Offshore Wind Energy in Europe

WIND ENERGY
Wind Energ. 2003; 6:3552 (DOI: 10.1002/we.82)
Review
Article
Offshore Wind Energy in Europe

A Review of the State-of-the-Art
Andrew R. Henderson, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
Colin Morgan, Garrad Hassan and Partners Ltd, Bristol, UK
Bernie Smith, John Brown Hydrocarbons Ltd, London, UK
Hans C. Srensen, Energi & Miljoe Undersoegelser (EMU), Copenhagen, Denmark
Rebecca J. Barthelmie, Ris National Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark
Bart Boesmans, Tractebel Energy Engineering, Brussels, Belgium
Key words:
offshore wind
energy; offshore
wind turbine
After several decades of theoretical developments, desk studies, experimental wind turbines
and prototype wind farms, the first large-scale commercial developments of offshore wind
farms are now being built. To support and accelerate this development, the European
Commission funded a project, Concerted Action on Offshore Wind Energy in Europe (CAOWEE), which aimed to gather, evaluate, synthesize and distribute knowledge on all aspects
of offshore wind energy, including offshore technology, electrical integration, economics,
environmental impacts and political aspects. The partners are from a wide range of fields
and include developers, utilities, consultants, research institutes and universities. This article
reports on the final conclusions of this project, with the complete report being available
online at http://www.offshorewindenergy.org. Copyright 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Introduction
Offshore wind farms promise to become an important source of energy in the near future: it is expected that
by the end of this decade, wind farms with a total capacity of thousands of megawatts will be installed in
European seas. This will be equivalent to several large traditional coal-fired power stations. Plans are currently
advancing for such large-scale wind farms in Swedish, Danish, German, Dutch, Belgian, British and Irish
waters and the first such parks are currently being constructed at Horns Rev, off Denmarks western coast,
and Rdsand, in the Danish part of the Baltic coast.
Onshore wind energy has grown enormously over the last decade to the point where it generates more than
10% of all electricity in certain regions (such as Denmark, Schleswig-Holstein in Germany and Gotland in
Sweden). However, this expansion has not been without problems. The resistance by some members of the
public and planning procedures to wind farm developments experienced in Britain since the mid-1990s is
now present in several other countries. One solution to this problem is to move the developments offshore,
where land use disputes are avoided and noise and visual impacts greatly reduced. There are also a number
of other advantages:
availability of large continuous areas suitable for major projects;
higher wind speeds, which generally increase with distance from the shore (Britain is an exception to this,
as the speed-up factor over hills means that the best wind resources are where the turbines are also most
visible);
less turbulence, which allows the turbines to harvest the available energy more effectively and reduces the
fatigue loads on the turbine;
Correspondence to: Andrew R. Henderson, Section Wind Energy, Delft University of Technology, Stevinweg 1, NL-2628
CN Delft, The Netherlands. E-mail: [email protected]
Contract/grant sponsor: European Commission; Contract/grant number: NNE5-1999-00562.
Copyright 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
36
A. R. Henderson et al.
lower wind shear (i.e. the boundary layer of slower moving wind close to the surface is thinner), thus
allowing the use of shorter towers.
Set against these advantages is the very important disadvantage of the additional capital investment
necessary, relating to:
the more expensive marine foundations;
the more expensive integration into the electrical network and in some cases a necessary increase in the
capacity of weak coastal grids;
the more expensive installation procedures and restricted access during construction owing to weather
conditions;
limited access for O&M during operation, which results in an additional penalty of reduced turbine
availability and hence reduced output.
However, the cost of wind turbines is falling and is expected to continue doing so over the coming decade,
and once sufficient experience has been gained in building offshore projects, the offshore construction industry
is likely to find similar cost savings. At locations with good wind speeds, onshore wind energy has become
a cost-competitive resource at a stable price compared with conventional power generation, especially when
environmental benefits are accounted for. Over the last decade, gas-powered CCGT generators have proved
to be the most cost-effective source of power for new-build plants. However, the increase in demand for gas
resulting from the many new power stations has increased the volatility of the price of the fuel, and a recent
study concluded that to fix the price for the next 10 years a premium of 050 US6 c/kWh was payable.1
It would seem likely that offshore wind energy can also become competitive in time. Other developments
that are likely to support this trend are the design of turbines optimized for the offshore environment, of
greater sizes (maybe up to 10 MW and over 125 m rotor diameter eventually) and with greater reliability
built in. At the moment the largest production machines have generating capacities of 25 MW, but prototypes
of machines with power outputs of up to 5 MW are currently being constructed, and with full-scale serial
manufacturing generally a couple of years behind, the middle of this decade should allow a developer to
choose between several competing machines. The wind turbine manufacturing industry has been following its
own exponential growth curves over the last decade of decreasing costs by 20%, increasing annual installed
capacity by 50% and doubling the size of the largest commercially available turbine every 3 years or so.
The total wind power resources available offshore are vast and will certainly be able to supply a significant
proportion of our electricity needs in an economic manner. Earlier studies by Garrad Hassan/Germanischer
Lloyd2 and EWEA/Forum for the Future3 concluded that a large proportion of Europes power could be
supplied from offshore wind turbines.
Offshore Wind Energy Today

Currently there is a total installed capacity of approximately 24 GW on land, and over the last few years
the annual installation rate has passed 4 GW per annum. The average rating of turbines being installed is
now approaching 1 MW per unit internationally, (Figure 1). With the resulting economies of scale, wind
energy now competes on price with the traditional generators, such as coal and nuclear, in areas of rich wind
resources.
Although the challenges of building large offshore wind farms will be considerable, many of the problems
relating to the turbine will have previously been faced on land, and relating to the support structure, by
the offshore and coastal engineering industries. The key point will be to know how to integrate these two
technologies, as it is all too easy for each branch of engineering to underestimate the complexities in the other.
In fact, the combination is not always equal to the sum of the parts, both in a beneficial and a detrimental
sense, hence cost-saving opportunities may be missed and unexpected problems may be encountered during
Wind Energ. 2003; 6:3552
37
1,200
6,000
1,000
5,000
800
4,000
600
3,000
400
2,000
200
1,000
0
1980
Annual Installed Capacity

