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www.elsevier.com/locate/chaos

Alexey Stakhov

The International Club of the Golden Section, 6 McCreary Trail, Bolton, ON, Canada L7E 2C8

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Accepted 9 May 2005

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Fundamentals of a new kind of mathematics

based on the Golden Section

8 Dedicated to Mohamed Salah El Nashies 60th birthday

9 Abstract

17 I want to know how God created this world. I am not interested in this or that phenomenon, in the spectrum of
this or that element. I want to know His thoughts; the rest are details.
19 Albert Einstein

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10
The attempt of build up the Fundamentals of a new mathematical direction, which is called Harmony Mathematics,
11 is addressed in the present article. The article has a strategic importance for development of computer science and
12 theoretical physics.
13
2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
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20 1. Introduction

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As is well known, mathematics is one of the outstanding creations of the human intellect; a result of centuries of
intensive and continuous creative work of mans geniuses. What is the goal of mathematics? The answer is not simple.
Probably, the goal of mathematics is to discover mathematical laws of the Universe and to construct models of the
physical world. It is clear that the progress of the human society depends on the knowledge of these laws.
During historical progress, mankind realized that it is surrounded by a huge number of dierent worlds: the
world of geometric space, the world of mechanical and astronomical phenomena, the world of stochastic processes, the world of information, the world of electromagnetism, the world of botanical and biological phenomena, and the world of art, etc. For simulation and mathematical description of each of these worlds,
mathematicians created the appropriate mathematical theory most suitable to the phenomena and processes of this
or that world. To describe a geometric space, Euclid wrote his book The Elements. To simulate the mechanical
and astronomical phenomena, Newton created the theory of gravitation and dierential and integral calculus. Maxwells

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E-mail address: [email protected]

URL: www.goldenmuseum.com
0960-0779/$ - see front matter
2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
doi:10.1016/j.chaos.2005.05.008

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theory was created to describe the electromagnetic phenomena; the theory of probabilities was created for simulation of
the stochastic world. In the 19th century, Lobachevsky created non-Euclidean geometry which is a deeper model of
the geometric space. We can go on mentioning innitely many such examples.
Modern mathematics is a complex set of dierent mathematical concepts and theories. One of the major problems of
mathematical research is to nd connections between separate mathematical theories. This always leads to the deepening of our knowledge about Nature and shows a deep connection between Nature and Universal laws.
Modern mathematics experienced a complex stage in its development. The prolonged crisis of its bases was connected to paradoxes in Cantors theory of innite sets. The passion of mathematicians for abstractions and generalizations broke the contact with natural sciences that are a source of mathematical origin. This has compelled many
outstanding mathematicians of the 20th century to talk about a serious crisis in modern mathematics and even about
its isolation from the general course of scientic and technical progress. In this connection the publication of the book
Mathematics, The Loss of Certainty [1], written by Moris Kline, Professor Emeritus of Mathematics of Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences (New York University), is symptomatic.
In this situation, the representatives of other scientic disciplines, namely, physics, chemistry, biology, engineering
and even arts, began to develop what may be called natural mathematics, which can be used eectively for mathematical
simulations of physical, biological, chemical, engineering and other processes. The idea of soft mathematics gained more
and more attractiveness. Humanitarization of mathematics is being discussed as a tendency in the development of modern science [2]. In this connection the book Meta-language of the Living Nature [3] written by the famous Russian architect, Shevelev, can be considered as an attempt to create one more variant of natural mathematics.
Harmony Mathematics that was developed by the author for many years [422] belongs to a category of similar
mathematical directions. In its sources this new mathematical theory goes back to the Pythagorean Doctrine about
Numerical Harmony of the Universe. Since the antique period, many outstanding scientists and thinkers like Leonardo
da Vinci, Luca Pacioli, Johannes Kepler, Leibnitz, Zeizing, Binet, Lucas, Einstein, Vernadsky, Losev, Florensky paid a
great attention to this scientic doctrine.
The main goal of the present article is to state the fundamentals of the Harmony Mathematics [422], that is, to
describe its basic concepts and theories and to discuss its applications in modern science.

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For the rst time the consecutive representation about the world as internally contradictory and harmoniously
whole was developed by the ancient Greeks. In Ancient Greece the studying of the Beauty essence was formed into
a independent scientic branch called aesthetics, which was inseparable from cosmology in ancient sciences. The
Pythagorean doctrine about the Universe Harmony had a particular importance for the aesthetics history because it
was the rst attempt to understand the concept of Harmony. Pythagoreans put forward the idea about the harmonious
construction of the Universe including not only human nature, but also all Cosmos. According to Pythagoreans, Harmony is internal connection of things and phenomena, without which the Cosmos can not exist. At last, according to
Pythagoreans, Harmony has numerical expression; it is integrally connected to the concept of number.
Despite many thousand-years experience of studying the Harmony problem it today belongs to the category of the
most dicult scientic problems [23]. The main reason is that Harmony is a very complex scientic concept, which expresses not only quantitative, but also the qualitative aspects of the studied phenomenon.
As is know, mathematics studies the quantitative aspect of this or that phenomenon. And starting with the mathematical analysis of the Harmony concept, we should concentrate our attention on the quantitative aspects of Harmony. What is the quantitative aspect of this concept? To answer this question we will start with the analysis of the
origin and meaning of the word Harmony. As is known the word Harmony has a Greek origin. The Greek word
aqlotia means connection, consent.
There are various denitions of the Harmony concept. However, the majority of them lead to the following denition given in The Great Soviet Encyclopedia:

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58 2. A combinatorial approach to the Harmony Mathematics

79 Harmony is proportionality of parts and the whole, combination of the various components of the object in the
uniform organic whole. The internal ordering and measure obtain in Harmony external expression.

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The analysis of the word Harmony and its denition shows, that the most important, key notions, which underlie
83 this concept, are the following: connection, consent, combination, ordering.

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Table 1
Pascal triangle
1
1

1
1
1
1

1
1

15

28

10

21

36

4
10

20
35

56
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70
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1
5

1
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21

56
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28

84

36

1
9

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There is a question: which branch of mathematics studies these concepts? The search of the answer to this question
leads us to the combinatorial analysis. As is known, the combinatorial analysis studies the various kinds of combinations and connections, which can be formed from the elements of some nite set. The term combinatorial occurs from
the Latin word combinaryto combine, connect [24].
It follows from this consideration that both the Latin word combinary and the Greek word aqlotia is essence have the
some meaning, namely, combination and connection. It gives us the basis to put forward the assumption that exactly the
Laws of Combinatorial analysis can be used for analysis of the Harmony concept from the quantitative point of view.
As is known [24], the combinatorial analysis, as a mathematical discipline, originated in the 17th century. The famous mathematician and physicist, Blaise Pascal (16231662), in his work Treatise on the arithmetic triangle (1665)
set forth the doctrine of the binomial coecients. One of the most well-known mathematical formulas that is named
as Newtons binomial formula is connected to binomial coecients:

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n1
a bn an C 1n an1 b C 2n an2 b2    C kn ank bk    C n1
bn .
n ab

C kn

C kn C nk
n ;
k
C n1 C k1
n

C kn .

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C 0n C nn 1;

2
3
4

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The identity (4) is called Pascals law. Using identity (4), Pascal discovered a graceful way of calculation of the binomial coecients based on their representation in the form of a special numerical table named as Pascal triangle (Table 1).
Thus, the main concepts that underlay the Harmony notion and the combinatorial analysis in essence coincide. And
this give us a right to use the combinatorial analysis as the initial mathematical theory for the analysis of the Harmony
concept. This is the main idea of the present research, in which the author made an attempt to create the Fundamentals
of the Harmony Mathematics that is based on the binomial coecients and Pascal triangle. And though the combinatorial relations for Fibonacci numbers have been derived by the author already in his rst book [4], the understanding of
what these combinatorial relations mean is the main idea of the Harmony Mathematics that occured to the author more
recently. This unexpected comprehension, that exactly the combinatorial analysis is a mathematical basis of the harmonious correlations in Nature, Science and Arts became an incentive motive of write this article.

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in the formula (1) are called binomial coecients.

