2

REVIEW OF ALGEBRA

Review of Algebra

Here we review the basic rules and procedures of algebra that you need to know in
order to be successful in calculus.
Arithmetic Operations

The real numbers have the following properties:

abba
ab  ba
a  b  c  a  b  c
ab  c  ab  ac

abc  abc

(Commutative Law)
(Associative Law)
(Distributive law)

In particular, putting a  1 in the Distributive Law, we get

b  c  1b  c  1b  1c
and so
b  c  b  c
EXAMPLE 1

(a) 3xy4x  34x 2y  12x 2y

(b) 2t7x  2tx  11  14tx  4t 2x  22t
(c) 4  3x  2  4  3x  6  10  3x
If we use the Distributive Law three times, we get
a  bc  d  a  bc  a  bd  ac  bc  ad  bd
This says that we multiply two factors by multiplying each term in one factor by each
term in the other factor and adding the products. Schematically, we have
a  bc  d
In the case where c  a and d  b, we have
a  b2  a 2  ba  ab  b 2
or
1

a  b2  a 2  2ab  b 2

Similarly, we obtain
2

a  b2  a 2  2ab  b 2

REVIEW OF ALGEBRA

EXAMPLE 2

(a) 2x  13x  5  6x 2  3x  10x  5  6x 2  7x  5

(b) x  62  x 2  12x  36
(c) 3x  14x  3  2x  6  34x 2  x  3  2x  12
 12x 2  3x  9  2x  12
 12x 2  5x  21
Fractions

To add two fractions with the same denominator, we use the Distributive Law:
a
c
1
1
1
ac
   a   c  a  c 
b
b
b
b
b
b
Thus, it is true that
ac
a
c
 
b
b
b
But remember to avoid the following common error:
a
a
a
 
bc
b
c

(For instance, take a  b  c  1 to see the error.)

To add two fractions with different denominators, we use a common denominator:
a
c
ad  bc
 
b
d
bd
We multiply such fractions as follows:
a c
ac
 
b d
bd
In particular, it is true that
a
a
a
 
b
b
b
To divide two fractions, we invert and multiply:
a
b
a
d
ad
  
c
b
c
bc
d

REVIEW OF ALGEBRA

EXAMPLE 3

x3
x
3
3
  1
x
x
x
x
3
x
3x  2  xx  1
3x  6  x 2  x



(b)
x1
x2
x  1x  2
x2  x  2
2
x  2x  6
 2
x x2
s2t
ut
s 2 t 2u
s2t 2



(c)
u
2
2u
2
x
xy
1
y
y
x
xx  y
x 2  xy
xy





(d)
xy
y
xy
yx  y
xy  y 2
y
1
x
x
(a)

Factoring

We have used the Distributive Law to expand certain algebraic expressions. We sometimes need to reverse this process (again using the Distributive Law) by factoring an
expression as a product of simpler ones. The easiest situation occurs when the expression has a common factor as follows:
Expanding

3x(x-2)=3x@-6x
Factoring

To factor a quadratic of the form x 2  bx  c we note that

x  rx  s  x 2  r  sx  rs
so we need to choose numbers r and s so that r  s  b and rs  c.
EXAMPLE 4 Factor x 2  5x  24.
SOLUTION The two integers that add to give 5 and multiply to give 24 are 3 and 8.

Therefore
x 2  5x  24  x  3x  8
EXAMPLE 5 Factor 2x 2  7x  4.
SOLUTION Even though the coefficient of x 2 is not 1, we can still look for factors of the

form 2x  r and x  s, where rs  4. Experimentation reveals that

2x 2  7x  4  2x  1x  4
Some special quadratics can be factored by using Equations 1 or 2 (from right to
left) or by using the formula for a difference of squares:
3

a 2  b 2  a  ba  b

REVIEW OF ALGEBRA

The analogous formula for a difference of cubes is

a 3  b 3  a  ba 2  ab  b 2 

which you can verify by expanding the right side. For a sum of cubes we have
a 3  b 3  a  ba 2  ab  b 2 