[MW]
Average Turbine Size

[kW]
0
1985
1990
1995
2000
Year
Average Turbine Size
Worldwide Installed Capacity
Figure 1. Size and installation trends (http://www.britishwindenergy.co.uk)
construction and operation. Avoiding unnecessary costs is especially important now when offshore wind
energy has the opportunity of also becoming competitive on price with traditional energy sources.
Offshore Wind Energy Technology

The wind turbines being used in current offshore projects tend to be machines designed for land use but with
modifications, such as a larger generator, a higher instrumentation specification and component redundancy,
particularly of electrical systems, see Table I. If the market expands as expected, machines designed for
optimized performance offshore will be developed and utilized, but it is not certain how they will look. On
one hand, the requirements from an offshore machine differ from those on land, however, the requirement
for high reliability would suggest the use of well-proven turbines. Modifications may include:
larger machines, up to 5 or 10 MW;
faster rotational speeds than on land, where noise restrictions generally mean that the turbine operates
slightly below optimum speed;
larger generators for a specific rotor size, to enable the additionally available energy to be efficiently
harvested;
high-voltage generation, also possible in DC instead of AC;
Table I. Trends in tip speed comparing offshore and land-based turbines
Wind turbine
Rated power
(kW)
Control
concept
Tip speed
(m s1 )
1650
2000
1300
2000
1300
2000
1000
2000
Pitch regulated, variable slip

Pitch regulated, variable speed
Stall regulated, fixed speed
Pitch regulated, variable speed
Active stall, fixed speed
Stall regulated, fixed speed
66
80
60
80
62
68
57
68
Vestas V66 (land)

Vestas V80 (offshore)
Nordex N60 (land)
Nordex N80 (offshore)
Bonus 1300 (land)
Bonus 2000 (offshore)
NEG Micon 1000/60 (land)
NEG Micon 2000/72 (offshore)
Ratio of tip speeds

(offshore/land)
1.21
1.33
1.10
1.19
Wind Energ. 2003; 6:3552
38
in the longer term, innovative wind turbine architectures might become an option, but engineering effort
will be needed to achieve the theoretical potential.
Some of the main findings and conclusions from the full report with regard to offshore wind turbine
technology are presented below, with a focus on identifying expected technology trends.
Wind Turbine Size

Rotor diameter and power rating for offshore applications are continuously increasing; the relationship is
shown in Figure 2. The largest commercial turbines currently available have a diameter range of 6580 m
and rated power output of 1525 MW. Prototypes are under development with respective values of up
to 120 m and 5 MW. It appears that the largest current machines (offered especially for offshore markets)
exploit significantly higher tip speeds than onshore machines. An increase of between 10% and 35% is typical,
resulting in tip speeds of up to 80 m s1 , as detailed in Table I. Increased tip speeds result in lower torque,
less mass and thus reduced costs of tower top systems.
Costs
Under conditions of true similarity in design style, state of technological progress and design specification,
costs of large turbines might be expected to scale cubically with rotor diameter. Considering, however
historical, data over the range of machine sizes, ongoing technology development results in a scaling closer
to a square law than a cubic law. Price data of onshore machines show a gently rising unit cost (per m2
swept area) for rotor diameters of 40 m and greater (Figure 3), although this could partly reflect the fact
that smaller turbines were generally introduced to the market longer ago, and with the development costs
previously having been recouped, the selling price can be reduced. Although marinization of onshore design
generally adds 10% in costs, the currently available offshore-specific machines are now essentially on lower
cost curves than their onshore predecessors.
Blade Technology
rated output power, P [kW]
The demand for high-strength blades of low solidity in conjunction with diminishing carbon fibre costs may
drive the industry in the direction of carbon epoxy. Carbon prices are falling, and if it were used in significant
quantities in blades for offshore machines, that could become by far the largest market for high-quality carbon
fibres, thus resulting in further cost reduction.
3000
2500
P = 0.1215D2.23
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
rotor diameter, D [m]

Figure 2. Relationship between rotor diameter and rated power output
Wind Energ. 2003; 6:3552
39
600
500
euro/m2
400
300
200
100
0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
rated power [kW]

Figure 3. Cost per unit swept area vs rated power
Gearbox
It is not clear whether the current gearbox concept (three-stage units, input stage planetary, the two higherspeed stages parallel with helical gears) will be applicable for larger offshore turbines, since it is likely that for
larger machines, i.e. >3 MW, an additional gearbox stage will be required, resulting in increased complexity
and probability of failure. This may be an important driver towards direct drive systems.
Variable Speed
There is a tendency towards variable-speed designs. Wide-range variable speed has a further advantage in the
ability to avoid damaging resonances, important for offshore turbine structures, where the resonant frequencies
have proved difficult to predict accurately and may also change over the lifetime of the structure. It remains
somewhat unclear whether power electronic converters can be made reliable enough at suitable cost.
Support Structure
The current design philosophy for wind farms in water depths of up to 20 m is based on the monopile,
except in the shallowest waters (up to 5 m) where gravity base structures have been preferred (Figure 4). The
installation methodology (driving, drilling or combination) will depend on soil properties and water depth. For
deeper waters, tripod support structures are being considered, but the optimum solution is not yet certain and
may well be a concept currently being brought into the field by offshore and coastal engineering specialists.
Floating support structures remain a challenge with regard to cost, but this will need to be met if countries
with less extensive regions of shallow water, such as Japan, are also to exploit offshore wind energy to a
significant extent.4
Operation and Maintenance (O&M)