The numerical coecients
Note that the name of Newtons binomial formula is not true from a historical point of view because this formula
was known long before Newton, by many scientists in dierent countries including Tartalia, Fermat, and Pascal. Newtons merit is that he proved that this formula is valid for the case of any real number n, rational or irrational, positive
or negative.
It was proved that binomial coecients have a number of remarkable mathematical properties namely

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116 3. A historical view on the development of the harmony concept: from Khesi-Ra and Pythagoras to El Nashie and
117 Vladimirov
118 3.1. Khesi-Ra
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In the beginning of the 20th century in Saqqara (Egypt), archeologists opened the crypt, in which the remnants of the
120 Egyptian architect by name Khesi-Ra were buried. In the literature, this name often matches as Khesira. It is supposed

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that Khesi-Ra was the contemporary of Imhotep who lived in the period of the pharaoh Zoser (27th century BC) because in the crypt the printings of this pharaoh are found. The wood panels, which were covered with a magnicent
carving, were extracted from the crypt along with dierent material things. In total there were in the crypt 11 panels;
among them only ve panels were preserved; the remaining panels were completely broken down because moisture got
through reached to the crypt. On all the preserved panels, the architect Khesi-Ra, was surrounded with dierent things
that have a symbolical signicance. Since a long time the assigning of panels of the Khesi-Ra crypt was vague. At rst
the Egyptologists considered these panels as false doors. However, since 1960s the situation of the panels has been
clearer. In the beginning of the 60s the Russian architect Shevelev, paid his attention
to one of the panels and the bap
tons, which the architect held in his hands, related between themselves as 1 : 5, that is, as the small side and the diagonal of the rectangle with a side ratio of 1:2 (two-adjacent squares). This observation became a launching pad for
the researches of the other Russian architect Shmelev, who arrived at the etiled geometrical analysis of Khesi-Ras panels. As a result he came to a sensational discovery described in the brochure Phenomenon of Ancient Egypt [25]:
Now, after the comprehensive and argued analysis by the method of proportions we get good reason to assert
that Khesi-Ras panels are the harmony rules encoded by geometry language. . . So, in our hands we have the
concrete material evidences, which shows us by plain text the highest level of abstract thinking of the Ancient
Egypt intellectuals. The artist, who carved the panels with amazing and jeweler accuracy and masterly ingenuity,
demonstrated the rule of the Golden Section in its broadest range of variations. In outcome it was born the
GOLDEN SYMPHONY presented by the ensemble of the highly artistic works, which testies not only ingenious talents of their creator, but also veries convincingly that the author was initiated into the secret of Harmony. This genius was of the Golden Business Craftsman by the name of Khesi-Ra.

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And the last quotation from Shmelevs brochure [25]: It is necessary only to recognize, that the Ancient Egypt civ145 ilization is the super-civilization that was studied by us extremely supercially and this fact requires from us a qualita146 tively new approach to the studying of the richest heritage of the Ancient Egypt. . .
147 3.2. Pythagoras

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Pythagoras was born about 596 BC in Samos, Ionia, and died about 475 BC. He is possibly the most celebrated
person in the history of science. His name is known to every person who has studied geometry and is aware of the
Pythagorean Theorem. He was described as a famous philosopher and scientist, religious and ethical reformer, inuential politician, was a Demi-God in the eyes of his followers and a charlatan in the eyes of some of his contemporaries; such characteristics are attributed to Pythagoras in the ancient literature. The coins bearing his image, made
during 430420 BC, testify to the exclusive popularity of Pythagoras during his lifetime. This tribute was unprecedented
in the fth century BC. Pythagoras was also the rst among the Greek scientists for whom a special book was exclusively dedicated.
The Pythagorean doctrine concerned harmony, geometry, number theory, astronomy, etc. The Pythagoreans most
appreciated results are those obtained in the theory of harmony, because they conrmed the idea that the numbers
determine everything. Pythagoras was an enthusiast famous Golden Section. Some ancient scientists assume that
Pythagoras borrowed the concept of the Golden Section from the Babylonians. Proclus, the ancient Greek mathematician, attributes the discovery of the ve regular polyhedrons to Pythagoras.
Why was Pythagoras so popular during his lifetime? The answer to this question is provided by some interesting
facts from his biography [26]. In the article dedicated to Pythagoras [26] it is noted that, according to the legend Pythagoras went away to Egypt and lived there 22 years to study the knowledge of the eastern scientists. After studying of all
sciences of the Egyptians, including mathematics, he moved to Babylon, where he lived 12 years and studied the scientic knowledge of the Babylonian priests. The legend attributes to Pythagoras a visit to India. It is very probable as
Ionia and India then had business relations. On returning home (about 530 BC) Pythagoras attempted to organize
his philosophical school. However for unknown reasons he soon abandoned Samos and settled in Croton (a Greek colony in the north of Italy). Here Pythagoras organized the school, which acted almost thirty years.
Thus, the outstanding role of Pythagoras in the development of Greek science was his fulllment of an historical
mission that would ultimately transfer the knowledge of the Egyptian and Babylonian priests to the culture of Ancient
Greece. Thanks to Pythagoras, who was without any doubt, one of the most learned thinkers of his time, Greek science
gained a tremendous volume of knowledge in the elds of philosophy, mathematics and natural sciences. The addition
of such knowledge, substantially contributed to the rapid progress of the Ancient Greek culture.

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174 3.3. Plato

The Great Greek philosopher Plato, was born in Athens, about 427 BC, and died there about 347 BC. Platos works,
perhaps the most popular and inuential philosophic writings ever published, consist of a series of dialogues in which
the discussions between Socrates and others are presented with innite charm. Plato did believe that mathematics in its
ideal form could still be applied to the heavens. The heavenly bodies, he believed, exhibited perfect geometric form. This
idea is expressed by Plato most clearly in a dialogue called Timaeus in which he presents his scheme of the Universe. He
describes the ve (and only ve) possible regular solidsthat is, those with equal faces and with all equal lines and angles, that are formed by those faces. These are the 4-sided tetrahedron, the 6-sided hexahedron (or cube), the 8-sided
octahedron, the 12-sided dodecahedron, and the 20-sided icosahedrons. Four of the ve regular solids, according to
Plato, represented the four basic elements: Fire, Earth, Air, and Water; while the dodecahedron represented the Universe as a whole. These solids were rst discovered by the Pythagoreans, but the notoriety of the Timaeus dialogue ensured that they would always be referred to as the Platonic solids. It is important to note that both the dodecahedron
and the icosahedrons are connected to the Golden Section.

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Euclid of Alexandria was born about 325 BC and died about 265 BC in Alexandria, Egypt. He is the most prominent
mathematician of antiquity. Euclids most famous word is his treatise on mathematics known as, The Elements. This book
was a compilation of ancient mathematical knowledge that became the centre of mathematical teaching for 2000 years.
Euclid may not have been a rst class mathematician, but his famous, The Elements, brought to him the glory of being
the leading mathematics teacher of antiquity or perhaps of all time. The Elements is divided into 13 books. Books one to
six deal with plane geometry. Books seven to nine deal with number theory. Books ten deals with the theory of irrational
numbers. Books 11 to 13 deal with three-dimensional geometry. The Elements ends with book 13, which discusses the properties of the ve regular polyhedra and gives proof that there are precisely ve. The Elements gives us for the rst time a
geometric problem of a division of line in the extreme and middle ratio. In modern mathematics this problem is known as
the Golden Section problem. The concluding book of, The Elements, book 13, was devoted to the Platonic Solids theory
that became a source of the widespread hypothesis, that a description of the theory of Platonic Solids theory that became a source of the widespread hypothesis, that a description of the theory of Platonic Solids, express the Universe
Harmony, as the main goal of the The Elements.

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187 3.4. Euclid

201 3.5. Fibonacci

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The Middle Ages in our consciousness, is associated with the concept of inquisition orgy, campres, on which
witches and heretics are incinerated, and crusades for Gods body. The science in those times obviously was not in
a center of society attention. In this connection the appearance of the mathematical book Liber abaci written in
1202 by the Italian mathematician Leonardo Pisano (by the nickname of Fibonacci) was an important event in the scientic life of society. Fibonacci was born in 1170 and died in 1250 in Italy. He was educated in North Africa where his
father held a diplomatic post. Fibonacci studied mathematical in Bugia and traveled widely with his father. He recognized enormous advantages of the mathematical systems used in the countries they visited. The main book Liber abaci,
published in 1202 after Fibonaccis return to Italy, was based on the arithmetic and algebric knowledge that Fibonacci
had accumulated during his travels. The book introduced the Hindu-Arabic decimal system and use of Arabic numerals
into Europe. Certainly many of the problems that Fibonacci considers in Lider abaci were similar to those appearing in
Arab sources. Though Fibonacci had one of the brightest mathematical minds in the history of West-European mathematics, his contribution to mathematics is belittled undeservedly. A signicance of Fibonaccis mathematical creativity
for mathematics is assessed properly by the Russian mathematician, Prof. Vasiljev, in his book Integer Number (1919):

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217 The works of the learned Pisa merchant were so above the level of mathematical knowledge even of the scientists
of that time, that their inuence on the mathematical literature becomes noticeable only two centuries after his
death at the end of the 15th century, when many of his theorems and problems are entered in the works of Luca
Pacioli, who was a professor at many Italian universities and the Leonardo da Vinci friend, and in the beginning
of the 16th century, when the group of the talented Italian mathematicians: Ferro, Cardano, Tartalia, Ferrari by
the solution of the cubical and biquadrate equations gave the beginning of higher algebra.

