 2 solutions are mixed, BaSO4 precipitate is formed. It may be obtained by filtration)
24. a
25. b (the graph shows a loss in mass. hence, the reaction is likely to be one that gives out a gas that escapes from
the reaction vessel)

26. c
27. c
28. b
29. a (barium hydroxide is soluble in water and reacts with dilute sulphuric acid to form insoluble barium sulphate)
30. c
31. c
32. b
33. d
34. a
35. d

Structured Questions Worked Solutions

1a. Hydrogen chloride is a neutral gas and dissolves in water to form an acidic solution
i. explain why dry hydrogen chloride gas is neutral
ii. explain why aqueous hydrogen chloride is acidic
iii. describe how sodium carbonate can be used to confirm that an aqueous solution contains an acid
1b. The oxides of elements may be acidic, basic, or amphoteric. Give the name and formula of one example of
each of these three types of oxide.
Solution
1ai. Hydrogen chloride is covalently bonded, with sharing of electrons. Hence the molecules are not charged since no
ionisation occurs.
+

1aii. When hydrogen chloride dissolves in water the molecules then ionises to form H and Cl . Water also ionises to
+

form H and OH . The number of hydrogen ions is greater than hydroxide ions so the solution becomes acidic.
1aiii. It reacts with sodium carbonate to liberate carbon dioxide.
1b. sulphur dioxide, SO2 - ACIDIC
potassium hydroxide, KOH - BASIC
zinc oxide, ZnO - AMPHOTERIC
o

2. The reaction between zinc granules and dilute sulphuric acid at 25 C can be made to go faster by adding a
small amount of copper powder.
3

a. in an experiment, 0.65 g of zinc granules and 100 cm of 0.2 mol/dm sulphuric acid are allowed to react.
i. calculate the number of moles of zinc in 0.65 g
3

ii. calculate the number of moles of sulphuric acid in 100 cm3 of 0.2 mol/dm solution
iii. give the equation, including state symbols, for the reaction
iv. explain why the reaction stops.
b. give one other method of making the reaction between zinc granules and dilute sulphuric acid go faster.
Explain in terms of collisions between reacting particles how the method you have described speeds up the
reaction.

Solution
2ai. no. of moles of Zn = mass/Mr = 0.65/65 = 0.01
2aii. no. of moles of sulphuric acid = molarity x volume = 0.2 x 0.1 = 0.02
2aiii. Zn (s) + H2SO4 (aq) --> ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
2aiv. All the zinc have reacted with the H2SO4. The H2SO4 acid is in excess.
2b. Use powdered zinc instead of granules. With powdered zinc, more zinc particles are able to move and collide with
the acid particles. This increases the number of collision and thus increases the rate of reaction.
3. This question is about oxides. Use only the following oxides as answers.
carbon dioxide
copper(II) oxide
sodium oxide
carbon monoxide
silicon dioxide
sulphur dioxide
a. which oxide has a macromolecular structure?
b. which oxide is used to bleach wood pulp in the manufacture of paper?
c. which oxides are basic?
d. which oxides are common atmospheric pollutants?
e. which oxide is the main constituent of sand?
f. which oxide gives a blue solution when heated with dilute sulphuric acid?
Solution
3a. silicon dioxide
3b. sulphur dioxide
3c. copper(II) oxide and sodium oxide
3d. carbon monoxide and sulphur dioxide
3e. silicon dioxide
3f. copper(II) oxide
4. Describe what is observed in each of the following reactions.
a. aqueous sodium hydroxide is added to aqueous iron(III) sulphate
b. dilute hydrochloric acid is added to solid sodium carbonate
c. aqueous barium chloride is added to dilute sulphuric aced
d. aqueous silver nitrate is added to aqueous sodium chloride
Solution
4a. orange-brown precipitate is seen

4b. solid dissolved and effervescence seen (a colorless and odourless gas is evolved)
4c. white precipitate seen
4d. white precipitate seen
5a. Potassium nitrate is a salt which can be prepared by reacting an acid with an alkali, using the titration
method.
i. name an acid and an alkali which react to make potassium nitrate
ii. explain why the titration method is suitable for the preparation of potassium nitrate
5b. Lead(II) iodide is a salt which can be prepared by the precipitation method.
i. name suitable reagents for the preparation of lead(II) iodide
ii. explain why the precipitation method is suitable for the preparation of lead(II) iodide
Solution
5ai. acid: nitric acid
alkali: potassium hydroxide
5aii. Since the acid, alkali and the salt are soluble in water, KNO3 cannot be prepared by other methods (eg.
precipitation). The exact quantities of each acid and alkali are determined by titration where the end-point is
determined by the use of an indicator.
5bi. lead nitrate and potassium iodide
5bii. Because lead iodide is insoluble in water. Once formed, it precipitates out readily while the salt KNO3remains
soluble in water.
6. Write the name of one example of each of the following.
a. a green solid which decomposes on heating to form carbon dioxide
b. a gas which turns moist red litmus paper blue
c. an acid that forms a white precipitate when mixed with aqueous barium nitrate
d. a metal which is extracted by electrolysis
Solution
6a. copper(II) carbonate
6b. ammonia
6c. sulphuric acid
6d. aluminium
7a. For each of the following reactions,
i. state the observations you would expect to make
ii. name the product(s) of the reaction(s)
iii. explain the changes which take place
1 Aqueous sodium hydroxide is added to aqueous iron(II) sulphate and the mixture is allowed to stand
2. Chlorine is bubbled into aqueous potassium iodide. The solid product is collected and then heated.