EXAMPLE 6

(a) x 2  6x  9  x  32
(b) 4x 2  25  2x  52x  5
(c) x 3  8  x  2x 2  2x  4

EXAMPLE 7 Simplify

(Equation 2; a  x, b  3)
(Equation 3; a  2x, b  5)
(Equation 5; a  x, b  2)

x 2  16
.
x 2  2x  8

SOLUTION Factoring numerator and denominator, we have

x 2  16
x  4x  4
x4


2
x  2x  8
x  4x  2
x2
To factor polynomials of degree 3 or more, we sometimes use the following fact.
6 The Factor Theorem If P is a polynomial and Pb  0, then x  b is a factor

of Px.
EXAMPLE 8 Factor x 3  3x 2  10x  24.
SOLUTION Let Px  x 3  3x 2  10x  24. If Pb  0, where b is an integer, then

b is a factor of 24. Thus, the possibilities for b are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12,
and 24. We find that P1  12, P1  30, P2  0. By the Factor Theorem,
x  2 is a factor. Instead of substituting further, we use long division as follows:
x 2  x  12
x  2  x 3  3x 2  10 x  24
x 3  2x 2
x 2  10x
x 2  2x
 12x  24
 12x  24
Therefore

x 3  3x 2  10x  24  x  2x 2  x  12

 x  2x  3x  4

Completing the Square

Completing the square is a useful technique for graphing parabolas or integrating

rational functions. Completing the square means rewriting a quadratic ax 2  bx  c

REVIEW OF ALGEBRA

in the form ax  p2  q and can be accomplished by:

1. Factoring the number a from the terms involving x.
2. Adding and subtracting the square of half the coefficient of x.
In general, we have





ax 2  bx  c  a x 2 
 a x2 
a x

b
x c
a

   
  

b
x
a
b
2a

b
2a

 c

b
2a

c

b2
4a

EXAMPLE 9 Rewrite x 2  x  1 by completing the square.

1

SOLUTION The square of half the coefficient of x is 4. Thus

2

x 2  x  1  x 2  x  14  14  1  (x  12 )  34
EXAMPLE 10

2x 2  12x  11  2x 2  6x  11  2x 2  6x  9  9  11

 2x  32  9  11  2x  32  7

Quadratic Formula

By completing the square as above we can obtain the following formula for the roots
of a quadratic equation.
2
7 The Quadratic Formula The roots of the quadratic equation ax  bx  c  0

are
x

b  sb 2  4ac
2a

EXAMPLE 11 Solve the equation 5x 2  3x  3  0.

SOLUTION With a  5, b  3, c  3, the quadratic formula gives the solutions

x

3  s32  453
3  s69

25
10

The quantity b 2  4ac that appears in the quadratic formula is called the
discriminant. There are three possibilities:
1. If b 2  4ac  0, the equation has two real roots.
2. If b 2  4ac  0, the roots are equal.
3. If b 2  4ac  0, the equation has no real root. (The roots are complex.)

REVIEW OF ALGEBRA

These three cases correspond to the fact that the number of times the parabola
y  ax 2  bx  c crosses the x-axis is 2, 1, or 0 (see Figure 1). In case (3) the quadratic ax 2  bx  c cant be factored and is called irreducible.
y

FIGURE 1
(a) b@-4ac>0

Possible graphs of y=ax@+bx+c

(b) b@-4ac=0

(c) b@-4ac<0

EXAMPLE 12 The quadratic x 2  x  2 is irreducible because its discriminant is

negative:
b 2  4ac  12  412  7  0
Therefore, it is impossible to factor x 2  x  2.