O&M of offshore wind farms is more difficult and expensive than for equivalent onshore wind farms. The
current reliability and failure modes of commercial offshore wind turbines are such that a no maintenance
strategy is not a viable option. Improved preventive and corrective maintenance schemes will become crucial
for economic exploitation of offshore wind power. In particular, improving the accessibility is a key factor in
increasing availability.5 A number of current projects are attempting to address the issue of improved access
to offshore wind turbine installations, with most focusing on maintaining existing boat access methods, with
emphasis on addressing the issue of motion compensation or complete removal of the vessel from the water
at the turbine location. Suggested improvements to the base of OWECS to facilitate safe personnel access
Wind Energ. 2003; 6:3552
40
Figure 4. Types of support structure: monopile, tripod and gravity base structures
include fixed platforms, flexible gangways, friction posts against which the vessel maintains a forward thrust
during transfer, vessel lifting facilities and winch/netting for personnel and equipment (eliminating the need
for specialist lifting vessels for major component replacement).
The issue of availability should also be addressed through improvements in offshore wind turbine reliability.
Unplanned maintenance levels can be reduced by increasing the reliability of the turbine. Particular emphasis is
being placed on reliability issues, from overall design improvements through to component level. Designing
for reduced maintenance could drive wind turbine designs away from current onshore standards, such as
towards two bladed configurations, direct drive technology or application of electrical actuators; however, use
of unproven technologies is intrinsically less reliable than using proven systems.
Electrical Systems
There are many areas where technical developments in electrical systems are expected which will improve
the economics and reliability of offshore wind farms. Some of these will arrive because of developments in
other industries and in onshore wind, but others are specific to offshore wind and are therefore more risky.
Developments can be expected to take place within the wind turbine (such as generation at high voltage) and
within the wind farm electrical systems, regarding set-up of substations, use of HVDC technology and cable
technology.
Grid Integration and Energy Supply

In the past, grid operators have had to manage stochastic variation in the power demand only, but wind
and some other renewables introduce a significant level of stochastic variation into the supply as well. Up
to a fairly high penetration level into the national supply (of the order of 10%) the power can generally be
absorbed without too much difficulty, as, in principle, stochastic mismatch is the same problem whichever
side it originates from. There may be local difficulties due to grid weakness in some areas or to lack of
experience and confidence by the grid operator. Beyond that, non-dispatchable generators pay a price penalty if
additional conventional reserve power is required to ensure the balance between production and consumption.
This can be reduced by using wind forecasting to predict the output further in advance or by matching with
dispatchable but limited sources of power, such as hydroelectric. The coming decade is likely to see the
expansion of several previously non-conventional electricity generation technologies, including micropower
generation,6 hence grid operators will have an incentive and pressure from several generator technologies to
react positively to these challenges. In addition, integrating large offshore wind farms into the electricity grid
may pose problems if the coastal network is weak, and more advanced power control systems may be used
Wind Energ. 2003; 6:3552
41
to conform with grid connection requirements. This may provide opportunities for the application of new
technologies for electricity storage combined with more reliable models for predicting fluctuations from wind
energy over longer periods.
Cross-border power transmission limitations prevent a geographical smoothing of the production/consumption imbalance. Solutions to deal with large imbalances are demand-side management, increased flexibility and
dispatching capability of conventional plants, the use of energy storage, application of wind power forecasting
techniques and increasing the controllability of wind farm output. It is concluded that, although all options
could eventually contribute to the solution (requiring much more RTD), the most promising immediate step
is to increase the accuracy and reliability of wind power forecasting techniques.
The impact of large-scale offshore wind power on power system performance (power quality) requires
special attention, since coastal connection points will often be relatively weak. Flicker, harmonics and
interharmonics and static stability are not considered as limiting factors, but dynamic grid stability may
be a limiting factor, in particular in relation to wind farm correlated sudden shutdown of wind turbines or
faults in the network causing many turbines to trip. These problems may lead to modifications in wind turbine
control philosophies for the high-wind-speed cut-out.
Large-scale offshore wind power will further impose an increase in primary control (response time of
the order of seconds) and secondary control (response time of the order of minutes) requirements of the
conventional production components of the system; such requirements could also be imposed on large wind
farms, although it remains unclear how such requirements could be efficiently implemented.
The connection technology between offshore wind farms and the grid is characterized by large power
(>100 MW) and potential long distances. HVDC links offer a possible lower-cost solution, which could also
contribute to alleviate the power quality management problems mentioned above. However, the application
will be limited to very large wind farm developments and the promised cost benefits will have to be realized.
Access of large offshore wind farms to the grid must be in accordance with national grid codes. Current
requirements imposed by national grid codes are in general not considered to be a limiting factor for the
development of large-scale offshore wind power, although these requirements are not particularly suitable for
non-predictable, highly variable energy sources. Anticipating the developments of very large projects in the
future, grid utilities in several countries are actively developing specific requirements. Project developers may
have to take additional measures to comply with the grid codes, such as use of variable-speed wind turbines,
special-purpose remote control systems (with individual power set points for the wind turbines), etc. In the
long term, HVDC transmission and/or on-site large storage facilities with controllable reactive power output
might present interesting opportunities, allowing large-scale offshore wind power plants to meet grid access
requirements more easily, to the point of possibly having a positive impact on grid stability.
Economics and Financing