7b. Hydrogen can be manufactured using the reversible reaction between methane and steam. The formation
of hydrogen is endothermic.
i. write the equation for this reaction
ii. explain why this reaction is best carried out at a high temperature but at a low pressure.
Solution
7ai.
1. Dirty green precipitate of iron(II) hydroxide is formed which turns brown (iron(III) hydroxide) on standing. The brown
solid is formed as a result of air oxidation of iron(II) to iron(III).
2+

Fe (aq) + 2OH (aq) --> Fe(OH)2 (s)

4Fe(OH)2 (s) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) --> 4Fe(OH)3 (s)
2. The solution turned brown due to formation of iodine. Iodide is oxidised by chlorine to give iodine.
-

Cl2 (g) + 2I (aq) --> 2Cl (aq) + I2 (aq)

With more iodine formed, it finally precipitates out as a black solid.
Heating this black iodine crystal causes it to sublime to form violet iodine vapour. Black iodine crystals will be seen to
form at the cooler surface.
I2 (s) <---> I2 (g)
7bi. CH4 (g) + H2O (l) <---> 3H2 (g) + CO (g)
7bii. A high temperature speeds up the rate of reaction. It also helps to push the equilibrium to the right since the
forward reaction is endothermic. Since there are greater amount of gaseous products, lowering the pressure would
also help shift the reaction to the right. Hence, the yield will be higher.
8a. Name two aqueous solutions which will react to form a precipitate of silver chloride, AgCl
8b. Write an ionic equation, including state symbols, for the reaction in a.
8c. Describe how you would obtain a pure, dry sample of silver chloride precipitate from the mixture in a.
Solution
8a. sodium chloride and silver nitrate
+

8b. Ag (aq) + Cl (aq) --> AgCl (s)

8c. Mix the two solutions. Filter the resulting mixture. AgCl is obtained as the residue. Wash the residue with water
and then dry the solid in an oven.

9. A student adds aqueous sodium hydroxide from a burette into 25.0cm of dilute sulphuric acid. The student
measures the pH value of the mixture during the addition of the sodium hydroxide.
a. describe how the pH value changes
b. give an ionic equation to represent the neutralisation reaction between sodium hydroxide and sulphuric
acid.
c. sulphuric acid is a strong acid.
i. what is meant by the term acid?
ii. what is the difference between a strong acid and a weak acid?
d. dilute sulphuric acid reacts with magnesium to give hydrogen. Give the ionic equation for this reaction.
Solution
9a. pH increases from 1 to 14
+

9b. H (aq) + OH (aq) --> H2O (l)

+

9ci. an acid is a compound that produces hydrogen ions, H when it dissolves in water,
9cii. a strong acid dissociates fully in water whereas a weak acid dissociates partially in water to form hydrogen ions
+

H.
+

9d. Mg (s) + 2H (aq) --> Mg

2+

(aq) + H2 (g)

10a. For each salt, suggest the name of the missing reagent and briefly describe how to obtain the solid
product from the reaction mixture.
i. salt to be made: lithium chloride
reagent 1: dilute hydrochloric acid
reagent 2: ________________
I could obtain solid lithium chloride by: ___________________
ii. salt to be made: barium sulphate
reagent 1: aqueous potassium sulphate
reagent 2: _________________
I could obtain solid barium sulphate crystals by: ___________________
iii. salt to be made: blue copper(II) sulphate crystals
reagent 1: dilute sulphuric acid
reagent 2: _________________
I could obtain blue copper(II) sulphate crystals by: __________________

10b. Ammonium sulphate can be made by reacting aqueous ammonia with dilute sulphuric acid.
2NH3 (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) --> (NH4)2SO4 (aq)
Calculate the mass of ammonium sulphate that can be made from 51 g of ammonia.
Solution
10ai. reagent 2: aqueous lithium hydroxide
Evaporating the salt solution to dryness to obtain lithium chloride crystals
10aii. reagent 2: aqueous barium chloride
Filtration
10aiii. reagent 2: solid copper(II) oxide
Crystallisation
10b. Mr of NH3 = 17
Mr of (NH4)2SO4 = 132
no. of moles of NH3 = 51/17 = 3
no. of moles of (NH4)2SO4 = 1.5
Mass of (NH4)2SO4 made = 1.5 x 132 = 198 g
11. The table shows the soil pH ranges required by different crops for growth.
crop
pH range
peanut

5.0 - 6.5

millet

6.0 - 6.5

sunflower

6.0 - 7.5

paprika

7.0 - 8.5

mango

5.5 - 6.0

a. A farmer plants peanut and millet crops. Only the peanut crop grows well. Predict the pH of the soil
b. Which other crop is most likely to grow well in the same soil
c. The farmer adds calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2, and ammonium sulphate, (NH4)2SO4, to the soil. Explain the
purpose of using each compound.
d. A reaction occurs between calcium hydroxide and ammonium sulphate.
i. complete the equation for this reaction.
Ca(OH)2 + (NH4)2SO4 ----> ___________ + __________ + 2H2O
ii. Explain why the farmer should not have added these two compounds to the soil at the same time.

Solution
11a. 5.0 - 5.5
11b. Mango crop
11c. Ca(OH)2 is a weak alkali so it neutralises the acidic soil by reacting with H+ ions in the soil.
+

Ca(OH)2 (s) + 2H ----> Ca

2+

(aq) + 2H2O (l)

(NH4)2SO4 serves as a nitrogenous fertiliser to increase the nitrogen content of the soil.
11di. Ca(OH)2 + (NH4)2SO4 ----> CaSO4 + 2NH3 + 2H2O
11dii. Ammonium compounds that make up fertilisers react with alkali, calcium hydroxide under the heat of the sun to
release ammonia gas. The nitrogen content of the soil decreases as nitrogen is lost from the soil into the atmosphere.
+

2NH4 (aq) + Ca(OH)2 (s) ----> 2NH3 (g) + Ca

2+

(aq) + 2H2O (l)