VERIFICATION OF INVERSE SQUARE LAW

A Graduate Project Submitted To

The School Of Graduate Studies Of
Addis Ababa University

In Partial Fulfillment Of The

Requirements For The Degree of
Masters Of Science In Physics

By
Takele Ayalew Desta
Addis Ababa
Ethiopia
July 2006

ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDES

VERIFICATION OF INVERSE SQUARE LAW

By
TAKELE AYALEW DESTA

Department of physics
Faculty of Science

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1

RADIATION AND RADIOACTIVITY

Introduction
General properties of radiation
Alpha rays
Alpha decay
Energetic of alpha decay
Beta rays
Beta decay
Negatron decay
Positron emission
Electron capture (EC)
Gamma rays
Nature of gamma ray
The nuclear de- excitation mechanism
Gamma decay
Internal conversion
Conversion with pair production
Energetic of gamma decay
Source of gamma ray
Gamma ray following beta decay
Isomeric transition (IT)
Alpha decay
Nuclear reaction involving radioactive rapture ..

2
2
3
4
4
4
6
6
6
7
9
10
10
11
11
12
13
13
15
15
18
19
20

INTERACTION OF NUCLER RADIATION WITH MATTER

Interaction of gamma ray with matter .
2.1.1. Photoelectric effect .
2.1.2. Compton effect
2.1.3. Pair production .
2.2.
Interaction of light charged particles with matter
2.2.1.
Interaction of electron with matter ..
2.2.2.
Positrons ..
2.3.
Intensity of radiation

23
23
23
25
32
35
35
37
37

3.

38
38
38
43
47

1.1.
1.2.
1.3.
1.3.1
1.3.1.1.
1.4.
1.4.1.
1.4.1.1.
1.4.1.2.
1.4.1.3.
1.5.
1.5.1.
1.5.2.
1.5.2.1.
1.5.2.2.
1.5.2.3.
1.5.3.
1.5.4.
1.5.4.1.
1.5.4.2.
1.5.4.3.
1.5.4.4.
2.
2.1.

3.1.
3.2.
3.3
3.3.1.
3.3.2.
3.3.3.

DETECTION Of GAMMA AND BETA RADIATIOON .............

Introduction ..
The gas field ionization detector .
The Geiger- Muller counter .
The Geiger Muller counting plateau .
Measuring the intensity of gamma ray and beta rays using the Geiger counter
.
Method of verification of inverse square law ..

48
49

4
4.1
4.2.
4.3.
4.4.
4.5.
4.6.
4.7.

EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF INVERSE SQUARE LAW........

Objective of experiment .
Experiment ..
Equipment setup .
Experimental procedure ..
Experimental result ..
Data analysis and discussion
Conclusion .

51
51
51
51
52
53
57
66

GENERAL INTRODUCTION
For any isotropic emission of radiation from the source the intensity varies inversely as
square of the distance from the source. This statement is called the inverse square law.
The Knowledge of inverse square law is an important to determine the amount of solar
energy reaching the top of the earths atmosphere. The main objective of this project
work is to confirm this law experimentally using radioactive source which emit gamma
alpha and beta radiations. An understanding of properties of radiation, how they are
emitted and interacts with matter is necessary for their detection. This project work has
three section with four chapters. In the first two chapters the general properties of
radiations, source of radiations and mechanisms of interaction of gamma and beta
radiation with matter are included. In the third chapter techniques of measuring intensity
of gamma and beta radiation using GM counter and method of verification of inverse
square law are presented. The last chapter will be the experimental verification of inverse
square law using the gamma and beta radiation sources.

CHAPTER ONE

RADIATION AND RADIOACTIVITY

1.1

INTRODUCTION

Nuclear radiation originates in atomic nuclei as a result of radioactive decay of the nuclei.
Un stable nuclei decay by emitting alpha, beta and gamma radiations. The emission of
these radiations by un stable nuclei in their decay process is called radioactivity. The
decay process is called radioactive decay. The nuclei, which emit these radiations, are
called radioactive nuclei. If the nuclei that emit these radiations are found in nature, then
their decay is called natural radioactivity; but if they are produced in laboratory, then
their decay is called artificial radioactivity. The rate of emission of the primary radiations
from any radioactive nuclei is not influenced by the physical or chemical state of the
nuclei. That is they can neither retard nor accelerate the rate of radioactive decay by the
use of heat, pressure, electric field, etc.
Not all the three radiations (alpha, beta and gamma) are emitted by the same nucleus in
radioactivity. Usually, radioactive nucleus emits alpha particles and gamma rays or beta
particles and gamma rays. That is; if a radioactive source emits - particles, it also emit

- rays. The same thing is true for beta active source also. Of course, there are several
exceptions to this rule like 45Ca, 35S, 33P, 14C, 3H, etc. these nuclei emit only beta rays and
are called pure beta emitters [1].
The main emphasis in this chapter will be the properties of radiation, source of radiation
and radioactive decay process.

