The Rape of the Lock

Alexander Pope
Abstract
This article provides a plot summary of Alexander Popes Rape of the Lock, followed
by a brief survey of its main formal and contextual aspects. Some points raised in the
synopsis, as well as other significant elements of religion, history, politics, society, and
science and technology, are then discussed, the survey ending in a short biography of the
author. Possible discussion and essay topics are suggested at the end of this paper.
Keywords
Pope, Alexander
The Rape of the Lock
heroi-comical poem
mock-heroic epic
heroic couplets
Homer
Virgil
Horace
Fermor, Arabella
Robert, Lord Petre
sylphs
Neo-Classicism
Augustan Age
Content Synopsis
The Rape of the Lock, Alexander Popes mock-heroic epic (or heroi-comical poem,
as he himself called it, see Butt 217; all references to Popes writings are to this edition)
was inspired by and derived its theme from a seemingly petty conflict between the
representatives of two prominent Roman Catholic families in early-18th-century England.
The discord arose when Robert, Lord Petre cut off a curl from his fiance Arabella
Fermors hair as a practical joke. Pope, in an attempt to reconcile the two families,
commemorated the incident in the first, 1711/2 version of The Rape of the Lock, which
he soon extended by adding his supernatural machinery and composing a neatly
balanced Neo-Classical work that consists of 5 cantos (1714). Since this is the version
most widely used today, it will form the basis of this content synopsis as well.
The work begins with a prose dedication to Arabella Fermor, in whichas though it were
a modern-time disclaimerPope explains his motives and how the whole epic
should not be taken too seriously and personally. The stylized invocation placed at the
beginning of Canto I (lines 16) addresses Popes friend John Caryll, who had urged
Pope to write the poem, as well as Belinda, who is not difficult to identify as Arabella
Fermor, although Pope humorously tries to obscure the link in the dedication: the

Character of Belinda, as it is now managd, resembles You in nothing but in Beauty

(Butt 218).
The invocation is followed by a series of rhetorical questions anticipating the plot (I.7
12) but, strangely enough, Pope does not proceed directly to the action; instead, the
narrative continues with Belindas oversleeping caused by her Guardian Sylph (20),
who soon appears to her in a dream. From his speech that follows (27114), we learn that
he is called Ariel (105); he explains how the airy sylphs help govern all the world,
contending with salamanders of fire (60), nymphs of water (62), and mischievous gnomes
of earth (63). Of all these, sylphs are responsible for the preservation of chastity (718)
and act accordinglyeven when unnoticed. Ariel ends his speech with an ominous
prophecy:
Late, as I rangd the Crystal Wilds of Air,
In the clear Mirror of thy ruling Star
I saw, alas! some dread Event impend,
Ere to the Main this Morning Sun descend.
But Heavn reveals not what, or how, or where;
Warnd by thy Sylph, oh Pious Maid beware!
This to disclose is all thy Guardian can.
Beware of all, but most beware of Man! (I.107114)
Belinda is now awakened by her lapdog, Shock, licking her face (I.1156). The vision
disappears and it is time to prepare for the social meeting planned for the afternoon.
Belinda proceeds to the toilet table, which is described as if it were an altar; indeed,
Belinda adores . . . the Cosmetic Powrs (1234) and the sacred Rites of Pride (128)
are rewarded, too, for The Fair each moment rises in her Charms (140). Bombastic, or
even frivolous, as this description might appear at first, Pope cunningly draws on the
inherent etymological connection between the words cosmetic and cosmic, both deriving
from the idea of order: the cosmos is, according to the world view of Greek antiquity,
synonymous with the ordered world, while cosmetics is concerned with the orderly
arrangement (including ornamentation) of the body for increased physical appeal. The
same concern is reflected in Belindas awful [i.e. awesome] Beauty (139), which
formulation suggests the unlikely combination in one person of sublimity and exquisite
beauty. Once the rite has been completed, Belinda praises her maid or inferior
Priestess (127), for Labours not her own (148): Belindas make-up should be
attributed to the sylphs. Though this might seem perplexing at first sight, on deeper
scrutiny it proves just logical: chastity is closely related to decency, which, in turn,
depends to a great extent on tidiness and attractive, yet not ostentatious make-up.
Canto II begins with the detailed description of Belindas beauty, set in imitation of
Aeneass voyage up the Tiber (Butt 223n). In spite of the flattering, even hyperbolic
appraisal of Belindas splendor, the end of the passage is rather ambiguous, and one does
not even know whether to take it as a compliment or a reproach directed against false
appearances: If to her share some Female Errors fall, / Look on her Face, and youll
forget em all (II.178). A separate verse paragraph is dedicated to the obsessively

minute description of the lock that will soon lead to the dramatic clash between Belinda
and the BaronLord Petres fictitious counterpart. Since the latter is subsequently
introduced admiring the bright Locks (29), there is good reason to suspect that the
comparison of Belindas hair to Labyrinths (23) and slender Chains (24) and the
remarks that such hairy Sprindges . . . the Birds betray (25), surprize the Finny Prey
(26), and Mans Imperial Race insnare (27) all show a shared point of view between the
narrator and the Baron.
Indeed, the narrative focus smoothly shifts to the Baron, whose resolution to capture
Belindas lock is presented (314) and then related to his early morning ritual offering
(3546), which nicely counterpoints Belindas own rite of Pride. This is only one of
Popes many clever symmetrical or parallel compositions; in addition to a shared
reference to Belindas and the Barons respective Altar, the narrator also mentions the
love letters received by each protagonistthe Billets-doux, whose French name,
imported by Charles IIs courtiers after his return to the throne, lends additional flair to
something inherently sentimental. But whereas Belinda beholds the Billet-doux with great
excitement and ardor, the Baron simply uses it to light the Pyre (41), as his love letters
are merely the Trophies of his former Loves (40). This act is most gentlemanly; the
way, however, in which it differs from Belindas attitude throws some light on the social
distinctions between men and womenfor the first time in the poem.
After this flashback episode, the plot now continues with Belindas merry voyage on
the river. This cheerfulness is contrasted with Ariels worries: Thimpending Woe sate
heavy on his Breast (II.54). What follows is a version of epic enumeration: Ariel surveys
his army of sylphs (5572) and then delivers a speech of mission (73136). He starts
by listing those grand sylphs who govern planets and stars, who cause and dispel
tempests, andlast but not leastguard with Arms Divine the British Throne (90).
Next follows the general mission of Ariel and his host of sylphs: to take care of the fair
ladys appealing appearance (91100). But since the sunny day is overcast by the
shadows of impending disaster, they also have a specific mission: to prevent it from
happening. For this purpose every sylph must assume their assigned post (11122). For
those spirits who fail their mission, some horrible punishments are in prospect; the worst
In Fumes of burning Chocolate shall glow, / And tremble at the Sea that froaths below!
(1356). The canto ends in an anticipation of doom, with the sylphs dutifully taking up
their posts.
Canto III commences with what might be considered the most sustained reference to the
England of the Augustan Age (more of which below, in the section on Historical
Context). In the description of Hampton Court (118), flattery once again mingles with
tongue-in-cheek irony:
Here Britains Statesmen oft the Fall foredoom
Of Foreign Tyrants, and of Nymphs at home;
Here Thou, Great Anna! whom three Realms obey,
Dost sometimes Counsel takeand sometimes Tea. (III.58)