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Fibonaccis role in the development of West-European mathematics can be compared with Pythagoras role in the
development of Greek science. Like Pythagoras, the historical role of Fibonacci in West-European mathematics is that
his mathematical books promoted transferring or Arabian mathematical knowledge to West-European science that created fundamentals for further development of the West-European mathematics.
Ironically, Fibonacci, who made an outstanding contribution to the development of mathematics, became known in
modern mathematics only as the author of the interesting numerical sequence called Fibonacci numbers:
5

0; 1; 1; 2; 3; 5; 8; 13; 21; 34; . . .

This numerical sequence was obtained by Fibonacci as the solution for the famous problem of rabbits reproduction. The
formulation and solution of this problem is considered as Fibonaccis main contribution to the development of combinatorial analysis. It is specically with the help of this problem Fibonacci anticipated the method of recurrence relations that can be considered as one of the most powerful methods of combinatorial analysis. Fibonaccis recurrence
relation,

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F n F n  1 F n  2;

F 0 0;

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241 obtained by Fibonacci as the solution for this problem, is considered to be the rst recurrence relation in mathematics
242 history.
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Note that for the initial terms
F 1 1;

247 the recurrence relation (6) generates Fibonacci numbers (5).

264 3.7. Kepler

The outstanding astronomer and mathematician Johannes Kepler was born is 1571 and died in 1630. In 1591, he
enrolled in the Tubingen Academy where he got quite a good mathematical education. Here the future great astronomer was acquainted with the heliocentric system of Nicola Copernicus. After graduation from the Academy, Kepler got
a Masters degree and was then appointed as mathematics teacher in the Graz High School (Austria). His rst book
with the intriguing title, Misterium Cosmographium, was published by Kepler in 1596 at the age of 25. Here he developed a very original geometric model of the Solar system that was based on the Platonic Solids. Though his model appeared erroneous, Kepler remained condent in this scientic result an always considered this model as one of his
highest scientic achievements. Kepler was a consecutive follower of the Golden Section, Platonic Solids and the
Pythagorean Doctrine about the numerical Harmony of the Universe. Kepler expressed his admiration of the Golden
Section in the following words:

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The outstanding Italian mathematician and learned monk Luca Pacioli was born in 1445 in the provincial town of
Borgo de San-Sepolcoro (which translated from Italian means a not very joyous City of the Sacred Con). He died
in 1517. Pacioli was known as professor of many Italian universities. Paciolis pedagogical work was combined with
scientic activity. He wrote two encyclopedic mathematical books. In 1494 he published the book entitled The Sum
of arithmetics geometry, doctrine about proportions and relations. All of the books material is divided into two parts;
the former part is dedicated to arithmetic and algebra, the latter one to geometry. One part of the book is dedicated to
the problems of mathematics application to commercial business and in this part his book was a continuation of Fibonaccis famous book Liber abaci (1202). In essence, this mathematical work was a sum of the mathematical knowledge of the Renaissance. Pacioli was a friend and scientic advisor of Leonardo da Vinci. Under Leonardo da Vincis
direct inuence, Pacioli wrote his second famous book De Divina Proportione. This book, published by Pacioli in 1509,
rendered a noticeable inuence on his contemporaries. Paciolis folio was one of the rst examples of the Italian bookprinting art. The historical signicance of the book is that it was the rst mathematical book dedicated to the Golden
Section. The book was illustrated with 60 magnicent gures drawn by Leonardo da Vinci. The book consists of there
parts: in the rst part the properties of the Golden Section are given, the second part is dedicated to regular polyhedra,
the third one is dedicated to the applications of the Golden Section in architecture.

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248 3.6. Pacioli

Geometry has two great treasures: one is the Theorem of Pythagoras; the other, the division of a line into extreme
and mean ratio. The rst we may compare to a measure of gold; the second we may name a precious stone.

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Keplers works terminated the epoch of scientic romanticism, the epoch of Harmony and the Golden Section,
that was inherent to the Renaissance. But on the other hand, his scientic works signaled the beginning of a new science,
which started to develop from the works of Descartes, Galileo and Newton. With Keplers death in 1630 the Golden
Section, which he considered one of the geometry treasures, was forgotten. This strange oblivion continued for almost two centuries. Interest in the Golden Section was not revived again until the 19th century.

284 3.8. Pascal

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The famous French physicist and mathematician Blaise Pascal was born in 1623 and died in 1662. Pascal was a versatile researcher. He invented the rst digital calculator (16421645) called Pascaline that resembled the mechanical calculator of the 1940s. He developed the Conic Sections and proved important theorems is projective geometry. In, The
Generation of Conic Sections (1648), Pascal considered Conics generated by central projection of a circle. From May
1653 Pascal worked on physics and wrote Treatise on the Equilibrium of Liquids (1653), in which he explained Pascals
law of pressure.
As we mentioned above, Pascal was one of the founders of combinatorial analysis. In his works Treatise on the arithmetic triangle (1665) he stated a doctrine on the binomial coecients and for the rst time constructed Pascal triangle.

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293 3.9. Riccati

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295 of the Italian mathematician, Jacopo Riccati. Vincenzo continued his fathers work on integration and dierential equa296 tions. Vincenzo studied hyperbolic functions. He found their relation to the exponential function and their derivatives.
297 Also he introduced the standard designation for hyperbolic functions in the following form:
ex  ex
ex ex
shx
;
chx
.
8
2
2
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A great role of the hyperbolic functions (8) developed by Vincenzo Riccati was understood later when the Russian
302 geometer Nikolay Lobachevsky discovered non-Euclidean geometry and the German mathematician Herman Minkov303 sky gave a geometric interpretation of Einsteins special theory of relativity.

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A history of mathematics shows that there exists a strange tradition in mathematics regarding the outstanding
mathematical discoveries. Many mathematicians (even the very famous), as a rule, are not able to properly access
the mathematical achievements of their contemporaries. The revolutionary mathematical discoveries either remain
unnoticed or are subjected to ridicule by their contemporaries and only 2030 years later these discoveries begin to
be recognized and admired.
The name of the French mathematician Evarist Galois is well-known in mathematics. His mathematical works were
the origin for modern algebra. His basic mathematical works, which were named later Galois Theory in his honor, were
developed by him between the ages of 1618. Galois sent his works to the Paris Academy of Sciences. However, even the
greatest French mathematicians Cauchy and Fourier could not understand Galois works. According to the legend, academician Cauchy threw out Galois mathematical manuscripts in the garbage. Evariste Galois was killed in 1832 during
duel at the age of 21 years. Twenty-four years after Galois death, the famous French mathematician Joseph Liouville
edited some of Galois manuscripts and published them with a glowing commentary. And ever since the Evariste Galois
had been ranked as a mathematical genius.
A history of the non-Euclidean geometry, the outstanding discovery of the ingenious Russian geometer Nikolay
Lobachevsky, however, is considered to be one of the most shameful pages in the history of the Russian academic science. Nikolay Lobachevsky was born in 1792 and died in 1856. His major mathematical research is connected to the
fth postulate of Euclidean geometry. On February 11 of 1826, in the session of the Department of Physics-Mathematical Sciences at Kazan University, Lobachevsky requested that his word on the fundamentals of a new geometry be sent
to the referees at the St-Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The famous Russian mathematician academician Ostrogradsky gave a sharply negative review to Lobachevskys article. In an anonymous article published in the journal The Son
of Fatherland Lobachevskys article was named as the geometric speculations of the Kazans rector, Mr. Lobachevsky. During his entire lifetime, Lobachevsky was subjected to ridicule by members of the ocial Russian academic
community of that period. Lobachevskys recognition eventually came from the West only after the genius German
mathematician Gauss properly assessed Lobachevskys works in geometry. It was Gauss who proposed that Lobachevsky be chosen as a Corresponding Member of the Gettingen scientic society.

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307
308
309
310
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312
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315
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321
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329

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304 3.10. Lobachevsky

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330
The creation of the non-Euclidean geometry was Lobachevskys main achievement. Lobachevsky used the hyper331 bolic functions (8) to describe the geometric relations for his geometrical studies. Therefore, Lobachevskys geometry
332 is called hyperbolic geometry.
333 3.11. Lucas

OO
F

The famous 19th century French mathematician Francois Edouard Anatole Lucas was born in 1842 and died in 1891.
The major works of Lucas are in number theory. In 1878, Lucas gave the criterion for the denition of the primality of
Mersenns numbers of the kind 2n  1. Using his method, Lucas established that the number of 2127  1 is a prime one.
For over 75 years this number was the greatest prime number known in science. Also he found the 12th perfect number and formulated a number of interesting mathematical problems. Lucas was the rst scientist who understood the
role of the binary number system in the progress of science. He believed that with the help of machines, it is more convenient to perform the summation of numbers binary number system than in decimal ones. He contributed substantially
to the development of the Fibonacci numbers theory. He introduced into mathematics the name of Fibonacci numbers.
After Lucas works, the mathematical articles in this eld started to reproduce as Fibonaccis rabbits. Lucas is the
author of the following recurrent numerical sequence:

PR

334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343

2; 1; 3; 4; 7; 11; 18; 29; 47; . . . ;

347 called Lucas numbers in his honor. Note that Lucas numbers L(n) is given by the recurrence relation
Ln Ln  1 Ln  2;
350 with the initial terms
L1 1.