Turning to the market developments in the energy industry relevant for the development of offshore wind
power, in a number of EU countries (e.g. Belgium, Denmark), minimum shares of renewable energy are
required, either for utilities to sell or for consumers to buy. In other countries (e.g. Ireland, The Netherlands),
green certificate markets have been established (see Table IV). Both systems are expected to support the
demand for renewable energy in general and experience has yet to show which system has the strongest
impact on RES development.
Economics
Offshore projects require initially higher investments than onshore owing to turbine support structures and
grid connection. The cost of grid connection to the shore is typically around 25% (of the initial capital
investment), a much higher fraction than for connection of onshore projects. Other sources of additional cost
include foundations (up to 30% of the initial capital investment), operation and maintenance (with expected
lower availability) and marinization of turbines (Figure 5). Investment costs have been reduced from about
Wind Energ. 2003; 6:3552
42
2200 /kW for the first Danish offshore wind farms to an estimated cost of 1650 /kW for Horns Rev
(equivalent to 49 c/kWh with a discount rate of 5% and a lifetime of 20 years). This compares with typical
figures for onshore sites of investment of 7001000 /kW and estimated energy cost of 38 c/kWh for
a mean wind speed of 510 m s1 . Direct comparison of costs remains susceptible to the widely differing
economic parameters used by different types of developers and in different countries. For comparison, Figure 6
shows a typical distribution of costs for an onshore wind farm.
Projected costs are downwards as the industry determines less expensive methods for installation and
maintenance using experience gained in the offshore industry. As the first offshore wind farms and contractors
gain sufficient confidence to tender at lower levels, with larger project and turbine sizes also reducing costs
per installed MW. Operation and maintenance charges are variable according to site, but a rough estimate
is 30 /kW per year with 05 c/kWh variable. A tentative conclusion is drawn that, for good sites (not too
deep water, benign wave climate, not too distant from shore, high enough wind speeds), large offshore wind
farms could in the near future generate electricity at costs that allow for true commercial exploitation.
Whether offshore wind power could be commercially viable depends on whether sufficient project income
can be generated. This depends on whether the energy produced can be sold on the (then likely to be) fully
liberalized market at a reasonable rate and how the environmental benefit is valued. There are a number of
factors (e.g. use of forecasting techniques) which influence energy sales in a liberalized market and it can be
concluded that severe risks exist associated with market liberalization where the environmental benefits are not
adequately valued. This may jeopardize development at some sites. Despite the average cost of offshore wind
energy being competitive with many traditional energy sources, projects may not be viable. This may leave
Support
Structure
25%
Project
Management
2%
Power
Collection
13%
Wind Turbines
45%
Installation
7%
Power
Transmission
8%
Figure 5. Example breakdown of initial capital costs for an offshore wind farm7
Foundation
16%
Planning &
Miscellaneous
9%
Grid
Connection
11%
Wind Turbines
64%
Figure 6. Example breakdown of initial capital costs for an onshore wind farm7
Wind Energ. 2003; 6:3552
43
Europe in the curious position of possessing an abundant environmentally friendly energy resource whose
exploitation enjoys a high degree of public and governmental support but without the market framework that
can support its development.
Financing
From the current developments of demonstration offshore projects of various sizes, it would appear that
sufficient equity capital is available for financing offshore wind farm projects. Some major oil and gas
companies and utilities have announced projects which could be financed by company equity. However, it
still remains to be determined under what conditions (due diligence, certification, insurance, etc.) bank loans
will be granted for offshore wind farm projects. Only test and demonstration projects will provide information
to allow an answer to this question. At least they will reduce the present uncertainties related to the cost
of energy generated. Important support comes from a variety of national incentive mechanisms, such as
investment subsidies, tax exemptions, fixed tariffs and green certificate schemes.
Resources
The resources available across the offshore regions of Europe are vast, particularly in Northern Europe,
and are in theory capable of supplying all electrical needs of the whole continent (though currently at an
uneconomical price). In practice, offshore wind energy could become a major source of energy for several
countries at a competitive price in the medium term.
So far, all offshore wind farms have been built in seas off Northern European coasts, where there are
large flat and shallow regions a short distance away from the coast and hence suitable for development. The
continental shelf around much of the Mediterranean Sea falls off much faster, leaving little space for bottommounted wind farm developments and hence limited prospects for offshore wind energy unless floating wind
energy can overcome its current cost disadvantage.4
Wind resource studies for EU offshore regions are based on monitoring data and modelling techniques. The
issue of offshore wind resources is complicated by a number of factors. Low roughness gives low turbulence
and wind shear, but thermal effects are important, particularly in coastal regions: wind speed profiles deviate
from logarithmic and thermal flows are generated, such as sea breezes and low-level jets. More details are
given in the full report on which this article is based,8 which discusses both offshore wind monitoring and
state-of-the-art modelling techniques, and a major conclusion is that while current modelling techniques
can provide good representation of general resources, specific site resource estimation still requires on-site
measurements.
The offshore wind potential is derived from the wind resource in combination with a number of local
constraints, such as technology limits (e.g. water depth), economy, ecology and conflicts of interest with
other users. The resulting wind potential is thus a function of the constraints considered, the assumptions
applied and the level of detail. Available studies of the offshore wind power potential in the EU were reviewed,
though unfortunately, most studies have been performed on a national basis and a specific set of assumptions
and hence cannot easily be combined for the EU total. Notwithstanding this difficulty, the overall resource is
estimated to be 140 GW, which is well in excess of the EU White Paper target of 10 GW in 2010.
In the last decade of the 20th century, 80 MW of offshore wind power was installed in Europe. These wind
farms have operated successfully and have proved that offshore wind energy is technically, economically and
environmentally viable. Continued monitoring and detailed investigation of these wind farms will provide
invaluable data for use in better evaluating and harnessing the offshore wind resource and for meeting the
challenges of installing large wind farms.
The next generation of wind farms in the 100 MW range, consisting of multi-megawatt turbines, provides
new challenges. Hub heights are now beyond the height that measuring masts can be installed economically,
wakes within such large farms are not well understood and the influence of upwind farms requires further
research. Because of these new uncertainties, wind turbine technology may be less proven than was the case
Wind Energ. 2003; 6:3552
44
for the first offshore demonstration projects. Larger distances to the coast and deeper water give harsher
conditions for the turbines and supporting structures. Access for maintenance is more difficult, combined
with the demand for better availability. However, the physical and environmental challenges are within the
grasp of the offshore and wind energy industries. A greater challenge is posed by market uncertainty, which
has not been detailed in this report.
Activities and Prospects

