1. The following picture shows the cranium of a member of the category -----.

A) on the
figure label two anatomical features that suggest this species relied on a diet that involved
much heavy chewing. b) In each case explain why the feature allows this inference. c)
What is my brain size? D) How long ago did my category live?
B) Sagittal crest provides increased are for attachment of jaw muscles. Large zygomatic
arches and post-orbital constriction provide room for these muscles. Large molars allow
grinding of cellulose-rich, plant material. Mass brow ridges, plate like cheekbones, and a
large jawbone are necessary to sustain chewing forces.
C) I have a chimp sized brain
D) 2.5-a mya.
2.
A) describe and explain the emergence of AMH (Anatomically Modern Humans) and our
eventual dominance of and replacement of all other hominids across the world. B)
Include a brief discussion of genetic data that indicates why the origin of all modern
humans occurs so recently (and provide the likely dates for our appearance in region):
A) A Replacement model: AMH evolved 100,000 to 200,000 years ago in Africa from a
small population of Archaic Homo sapiens. Approximately 60-90 kya AMH migrates
from Africa into the Middle East where they overlapped with Neanderthals/Denisovans
for approximately 20,000-40,000 years and then replaced them. They migrated to Europe
where they replaced Neanderthals by approximately 30KYA. They arrived in most parts
of Asia by around 40 kya and replaced erectus at that time. In most cases, replacement
occurred without mixing, with the exception of Asian erectus and Neanderthal.

B) mtDNA indicates a recent common origin for all modern humans of approximately
200 kya. mtDNA variation isnt subject to sexual recombination as males do not pass on
mtDNA to offspring. mtDNA variation only occurs as a result of a predictable rates of
random mutation. Modern humans have far less of variation in mtDNA which supports
the narrative of a recent common origin for all modern humans. The reasons for our
dominance likely include complex language capabilities, theory of mind, complex
grouping strategies, and very sophisticated cultural behavior.
3.
A) List three anatomical features characteristic of Neanderthals. B) Discuss why
researchers think that Neanderthals were adapted to living in cold environments. C)
Describe the lifestyle of Neanderthals and the evidence that allows such inferences. Be
sure to provide necessary evidence. There are many more ways to answer this question!.
A) Any three of the following: large and round face, large nose, large brow ridges with
air pockets, occipital bun, no chin, long and low cranial vault, brain larger than ours,
small molars, peculiar wear pattern on incisors, short and stocky build, short arms and
legs, robust muscle markings, thick limb bones, barrel chest.
b) Neanderthals had a short stocky build and relatively short limb lengths than modern
humans. The crural index for Neanderthals is most like that of people living today in very
cold climates (Lapps, eskimos). Having short limbs is an adaptation to the cold. This
would an ideal body type for those living in conditions similar to those found in Europe
during an ice age.

C) Neaderthals were big-game hunters with tools and culture that were insufficient to
protect them against their severe environment. Data clearly indicates that Neanderthals
were hunting a few favored species and even focusing on the healthiest specimens. Given
the nature of their tools, this meant getting up close to the game. Most Neanderthals died
in their 20s. none lived past their 40s , and Neanderthals suffered from extensive
injuries, similar to modern rodeo riders, including multiple fractures, overuse injuries,
arthritis, stab wounds, withered limbs, and other physical deformations.
4. Describe two pieces of evidence that indicate that the capacities that allow us to speak
grammatically complex language are based on species purpose cognitive mechanisms.
{There are many more ways to answer this question!} 1. People with some sort of brain
damage may be unable to speak, but are otherwise very intelligent. Similarly, some very
retarded people are able to speak grammatically. 2. Experiments suggest that children
know grammatical principles even though they have never heard sentences that
exemplify these principles. 3. Children below the age of approximately 10. Who are
exposed to pidgins, simple languages with little grammatical complexity, nonetheless
invent grammatically complex languages (creoles). There is evidence that shows
similarities among creoles across the world, meaning that there may indeed be something
like a universal grammar.
5. Many arguments regarding the evolution of intelligence have been provided in the
course. Provide an overview of one or more parts of this larger debate. Include the
evidence that supports your conclusions. {This answer is an overview of the possible
answers that might be given. If is entirely incomplete}