Imperial decisions are contrasted with domestic affairs, while the reference to three
Realms alludes to the ideastill maintained at the timethat in addition to Great
Britain and Ireland, France ought also to obey the English monarch (Butt 277n). These
perpetual shifts in proportion and viewpoint foreshadow the card game that will
constitute the main epic action of the cantoand, in a sense, the whole poem.
But before that, Pope, for a fleeting moment, unleashes his devastating criticism of some
judicial practices of the time. At lunchtime,
The hungry Judges soon the Sentence sign,
And Wretches hang that Jury-men may Dine. . . (III.212)
butafter a brilliant turn of the camerafocus is back again on Belinda, who is
prepared to beat two adventrous Knights / At Ombre (267), a card game whose epic
potential Pope exploits to the fullest.
To begin with, the cards themselves depict prominent charactersKings, Queens,
Knavesand Particolourd Troops forming the army proper. Their description is a
powerful enumeration which Pope then crowns with a mock-battle scene in which the
tricks are presented as though they were real combat scenes, to the extent that the last,
decisive trick Belinda takes with the King of Hearts, who springs to Vengeance with an
eager pace (97) and takes revenge for his captive Queen (96).
Secondly, ombre, this popular card game of Spanish origin which was brought to
Restoration England by Charles II and his entourage, who had learnt it in France,
happened to be played by three participants, with nine cards to each hand (and thirteen to
the talon). This, of course, lends itself readily to the interpretation of magical numbers, an
epic element Pope makes ample use of: Strait the three Bands prepare in Arms to join, /
Each Band the number of the Sacred Nine (2930). Moreover, the sylphs also participate
in the game, and their position, based on their rank, even allows Pope to make a teasing
remark about the habits of women: For Sylphs, yet mindful of their ancient Race, / Are,
as when Women, wondrous fond of Place (356).
And thirdly, playing ombre was so popular in the Restoration period and after, both with
women and men, that Popes references to it must have been easily comprehensible but
also highly evocative to the average reader (see also Influences section below). In fact,
the game can be reconstructed; while Pope brilliantly uses the symbolism of the cards, he
also pays attention not to infringe on the rules of the game; such a mistake would have
been spotted by contemporary readers immediately.
After a most exciting game in which, though Belinda wins the first four tricks, the Baron
equalizes with a streak of another four, and it is only the last trick which decides in
Belindas favor, The Nymph exulting fills with Shouts the Sky, / The Walls, the Woods,
and long Canals reply (III.99100). The next four lines, however, leading us to the
coffee table, dispel this merry mood, once again foretelling imminent disaster.

The coffee table is yet another altar, this time Japanese (III.107); the effect of the
offering, however, is less than desirable. Coffee, we are told, Sent up in Vapours to the
Barons Brain / New Stratagems, the radiant Lock to gain (11720). The climax is near
and in order to intensify the suspense, Pope combines two plots: while Clarissa gives a
two-edgd Weapon (i.e. a pair of scissors, 128) to the Baron, the sylphs are doing all
they can to hinder the hideous crime, but all they can achieve is a delay of the deed:
Thrice she lookd back, and thrice the Foe drew near (138). Ariel even espies Belindas
thoughts (140), only to find, although she is trying desperately to conceal it, An Earthly
Lover lurking at her Heart (144). Betrayed by his protg, Ariel collapses powerless and
the Baron can have his way. The sylph that attempts to save Belindas lock is cut into
two, but, fortunately, Airy Substance soon unites again (152).
The Barons attack makes Belinda furious; after her victorious cries a few moments ago,
her Screams of Horror now resound in the building (156). The Baron, on the other
hand, takes pride in his new trophy (161170). The canto ends in a doubtful rhetorical
question, regretting the loss of Belindas lock and the catastrophe caused thereby.
Why that catastrophe is inevitable is explained by Canto IV, which begins with the evil
gnome Umbriels journey to the Cave of Spleen. Pope first describes the effect,
Belindas incomparable rage (IV.110), and then the epic cause, Umbriels visit to the
underworld and back (1188). In the vividly repulsive depiction of the Cave of Spleen,
cacophony dominates the sound, while allegory and prosopopoeia the content: the court
of Spleen is inhabited by foul creatures and personified ideas such as Pain, Megrim, Illnature, and Affectation, each of them carefully placed according to the abstract idea it
represents, bearing the common characteristics of the given quality (2138). A list of
typical hallucinations ensues, including a barely concealed sexual referenceone of
Popes most explicit in this poem: And Maids turnd Bottels, call aloud for Corks (54).
After the gnome enters the cave, he delivers his speech in which he asks Spleens help to
spoil the mirth of Belinda and her company (5578). The goddess, true to her nature,
Seems to reject him, tho she grants his Prayr (80) and gives him a bag full of the
foulest furies and afflictions and a vial of sorrows. Umbriel duly pours the contents of the
bag on Belinda, whose companion, Thalestris (named after the militant queen of the
Amazons, Butt 235n) further incites her rage (97120). Her main argument is that it is the
greatest conceivable dishonor to allow the Baron to show off his inestimable Prize
(113). She then asks Sir Plume to get back the lock of hair (1212).
What follows is one of the most comic exchanges of The Rape of the Lock, since Sir
Plume exclaims in the broadest vernacular idiom conceivable in an epic poem:
He first the Snuff-box opend, then the Case,
And thus broke outMy Lord, why, what the Devil?
Z[ound]s! damn the Lock! fore Gad, you must be civil!
Plague ont! tis past a Jestnay prithee, Pox!
Give her the Hairhe spoke, and rappd his Box. (IV.12630)