L0 2;

11

TE

353 3.12. Binet

10

The other famous 19th century French mathematician, Jacques Philippe Marie Binet, was born in 1776 and died in
1856. He contributed signicantly to the study of mathematics. Binet developed the matrix theory. In 1812, he found a
rule of matrix multiplication and this discovery gloried his name more than any other works of his. Also he introduced
the notion of the Beta function and developed the linear dierential equations theory. However, the Binet formulas that
connect the Golden Ratio to Fibonacci and Lucas numbers are his most important contribution to the Fibonacci number theory [2729]:

363
364
365
366

sn  sn 1n
p
;
12
5
13
Ln sn sn 1n ;
p
where s 12 5  1618 is the Golden Proportion or the Golden Ratio, L(n), L(n) are Fibonacci and Lucas numbers given
for the positive and negative values of the discrete variable n (n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .). If we take into consideration that
Binet formulas (12) and (13) connect integers (Finbonacci and Lucas numbers) to irrationals (the Golden Ratio) we can
conclude that the formulas (12) and (13) have great importance in number theory.

EC

354
355
356
357
358
359

367 3.13. Klein

Felix Klein was born on 25/4/1849 and delighted in pointing out that each of the day (52), month (22), and year (432)
were the square of a prime. He died in 1925. Kleins main works were dedicated to the non-Euclidean geometry, theory,
continuous groups, theory of algebraic equations, theory of elliptic and automorphic functions. His ideas in the eld of
geometry were stated by Klein in the work Comparative consideration of new geometrical researches (1872) known under
the title Erlangen Program. According to Klein, each geometry is the invariant theory for the special group transformation that allows to pass from one type of geometry to other. Euclidean geometry is the science about the metric
group invariants, a projective geometry about the projective group invariants, etc. The classication of transformation
groups gives us the classication of the geometries. The proof of the non-Euclidean geometry consistency is considered
as the essential Kleins achievement.
Kleins researches concern also regular polyhedrons. His book The Lectures about a regular icosahedrons and solution
of the 5th degree equations, published in 1884, is dedicated to this problem. Though the book is dedicated to the solution
of the fth degree algebraic equations, the main idea of the book is much deeper. Its main purpose is to show a role of

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379

CO

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F n

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the Platonic Solids, in particular Regular Icosahedron, in the development of mathematical science. According to Klein,
the issue of mathematics runs up widely and freely by sheets of the dierent theories. But there are mathematical objects, in which some sheets converge. Their geometry binds the sheets and allows to understand a general mathematical
sense of the miscellaneous theories. The regular icosahedron, in Kleins opinion, is such a mathematical object. Klein
treats the regular icosahedron as the mathematical object, from which the branches of the ve mathematical theories follow,
namely geometry, Galois theory, group theory, invariants theory and dierential equations.
What is the signicance of Kleins ideas from the point of view of the Harmony concept? First of all, we see that the
regular icosahedron, one of the Platonic Solids, is selected as the geometric object integrating the main sheets of mathematics. But the regular dodecahedron is based on the Golden Section! It follows from here that exactly the Golden
Section is the main geometrical idea, which, according to Klein, can bind all branches of mathematics. Kleins contemporaries could not understand and assess properly a revolutionary sense of Kleins Icosahedron idea. Its signicance
was assessed properly 100 years later, namely in 1984, when the Israeli scientist Dan Shechtman published that articles
verifying an existence of special alloys (called quasi-crystals) that have so-called Icosahedron symmetry, that is, the
fth order symmetry, which is strictly forbidden by classic crystallography.

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F

380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393

PR

394 3.14. Einstein

The Great physicist Albert Einstein was born in 1879 and died in 1955. Einstein made many scientic discoveries in
physics and cosmology. But his special theory of relativity suggested in 1905 is considered as his highest scientic
achievement. After 1905, Einstein continued to work in this area. He made important contributions to quantum theory,
but he sought to extend the special theory of relativity to phenomenas involving acceleration. Einstein received the Nobel Prize in 1921 but not for relativity rather for his 1905 work on the photoelectric eect. It was Einstein who believed
in the Universe Harmony. He said: Religiousness of a scientist consists in an enthusiastic worship for laws of
Harmony.

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395
396
397
398
399
400
401

402 3.15. Minkovsky

RR

EC

The famous German mathematician Herman Minkovsky was born in 1864 and died in 1909. In 1908, three years
after the promulgation of Einsteins special relativity theory, Herman Minkovsky presented the geometric substantiation of Einsteins special theory of relativity. Minkovskys idea is characterized by two essential peculiarities. First of all,
his geometric spatialtemporary model is four-dimensional: in it the spatial and temporary coordinates are connected in
a common coordinate system. A position of the material point in Minkovsdys space is determined by the point
M(x, y, z, t) called World Point. Secondly, the geometric connection between the spatial and temporary coordinates
in Minkovskys system has a non-Euclidean character; that is, the given model reects certain peculiar properties of
real spacetime, which cannot be described in the frameworks of the traditional Euclidean geometry. Geometrically
a connection between spatial (x) and temporary (t) coordinated in Minkovskys space is given with the help of the
hyperbolic functions (8). He gave an original geometric interpretation of the well-known Lorenz formulas. According
to Minkovsky, Lorenzs transformation can be described in terms of hyperbolic geometry. In essence, Minkovskys
geometry uncovers a hyperbolic nature of all the mathematical formulas Einsteins relativity theory. At the same time
if follows from here that all the analytical relations of Einsteins relativity theory objectively reect the non-Euclidean
character of the physical spacetime.

417 3.16. Zeckendorf

Many number theorists know about Zeckendorfs sum:

UN

418

CO

403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416

N an F n an1 F n  1    ai F i    a1 F 1;
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430

14

where ai is a binary numeral 0 and 1; F(i) is Fibonacci number given by (6) and (7), but few know about the person after
whom this sum is named. Edouard Zeckendorf (19011983) was a Colonel of the Belgian Medical Corps and an amateur
of mathematics. He was a Dutch citizen. Edouard was born in Liege, and in 1925 he qualied as a medical doctor at the
University of Liege and then became a Belgian Army ocer. Before 1930, he also obtained a license for dental surgery.
In 1940, Zeckendorfs was taken prisoner by the Germans, and in that capacity, he provided medical care until 1945.
Zeckendorfs sum (14) originates with an article published in 1939. Each positive integer has a unique representation as
a sum of two non-adjacent Fibonacci numbers. Zeckendorfs representation (14) can be compared with binary representation. Numerous articles published in, The Fibonacci Quarterly discuss Zeckendorfs sum and give its many
generalizations.

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431 3.17. Bergman

432
The American mathematician George Bergman was born in 1945. He works now as Professor in the Mathematics
433 Department, University of California. In 1957, he made an original discovery in number system theory called Bergmans
434 number system:
X
A
ai si ;
15
i

p
where ai is a binary numeral 0 or 1; si is the weight of the ith digit of the number system (15); s 12 5 is the Golden
Ratio; i = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . It is surprising that George Bergman made his mathematical discovery in the age of 12!
Despite his young age, Bergmans article [30] was published in the very authoritative mathematical journal Mathematics Magazine, and the well-known public Journal Times had even interviewed the mathematical genius of America.

OO
F

438
439
440
441

442 3.18. Hoggat

PR

The American mathematician Verner Email Hoggat was born in 1921 and died in 1981. Verner Hoggatt, together
with Brother Alfred Brousseau, published the rst volume of The Fibonacci Quarterly in 1963, thereby founding the
Fibonacci Association. The Quarterly has grown into a well-recognized number theory journal. On April 4, 1969,
the TIME Magazine reported about the phenomenal growth of the Fibonacci Association. That same year, Houghton
Miin published Hoggats book, Fibonacci and Lucas Numbers [28], perhaps the worlds best introduction to the Fibonacci numbers theory. Verner Hoggat was one of the Worlds rst mathematicians who felt the approaching of Fibonaccis era. He was also one the rst mathematicians who paid attention to the Q-matrix,


1 1
Q
.
16
1 0

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443
444
445
446
447
448
449

453 By raising to its nth power it shows its connections to Fibonacci numbers:


F n 1
F n
Qn
;
F n
F n  1

EC

457 where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
458 3.19. Penrose

RR

The British physicist and mathematician Sir Roger Penrose was born in 1931. Sir Roger Penrose, a professor of
mathematics at the University of Oxford in England, pursues an active interest in geometrical puzzles. He was fascinated with a eld of geometry known as tessellation, the covering of a surface with tiles of prescribed shapes. He wanted
to cover a at surface with tiles so that there were no gaps and no overlaps. He found non-periodic tilings, called Penrose tilings, with only two tiles. The Penrose tiles consist of two rhombi with angles 72 and 36. The edges of the rhombi are all of equal length. They originated from pentagram. If we follow a few strict rules about how to place these
rhombi together, you will nd non-periodic patterns that have pentagonal symmetry.