The Binomial Theorem

Recall the binomial expression from Equation 1:

a  b2  a 2  2ab  b 2
If we multiply both sides by a  b and simplify, we get the binomial expansion
8

a  b3  a 3  3a 2b  3ab 2  b 3

Repeating this procedure, we get

a  b4  a 4  4a 3b  6a 2b 2  4ab 3  b 4
In general, we have the following formula.
9 The Binomial Theorem If k is a positive integer, then

a  bk  a k  ka k1b 


kk  1 k2 2
a b
12

kk  1k  2 k3 3

a b
123

  

kk  1k  n  1 kn n

a b
1  2  3    n

   kab k1  b k

REVIEW OF ALGEBRA

EXAMPLE 13 Expand x  25.

SOLUTION Using the Binomial Theorem with a  x, b  2, k  5, we have

x  25  x 5  5x 42 

54 3
543 2
x 22 
x 23  5x24  25
12
123

 x 5  10x 4  40x 3  80x 2  80x  32

Radicals

The most commonly occurring radicals are square roots. The symbol s1 means the
positive square root of. Thus
x  sa

x2  a

means

and

x 0

Since a  x 2 0, the symbol sa makes sense only when a 0. Here are two rules
for working with square roots:

sab  sa sb

10

a
sa

b
sb

However, there is no similar rule for the square root of a sum. In fact, you should
remember to avoid the following common error:
sa  b  sa  sb

(For instance, take a  9 and b  16 to see the error.)

EXAMPLE 14

(a)

s18

s2

18
 s9  3
2

 
  x  because s1 indicates the positive square root.

(b) sx 2 y  sx 2 sy  x sy
2

Notice that sx
(See Appendix A.)

In general, if n is a positive integer,

n
xs
a

xn  a

means

If n is even, then a 0 and x 0.

3
4
6
Thus s
8  2 because 23  8, but s
8 and s
8 are not defined. The following rules are valid:

n
n
n
ab  s
as
b
s

3
3
3
3
3
EXAMPLE 15 s
x4  s
x 3x  s
x3 s
x  xs
x

n
a
a
s
 n
b
sb

REVIEW OF ALGEBRA

To rationalize a numerator or denominator that contains an expression such as

sa  sb, we multiply both the numerator and the denominator by the conjugate radical sa  sb. Then we can take advantage of the formula for a difference of squares:

(sa  sb )(sa  sb )  (sa )2  (sb )2  a  b

EXAMPLE 16 Rationalize the numerator in the expression

sx  4  2
.
x

SOLUTION We multiply the numerator and the denominator by the conjugate radical

sx  4  2:
sx  4  2

x


sx  4  2
x



sx  4  2
sx  4  2

x  4  4
x (sx  4  2)

x
1

x (sx  4  2)
sx  4  2

Exponents

Let a be any positive number and let n be a positive integer. Then, by definition,
1. a n  a  a      a
n factors

2. a  1
0

1
an
n
4. a1n  s
a
m
mn
n
n
a  sa m  (s
a)
3. an 

m is any integer

11 Laws of Exponents Let a and b be positive numbers and let r and s be any
rational numbers (that is, ratios of integers). Then

1. a r  a s  a rs

2.

4. abr  a rb r

5.

ar
 a rs
as


a
b

ar
br

3. a r   a rs
s

b0

In words, these five laws can be stated as follows:

1. To multiply two powers of the same number, we add the exponents.
2. To divide two powers of the same number, we subtract the exponents.
3. To raise a power to a new power, we multiply the exponents.
4. To raise a product to a power, we raise each factor to the power.
5. To raise a quotient to a power, we raise both numerator and denominator to
the power.

10

REVIEW OF ALGEBRA

EXAMPLE 17

(a) 28  82  28  232  28  26  214

2

1
1
y2  x2
2 
2
x
y
x 2y 2
y2  x2
xy




2 2
1
1
yx
x y
yx

x
y
xy
y  xy  x
yx


xyy  x
xy

2

x y
x1  y1

(b)

Alternative solution: 432  (s4 )  23  8

(c) 432  s43  s64  8

1
1
(d) 3 4  43  x43
x
sx
(e)

Exercises

  
3

x
y

y 2x
z

A Click here for answers.