To date, 10 small- and medium-sized offshore wind farms and one large-sized offshore wind farm have been
built (the first offshore plant consisted of a single wind turbine and was abandoned after a fire); the main
details are summarized in Table II and Figure 7. The first and most visually prominent offshore wind farms
are at Vindeby (1993) and Middelgrunden (40 MW) respectively, both being located in Denmark, the second
only a few kilometres from the capitals shoreline. In 2002 the first truly large-scale wind farm was built at
Horns Rev off the west coast of Denmark, a wind farm consisting of 80 turbines, each rated at 2 MW. This
160 MW capacity is likely to be surpassed in the next few years by many other projects across Northern
Europe and possibly elsewhere.
Electricity production has generally exceeded expectations, and costs have steadily fallen to the point where
offshore wind energy is competitive on price with many of the current onshore developments. In 2000 three
wind farms were built, all using MW-sized turbines for the first time in the offshore environment, and one,
at Blyth, which is in a location facing one of the most hostile seas in Europe, is being accompanied by an
extensive measurement programme. In 2001 a single wind farm was built in Sweden of 10 MW capacity and
in 2002 Horns Rev was completed. However, the next few years are likely to see a significant increase in
both size and number and the range of countries where offshore wind farms are being built; a shortened list
is given in Table III and shown in Figure 8, and many countries have set ambitious targets (Table IV).
The planned wind farms are shown in Figure 8 to the same scale as the existing projects; hence an
appreciation of the increase in size between existing and planned projects can be made.
However, if it were not for the decade-long research effort, it is unlikely that the development of these
projects would be possible. The last few years have seen a number of intensive projects, including a selection
of recent and ongoing research and demonstration projects listed in Table V. Further details are available
from the CORDIS database at http://www.cordis.lu. Offshore wind energy has received prominent coverage at
recent national and international conferences, such as the European Wind Energy Association (www.ewea.org)
Table II. List of existing offshore wind farms9
Location
Year
Installed
power (MW)
Water
depth (m)
Distance
from shore
Nogersund (SE)
Vindeby (DK)
Medemblik (NL)
Tun Knob (DK)
Dronten (NL)
Bockstigen-Valor (SE)
Middelgrunden (DK)
Utgrunden (SE)
Blyth (UK)
Yttre Stengrund (SE)
Horns Rev (DK)
Sams (DK)
1991a
1991
1994
1995
1996
1998
2000
2000
2000
2001
2002
2002
1 022; WindWorld
11 045 D 495; Bonus
4 05 D 2; NedWind
10 05 D 5; Vestas
28 06 D 168; Nordtank
5 05 D 25; WindWorld
20 2 D 40; Bonus
7 1425 D 10; Enron
2 2 D 4; Vestas
5 2 D 10; NEG Micon
80 2 D 160; Vestas
10 25 D 25; Bonus
7
35
510
35
5
6
36
710
8
610
614
1820
250 m
15 km
750 m
6 km
20 m
3 km
3 km
8 km
800 m
5 km
1420 km
5 km
Decommissioned 1998.
Wind Energ. 2003; 6:3552
45
Figure 7. Location of some existing wind farms

Table III. Some planned offshore wind farms
Location
Year
Installed
power (MW)
Other details
Arklow Bank (EI)

Rdsand/Nysted (DK)
Ls Syd (DK)a
Egmond (NL)
Q7 (NL)
Scroby Sand (UK)
Borkum (DE)
2003
2003
2003
2003
2003
2003
2003
60 (1st phase)
72 22 Bonus D 158
150
100
60 2 D 120
38 2 Vestas D 76
12 5 D 60 (1st phase)
520 MW when complete
2003
2003/4
2003/4
2003/4
2004/5
2004/5
2004
2004
2005
2005
30 2/3 D 60/90
100
42 15 Enercon D 63
21 2 NEG Micon D 42
150
480 turbines
4961 2 D 98122
160 3 D 480
83 3 D 249
170 25 D 425
North Hoyle (UK)

Raan (BE)
Lillegrunden (SE)
Klasarden (SE)
Om Stalgrunde (DK)a
11 other locations in the UK
Biaogora (PL)
Adlergrund (DE)
Beltsee (DE)
Nantucket Island (USA)
Gedser (DK)a
Butendiek (DE)
Karwia (PL)
Kish Bank (EI)
2006
2006
??
??
45 km from island in
30 m water
Would be first project

outside Europe
150
80 3 D 240
50 2
250
In January 2002 the Danish Government announced a change in policy regarding the offshore wind farms at
Gedser, Ls Syd and Om Stalgrunde. It is not clear at the time of writing to what extent the construction
of these wind farms will be delayed.
Wind Energ. 2003; 6:3552
46
Figure 8. Location of some planned wind farms
Table IV. National plans and targets