466 3.20. Shechtman

The famous Israeli physicist Dan Shechtman is the author of revolutionary discovery in crystallography [31]. The
Icosahedral Phase, discovered by Prof. Shechtman in 1982 is the focus of his research. The Icosahedral phase, as the
rst structure in the eld of quasi-periodic crystals, was discovered in aluminum metal alloys. Its crystallography is unique, since it has the icosahedral group symmetry, and its atomic order is quasi-periodic in contrast to periodic order
found in previously known crystals. The intriguing questions regarding structure and properties of this new class of
materials draw a broad interdisciplinary scientic interest. The eld has become an active major communication arena
for physicists, materials scientists, mathematicians, crystallographers and others.

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468
469
470
471
472
473

CO

459
460
461
462
463
464
465

17

474 3.21. El Nashie

475
The outstanding Egyptian physicist Mohamed-Saladdin El Naschie was born in 1943 in Cairo. He is Professor of
476 Frankfurt Institute of Advanced Studies, Member of the founding Board of Trustees, University of Frankfurt, Ger477 many, Professor Astrophysics, Faculty of Science, University of Cairo, Egypt. He was a follower, student and friend

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of the Great scientist and Nobel Laureate Ilya Prigogin. El Nashies areas of scientic interests are: stability, bifurcation, atomic-engineering, nonlinear dynamics, chaos, fractals, high-energy particle physics, quantum mechanics. Recently he made a new discovery in the area of high-energy particle physics. So far, we have already known
experimentally 60 particles, but Mohamed El Nashies theory (Einnity theory) shows the most probable number
of elementary particles in the standard model is 69 particles. In his theory, Prof. El Naschie used the theory of fractals
and the number theory (where he gives a big role to the Golden Ratio that can be represented as innite fraction) to
postulate that the Universe has innite of dimensions. According to [32], El Nashies theory will lead to Nobel Prize if
experimentally veried. Prof. El Nashie is a follower of the Golden Ratio and shows in his works [3139] that the Golden Ratio plays outstanding role in physical researches.

OO
F

478
479
480
481
482
483
484
485
486

487 3.22. Vladimirov

PR

The famous Russian physicist Yuri Vladimirov was born in 1938. Currently he is Professor of the Theoretical Physics
Department of Moscow University. His areas of scientic interests are: theoretical physics; theory of gravitation and
quantization of gravitation; multivariate geometrical models of physical interactions, the theory of direct inter-partial
interaction, the incorporated theory of spacetime and physical interactions; philosophical problems of fundamental
theoretical physics. In article [40] he suggested an original model of quark icosahedron. In 2002 he published the book
Metaphysics [41]. The concluding paragraph of the book is named Vinebergs angle and the Golden section. He ends
the book by the following words: Thus, it is possible to assert that in the theory of electroweak interactions there are
relations that are approximately coincident with the Golden Section the play an important role in the various areas of
science and art.

488
489
490
491
492
493
494
495
496

11

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497 4. The main mathematical concepts and theories of the Harmony Mathematics
498 4.1. Generalized Fibonacci numbers or Fibonacci p-numbers

2n C 0n C 1n C 2n    C nn .

18

CO

RR

Let us shift now every row of the initial Pascal triangle (Table 2) by p columns (p = 1, 2, 3, . . .) to the right, relative to
the preceding row and consider the modied Pascal triangles called Pascal p-triangles. Table 3 gives Pascal 1-triangle
and Table 4 gives Pascal 2-triangle.
If we sum the binomial coecients of the Pascal 1-triangle (Table 3) we will arrive unexpectedly at the Fibonacci
numbers F(n) that are given with the recurrence relation (6) and (7). It is easy to deduce the following identity that connects Fibonacci numbers F(n) and binomial coecients:

Table 2
Rectangular Pascal triangle

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506
507
508
509
510
511

EC

499
Let us consider a rectangular Pascal triangle (see Table 2) and its modied variants given by Tables 3 and 4.
500
Note that the binomial coecient C kn in Table 2 is on the intersection of the nth column (n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .) and the
501 kth row (k = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .) of the Pascal triangle. If we sum the binomial coecients of Table 2 by columns, we will get
502 the binary sequence: 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 16, . . ., 2n, . . . In the combinatorial analysis this result is expressed in the form of the
503 following elegant identity:

1
1

1
2
1

1
3
3
1

1
4
6
4
1

1
5
10
10
5
1

1
6
15
20
15
6
1

1
7
21
35
35
21
7
1

1
8
28
56
70
56
28
8
1

1
9
36
84
126
126
84
36
9
1

16

32

64

128

256

512

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Table 3
Pascal 1-triangle
1

1
1

1
2

1
3
1

1
4
3

1
5
6
1

1
6
10
4

13

21

Table 4
Pascal 2-triangle
1

1
1

1
2

1
3

1
4
1

n 2m r.

1
10
36
56
35
6

89

144

1
5
3

1
6
6

1
7
10
1

1
8
15
4

13

18

28

19

20

The result (19) is well-known in Fibonacci numbers theory [2729]. However this result has a principal importance
for development of the Harmony mathematics because it conrms fruitfulness of the combinatorial approach to the
Harmony Mathematics. This result is a brilliant demonstration of the deep connection between Fibonacci numbers that
express Harmony of Nature and the Art and Pascal triangle.
If we sum the binomial coecients of Pascal 2-triangle (Table 4) by columns, we will get a new recurrent numerical
sequence 1, 1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 13, 28, 41, 60, . . . that is given by the following recurrence relation:

RR

F 2 n F 2 n  1 F 2 n  3;
526 with the initial terms
F 2 1 0;

EC

518
519
520
521
522
523

55

1
9
28
35
15
1

TE

515 where n, m and r are connected by the following relation:

1
8
21
20
5

F n 1 C 0n C 1n1 C 2n2    C mmr ;

34

PR

1
7
15
10
1

OO
F

F 2 1 F 2 2 1.

21

22

CO

529 We will name this recurrence numerical sequence Fibonacci 2-numbers.

530
It is easy to deduce the following identity that connects Fibonacci 2-numbers F2(n) and binomial coecients:
F 2 n 1 C 0n C 1n2 C 2n4    C mmr ;

23

533 where n, m and r are connected by the following relation:

UN

n 3m r.

24

536
If we sum by columns the binomial coecients of the Pascal p-triangle, we will arrive at the numerical sequence that
537 is expressed by the following recurrence relation [4]:
F p n F p n  1 F p n  p  1 where n > p 1;

25

541 with the initial terms

F p 0 0;

F p 1 F p 2    F p p 1.

26

545
Note that the recurrence relation (25) with the initial terms (26) gives an innite number of new numerical sequences.
546 Moreover, the binary sequence 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, . . ., is the special case of this sequence for p = 0 and the classical Fibo547 nacci numbers (5) are the special case of this sequence for p = 1! We will name the numerical sequence generated by (25)
548 and (26) as Fibonacci p-numbers.

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549

13

It is easy to deduce the following identity that connects Fibonacci p-numbers Fp(n) and binomial coecients:
F p n 1 C 0n C 1np C 2n2p    C mmr ;

27

553 where n, m and r are connected by the following relation:

n p 1m r.

28

557

OO
F

556 4.2. The generalized golden ratios

If we consider the ratios of the adjacent Fibonacci p-numbers
F p 2=F p 1; F p 3=F p 2; . . . ; F p n=F p n  1;

29

561 and then aim the sequence (29) for innity, we will come to the golden algebraic equation [22]

PR

xp1  xp  1 0;

30

565 with the positive root sp that is called generalized golden ratio or golden p-ratio.
566
If follows from (30) that the generalized golden ratios sp are connected by the following fundamental identity:
snp1
sp sn1
snp sn1
p
p
p ;

31

TE

570 where n = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}.

571
Note that for the case p = 0 Eq. (30) reduces to the trivial equation x = 2, with the root s0 = 2, and for the case p = 1
572 reduces to the classical golden ratio equation
x2 x 1
575 with the root
p
1 5
;
2

EC

32

33

RR

579 called the golden ratio or golden proportion [27,28].

580
Note that we have obtained the golden ratio (33) and its generalization, the golden p-ratios sp, from combinatorial
581 reasoning. It is clear that the generalized Fibonacci p-numbers given by (25) and (26) and the golden p-ratios sp, which
582 are the roots of the algebraic equation (30), express some deep mathematical properties of Pascal triangle.
583 4.3. The generalized principle of the Golden Section
The identity (31) is a source of the identity
1
X

CO

584

p1

1 s1
p sp

si1p11
;
p

34

i1

UN

588 that expresses the generalized principle of the Golden Section [19].
589
Note that for the case p = 0 the identity (34) reduces to the identity:
1
X
2i ;
1 21 21

35

i1

592 that expresses the Dichotomy Principle.

593
For the case p = 1 the identity (34) reduces to the identity:
1
X
s2i1 ;
1 s1 s2

36

i1

596 that expresses the classical Principle of the Golden Section.