Chapter 5/6: A discussion of the complexities of resource, social, and sexual behaviors
among monkeys and apes, and how the management of these may require significant
resources of particular types. Also, be sure to present the evidence that would support
your claims.
Chapter 8: A discussion of the expensive tissue hypothesis, brain size measurements and
predicted brain/body size, primate and especially human brain size, the ecological models
of intelligence, the social model of intelligence, and the various lines of evidence that
support these claims.
Chapter 11: A discussion of the tool use and meat acquisition beginning with the oldowan
toolmakers. How meat eating may have altered social, economic, political, and sexual
behaviors, and how this may have marked the dawn of modern human behavior. The
cognitive problems faced by these toolmakers and how meat eating and a bigger brain led
to pair bonding and the first division of labor. Dont forget the evidence!
Chapter 15: A discussion of the evolution and function of human language. How human
language impacts cognition, theory of mind, reflective consciousness, and sociality. Lots
of evidence!
6. Describe three derived features of bipedality shared by A. Afarensis (A Gracile) and
modern humans that cause an Afrensis to be classified as a hominid. Be sure to be
specific and detailed as regards the anatomical features shared by the two species. {There
are many more ways to answer this question.

1. The foramen magnum has moved forward under the skull in bipeds in order to
maintain the head directly over the hops, greatly reducing the muscular effort required to
support upright -walking.
2. The spine in modern humans is S shaped (double-curved) as opposed to the singlecurve spine of chimps and most quadrupeds. This allows flexion in the spine to prevent
damage to the vertebrae in upright walking. It also greatly reduces the muscular effort
required to support the upper body in bipedality forces that would be generated by
walking while leaning forward) /
3. The pelvis is flattened, the blades of the pelvis are concave in shape, and the blades are
widened and wrapped around to the side of the body. A flattened pelvis (shorter from top
to bottom) greatly increase the efficiency of bipedality, in part by reducing the distance
from the pelvis blades to the femur (abductor attachment). Lucys pelvis is flattened
similar to modern humans. The concave shape of the pelvis blades support the internal
organs (along with the powerful abdominal muscles found in modern humans). In normal
quadrupeds the internal organs hang down from the spine into the v-shaped chest cavity.
Bipedality and gravity force the internal organs to hang downward and flat pelvic blades
do not provide sufficient support. Lucys pelvic blades are concave similar to modern
humans. The blades are widened and wrapped around the side to provide for the
attachment of the Abductors from pelvic blades to femur. These muscles counteract the
torque produced by bearing the weight of the body on one foot as part of bipedal motion.
Lucys pelvis shows an intermediate angling and lengthening of the ilium.

7. The folk concept of race holds that people can be unambiguously be identified as
belonging to one of a small number of races that such classifications are informative, and
based on biological inheritance. Why is the folk concept of race inconsistent with what is
known about human biology? {complete answer}
1. Different groupings result from different characters. For example, lactose tolerance
would unite descendants of herding peoples into one group.
2. Humans are far less genetically variable than other species (including chimps). 85%
OF THAT VARIATION IS CONTAINED WITHIN LOCAL GROUPS.. 10% of all
variation is contained within a region. Only 5% exists between regions.
3. Races are not geographically bounded groups. Instead, there is a gradual change in
many of the characteristics associated with race. If you were to bicycle from Northern
Europe, through Southern Europe, into the Middle East, and down into Africa you would
notice a gradual change from light sin to dark skin, an adaptation to a lack of vitamin d
(light skin) and to skin cancer (black skin), AS WELL AS IN ALL THE OTHER
FEATURES ASSOCIATED WITH RACIAL CATEGORIES.
8. What species of hominid are the crania shown below? Label two derived features of
this group that not shared with modern Homo sapiens. What is the evidence that this
group had a prolonged period of juvenile dependence like modern humans? What are the
implications for behavior of among members of this group in common with modern
humans> {there are others to approach answering this question.}
1 Species: ergaster/erectus.

