Childhood Bilingualism 3rd Year S2

Childhood Bilingualism:
Bilingualism is a broad term and has many forms and configurations. Often the term
bilingual is used loosely to incorporate multilingualism, as is clear from the introduction to a
section of a book by Bhatia and Ritchie (2006). Bhatia (2006) states that the investigation of
bilingualism is a broad and complex field, including the study of the nature of the individual
bilinguals knowledge and use of two (or more) languages (p. 5).
Cenoz, in her review (2005) of Bhatia and Ritchies book, states the editors make a
remark in the introduction about the use of the word bilingualism in the title of the book and
say that they do not exclude additional languages and that the chapters in the book include the
full range of multilingualism. However, the use of the term bilingualism is problematic
because the Latin prefix bi means two . . . (p. 638).
This use of the term does not appear to be the case in some of the psychological and
educational literature on bilingualism. For example, Edwards (2006) starts off his article on
the foundations of bilingualism by saying Everyone is bilingual. That is, there is no one in
the world (no adult, anyway) who does not know at least a few words in languages other than
the maternal variety. If, as an English speaker, you can say cest la vie or gracias or guten Tag
or tovarischor even if you only understand themyou clearly have some command of a
foreign tongue . . . The question, of course, is one of degree . . . (p. 7).
The concept of bilingualism is interpreted differently in the field of SLA versus fields such
as psychology and education. That is, SL researchers reserve use of the term for only those
that are truly, as shown through some linguistic measure, the equivalent of native speakers of
two languages.
Thus, from the perspective of second language researchers, bilingual is a difficult term. In its
strict meaning, it refers to someone whose language is in a steady state and who has learned
and now knows two languages. That is, bilingual refers to an end point; someone is
bilingual.
Children who learn more than one language from earliest childhood are referred to as
'simultaneous bilinguals',
Whereas those who learn another language later may be called 'sequential bilinguals'.
1
There is a considerable body of research on children's ability to learn more than one language
in their earliest years.
We sometimes hear people express the opinion that it is too difficult for children to cope with
two languages. They fear that the children will be confused or will not learn either language
well. However, there is little support for the myth that learning more than one language in
early childhood is a problem for children (Genesee, Crago, and Paradis 2004).
Although some studies show minor early delays for simultaneous bilinguals, there is no
evidence that learning two languages substantially slows down their linguistic development or
interferes with cognitive and academic development. Indeed many simultaneous bilinguals
achieve high levels of proficiency in both languages.
Early childhood bilingualism is a reality for millions of children throughout the world. Some
children learn multiple languages from earliest childhood; others acquire additional languages
when they go to school. The acquisition and maintenance of more than one language can open
doors to many personal, social, and economic opportunities.
Ellen Bialystok (1991, 2001) and other developmental psychologists have found convincing
evidence that bilingualism can have positive effects. One can think of advantages in a number
of domains:
Communicative advantages: With regard to the first of these, some are fairly obvious,
including:
talking to immediate and extended family members.
One can imagine a situation in which families emigrate to a country where another language is spoken;
the children learn the new language and only barely understand the language of the parents, having become
fluent in the language of the new country, whereas the parents do not learn the language of the environment. The
communication gap widens with the unfortunate result of noncommunication between parents and children.
Beyond these instances of family communication, bilinguals, living in a world of regular language
monitoring, often show greater sensitivity to the communicative needs of others.
Cultural/economic advantages: (having experience in more than one culture provides an

understanding to cultural differences among peoples. Further, it is obvious that economic advantages
abound in all areas of workfrom business to sales.
Cognitive advantages: including divergent thinking1, creative thinking, and metalinguistic

awareness. Metalinguistic awareness is the ability to think about (and manipulate) language. In other
words, metalinguistic ability allows one to think about language as an object of inquiry rather than as
something we use to speak and understand language. Bialystok (2001a, 2001b) has found bilingual
children to have superior abilities in judging grammatical accuracy than monolingual children.
Limitations that may be observed in the language of bilingual individuals are more likely to
be related to the circumstances in which each language is learned than to any limitation in the
human capacity to learn more than one language.
For example, if one language is heard much more often than the other or is more highly
valued in the community, that language may eventually be used better than, or in preference
to, the other.
There may be reason to be concerned, however, about situations where children are cut off
from their family language when they are very young. Lily Wong-Fillmore (1991) observed
that when children are 'submerged' in a different language for long periods in pre-school or
day care, their development of the family language may be slowed down or stalled before
they have developed an age-appropriate mastery of the new language. Eventually they may
stop speaking the family language altogether.
Wallace Lambert (1987) called this loss of one language on the way to learning another
SUBTRACTIVE BILINGUALISM. It can have negative consequences for childrens self
esteem, and their relationships with family members are also likely to be affected by such
early loss of the family language. In these cases, children seem to continue to be caught
between two languages: they have not yet mastered the one language, and they have not
continued to develop the other. During the transition period, they may fall behind in their
academic learning. UnfortunateIy, the 'solution educators sometimes propose to parents is that
they should stop speaking the family language at home and concentrate instead on speaking
the school language with their children. The evidence suggests that a better solution is to
strive for ADDITIVE BILINGUALISM the maintenance of the home language while the
second language is being learned. This is especially true if the parents are also learners of the
1
The goal of divergent thinking is to generate many different ideas about a topic in a short period of time. It involves breaking a topic down into its various component parts in order to
gain insight about the various aspects of the topic. Divergent thinking typically occurs in a spontaneous, free-flowing manner, such that the ideas are generated in a random, unorganized
fashion. Following divergent thinking, the ideas and information will be organized using convergent thinking; i.e., putting the various ideas back together in some organized, structured
way.
second language. If parents continue to use the language that they know best, they are able to
express their knowledge and ideas in ways that are richer and more elaborate than they can
manage in a language they do not know as well. Using their own language in family settings
is also a way for parents to maintain their own self-esteem, especially as they may be
struggling with the new language outside the home, at work, or in the community.
Maintaining the family language also creates opportunities for the children to continue both
cognitive and affective development in a language they understand easily while they are still
learning the second language.
As Virginia Collier (1939) and others have shown, the process of developing a second
language takes years. But teachers, parents, and students need to know that the benefits of
additive bilingualism will reward patience and effort.

Childhood Bilingualism 3rd Year S2

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Childhood Bilingualism:

Cultural/economic advantages: (having experience in more than one culture provides an

Cognitive advantages: including divergent thinking1, creative thinking, and metalinguistic

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