597
Note that the Law of structural harmony of systems developed by the Byelorussian philosopher Eduard Soroko [23] is
598 a brilliant conrmation of the application of the generalized principle of the Golden Section for self-organizing systems.

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599 4.4. The golden algebraic equations

600
The golden algebraic equation (30) has p + 1 roots x1, x2, x3, . . ., xp+1. It is proved in [22] that the roots x1, x2, x3,
601 . . ., xp+1 have the following properties:
602

1. If xk is a root of Eq. (30) where k = {1, 2, . . ., p + 1} then we have

xnk xn1
xnp1
xk xn1
k
k
k ;

605 where n = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}.

606 2. For a given integer p = 1, 2, 3, . . . and for k = 1, 2, 3, . . ., p, we have
xk1 xk2 xk3 x4    xkp xkp1 1.

38

3. For a given integer p = 1, 2, 3, . . . the following general algebraic equation:

xn F p n  p 1xp

p1
X


F p n  p  txt ;

PR

609

OO
F

37

t0

39

613 has the golden p-proportion sp as the root. Here n = p + 1, p + 2, p + 3, . . ., and Fp(n) are the Fibonacci p-numbers.
614
615

Note that for the case p = 1 and n = 4 the algebraic equation (39) reduces to the following:
x4 3x 2

that, according to the statement of the Great physicist Richard Feynman, describes the minimal power condition of the
butadiene molecule. Feynman expressed his admiration of the golden proportion in the following works: What miracles exist in mathematics! According to my theory, the Golden Proportion of the ancient Greeks gives the minimal
power condition of the butadiene molecule.

EC

623 4.5. Hyperbolic Fibonacci and Lucas functions

TE

619
620
621
622

40

624
In [9,16,18] a very original approach to Binet formulas (12) and (13) let to a new mathematical discovery, hyperbolic
625 Fibonacci and Lucas functions, that are a new class of hyperbolic functions (8). The symmetric hyperbolic Fibonacci and
626 Lucas function introduced in [18] have the following analytical expressions:

sFsx

sx  sx
p ;
5

RR

627 Symmetrical Fibonacci sine and cosine

cFsx

sx sx
p ;
5

41

631 Symmetrical Lucas sine and cosine

sLsx sx  sx ;

cLsx sx sx .

CO

635

42

641
642
643
644
645
646
647
648
649

UN

636
The Fibonacci and Lucas numbers are determined identically through the symmetrical Fibonacci and Lucas func637 tions as the following:


sFsn for n 2k;
cLsn for n 2k;
Ln
43
Fn
cFsn for n 2k 1;
sLsn for n 2k 1.
As is noted in [9,16,18], the hyperbolic Fibonacci and Lucas functions, which are extensions of Binet formulas (12)
and (13) for continuous domain, transform the Fibonacci numbers theory [2729] into a continuous theory because
every identity for the hyperbolic Fibonacci and Lucas functions had its discrete analogy in the framework of Fibonacci
and Lucas numbers theory. On the other hand, if we take into consideration a great role-played by the hyperbolic functions in geometry, physics and cosmology (Lobachevskys hyperbolic geometry, Four-dimensional Minkowskys
world, etc.), it is possible to expect that the new theory of the new theory of the hyperbolic functions will lead to
new results and interpretations in hyperbolic geometry, physics and cosmology.
Note that Bodnars geometry [47] is a brilliant conrmation of the byperbolic Fibonacci Lucas application for simulation of phyllotaxis phenomenon.

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15

650 4.6. A general theory of Binet formulas for Fibonacci and Lucas p-numbers
651
As is shown in [21], Binet formulas (12) allow the following generalization for the Fibonacci p-numbers. It is proved
652 that for the given p > 0 the Fibonacci p-number Fp(n) that is given by the recurrence relation (25) with the initial terms
653 (26) can be represented in the following analytical form:
F p n k 1 x1 n k 2 x2 n    k p1 xp1 n ;

44

OO
F

657 where x1, x2, . . ., xp+1, are the roots of the golden algebraic equation (30) and k1, k2, . . ., kp+1 are some constant coef658 cients that are solutions of the following system of algebraic equations:
F p 0 k 1 k 2    k p1 0;
F p 1 k 1 x1 k 2 x2    k p1 xp1 1;
F p 2 k 1 x1 2 k 2 x2 2    k p1 xp1 3 1;
...
F p p k 1 x1 p k 2 x2 p    k p1 xp1 p 1;

45

PR

662 where Fp(0), Fp(1), FP(2), . . ., Fp(p) are the initial terms of the Fibonacci p-series given by (26).
663
For the case p = 1, the formulas (44) and (45) take the following form:
F 1 n k 1 sn k 2 1=sn ;
F 1 0 k 1 k 2 ;
F 1 1 k 1 s k 2 1=s.

46
47

TE

667
Solving system (47) we get: k 1 p15 and k 2  p15. If we substitute, k1 and k2 to (46), we get the well-known Binet
668 formula (12) for the classical Fibonacci numbers.
669
In [21], a new class of numerical sequences, called Lucas p-numbers, was introduced. For a given p > 0 the Lucas p670 numbers are given by the following analytical formula:
Lp n x1 n x2 n    xp1 n ;

48

Lp n Lp n  1 Lp n  p  1;
679 with the initial terms:
Lp 0 p 1;

49

Lp 1 Lp 2 . . . Lp p 1.

50

CO

RR

If we accept k1 = k2 = 1 in (46) we get the Binet formula for the classical Lucas numbers (9).
Table 5 gives the Lucas p-numbers for the dierent value of p.
Note that the formulas (44) and (48) give an innite number of Binet formulas for Fibonacci and Lucas p-numbers.
Some useful examples of such formulas for p = 2, 3, 4 are given in [21].
It is now dicult to predict in which part of science the above-introduced Binet formulas (44), for the Fibonacci and
Lucas p-numbers will have the most eective application. It is clear that the theory of the Binet formulas described in [21]
is a challenge to the branch of modern mathematics known as the Fibonacci numbers theory [2729], which is now
actively developing. The author is sure that the new Binet formulas that are based on combinatorial consideration will
attract the attention of theoretical physicists if we take into consideration the active interest of physical science to the
Fibonacci numbers and the Golden Section [3145].

UN

682
683
684
685
686
687
688
689
690
691

EC

674 where x1, x2, . . ., xp+1 are the roots of the algebraic equation (30). It is proved [21] that the formula (48) gives the Lucas
675 p-series Lp(n) (n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .), which can be given by the recurrence relation:

Table 5
Lucas p-numbers
n
0
L1(n)
L2(n)
L3(n)
L4(n)
L5(n)
L6(n)

2
3
4
5
6
7

10

11

12

1
1
1
1
1
1

3
1
1
1
1
1

4
4
1
1
1
1

7
5
5
1
1
1

11
6
6
6
1
1

18
10
7
7
7
1

29
15
8
8
8
8

47
21
13
9
9
9

76
31
19
10
10
10

123
46
26
16
11
11

199
67
34
23
12
12

322
98
47
31
19
13

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692 4.7. Fibonacci matrixes

PR

Such matrixes were called in [12] Fibonacci Qp-matrixes.

Let us analyze the matrix (51). First of all, we note that all elements of the Qp-matrix (49) are equal to 0 or 1; here the
rst column begins from 1 and ends by 1 but all its other elements are equal to 0, the last row of the matrix (51) begins
from 1 and all the other elements are equal to 0. The other part of the matrix (51) (without the rst column and last row)
is an identity (p p)-matrix. For the cases, p = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 the corresponding Qp-matrixes have the following form,
respectively:
0
1
1 1 0


1 1
B
C
Q1
Q0 1;
Q;
Q2 @ 0 0 1 A;
1 0
1 0 0
0
1
1 1 0 0 0
0
1
1 1 0 0
B
C
B0 0 1 0 0C
B0 0 1 0C
B
C
B
C
C
Q3 B
Q4 B
C;
B 0 0 0 1 0 C.
@0 0 0 1A
B
C
@0 0 0 0 1A
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0

EC

TE

698
699
700
701
702
703

OO
F

693
A theory of Fibonacci matrixes based on Fibonacci p-numbers is stated in [12]. Using the idea of the Q-matrix (16)
694 the following generalization of the Q-matrix was introduced in [12]:
0
1
1 1 0 0  0 0
B0 0 1 0  0 0C
B
C
B
C
B0 0 0 1  0 0C
B
C
..
.. .. C
B .. .. .. ..
51
Qp B . . . .
C
.
.
.
B
C
B0 0 0 0  1 0C
B
C
B
C
@0 0 0 0  0 1A
1 0 0 0  0 0

RR

706
Note that for the case p = 1, the Q1-matrix coincides with the classical Q-matrix (16) [28]. Note also that the Qp-ma707 trixes have exceptional regularity. For example, the Qp1-matrix (p = 1, 2, 3, . . .) can be obtained from the Qp-matrix by
708 means of crossing out last column and the next to the last row in the latter. It means that each Qp-matrix includes in
709 itself all preceding Qp-matrixes and is contained into all the next Qp-matrixes.
710
In [12] is proved the following useful theorems for the Fibonacci Qp-matrixes.