116

3. 2xx  5

4. 4  3xx

5. 24  3a

6. 8  4  x

8. 53t  4  t 2  2  2tt  3
9. 4x  13x  7

10. xx  1x  2

11. 2x  12

12. 2  3x2

13. y 46  y5  y

14. t  52  2t  38t  1
15. 1  2xx 2  3x  1

1728

16. 1  x  x 2 2

2948

7. 4x 2  x  2  5x 2  2x  1

1
c1
27.
1
1
c1

Expand and simplify.

2. 2x 2 yxy 4 

1

1. 6ab0.5ac

x 3 y 8x 4
 4  x 7y 5z4
y3
z

Perform the indicated operations and simplify.

1

30. 5ab  8abc

31. x 2  7x  6

32. x 2  x  6

33. x 2  2x  8

34. 2x 2  7x  4

35. 9x 2  36

36. 8x 2  10x  3

37. 6x 2  5x  6

38. x 2  10x  25

39. t 3  1

40. 4t 2  9s 2

41. 4t 2  12t  9

42. x 3  27

43. x 3  2x 2  x

44. x 3  4x 2  5x  2

45. x 3  3x 2  x  3

46. x 3  2x 2  23x  60

47. x 3  5x 2  2x  24

49.

50.

2
3
4

 2
a2
ab
b

x2  x  2
x 2  3x  2

2x 2  3x  2
x2  4

51.

52.

x 3  5x 2  6x
x 2  x  12

24.

x
yz

x2  1
x  9x  8

53.

26.

a
b

bc
ac

1
1
 2
x3
x 9

25.

xy
z

  
2r
s

s2
6t

4954

48. x 3  3x 2  4x  12

1
1

20.
x1
x1

23.

29. 2x  12x 3

1
2

19.
x5
x3

22.

Factor the expression.

9b  6
18.
3b

u
u1

1
1x

2  8x
17.
2

21. u  1 

28. 1 

Simplify the expression.

REVIEW OF ALGEBRA

x
2
 2
x2  x  2
x  5x  4

54.

5560

x 92x4
x3

86.

a n  a 2n1
a n2

87.

a3b 4
a5b 5

88.

x1  y1
x  y1

Complete the square.

85.

55. x 2  2x  5

56. x 2  16x  80

89. 312

90. 9615

57. x 2  5x  10

58. x 2  3x  1

91. 125 23

92. 6443

59. 4x 2  4x  2

60. 3x 2  24x  50

93. 2x 2 y 4 32

94. x5 y 3z 10 35

5
y6
95. s

4
a)
96. (s

6168

Solve the equation.

97.

61. x  9x  10  0

62. x  2x  8  0

63. x  9x  1  0

64. x 2  2x  7  0

65. 3x 2  5x  1  0

66. 2x 2  7x  2  0

67. x 3  2x  1  0

68. x 3  3x 2  x  1  0

99.

6972

70. 2x 2  9x  4

71. 3x 2  x  6

72. x 2  3x  6

7376

81. s16a 4b 3

3
2
s
3
54
s

80. sxy sx 3 y

83100

Rationalize the expression.

(1sx )  1

sx  3
x9

102.

103.

x sx  8
x4

104.

s2  h  s2  h
h

105.

2
3  s5

106.

1
sx  sy

107. sx 2  3x  4  x

79.

4
32x 4
s
4
2
s

82.

5
96a6
s
5
s3a

84. 216  410  16 6

x1

108. sx 2  x  sx 2  x

109116

State whether or not the equation is true for all

values of the variable.

109. sx 2  x

110. sx 2  4  x  2

a
16  a
1
111.
16
16

1
xy
112. 1
x  y1

113.

Use the Laws of Exponents to rewrite and simplify

the expression.