Country
BE
DK
FI
FR
D
GR
EI
I
NL
PL
PT
ES
SE
UK
Plans
3% electricity from renewables. Offshore wind energy is not yet eligible for green
certificates (under discussion)
Government target revised; large-scale developments in two areas only
Plans to develop one wind farm
Several plans discussed
Target 5%6% electricity from renewables by 2010 and 50% by 2050; research project on
on- and offshore development. In spring 2001 a number of sites were announced
None publicly available
Targets set. Measurements under way. Green certificates introduced
Discussion of 1000 MW target installation. Local feasibility studies
Target set of 6000 MW for offshore wind in 2020. Several feasibility/environmental
studies under way. Two wind farms developed in IJsselmeer. Demonstration wind farm
of 100 MW planned at Egmond an Zee. Green certificates introduced
Two wind farms of 100 MW have consent near Bialogora and near Karwia
None publicly available
Some monitoring studies
No target set, but construction of wind farms undertaken by private developers
Targets set. Measurements under way at five sites. One site developed. In April 2001
preliminary licences for 18 offshore sites were awarded
and OWEMES (Offshore Wind Energy in the Mediterranean and Other European Seas; www.owemes.it)
conferences, and other important activities include an increasing number of electronic and traditional press
journals specifically focused on wind or giving wind energy a prominent position, and MSc courses in wind
or renewable energy at several universities across Europe.
Wind Energ. 2003; 6:3552
47
Table V. List of research projects
Project acronym
5MW-OFFSHORE-WEC
CLOWEBS-2000
ENDOW
NHOYLE
Opti-OWECS
OS2500
OWTES
POWER
RECOFF
WEMSAR
Title
5 MW wind energy
converter for offshore
application
Klasorden 42 MW: a
demonstration of
cost-optimized,
large-scale, offshore
wind energy in the
Baltic area
Efficient development of
offshore wind farms
Offshore wind farm In

relatively deep and
exposed seas using
novel and low-cost
construction techniques
Structural and economic
optimization of
bottom-mounted
offshore wind energy
converters
0S2500/78-Demonstration
of a large-scale,
second-generation,
offshore wind turbine,
complying with new
grid requirements
Design methods for
offshore wind turbines
at exposed sites
Predicting offshore wind
energy resources
Recommendations for
design of offshore
wind turbines
Wind energy mapping
using synthetic
aperture radar
Cost optimizing of
large-scale offshore
wind farms
Yttre Stengrund offshore
wind farm
Description
End date
Develop, install and operate a 5 MW offshore

wind generator for pilot operation
Early 2005
Built with the use of innovative installation

techniques and contracting methods developed
by the offshore oil and gas industries; will
also be used to carry out an assessment of the
environmental impact of a large-scale offshore
wind farm in the Baltic Sea
Improved and enhanced wake and boundary
layer models for improved tools for design of
large offshore wind farms; database of
existing and new SODAR wake
measurements from offshore wind farms
Expand the economically accessible resource
through demonstration of a design suitable
for, and cost-effective in, relatively deep and
exposed seas and a wide variety of seabed
conditions
To identify designs leading to a reduction of the
cost per generated kilowatt hour of offshore
wind energy by using an integrated approach
in the design process
End 2002
2003
End 2003
1998
Demonstrate an innovative wind turbine, which

is designed specifically for offshore and other
applications where penetration levels are
likely to be very high; includes a scientific
monitoring and evaluation programme
End 2002
To improve the design methods for wind

turbines located at exposed offshore sites; a
measurement system has been installed on
one of the wind turbines
Assess offshore wind energy potential in
European waters
Provision of recommendations for a standard for
design of offshore wind turbines addressed to
two standardization bodies: the International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and the
European CENELEC
To investigate, validate and demonstrate the
potential of satellite-based synthetic aperture
radar (SAR) to map wind energy in offshore
and near-coastal regions
Investigated the technical and economic
feasibility of a large-scale offshore wind farm
in the range of 200500 MW
Data gathering and design evaluation of wind
farm
2002
Mid-2001
End 2003
2003
1998
2002
Social Acceptance, Environmental Impact and Politics