UN

CO

711 Theorem 1. For a given p = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . and n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . we have the following property for the nth power of the
712 Qp matrix:
0
1
F p n 1
F p n
   F p n  p 2 F p n  p 1
B F n  p 1 F n  p    F n  2p 2 F n  2p 1 C
B p
C
p
p
p
B
C
B
C
.
.
.
.
.
n
..
..
..
..
..
Qp B
52
C;
B
C
B
C
F p n  2   
F p n  p
F p n  p  1 A
@ F p n  1
F p n
F p n  1    F p n  p 1
F p n  p
716 where Fp(n) are Fibonacci p-numbers given by (25)(27).
717 Theorem 2.

det Qnp 1pn ;

53

720 where p = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .; n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . ..
721

It is easy to prove [12] the following remarkable identity for the matrix (52):
Qnp Qn1
Qnp1
.
p
p

54

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17

724
Note that for the case p = 1 the formula (52) reduces to the formula (17). If we calculate the determinant of the ma725 trix (17) we will get the following well-known identity for the classical Fibonacci numbers:
det Qn F n 1 F n  1  F 2 n 1n .

55

729
Note that Theorems 1 and 2 are a source of new mathematical results in the eld of the Fibonacci number theory. In
730 particular, for the case p = 2 it follows from Theorem 2 the following fundamental identity for the Fibonacci 2731 numbers.

OO
F

732 Theorem 3.

det Qn2 F 2 n 1F 2 n  2F 2 n  2  F 2 n  1F 2 n  3 F 2 nF 2 nF 2 n  3  F 2 n  1F 2 n  2
F 2 n  1F 2 n  1F 2 n  1  F 2 nF 2 n  2 1.
56
736
Note that the identity (59) is a generalization of the similar identity (55) for the classical Fibonacci numbers. It is
737 clear that the identity (56) is only one of the innite number of the similar identities corresponding to a given p, where
738 p = 1, 2, 3, . . .. It means that Theorems 1 and 2 expand indenitely the eld of Fibonaccis researches.
It is very important to remember that Fibonacci p-numbers are the diagonal sums of Pascal triangle and can be expressed through binomial coecients according to (27). It means that an innite number of the identities of the kind
(55) and (56), which can be derived from Theorems 1 and 2, in essence, are new unknown properties of Pascal triangle
and binomial coecients. Thus, a theory of the Qp-matrixes [12] is of interest in combinatorial analysis as it allows to
nd new properties of Pascal triangle.

PR

739
740
741
742
743

744 4.8. The golden matrixes

EC

TE

745
Let us represent the matrix (17) in the form of the two matrixes given for the even (n = 2k) and odd (n = 2k + 1)
746 values of the index n:


F 2k 1
F 2k
;
57
Q2k
F 2k
F 2k  1


F 2k 2 F 2k 1
Q2k1
.
58
F 2k 1
F 2k

RR

750
Using the correlations (43) it is possible to represent the matrixes (57) and (58) in the terms of the symmetric hyper751 bolic Fibonacci functions (41) and (42):


cFs2k 1
sFs2k
Q2k
;
59
sFs2k
cFs2k  1


sFs2k 2 cFs2k 1
Q2k1
;
60
cFs2k 1
sFs2k

61
62

UN

CO

755 where k is the discrete variable, k = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .

756
And now we will replace the discrete variable k in the matrixes (59) and (60) by the continuous variable x:


cFs2x 1
sFs2x
Q2x
;
sFs2x
cFs2x  1


sFs2x 2 cFs2x 1
.
Q2x1
cFs2x 1
sFs2x

760
It is clear that the matrixes (61) and (62) are a generalization of the Q-matrix (17) for a continuous domain. They
761 have a few unusual mathematical properties. For example, for the case x 14 the matrix (61) takes the following form:
 
  !
p
cFs 32
sFs 12
1
 1 .
1
63
Q2 Q
cFs  2
sFs 2
765 It is impossible to imagine that it is the root square from the Q-matrix but this Fibonaccis fantasy follows from the
766 expression (63).
767
But the most unexpected properties of the matrixes (61) and (62) follow from the following properties of the sym768 metrical hyperbolic Fibonacci functions [18]:

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sFsx2  cFsx 1 cFsx  1 1;

64

cFsx  sFsx 1 sFsx  1 1.

65

772
If we calculate now the determinants of the matrixes (61) and (62) then using (64) and (65) we will come to one more
773 fantastic result that is valid for any value of the continuous variable x:
66

det Q2x1 1.

67

OO
F

det Q2x 1;

776 4.9. Algorithmic measurement theory

777
Algorithmic measurement theory is the rst authors theory that was stated in the authors books [4,5]. Fibonaccis
778 measurement algorithms [4] are the most unexpected result of this theory. They are based on the following system of
779 standard weights:

783 where Fp(i) is the Fibonacci p-number given by (25) and (26),
784
Fibonaccis measurement algorithms generate Fibonacci p-codes:
N an F p n an1 F p n  1    ai F p i    a1 F p 1;

PR

fF p 1; F p 2; . . . ; F p i; . . . ; F p ng;

68

69

788 where ai 2 {0, 1} is the binary numeral of the ith digit of the code (69); n is the digit number of the code (69); Fp(i) is the
789 ith digit weight calculated in accordance with the recurrent relation (25) and (26).
790
The positional representation of the natural number N in the form (69) has the following abridged notation:
70

TE

N an an1    a1    a1 .

793
Note that the notion of the Fibonacci p-code include an innite number of various methods of the binary represen794 tations as every number p generates its own Fibonacci p-code (p = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .).
795
In particular, for the case p = 0 the Fibonacci p-code (69) reduces to the classical binary number system:
N an 2n1 an1 2n2    ai 2i1    a1 20 .

EC

799
800

71

For the case p = 1 the Fibonacci p-code (69) reduces to Zeckendorfs representation (14)
For the case p = 1 the Fibonacci p-code reduces to the unitary code:
N 1|{z}
1  1.

72

RR

CO

804
Thus, the Fibonacci p-code given by (69) is a very wide generalization of the binary code (71), Zeckendorfs repre805 sentation (14) and the unitary code (72), are the special cases of the Fibonacci p-code (69).
806
Fibonaccis measurement algorithms based on (68) are a special case of more general class of optimal measurement
807 algorithms, for which the eectiveness function Fp(n,k) (n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .; k = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .) is described by the fol808 lowing recurrence relation [4]:
F p n; k F p n; 0; 0; . . . ; 0; pt1 ; pt2;... ; pk
|{z}
t

t
X

F p n  1; 0; 0; . . . ; 0; pt1  1; pt2  1; . . . ; pk  1; p; p; . . . ; p;
|{z}
|{z}

UN

j0

73

tj

812 with the initial condition:

F p 1; 0; 0; . . . ; 0; pt1 ; pt2 ; . . . ; pk t 1.
|{z}

74

816 The recurrence relation (73) with the initial condition (74) contains a number of remarkable formulas of discrete math817 ematics. Let p = 0. It is proved in [4] that for this case, we have
F n; k k 1n .

75

820 Note that this case generates all well-known positional number systems with the radix k + 1, in particular, the decimal
821 number system for the case k = 9 and the binary number system (71) for the case k = 1.

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822

Let us consider the case p = 1. It is proved in [4] that for this case, we have
F n; k C knk C nnk .

19

76

826 Note that this case generates an original method of positional number representation based on the binomial coecients
827 (76).
828
Let us consider the recurrence formula (73) for the case k = 1. It is proved in [4] that for this case the eectiveness
829 function (73) and (74) reduces to the recurrence relation (25) with the initial terms:

PR

Note that this case generates Fibonacci p-code (69).

The main result of the algorithmic measurement theory together with all unexpected results is demonstrated in Table 6.
Thus, an unexpectedness of the main result of the algorithmic measurement theory (Table 6) consists of the following. The general recurrence relation (73) with the initial condition (74) gives in general form an innite number of
the new, at present unknown optimal measurement algorithm. The main recurrence relation (73) and (74) includes a
number of the well-known combinatorial formulas as special cases, in particular, the formula (k + 1)n, the formula
C knk C nnk gives the binomial coecients, the recurrence relation (25) for Fibonacci p-numbers and nally the formulas for the binary (2n) and natural (n + 1) numbers.
It is clear that the algorithmic measurement theory stated in [4,5,7] is of a great interest for dierent elds of mathematics and general science. First of all, we can consider the recurrence relation (73) as the widest generalization of the
recurrence relation (6) for the classical Fibonacci numbers and the recurrence relation (25) for the Fibonacci p-numbers.
It means that the algorithmic measurement theory extends innitely to the eld of Fibonaccis research. Secondly, the
main results (73) and (74) are of fundamental interest for combinatorial analysis because they connect together dierent
fundamental recurrence formulas (for Fibonacci numbers, for binomial coecients, etc.). Of course, the algorithmic
measurement theory is of fundamental interest for number systems theory because it includes all well-known positional
number systems with natural radices k + 1 and generates a number of new positional number systems based on Fibonacci p-numbers, binomial coecients and so on. These new number systems are a source of new computer projects and
concepts, in particular, Fibonacci computer concept [4].