The Barons retort is devastatingly elegantand negative: It grieves me much . . . / Who

speaks so well shoud ever speak in vain (1312). But that is not all, for Umbriel ends
all negotiation by emptying the vial of sorrows on Belinda, who now appears in
beauteous Grief (143)yet another equivocal praise. The canto ends with her mourning
speech (based, quite exorbitantly, on Achilles lament for Patroclus, Butt 236n), finally
understanding the ominous events which should have warned her but which she did not
heed (14776). Even here, Pope does not fail to dwell on Belindas questionable attitude;
the tottring China (163) is a clear sexual allusion (see below, in Influences), while the
last part of her speech suggests that it is not the rape itself but the object of the rape she
deplores: Oh hadst thou, Cruel! been content to seize / Hairs less in sight, or any Hairs
but these! (1756).
Canto V follows without a pause: the audience is moved by Belindas lamentbut the
Baron not so. A new character, Clarissa, is now introduced. Her purpose, Pope explains in
a footnote, is to open more clearly the Moral of the Poem, in a parody of the speech of
Sarpedon to Glaucus in Homer (Butt 237n), an episode Pope had happened to translate
from the Iliad as early as in 1707 (Butt 602). Clarissa begins her speech with a series of
rhetorical questions to the point of what outward beauty, glory, and even chastity avail
without good Sense (V.916). The moral, then, iseven though it should not be taken
all too seriously, in view of Popes suspiciously obvious footnote:
What then remains, but well our Powr to use,
And keep good Humour still whateer we lose?
And trust me, Dear! good Humour can prevail,
When Airs, and Flights, and Screams, and Scolding fail.
Beauties in vain their pretty Eyes may roll;
Charms strike the Sight, but Merit wins the Soul. (V.2934)
But Clarissas sober words fall on deaf ears and Thalestris calls everyone to arms (37).
The final battle unfolds and Pope describes it in truly heroic termsbut with a touch of
equivocation: No common Weapons in their Hands are found, / Like Gods they fight,
nor dread a mortal Wound (434). What in real epics would be the praise of armaments
by means of the rhetorical figure of litotes (denying the opposite; saying not common
instead of extraordinary) is here a simple factafter all, scissors and other household
accessories are no common weapons, indeed. The same applies to the formulation that the
fighters did not dread a mortal Wound: what is heroism in a real battle is common sense
reaction hereafter all, why should they dread death?
But Pope goes even further, comparing the scene to Homers gods engaging in earthly
skirmishes in what might superficially be considered sheer impudence if it were not for
the immense absurdity and disproportionateness of the entire scene. The sprites also join
the combat (536), while the ladies deal Deaths from their eyes (58). The male
characters evoke well-known roles from Restoration comedies: One dyd in Metaphor,
and one in Song (60).

Jove now weighs the two armies against each other, the Mens Wits against the Ladys
Hair (72), and the ladies are victorious. Belinda eventually clashes with the Baron,
demanding her lockonly to discover that the lock is gone, nowhere to be found (103
112). There are wild conjectures as to where it might now be, but the Muse rounds up the
narrative by informing us that A sudden Star, it shot thro liquid Air, / And drew behind a
radiant Trail of Hair (1278). After this apotheosis of the lost lock, Pope ends the poem
with an appeal to Belinda:
Then cease, bright Nymph! to mourn thy ravishd Hair
Which adds new Glory to the shining Sphere!
....................................
This Lock, the Muse shall consecrate to Fame,
And midst the Stars inscribe Belindas Name! (14150)
Epic elements parodied
What makes The Rape of the Lock a truly brilliant mock-heroic epic is the conscious
and well-composed use of traditional epic elements, based primarily on Homer and, to a
comparable extent, Virgil. The poem begins with an invocation to the Muse, whose only
other function is to bring conclusive evidence for the miraculous transformation at the
end of Canto V. This is followed by a dream vision, in which a supernatural being warns
Belinda of the dangers the day will bring (such warnings, or paraeneses, are repeated
several times later on, e.g. II.1014, or III.1214).
Antique religious ceremonies are parodied in Belindas rites of Pride (I.128) and the
Barons sacrificial offering (II.3546). This is neatly followed by the enumeration of
Ariels army and his exhortation to his troops (II.73136).
In the actual battle, however, the sylphs do not take part directly; it unfolds in the form of
a card game and is preceded by another enumeration, that of the deck of cards. This is
also one of the best examples of how Pope transcends mere parody and fills epic
conventions with new meaning. To illustrate his method, let us consider the various
names with which he denotes the card table: it is the Velvet Plain (III.44), the verdant
Field (52), the level Green (80). These synonymous metaphors and metonymies are
not used arbitrarily, though; what is a metaphor in describing a real battle (such as velvet
plain) is absolutely literal here, the card table being covered in velvet. Conversely,
verdant field, which may be the literal description of a real battlefield, is metaphorical
in the halls of Hampton Court. And again, the level green may be taken as a
metonymical expression in both contexts, thus showing that all three terms have
something unique to them and are capable of reinvigorating an antiquated clich.
The battle is followed by a ritual feast (or symposium), whose sacred nature is
underscored by the reference to the coffee-tables as Japanese altars (III.107). After the
Baron cuts off Belindas lock, Umbriel ensures that chaos ensues through a journey to the
underworld, a well-known topos from epic literature (IV.1188). This leads to the
ultimate impossibility of negotiation and the situation culminates in an all-out war (V.35