Experiences from current offshore projects indicate that social acceptance is closely connected to environmental
impacts. Public concern is especially related to the impacts on birds and the visual impact, and although
Wind Energ. 2003; 6:3552
48
the impacts will change somewhat when moving further offshore, it is crucial that aspects such as bird
migration paths and the visual impact of offshore wind turbines in an otherwise structureless landscape
are taken seriously already from the planning phase. The Middelgrunden wind farm makes an interesting
example: the initially proposed efficient rectangular layout was replaced by a graceful curve following consultations; this has helped the wind farm to become a tourist attraction in Copenhagen and avoid
excessive criticism in spite of its prominent visibility from many locations in the city, including the royal
palace.
Furthermore, potential effects on fish, marine mammals, fauna and benthos need to be investigated, as
the impacts from large-scale offshore wind farms (e.g. sound emissions and electromagnetic fields from
underwater cables) are currently relatively unknown. The effect from wind turbines on radar systems is also
an important issue that is currently poorly understood and must be dealt with both in generic studies and
in site-specific pre-investigations (environmental impact assessments). These investigations and the planning
process prior to large-scale offshore projects should be as open as possible and allow local involvement.
The role that public opinion plays is essential and has been an important difference between the countries
where onshore wind energy has become widespread and those where it has not. Care should be taken to
ensure that public opinion continues to support the advancement of offshore wind energy.
The objective of this part of the CA-OWEE project was to consider:
environmental impacts;
social acceptance;
conflicts of interest;
national planning rules throughout the EU.
The main conclusion regarding environmental impacts of offshore wind farms is that although there are no
strong indications of severe environmental effects, there is yet very little real experience. This uncertainty and
lack of actual experience threatens to develop into a limiting factor delaying licensing procedures for offshore
wind farms. All national regulations require that an EIA (environmental impact assessment) is carried out
before planning permission is given, which should typically cover an estimation and evaluation of the likely
effects on:
human beings, fauna and flora;
soil, water, air, climate and the landscape;
material assets and the cultural heritage;
the interaction between these factors mentioned.
Regarding biological issues, those considered potentially problematic are indicated as:
collision of birds with turbines;
ousting birds off their traditional feeding/roosting grounds;
unknown effect of low frequency noise emissions on fish life and sea mammals;
impacts on fish larvae;
disturbances of seabed and fauna during construction and operation.
It can be seen that the effect on birds features prominently, and several completed and ongoing research
programmes focus on this aspect. No definitive answer has been reached: a study at Tun Knob showed
no discernible effect on wintering eider-ducks;10 results from studies at Utgrunden and Yttre Stengrund are
awaited.
The effect on seals has also been examined, at both Tun Knob and Bockstigen-Valor,11 with no impact
found; a similar study at the Rdsand/Nysted wind farm should concur with this. A potentially more serious
problem is that fish have been known to lose consciousness from the pile-driving shock waves; the effect is
Wind Energ. 2003; 6:3552
49
temporary and the fish do recover, but sensitive breeding periods should be avoided and the sight of stunned
fish could lead to public relations problems. During operation the noise from wind turbines should not be
audible above ambient underwater noise beyond about 20 m.12,13
Public attitudes are in general positive, but may turn negative with actual projects. This is based on two
different issues:
the perceived potential of ecological damage, in particular in relation to birds;
the perceived visual and noise impact, in particular in relation to the recreational use and value of the
adjacent coast.
Visual impact obviously diminishes with distance to shore, and in general it can be assumed that the visual
impact to viewers at sea level is negligible when the farms are located more than 8 km from shore. With
distances larger than 45 km the visibility will be almost zero owing to the curvature of the earths surface.
These distances will be greater where there are elevated viewpoints, but may also be severely reduced
depending on the atmospheric clarity.
The main other conflicts of interest in developing offshore wind farms are with radar systems and marine
traffic. Careful planning should resolve this conflict, as especially the potential effects on radar systems may
become a barrier for future development of offshore wind energy projects. Regarding marine traffic, improved
and suitable ship collision risk and damage consequence models should become available.
Since in most countries the political attitude towards offshore wind power is positive, national planning
and regulation rules are being adapted for licensing offshore wind farms, both inside and outside the 12 mile
zones.
The direct employment effects of offshore wind power are estimated as 45 full-time jobs/MW.14 European
industry could greatly benefit from taking the lead in offshore wind farm development and construction, with
an estimated 9000 and 30,000 people employed in Denmark15 and Germany16 respectively.
Recommendations for Future Research

The final objective of the project was to identify RTD requirements and to develop recommendations for
an RTD strategy for development of offshore wind energy. Based on the information collated as part of
the project, an attempt was made to identify the key problem areas which affect the future development
of offshore wind energy. Recommendations were formulated for a programme of RTD which is aimed at
providing solutions to these problems. The overall aim of the work has been to provide directives on the
research requirements for offshore wind energy applications within the next 5 years, and those identified as
being of the highest priority are included in Table VI.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the contributions made to this article by all partners in the CA-OWEE
project. The project Concerted Action on Offshore Wind Energy in Europe (CA-OWEE) was funded by the
European Commission under contract NNE5-1999-00562.
Appendix
The objectives of the project Concerted Action on Offshore Wind Energy in Europe (CA-OWEE) were to
define the current state of the art of offshore wind energy in Europe through gathering and evaluation of
information from across Europe and to disseminate the resulting knowledge to all interested parties, in order
to help stimulate the development of the industry. The project was funded by the European Commission
and was completed at the end of 2001. The knowledge gathered is freely available through an internet site
(http://www.offshorewindenergy.org) and a printed report.
Wind Energ. 2003; 6:3552
50
Table VI. RTD objectives identified as being of highest priority
Offshore technology
Grid
Topic
Time
scale
(years)
Better definition of design criteria and extreme wind/wave recurrence periods for inshore
waters
Development and validation of models for reliable prediction of fatigue and extreme loads
Assess reliability of existing spectral wave models
Aeroelastic and structural design of large rotor blades
Measurement campaigns on early projects
Review of safety factors
Investigation of breaking waves, shallow water effects and resulting loads
Further research on geotechnics of inshore watersimprove understanding of the
interaction of seabed/soil characteristics with system dynamicssensitivity of resonant
frequencies, fatigue loading, etc.
Improved dissemination of knowledge of offshore marine-related construction procedures
and techniques amongst designers/developers
Reduce sensitivity to wave/wind conditions
Reduce time for offshore working
Minimization of offshore lifting operations
Safety of personnel
Remote control facilities to allow manual override of turbine control system from an
onshore base
Development of purpose-built jack-up barges, floating barges and landing craft
Develop condition monitoring via SCADA systems (enhanced capability, 2 from 3
decision-making, improved reliability)
2
2
2
5
2
2
2
2
2
5
2
2
2
2
5
5
Development of HVDC converter stations, cabling and insulation

Study of the impact of grid limitations on offshore wind energy potential; study of the
relationship between technicaleconomical offshore wind energy potential and cost of
required grid reinforcements
Development of suitable wind turbine (generator) models for dynamic grid simulation
codes (in particular for variable speed wind turbines and including mechanical dynamics)
5
5
Development of forecasting methods for wind energy production up to several days ahead
Improvements in methods for estimating wind resource in coastal areas, mean wind speeds
Vertical wind speed and turbulence profile
Development and validation of inshore joint wind/wave simulations
Evaluation and prediction of wake effects and turbulence on power output of large wind
farms
Cost reduction and reliability improvement for methods for offshore wind data collection
Generic evaluation of LSOWE investment costs taking into account cost-influencing factors
(distance from shore, water depth, wind and wave climate, soil conditions, etc.)
Risk assessment (construction cost, delay risk, energy production, operating costs,
availability)
Joint wind/wave loading on short time scales for weather forecasting, power output and
improved maintenance scheduling
2
2
2
5
2
Recent and current

activities and
prospects
Database of information on existing operational offshore projects and research work