TE

832
833
834
835
836
837
838
839
840
841
842
843
844
845
846
847
848
849

77

OO
F

F p 0 1; F p 1 2; F p 2 3; . . . ; F p p p 1.

EC

850 4.10. A new theory of real numbers

851
A new approach to number theory is stated in [17]. The key idea of this approach is that the theory of numbers
852 depends on a number denition. The elementary number theory [24] studies properties of natural numbers that have
853 the following denition:
N 1 1 1  1

N times;

78

RR

857 where 1 means geometric segment called a monad. Despite limiting simplicity of such a denition, is plays a large role in
858 mathematics and underlies many useful mathematical concepts, for example, concepts of prime and composite numbers,
859 and also a concept of divisibility, one of the main concepts of number theory.
860
Let us consider now the innite set of the standard segments based on the Golden p-Ratio sp:

CO

Gp fsnp g;

79

Table 6

UN

864 where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .; snp are the Golden p-Ratio powers connected among themselves by the identity (31).

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865
The set (79) generates the following constructive method of the real number A representation called Code of the
866 Golden p-Proportion:
A

ai sip ;

80

where ai 2 {0, 1} and i = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .

Note that for the rst time a theory of the number systems (80) was developed in the authors book [6] and the
authors recent article [17].
Let us consider the special cases of the number system (80). For the case p = 0 the formula (80) reduces to the binary
number system the underlies modern computers. For the case p = 1 the number system (80) reduces to Bergmans number system (15). Finally, let us consider the case p ! 1. For this case it is possible to show, that sp ! 1; it means that
the positional representation (80) reduces to the denition (78), which underlies the elementary number theory.
Note that for the case p > 0 the radix sp of the positional number system (80) is an irrational number. It means that,
we have came to the number systems with irrational radices that are principally a new class of the positional number
systems. Bergmans number system (15) is the rst number system with irrational radix in the history of mathematics.
Possibly, the number system with irrational radix (15) developed by George Bergman [30] and its generalization given by (80) are the most important mathematical discoveries in the eld of number systems after discovery of the positional principle of number representation (Babylon, 2000 BC) and decimal number system (India, fth century).
Number systems (80), in particular, Bergmans number system (15) originates in a number of non-trivial mathematical results in the number theory. The Z-property of natural numbers proved in [17] is one of such non-trivial properties.
The Z-property is given by the following theorem [17].

886
887
888
889

Theorem 4. If we represent any natural number N in Bergmans number system (15) and then replace here every power of
the Golden Ratio si in the expression (15) by the Fibonacci number Fi, where the index i takes its values from the set
{0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}, then the sum arising as a result of such replacing is equal to 0 identically independent on the initial
natural number N, that is,
X

TE

PR

OO
F

870
871
872
873
874
875
876
877
878
879
880
881
882
883
884
885

ai F i 0.

893 4.11. Applications in computer science

EC

CO

1. Fibonacci p-codes (69) and Golden Proportion codes (80) are a source of new computer arithmetic and new computer projects described in [4,6,10].
2. The ternary mirror-symmetrical arithmetic described in [14] is a modern original computer invention. This one is a
synthesis of Bergmans number system (15) and ternary symmetrical number system used by the Russian engineer
and scientist Nikolay Brousentsov in Setun computer [46] which is the rst in ternary computer history based
on the Brousentsovs Ternary Principle [14].
3. A new coding theory on Fibonacci and golden matrixes [13,19] can be used eectively for redundant coding and
cryptographic protection.
4. The golden resistive dividers [19] can be used for designing of self-correcting analog-to-digit and digit-to-analog
converters.

UN

896
897
898
899
900
901
902
903
906
904
905
907

RR

894
Computer science is the main area of the Harmony Mathematics application. These are the following ways of this
895 application:

908 5. Conclusion and discussion

909
910
911
912
913
914
915

The main goal of this research is to develop the Fundamentals of a Harmony Mathematics that was proclaimed by the
author in [11]. Clearly, Harmony concept is very complex subject because it expresses both the quantitative and qualitative aspects of this or that object or phenomenon. However at the mathematical study of the Harmony concept, we
disregard the qualitative aspects and focus all our attention on the quantitative aspects of the Harmony concept. Such
an approach leads us to the unexpected conclusion, that studying the quantitative aspects of Harmony, that in the
Greek language means combination and connection, can be studied by means of the methods of the combinatorial
analysis.

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The author developed his research in the following hierarchy:

CO

RR

EC

TE

There remains a question: are there in modern science examples of similar theories? Possibly, the mathematical theory of information developed by Claude Shannon [48] is a brilliant example. Really, Information is the same complex
concept as Harmony. Developing the theory of the information, Claude Shannon used the concept of probability as the
initial concept of the theory, and the concept of entropy became the basic concept of information theory. It is necessary
to emphasize, that Shannons theory of information is a mathematical theory and can be eectively used for the quantitative analysis of informational systems. In his well-known article Bandwagon [48] Shannon warned to be careful in
application of this theory to other areas of human activity.
As is known, Shannons theory of information is sometimes considered as a branch of probability theory. Developing an analogy between Shannons theory of information [48] and the Harmony Mathematics, it is possible to consider
the Harmony Mathematics as a special branch of combinatorial analysis.
From such a point of view it is necessary to approach the question from the practical application side of the Harmony Mathematics. Which are the areas of the eective application of this theory? To answer this question, it is necessary to emphasize, that the most eective areas are those where the quantitative aspects of Harmony are most
important. It is possible to name theoretical physics, biology and botany, economy, computer science as examples.
Let us begin with theoretical physics. Over the years many theoretical physicists [3345] have come to the conclusion,
that without the Golden Section it is impossible to develop theoretical physics any further. In this connection, greater
hopes in this scientic area are connected with the hyperbolic Fibonacci and Lucas functions [9,16,18]. As is mentioned
above, owing to these functions the Golden Section can take a leading role in Lobachevskys hyperbolic geometry and
Minkovskys geometry. Also the researches of the outstanding physicist Richard Feynman, who founded the golden
algebraic equation (40) at the research of the power condition of the butadiene particle, are very reassuring. A theory of
the golden algebraic equations gives an innite number of various algebraic equations, which possibly model power
conditions of other particles.
For biology and botany the new numerical sequences, Fibonacci and Lucas p-numbers are of interest for modeling a
cell division [49], the hyperbolic Fibonacci and Lucas functions are of interest for modeling phyllotaxis [47].
As mentioned above, computer science is an area of a wide application of Harmony Mathematics [57,10,14].
As for application of Harmony Mathematics in Art works it is necessary to consider it with a sucient degree of
healthy skepticism. In this area of human culture, the qualitative aspect of Harmony is more important than quantitative. Nevertheless, it is possible to expect, that the new Golden Proportions, the Golden p-proportions, can be of
interest for proportionality theory.

UN

931
932
933
934
935
936
937
938
939
940
941
942
943
944
945
946
947
948
949
950
951
952
953
954
955
956
957
958
959
960

Binomial theorem, binomial coecients and Pascal triangle

! Fibonacci numbers and the Golden Section
! Fibonacci p-numbers and the Golden p-Sections
! Generalized Principle of the Golden Section
! Binet formulas and Hyperbolic Fibonacci and Lucas functions
! The golden algebraic equations based on the Golden p-Sections
! Theory of the Binet formulas for Fibonacci and Lucas p-numbers
! Theory of Fibonacci matrixes following from the Fibonacci p-numbers
! Theory of the Golden matrixes following from the hyperbolic Fibonacci functions
! Algorithmic measurement theory
! A new theory of real numbers
! A new computer arithmetic following from Fibonacci p-codes and Golden p-Proportion Codes
! A new coding theory based on the Fibonacci and golden matrixes
! Mathematical Theory of Harmony.

OO
F

917
918
919
920
921
922
923
924
925
926
927
928
929
930

PR

916

21

961 Acknowledgements

962
Though all the basic ideas and concepts of the Harmony Mathematics had been developed by the author indepen963 dently (see authors works [417,19]), but in the recent years a signicant contribution to development of this theory was
964 made by Boris Rozin (see our common articles [18,2022]). The author would like to express his gratitude to Boris Ro965 zin for active participation in the development of Harmony Mathematics.

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966 References

CO

RR

EC

TE

PR

OO
F

[1] Kline M. Mathematics. The loss of certainty. New York: Oxford University Press; 1980.
[2] Panov MI. Humanitarization of mathematics is a tendency of development of science in the 20th century: Is it possible to consider
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