The pelvis of the Nariakotome boy WT 15000 is small in comparison to the size of the
head. Additionally, ergaster/erectus has an increased brain size compared to earlier
hominids. This means that H. ergaster/erectus babies would have to have been born
relatively undeveloped like human babies, and unlike ape infants. This and the large brain
size of ergaster together imply a long period of brain development outside the womb.
Ergaster infants were thus more helpless than chimps and require many more years to
complete their development. This data, along other data from the fossil record and studies
of modern behavior, indicate that females and males would have used pair-bonding in
order to insure their own fitness. Females would thus have relied upon males to provide
resources and support for both females and offspring. One piece of evidence to support
this argument is the sudden decrease in sexual dimorphism found in ergaster/erectus from
levels indicating mm-mf mating strategies to levels indicating monogamy
10. In Europe, there is an abrupt transition in the archaeological record about 40,00 years
ago. A) Describe three features of this transition. B) Provide one explanation for the
suddenness of this transition without any apparent physiological changes. {there are
many more ways to answer this question}
A) 1.. Early moderns had fewer injuries than Neanderthals.
2) The early modern tool kit had more distinctive types of tools than the Neanderthal tool
kit, and utilized a far more efficient blade technology/ Tools were made of a variety of
new materials and were more task-specific, including fishing hooks, sewing needles,
atlatis, and bow and arrows.

3) The raw materials for early modern tools traveled longer distances than the material
for Neanderthal tools and those of earlier hominins. Up to hundreds of kilometers instead
of just a few kilometers.
4) Early moderns; lived at higher population density than did Neanderthals and earlier
hominids, in groups of 200+ as opposed to 30.
5) Early moderns made elaborate art, the Neanderthals did not. These include elaborate
cave paintings, fertility figurines and other carved figures, jewelry, and decorated tools.
6) Early moderns made elaborate shelters, there is no evidence for such among
Neanderthals.
B. There were physiological changes in the brain, tissue that does not fossilize. These
changes were those that led to humans using complex, grammatically-structured
language. This allowed the possibility of communicating and combining complex ideas,
which led to a sudden explosion of new ideas, new ways of thinking, inventions, and a
very complex and recombinatory form of cultural expression.
11. A) describe three reasons for why natural selection may have favored bipedal
locomotion in the human lineage. B) How do bipedality and knuckle-walking compare
in terms of selective advantagewith each other and with other forms of locomotion on
the African Savanah? What does this have to do with increase intelligence?
A) 1. Bipedality might be favored because it frees up the hands to carry valuable
resources (such as fruit) over long distances. Other animals would have had to use
mouths and cheek pouches, this is an advantage as tree coverage disappeared and
grasslands began to dominate, forcing hominids to travel greater distances to get food.

2. Bipedality allows hominids to forage upward in trees. Climbing into trees to get fruit is
less-efficient than being able to stand and reach up to low-hanging fruit.
3. bipedality allow hominids to reduce heat stress as hotter, drier summers and less tree
coverage increases the likelihood of overheating. Far less surface area is exposed to direct
sunlight in bipeds as opposed to quadrupeds. Far more surface area is exposed to wind in
bipeds as opposed to quadrupeds.
B) While bipedality is not as efficient as the true quadrupedality of big cats, hyenas, and
bovid, nonetheless it is equal in efficiency to knuckle-walking. Being unable to be as fast
or as agile as the quadrupedal predators and prey, early and middle-period hominids may
have faced strong selection to outsmart these other animals in order to survive, eat, and
not be eaten.
12. Next to each tool type, write the letter that corresponds to the hominid who made and
used it. Hominids can be used more than once, and you are not required to use all of
them. {complete answer}