102), which even prompts divine intervention (V.714). Once again, Pope subverts the
conventional elements of the narrative of war; when, for instance, we learn Nor feard
the Chief [the Baron] th unequal Fight to try, / Who sought no more than on his Foe
[Belinda] to die (V.778) and consider the sexual overtones of the verb die, that
death might no longer seem so loathsome.
Once the war is resolved (and its actual cause, the casus belli removed), apotheosis, or
the glorification of the stolen lock becomes possible. The way this takes placethrough
the transformation of the lock into a stellar constellationyet again echoes the formulae
of epic tradition.
To these overall epic elements, one should add those obvious and less obvious allusions
which Pope makes to Homer and Virgil (some of which he found important to point out
in footnotes), as well as the mythical references and the supernatural machinery, Popes
substantial addition to the 1714 version of the work.
Form
The Rape of the Lock is composed in heroic couplets (two lines of iambic pentameters,
linked by an end rhyme). The lines are almost exclusively closed couplets (i.e. couplets
which also form complete syntactical or sense units); the most notable exception
showing that Pope truly observed his own rule formulated in a youthful mixed metaphor:
The Sound must seem an Eccho to the Sense (An Essay on Criticism, 365)is the
following run-on line expressing the dynamism of a storm:
To draw fresh Colours from the vernal Flowrs,
To steal from Rainbows ere they drop in Showrs
A brighter Wash. . . (957)
Pope generally operates with decasyllabic lines ending on rising (masculine) rhymes;
ironically enough, a rare feminine rhyme emerges from Sir Plumes rather macho
passage in the following couplet: My Lord, why, what the Devil? / Z[ound]s! damn the
Lock! fore Gad, you must be civil! (IV.1278).
The use of the heroic couplet is logical for practical as well as theoretical reasons.
Theoretically speaking, the use of the English epic form of Chaucers Canterbury Tales,
Drydens existing translation of the Aeneid, and Popes prospective translations of
Homer, was the only logical choice for a mock-epic that would parody its grand epic
models. Added to this are those pragmatic considerations that Pat Rogers (2931) lists
concisely but comprehensively: (1) The heroic couple is perspicuous and invites a
lucid approach; (2) it is flexible, and in it Pope can be high and sententious, obscene,
skittish, tender, or whatever he pleases; (3) it is poetically neutral, suitable for all
genres of poetry from narrative poems through epitaphs, epistles, topographical poems,
and even lyrical pieces; (4) its twice dual nature is excellent for many rhetorical figures
popular with Pope; (5) the heroic couplet obliges the reader to attend carefully.

Influences
In addition to the epic (and mock-epic) tradition, The Rape of the Lock draws on
numerous other sources as well. These were excellently gathered and contextualized by
William Kinsley (1979), whose work I will rely on in the following brief summary.
Some parallels have been established between Popes poem and the Bible; the most
obvious one is Belindas commencement of the game of ombre: Let Spades be Trumps!
she said, and Trumps they were (III.46), echoing Genesis 1:3: And God said, Let there
be light: and there was light.
Perhaps a more substantial connection, especially in the overall attitude and language of
the poem, can be established with Restoration comedy. The link is partly personalPope
knew Wycherleypartly epochal: Restoration comedy was such an organic part of city
life that a poet could hardly escape its influence. And shun it one did not need, either;
after allas Kinsley observesRestoration comedy provided piercing analyses of
relations between the sexes in general and of marriage in particular, the relentless pursuit
of sexual gratification . . . and an outspoken, blunt treatment of sexual themes . . . with an
insistence on elegant conversation and witty repartee (230). The Country Wife, for
example, established china as the clich for sexual intercourse, a commonplace Pope
utilizes on several occasions in The Rape of the Lock.
Toillustratethispoint,KinsleysreprintingofActIVSceneiiiofthisplayshouldbe
referredtobriefly.Themaincharacter,Horner,pretendingtobeimpotent,isaboutto
seducealustywoman,LadyFidgetand,inkeepingwithhisname,cuckoldherhusband
whenherspouse,SirJasper,entersunexpectedly.I am trying if Mr. Horner were
ticklish, and hes as ticklish as can be, I love to torment the confounded Toad; let you and
I tickle him, exclaims Lady Fidget, in a desperate attempt to save the day, to which the
deceived husband replies: No, your Ladyship will tickle him better without me, I
suppose, but is this your buying China, I thought you had been at the China House? In
the rest of the scene, china remains the dominant catch phrase. Soon Lady Fidget steals
into Horners bedchamber in order, of course, to look for his china. She locks the front
door, and when Horner follows her through the other door, Sir Jasperwith a touch of
quite unequivocal ambiguityshouts to her wife, laughing at his own joke: Wife, he is
coming in to you the back way. (It must be noted that in to has alternatively been spelt
into, but considering the fact that the comedy is meant to be spoken, rather than read,
spelling makes little different here: the fun of the situation is not lost on the audience.)
After the appearance of another woman, Mrs. Squeamish, and further intricacies (and
scarcely concealed off-stage sexual intercourse), Lady Fidget comes back on stage, with a
piece of china, explaining how she has been toyling and moyling, for the prettist piece
of China. In light of this, when Mrs. Squeamish demands some china for herself, and
Horner denies it by stating, Upon my honour I have none left nowunmistakably
meaning sexual exhaustionthe image of china has come full circle, loaded with all the
wildest associations sexual fantasies might possibly raise.