Develop standards for offshore wind industry
Systematic evaluation of the results of test and demonstration projects
2
5
5
Social, political and

environmental
aspects
Baseline and impact studies from individual projects to be disseminated and jointly
appraised
Manage public awareness of stunned fish during construction (pile-driving)
Safety of civil air traffic
Safety of air traffic related to project
Studies of disturbance to radar
Identification and avoidance of sensitive areas
Avoidance of site works during sensitive time periods
Resources and
economics
5
5
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Wind Energ. 2003; 6:3552
51
The project focused on the large-scale exploitation of the offshore wind resource through the use of very
large wind turbines with improved performance and reliability and reduced environmental impacts. The
objective of the project was to collect the accumulated knowledge about offshore wind energy from all over
Europe, evaluate and summarize this knowledge and distribute it to all who can benefit. In addition, a report
has been produced for the Commission with recommendations for which actions are needed to ensure that
the development of offshore wind energy continues to expand and becomes a major source of power in the
coming century.
This project divided offshore wind energy into five clusters of subjects, reviewed the recent history and
summarized the current state of affairs, relating to:
offshore technology of the wind turbines and the support structures;
grid integration, energy supply and financing;
resources and economics;
activities and prospects;
social acceptance, environmental impact and politics.
The projects 17 partners came from 13 countries, thus covering the majority of the European Communitys
coastline. The partners covered a broad range of expertise and included developers, utilities, consultants,
research institutes and universities:
Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands;
Garrad Hassan and Partners, United Kingdom;
John Brown Hydrocarbons Ltd (formerly Kvaerner Oil and Gas), United Kingdom;
Energi & Miljoe Undersoegelser (EMU), Denmark;
Ris National Laboratory, Denmark;
Tractebel Energy Engineering, Belgium;
CIEMAT, Spain;
CRES, Greece;
Deutsches Windenergie-Institut (DEWI), Germany;
Germanischer Lloyd, Germany;
ECN, The Netherlands;
Espace Eolien Developement (EED), France;
ENEA, Italy;
University College Cork, Ireland;
Vindkompaniet i Hemse AB, Sweden;
VTT, Finland;
Baltic Energy Conservation Agency (BAPE), Poland.
References
1. Bolinger M, Wiser R, Golove W. Quantifying the value that wind power provides as a hedge against volatile natural
gas prices. LBNL-50484, 2002. (http://eetd.lbl.gov/ea/EMS/EMS pubs.html#RE)
2. Germanischer Lloyd and Garrad Hassan. Study of offshore wind energy in the EC. ETSU Report W/35/00250 and
Publ. Verlag Naturliche Energie JOUR 0072, 1994.
3. Forum for Energy and Development. Windforce 10. A blueprint to achieve 10% of the worlds electricity from wind
power by 2020. 2000 Available la: www.inforse.org, report accessed 1/2/03
4. Henderson AR, Leutz R, Fujii T. Potential for floating offshore wind energy in Japanese waters. ISOPE Conference,
Kitakyushu, Japan, 2002; 505512.
5. Van Bussel GJW, Zaaijer M. Reliability, availability and maintenance aspects of large-scale offshore wind farms, a
concept study. Marine Renewable Energies Conference, Newcastle UK, 2001; 119126.
6. The dawn of micropower. The Economist 2000.
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7. Kuhn M, Bierbooms WAAM, van Bussel GJW, Ferguson MC, Goransson B, Cockerill TT, Harrison R, Harland LA,
Vugts JH, Wiecherink R. Opti-OWECS; Structural and Economic Optimisation of Bottom Mounted Offshore Wind
Energy Convertors. JOULE III Project, Vols 05. Delft University of Technology: Delft, 1998.
8. Offshore wind energyready to power a sustainable Europe. Final Report from the Project Concerted Action on
Offshore Wind Energy in Europe, 2001. (www.offshorewindenergy.org)
9. Barthelmie R. A brief review of offshore wind energy activity in the 1990s. Wind Engineering 1998 22: 265273.
10. Clausager I. Impact assessment studies of offshore wind parks on seabirds with special reference to the Tun Knob
park. In Technische Eingriffe in Marine Lebensraume, Tagungsband. BFN-Skripten 29 , Merck, von Nordheim (eds).
Bundesamt fur Naturschutz, 2000.
11. Sundberg J, Soderman M. Windpower and Grey Seals: an Impact Assessment of Potential Effects by Sea-based
Windpower Plants on Local Seal Population. Uppsala University: Uppsala, 1999.
12. SEAS. Havvindmller VVM. Stjundersgelseundervandsstj. 2000.
13. SEAS. Rdsand offshore wind farm. Environmental impact assessment. EIA Summary Report, 2000; (summary reports
in English and German, full report in Danish and background reports available from www.seas.dk).
14. Border Wind for Greenpeace. Offshore wind energy. Building a new industry for Britain. 1998.
15. Danish Wind Turbine Manufacturers Association (DWTMA). Employment in the wind power industry. Windpower
No. 2, 1996.
16. DLR/WI/ZSW/IWR/Forum. Klimaschutz durch Nutzung erneuerbarer Energien. Final Report, 2000.
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WIND ENERGY

Wind Energ. 2003; 6:3552 (DOI: 10.1002/we.82)

Copyright 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Offshore Wind Energy Today

Wind Energ. 2003; 6:3552

Annual Installed Capacity

Average Turbine Size