83. 310  9 8

4
4
r 2n1  s
r 1
100. s

101.

Simplify the radicals.

78.

t 12sst
s 23

2 5

77. s32 s2

101108

76. 3  x 

7782

8
5
sx
4
sx 3

98.

74. a  b7

75. x  1
2

Use the Binomial Theorem to expand the expression.

73. a  b6

Which of the quadratics are irreducible?

69. 2x 2  3x  4

1
(st ) 5

11

x
1

xy
1y

2
1
2
 
4x
2
x

114.

115. x 34  x 7
116. 6  4x  a  6  4x  4a

12

ANSWERS

Answers

1. 3a 2bc
2. 2x 3 y 5
3. 2x 2  10x
4. 4x  3x 2
2
5. 8  6a
6. 4  x
7. x  6x  3
8. 3t 2  21t  22
9. 12x 2  25x  7
11. 4x 2  4x  1

10. x 3  x 2  2x
12. 9x  12x  4

13. 30y  y  y

14. 15t  56t  31

16. x 4  2x 3  x 2  2x  1
19.

3x  7
x 2  2x  15

2b 2  3ab  4a 2
22.
a 2b 2
26.

a2
b2

27.

c
c2

30. ab5  8c

17. 1  4x
21.

x
23.
yz

zx
24.
y

28.

3  2x
2x

18. 3  2b

39. t  1t  t  1

32. x  3x  2

40. 2t  3s2t  3s

41. 2t  32

42. x  3x 2  3x  9

43. xx  12

44. x  12x  2
46. x  3x  5x  4

47. x  2x  3x  4

48. x  2x  3x  2

53.

2x  1
50.
x2

x2
x2  9

54.

55. x  12  4
58. ( x 

3 2
2

 54

60. 3x  4  2
2

x1
51.
x8

xx  2
52.
x4

x 2  6x  4
x  1x  2x  4
56. x  82  16

57. ( x 

59. 2x  12  3

61. 1, 10

62. 2, 4

9  s85
2

64. 1  2s2

66.

7  s33
4

67. 1,

65.

1  s5
2

5 2
2

5  s13
6
68. 1, 1  s2

70. Not irreducible

71. Not irreducible (two real roots)

72. Irreducible

73. a 6  6a 5b  15a 4b 2  20a 3b 3  15a 2b 4  6ab 5  b 6

76. 243  405x 2  270x 4  90x 6  15x 8  x 10

 154

78.  3
1

81. 4a 2bsb

a2
b

90. 2 5s3

91. 25

t 14
s 124

83. 3 26

82. 2a
87.

99.

80. x 2 y

79. 2 x

86. a 2n3

x3
94. 95 6
y z

45. x  1x  1x  3

x2
49.
x2

63.

77. 8

38. x  52

75. x 8  4x 6  6x 4  4x 2  1

36. 4x  32x  1

37. 3x  22x  3

 21a 2b 5  7ab 6  b 7

rs
25.
3t

34. 2x  1x  4

35. 9x  2x  2

74. a 7  7a 6b  21a 5b 2  35a 4b 3  35a 3b 4

29. 2x1  6x 2

31. x  6x  1

33. x  4x  2

69. Irreducible

u 2  3u  1
u1

2x
x2  1

20.

15. 2x 3  5x 2  x  1

88.
92.

95. y 65

x  y2
xy

101.

103.

x 2  4x  16
xsx  8

105.

3  s5
2

107.

3x  4
sx 2  3x  4  x

104.

89.

85. 16x 10

1
s3

1
256

93. 2s2 x 3 y 6

96. a 34

100. r n2

106.

84. 2 60

1
sx  3

97. t 52
102.

98.

1
sx  x

2
s2  h  s2  h

sx  sy
xy
108.

1
x 18

2x
sx 2  x  sx 2  x

109. False

110. False

111. True

112. False

113. False

114. False

115. False

116. True