The composition of the work shows traits of Restoration comedyand Neo-Classical

dramaas well. The five cantos are comparable with the standard five-act structure of
Restoration plays. Even the plot of The Rape of the Lock is arranged somewhat
similarly to that of The Country Wife, for instance; without pushing this comparison too
far, let it suffice to say that the first two acts and cantos, respectively, introduce the
audience to the perspective of either sex, while the third act or canto brings the first
climactic clash of the two (see the orange scene in The Country Wife, with all its
ambiguity). Similarly, the reconciliation in the fifth act or canto cannot be quite complete;
after the conflicts that precede it, and the somewhat forced resolution (which in The
Rape of the Lock complies with the epic tradition of divine intervention, though) some
uneasiness remains with the reader or spectator.
As to Neo-Classical dramatic standards: the loss of Belindas lock is preceded by Ariels
anagnorisis (he finally understands that in her secret thoughts Belinda very much wants
the Baron to commit his crime), which demonstrates the ideal coincidence of
anagnorisis and peripeteia, i.e. the crucial turn in the plot, usually the beginning of the
fall of the main protagonistor, at least, her hair. What is more, in keeping with the
Aristotelian ideal of a complex plot, Belinda has to go a longer way before she is
illuminated; her anagnorisis finds its expression in her mourning speech ending Canto IV.
And last but not least, the work also parodies contemporary conventions of pantomime
and opera, both in scenery (see Butt 233n on the catalogue of the hallucinations in the
Cave of Spleen) and speech (see V.5766, where even the names of male characters
allude to the popular theatrical shows by Wycherley and Etherege). Also, Sir Plumes
short address to the Baron (IV.12730) might even be read as a comically exaggerated
merging of the colloquialisms of the male side characters in Wycherleys Country Wife.
Historical Contexts
The early 1700s are also known as the Augustan Age in English history, the term deriving
from the reign of the Roman Emperor Augustus (63 BC14 AD), with which Pope and
his contemporaries liked to compare their own era. This period more or less covered the
reigns of Queen Anne (16651714, reigned 170214), George I (16601727, reigned
171427), and George II (16831760, reigned 172760) and was characterized by
prosperous economy, fast scientific and cultural development, and the dawn of the British
Empire, which would in subsequent centuries rule up to a third of the inhabitable areas of
the globe.
Within a mere 50 years after the Restoration of the monarchy (1660), England was once
again at the peak of its powers, which was also reflected in the literature of the time. The
Scottish-born James Thomson composed the masque Alfred, celebrating the glory of
Britain, which included the famous patriotic song Rule Britannia, set to music by
Thomas Arne in 1740. A similar joy over the economic riches available to the English
shines forth in Popes description of Belindas toilet (I.12136) andthough tinged with
mild satirethe presentation of Hampton Court at the beginning of Canto III also boasts
of Queen Annes grandeur.

Pope associated his own age with antiquity so much that he even dedicated his imitation
of Horaces First Epistle of the Second Book to Augustus (Butt 634), that is, to King
George II (whose second name, incidentally, also happened to be Augustus). In fact, the
great minds of the time could be neatly matched with Augustan counterparts, and though
Pope would never venture to make this explicit, his imitations of Horace reveal that he
secretly identified with the great Roman poet.
Societal Context
Religiosity
After the Glorius Revolution of 1688/89, when the succession of the Catholic King
James II was ceased, and the Dutch Protestant King William III was enthroned, there
began severe discrimination against the Catholics living in England. Those faithful to
King James IIthe so-called Jacobiteswere persecuted and their resistance merely
aggravated the predicament of English Catholics. The 1701 Act of Settlement
automatically disqualified any Catholic from becoming monarch of England, while a
series of other discriminative lawssome of which are still in force todaymade the life
of Catholics very difficult.
For Alexander Pope, Roman Catholicism was a mission, an ideal to be lived up to. He
could easily have converted to Anglicanism and gained full membership of the English
society, but instead, he chose to remain somewhat of an outsider. His resolution is
beautifully expressed in a letter to Jonathan Swift (1729): Yet am I of the Religion of
Erasmus, a Catholick; so I live; so I shall die; and hope one day to meet you . . . in that
place, To which God of his infinite mercy bring us, and every body! (Sherburne III:81).
It is important to note the subjunctive bring here: rather than negating the possibility of
damnation, Pope implores God to bring humankind to that blessed place. Religion in this
sense also implies a resistance to the temptation of sectarian thought, as Pope defines it in
another letter: the things I have always wished to see are not a Roman Catholick, or a
French Catholick, or a Spanish Catholick, but a true Catholick: and not a King of Whigs,
or a King of Tories, but a King of England (Sherburne I:454). This is a moral imperative
that must have facilitated Popes decision to comply with John Carylls request of a poem
to reconcile two Roman Catholic families whose strife would have undesirable effects on
the Roman Catholic minority in England.
The other aspect of religion which surfaces in the form of powerful social satire is the
false priority of worldly qualities first, at least on par with spiritual concerns, if not before
them. This is mocked in the alliterating catalogue of Puffs, Powders, Patches, Bibles,
Billet-doux (I.138) on Belindas unveild Toilet. Kinsley (263) claims convincingly
that this may have been inspired by a sarcastic couplet published in The Spectator (No.
79, May 31, 1711): the average upper-class lady has constantly before her a large
Looking-glass, and upon the Table, according to a very Witty Author, // Together lye her
Prayer-Book and Paint, / At once timprove the Sinner and the Saint (reprinted Kinsley

263). Richard Steeles subtle syllepsis of improve used once in the sense of increasing
the physical appeal, i.e. the ladys means to sin, and then in the sense of bettering the
saintly spirit is counteredin a different rhetorical figure, the paradoxin Clarissas
speech (V.234), a parallel locus which Kinsley does not mention but which supports his
claim: To patch, nay ogle, might become a Saint, / Nor could it sure be such a Sin to
paint.
The description of Belindas cross also hints at religiosity relegated to the level of showy
decoration: On her white Breast a sparkling Cross she wore, / Which Jews might kiss,
and Infidels adore (II.78). This passage must not be misinterpreted as religious
discrimination; it is more of an ironic reproach for the lack of religious spirit behind the
shiny surface of religious signs.
Women and Culture
The Tatler and, subsequently, The Spectatorboth periodicals initiated by Richard Steele
and his friend Joseph Addison in the early 1700swere instrumental in creating the
cultural climate of the early 18th century. As Kinsley (248) remarks, they helped to
encourage the habit of reading among the middle classes and especially among women,
whose readership they wooed persistently and persuasively and over whose intellectual
development they hovered solicitously. This fact has two crucial bearings on The Rape
of the Lock: firstly, Pope could calculate with a large number of women readers and
secondly, he could join the campaign to spread the written word among the ladies.
The dedication to Arabella Fermor (in whose name the title Mrs. indicates no marital
bond, merely the fact that she was no courtesan and no child) confirms both
considerations. When it was appended to the 1714 edition, the separation of Arabella
Fermor and Lord Petre had long become conclusive and the tone of the dedication reveals
a far more general appeal than that aimed at the resolution of a trivial affair of London
society. I know how disagreeable it is to make use of hard Words before a Lady; but tis
so much the Concern of a Poet to have his Works understood, and particularly by your
Sex, that You must give me leave to explain two or three difficult Terms, Pope writes
before going on to explain the Rosicrucian Doctrine of Spirits (Butt 217). One might
read this as a sign of misogynism; in view of the social and cultural standards of women
at the time, however, the condescension the 21st-century reader might sense here gives
way to the noble purpose of education. If there is any trace of arrogance, it is the
contemporary societys and not Popes own. Besides, where would our emancipated
21st-century reader be without the authors helpful explanation of the esoteric system of
Sylphs, Gnomes, Nymphs, and Salamanders (Butt 217)?
The idea of bettering women was a shared mission of The Spectator and The Rape of the
Lock. As Kinsley (256) points out, Like a long tradition of antifeminine satirists, Mr.
Spectator [Addison] believed that women needed improvement; unlike many of his
predecessors, he also believed that they were capable of it and that many of their faults
were the product of social and economic conditions over which they had much less

control than men. Or, as Addison himself explained in one of the inauguration issues
(No. 10, March 12, 1711):
there are none to whom this Paper will be more useful, than to the female World. I
have often thought there has not been sufficient Pains taken in finding out proper
Employments and Diversions for the Fair ones. Their Amusements seem contrived for
them rather as they are Women, than as they are reasonable Creatures; and are more
adapted to the Sex, than to the Species. . . . This, I say, is the State of ordinary
Women; tho I know there are Multitudes of those of a more elevated Life and
Conversation, that move in an exalted Sphere of Knowledge and Virtue. . . . I hope to
encrease the Number of these by publishing this daily Paper. . . . I shall endeavour to
point out all those Imperfections that are the Blemishes, as well as those Virtues
which are the Embellishments, of the Sex. (Reprinted Kinsley 257)
It is in the same spirit Pope praises and criticizes her female characters. To mention just
one typical concern, lapdogs may be discussed. To the reader it must be conspicuous that
The Rape of the Lock is obsessed with pets; lapdogs are mentioned in highly emphatic
contexts four times; Belindas own pet, Shock on another four occasions. What might at
first sight seem a cunning use of anti-climax turns out to be a realistically perverted
priority of human relations. In this system, it is absolutely justified that the leader of
Belindas sylphs, ArielhimselfshallbetheGuardofShock(II.116).Orthesamestatus
quo,inamorecomictone,combiningthegreatandthepettyinvariousparallelstructures
ofrhetoric:thoughsignsareominous,itisunclearwhetherBelindamightloseher
Heart,orNecklace,ataBall;/OrwhetherHeavnhasdoomdthatShockmustfall
(II.10910).EvenmorehyperbolicistheseeminganticlimaxofBelindascryofhorror:
NotlouderShriekstopityingHeavnarecast,/WhenHusbandsorwhenLapdogs
breathetheirlast...(III.1578).ThesharedconcernofPopeandAddisonisillustrated
bythelattersarticleinTheTatler(No.121,January14,1709),whichhelpsPopes
readersrealizethatsuchmisplacedlovemaybemorethananinnocentfoible(Kinsley
251).
MenandPolitics
Menalsoreceive,ifnottheirequalshare,atleastadueamountofsatireandcriticism
frombothPopeandAddison.TheBaronscuriousattitudetolovelettershasalready
beendiscussedandthemaleficenteffectsofcoffeetouchedupon;somemoreattention
willbepaidthelatterbelow,inordertoshowhowmenalsohadtheirlaughable
weaknessesinthisratherimbalancedsocietyofearly18thcenturyEngland.
ThebasicdistinctionisthatbetweenthefashionableCourtandtheCityasthecenterof
financesandcommerce.Thearistocraticplotofthepoemtakesplaceintheelevated
courtquartersbutsomementionismadeoftheCityaswell,particularlyinthesatirical
introductiontoCantoIII.Coffeehouses,establishedinallareasofLondonanddiffering
innature,accordingtoregionwereseenascentersofamateurpoliticalinterest(Kinsley
276).Popenotesthisinwhatmayparalleladramaticaside:coffeemakesthe

Politicianwise,/AndseethroallthingswithhishalfshutEyes(III.1178);inthis,he
drawsonthefactthatcoffeehadalreadybecomesomethingofacommonplace,also
exemplifiedbyAddisonscontemporarytreatmentofitinTheSpectator(No.403,June
12,1712):
aseveryCoffeehousehassomeparticularStatesmanbelongingtoit,whoisthe
MouthoftheStreetwherehelives,Ialwaystakecaretoplacemyselfnearhim,in
ordertoknowhisJudgmentonthepresentPostureofAffairs....[I]ntheinnerRoom
withintheSteamsoftheCoffeePot...IhaveheardthewholeSpanishmonarchy
disposedof,andalltheLineofBourbonprovidedforinlessthanaQuarterofan
Hour.(ReprintedKinsley277)
Onelastquestioninregardtotheradicallydifferentsocialstatusofmenandwomen
mightberaised.Thoughrapeinthetitleoftheworkobviouslydoesnotdenotesexual
abuse,onemightponderwhethertheactoftheBaronwhoisinvestedwithpowerdue
tohissextocutoffalockfromthehairofBelindaisnotslightlymorethanjustatrifle
asitisusuallydismissed.TheRapeoftheLockpresentsPopesamans
interpretationoftheevents;woulditmakeadifferenceifithadbeencomposedbya
womanonlooker?
Religious Contexts
Though it is always emphasized that Alexander Pope was a firm Roman Catholic in an
era that did not favor that confession, not much of this finds its way into the actual text of
The Rape of the Lock. In terms of religion, The Rape of the Lock owes much more
to the antique mythological and ritual traditions embodied in the classical epic genre. The
sacrificial offerings of the main protagonists as well as the active intervention of
mythological gods contribute to the overall religious spirit expected of an epic work. If
Christianity permeates The Rape of the Lock, it is due to and restricted to the model of
John Miltons great Christian epic, Paradise Lost, which is a clear prototype for all
English works written in this genre, including Popes mock-epic.
It has been conjectured that the union of the tortoise and the elephant (I.135) might hint at
a myth of Hindu cosmology, according to which the earth rests on a giant elephant
which in turn stands on a giant tortoise (Kinsley 6). Since India is mentioned in the same
passagealso glorifying the imperial aspirations of the British crownand the entire
section deals with a mock-sacrificial event, this tentative speculation may even be
justified; all the more so, as Pope must have been familiar with this idea also mentioned
twice in John Lockes Essay Concerning Human Understanding (Kinsley 67). If so, this
allusion might underline Popes enthusiasm for the common root of all true belief, also
expressed in his Universal Prayer, which sprung from Christian inspiration (the Lord s
Prayer) but nonetheless shows a non-exclusive open-mindedness towards other religious
traditions as well.
Scientific & Technological Contexts

The Rape of the Lock makes use of several scientific elements. One is the esoteric
system of Rosicrucian symbolism, which derived its name from the secret Order of
Rosicrucians, so called because of their dominant sign, the rose cross; another, the theory
of ether, which was a popular hypothesis of the time, used to explain how objects far
from each other may exercise influence on one another.
As to the first one, it is extensively treated by Pope himself in both the dedication and the
poem itself and therefore will not be discussed at length. As to the other, Sitter has some
possible interpretations, remarking that the sylphs also suggest a playful solution to a
large and related problem of eighteenth-century Newtonianism, action at a distance
(130). What is more, they explain the effects of light, as, for example, in II.5964, where,
according to Sitter, the sylphs are used almost as individual light particles or
Newtonian corpuscules (130). The scientific yield of this is the following:
The problem . . . is how one physical body could affect another without touching it
either directly or indirectly, through intervening matter; there was some speculation
that gravity, for example, operated through a subtle medium of aether. One might
regard Popes Aerial Kind, some of whom dwell in the Fields of purest ther
[II.767], as connecting as well as insulating the poems larger bodies. (Sitter 133n2)
The hypothesis of ether transmitting light was eventually made obsolete by Albert
Einsteins special relativity theory.
In terms of technological development, the connection of celestial constellations with
astronomical observation must be added. When the Muse confirms that the lock has
found its due place in the night sky, Pope makes a sarcastic remark about one Partridge,
a ridiculous Star-gazer, who in his Almanacks every year, never faild to predict the
downfall of the Pope, and the King of France, then at war with the English (Butt 241n,
Popes own footnote): This Partridge soon shall view in cloudless Skies, / When next he
looks thro Galilos Eyes (V.1378). Such a ludicrous parallel between mythical fiction
and hard science also enhances the comic potential of the work, crowned by Popes
derision of Partridge, himself an inherently comic character.
There is one more, psycho-physiological theory that must be mentioned here: the long
tradition of attributing various effects to spleen. The spleen, an organ that destroys the
excess of red blood cells, had closely been related to the system of tempers or humors
since at least the 16th century (a possible link to Clarissas speech in Canto V); its
function, however, was subject to much controversy and confusion. It is important to note
that the later, 19th-century meaning, adopted by Butts edition (The fashionable name
for an ancient malady, the incidence of which was jealousy confined to the idle rich,
232n), is slightly misleading. As the Oxford English Dictionary informs us, several, now
obsolete meanings of the word were still contending in the early 1700s, such as violent
ill-nature or ill-humour; irritable or peevish temper (characteristic of Belinda), a fit of
temper; a passion, a grudge, a spite or ill-will, indignation, and, finally, excessive
dejection or depression of spirits; gloominess and irritability; moroseness; melancholia
(OED XVI:277).

The scientific theory behind thisdating back to approximately 400 BC, originating in
Greece, first codified by Hippocratesis that the human body is governed by the four
humors (or bodily fluids): phlegm, yellow bile, black bile, and blood. Depending on the
dominance of one or another of these, the psychological traits of people also differ.
Sanguine people, in whom blood prevails, are generally merry and easily become
enthusiastic. Spleen counteracts this humorbut in what precise ways this happens was
so undecided at the time that a century before the Augustan Age, in Shakespeare, for
instance, the word might even mean merriment, gaiety, sport or amusement, delight
(OED XVI:277). Though by the 18th century its meaning had been limited to the
pejorative realm, there is no reason why one should exclude fit of temper from
consideration, which, after all, describes Belindas behavior rather aptly.
The theory of humors, of course, hardly counts as science today. It was, however, an
important development in terms of the philosophy of science, as well as literature and
culture in general.
BiographicalContexts
AlexanderPope(16881744)wastheleadingpoetoftheAugustanAge.Hisstyleis
usuallycalledNeoClassical,duetothefactthataftertheconvolutionofMiltonicidiom
andtheeasilyemptied,flamboyantlysuperficialwitofthelaterbranchesofRestoration
literature,heandhiscontemporariesdevelopedafarmoreregular,moderateand
logicallyorderedpoeticlanguage.This,however,didnotpreventhimfromresortingto
ampleequivocation,anobsessionhesharedwithhischosenRomanmodel,Horace;
accordingtoJamesNoggle,theypreferhavingthingsbothways(132).
Pope,sonofaRomanCatholiclinenmerchant,receivedprivatetuitionandoccasional
classesinillegalbuttoleratedCatholicschoolsduetotherestrictionsonCatholicsin
Englandatthetime.Hesufferedfromseveralillnesses,themostsevereofwhich,Potts
disease(avariantoftuberculosis)lefthisspinedeformed;heneverexceeded1.4m
(roughly4feet)inheight.
Whathelackedinphysicalstature,hemadeupforinintellectualdevelopmentandpoetic
talent.Accordingtohisownaccount,hecomposedhisfirstpoem,OdeonSolitude,a
Horatianimitation,attheageof12.Ataboutthesametimethestricturesofthelaw
repelledallCatholicsfromwithin10milesofLondon,sothePopefamilyhadtomoveto
thecountry.Insubsequentpoems,Popewasthusabletocontrastcityandcountrylifeon
thebasisoffirsthandexperience;hecherishedambivalentfeelingsfortheextremesof
both.
In1704hemadetheacquaintanceoftheagingWilliamWycherley,whowasimpressed
withhisearlypoetry.In1707hefirsttriedhishandattranslatingpassagesoftheIliad,
and1709sawthepublicationofThePastorals.By1711,theageof23,hehadcompleted

hislargescaletheoreticalwork,AnEssayonCriticism,which,inspiteofitstitle,is
writteninneatheroiccouplets(withoccasionalAlexandrines,ifneedbe).The
subsequentyearsawthepublicationofthefirst,2cantoversionofTheRapeofthe
Lock,whichwashastilyprintedforfearofapirateedition.Popethenextendedand
transformedthework,whose5cantoversionwaspublishedwithadedicatoryletterto
ArabellaFermorin1714.
Hisearlyworkswereanimmediatesuccessand,consequently,Popesoonmadefriends
withJonathanSwift,JohnGay,andJohnArbuthnot,withwhomhefoundedthe
ScriblerusClubtomockbadtasteandmisdirectedlearning(1710s).Inthelate1710sand
early1720s,PopewasbusytranslatingHomersIliad(171520)andOdyssey(17256).
HislatermasterpiecesweretheDunciad(1728),aimedtosatirizehisenemies,andAn
EssayonMan(17334),publishedanonymously,forfearthattheauthorspersonmight
devastatethereceptionofthework.HisImitationsofHoracealsoappearedinthefirst
halfofthe1730sandconclusivelyestablishedhimasoneofthegreatNeoClassical
poets,andanoutstandingsatiristofAugustanEngland.
By1717hehadearnedsufficientliteraryrenowntopublishavolumeofhisWorks.But
financialsuccesswasaccompaniedbydomestictragedy:afterhisfatherdiedinOctober
1717,PopeboughtanestateinTwickenham,wherehemovedwithhismother.Sincehe
nevermarried,afterhismothersdeathin1733,heremainedinTwickenhamalone.He
diedtherein1744,aweekandahalfafterhis56thbirthday.

Discussion Topics
1.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Pope makes ample use of wordplay. Homonymy is often capitalized on; finding
various uses of bodkin, temples, china, and honor, try to explain how this achieves to
comic effects. Check out the various meanings of the words in OEDor another
dictionary of your choice.
Discuss how various meanings of spleen might at different times dominate the
scene of the epic action.
Study the rules of ombre and try to reconstruct the card game in which Belinda is
victorious. How is it possible to take the last trick with a King of Hearts if the Ace of
the same suit is played first?
Is the Barons practical joke really an innocent trifle? How far does the sexual
imagery of the poem give a different shade to the events?
What might have made Alexander Pope compose a mock-heroic epic instead of
undertaking the much more noble task of writing a real epic about the glorious British
Empireor, indeed, any other theme?
Try to spot Popes departures from the standard heroic couplet (metrical
inversions, run-on lines, open couplets, etc.) and decide whether they are warranted
by any element of the content of the particular passage.

7.

Imagine the point of view of a woman observer and try to tell the story from her
perspective. Include any criticism of the male characters involved in the action.
8.
Which passage of the poem do you find funniest (or most comic) and why? What
devices does Pope use to make the reader laughat themselves, even?
9.
Read the whole of or excerpts from An Essay on Criticism (1711) and see
whether Pope really remains faithful to the poetic ideals he set down there.
10.
Is the conclusion of the poem justified? Is it satisfactory? If you were a stage
director commissioned to have the epic poem performed with the same or an altered
ending depending on your choice, would you change anything?
Essay Ideas
1.

2.
3.
4.
5.

The 1712, 2-canto version is significantly different from the 1714, 5-canto
edition. Using the first variant as a copy-text, attempt to analyze Popes additions and
their respective function in terms of epic devices. (In case no copy of the 1712
version is readily available, use the approximate selection from the 5-canto version
suggested by John Sitter [128]: I.118; II.146; III.124, 10534, 1478, 15378;
IV.110, 93140, 14374; V.16, 3752, 5788, 97150.)
Place The Rape of the Lock in a tradition of epic works in the English language
and/or foreign.
Identify the rhetorical figures and epic themes used in Umbriels descent into the
underworld and try to accommodate them with the established conventions of epic
poetry. (Kinsley 1979 may be a highly valuable resource for this task.)
Expand Pat Rogerss analysis of the heroic couplet and apply it to various aspects
of the meter and verse structure of The Rape of the Lock.
Survey the satirical elements of The Rape of the Lock directed against Popes
contemporary society.

Complementary Texts
Homer. The Iliad & The Odyssey. (With special regard to the passages highlighted by
Popes own footnotes.)
Pope, Alexander. An Essay on Criticism.
. Horatian Imitations.
Swift, Jonathan. Gullivers Travels.
Virgil. Aeneid. (With special regard to the passages highlighted by Popes own footnotes.)
Wycherley, William. The Country Wife.
Works Cited
Butt, John (ed.). The Poems of Alexander Pope. New Haven: Yale UP, 1963.
Kinsley, William. The Rape of the Lock: Contexts. Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1979.
Noggle,James.TheSkepticalSublime:AestheticIdeologyinPopeandtheTorySatirists.
Oxford:OUP,2001.
OED. The Oxford English Dictionary. 20 vols. Ed. J. A. Simpson & E. S. C. Weiner. 2nd
edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press & Clarendon Press, 1989.

Rogers, Pat. The Politics of Style. Essays on Pope. Cambridge: CUP, 1993. 2736.
Sherburne, George (ed.). The Correspondence of Alexander Pope. 5 vols. Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1956.
Sitter, John. What the Sylphs Do: Studying The Rape of the Lock. In: Approaches to
Teaching Popes Poetry. Ed. Wallace Jackson and R. Paul Yoder. New York: MLA,
1993. 12833.
Essay by Boldizsr Fejrvri
The author holds MAs in Scandinavian Studies and English. As of December 2005, he is
a doctoral student specializing in 18th-century English poetry, with special regard to
Thomas Chatterton. He has been teaching at Etvs Lornd University, Budapest (since
2001) and Pzmny Catholic University, Piliscsaba, Hungary. His publications include a
comparative reading of Popes and Chattertons Horatian odes and a complete Hungarian
translation of Shelleys Defence of Poetry.