1.2. General properties of radiation

Nuclear radiations alpha, beta and gamma, which are produced when radioactive
elements decay collectively called ionisation radiations, have the following properties[3].
1. If the radiations from say, apiece of radium are collimated in to narrow beam then
subjected to a magnetic field, it is found that they split in to three component, alpha
radiation, Beta radiation and gamma radiation. From the deflection directions and the
magnetic field direction it is correctly deduced that the alpha and beta radiations are
streams of high speed appositely and negatively charged particles respectively. Further
experiments involving the determination of charged to mass ration for these particles
show that the - particles are helium nuclei and that the - particles are negatrons.
The third component, called gamma ( ) radiation is undeleted by a magnetic field. The

- rays were recognized early on as being electromagnetic waves and similar to x- rays
but with more energy.
2. The nuclear -ray as emitted in radioactive processes produce diffraction effects
with crystal gratings in the same way that x- rays do, and this can be taken some proof
their identity. When the , , and radiations which occur in radioactivity are passed in

to observing materials of different thickness, it is the - radiation which has the greatest
penetrating power while the - radiation is the most easily absorbed.
3. The gamma radiation is practically un affected by paper and aluminium sheet and
only partly absorbed by the lead. The beta radiation is affected by the paper but
absorbed by aluminium and lead. In general, the alpha and beta radiations
completely absorbed by relatively thin layers of any materials but the gamma
radiation is never quite completely absorbed by thin layers of the most dense
materials.
4. When5 any radioactive radiations, but in particular alpha or beta is passed through a

gas, produce ionisation of the gas molecules. If the gas is enclosed between two
electrodes maintained at different potentials, ionisation current through the gas results.

1.3.

Alpha rays

Alpha rays are positively charged particles and are identical with doubly ionised helium
atom (He++). Alpha rays strongly ionise the medium through which they travel and their

rate of energy loss being rapid. They come to rest in short distances. Alpha ray are
emitted by nuclei as a result of alpha decay.
1.3.1.

Alpha decay

Alpha decay is a radioactive process in which a particle with two neutrons and two
protons is ejected from the nucleus of a radioactive atom. The particle is identical to the
nucleus of the helium atom. Alpha decay which mostly occurs in heavy nuclei (Z > 82)
can be expressed by the following equation.

X A-4 Z-2Y + 4 2 He + Q

Where X and Y represent the chemical symbols for parent and daughter elements
respectively and Q represents the amount of energy released in the transition. In principle
this energy release shared among the decayed products as a kinetic, but since the mass of
the alpha particle is much lower than the mass of the daughter nucleus, practically all
decay energy is carried away with alpha particles.

1.3.1.1.

Energetic of alpha decay

For alpha emission take place from the nucleus we have the equations
A
Z

A-4

Z-2

Y + 42He

In terms of nuclear mass, the mass energy equation will be

MnC2 = M/nC2 + M C2 + Q
Where Mn and Mn are the rest mass of parent and daughter nucleus respectively, M is
the rest mass of the alpha particle; Q is as described in section (1.3.1.)
Q = (Mn M/ -M ) C2

Therefore, the alpha emission to be energetically possible, i.e. to occur spontaneously as

radioactive decay, Q must be positive.
M > M/ + M
Where M and M/ are atomic mass of parent and daughter atom.

The mass (energy) of the parent nucleuses must exceeds the sum of the masses (energies)
of the product nucleuses - particle emitted by the parent nucleus.
Note that this condition is not fulfilled until the mass number A exceeds 150.eventhogh
alpha decay becomes possible energetically the probability of observing it is negligible
up to A 200. This is because of the potential energy barrier, which must overcome by
the -particle before it can leave the nucleus.
The energy released (excesses energy of the parent )during the alpha decay in the
form of kinetic energy:
Q = T + Tnuc

which is distributed between the - particle and

daughter nucleus in such away that the momentum conservation law is not violet:
Pc + Pnuc= Ppar

Assuming that the disintegrating nucleus is at rest, we obtain

P = Pnuc

From the definition of kinetic energy and equation ** we get

Tnuc = T M/ Mnuc
Using this in equation (* ) we get :
Q

T( 1 + M/Mnuc)

Or T = EMnuc/(Mnuc+ M)
Thus most of the kinetic energy released in the process of -decay is taken away by the
-particle and only insignificant part (about 2% for the heavy radioactive nuclei) goes to

the daughter nucleus.

1.4.

Beta rays

Beta rays are nuclear radiations, which are corpuscular in nature, their name
collectively stands for positrons or electrons (negatrons). Those beta rays have
electrical charge either positive or negative and a mass, which is rest mass of
electron (mo). Normally the kinetic of electrons emitted in beta decay is of the

order of (0.3-2Mev) [4].Beta rays are emitted from a radioisotope that decay by
beta particle emission..

1.4.1.

Beta decay

Beta decay is the process of the spontaneous transformation of an unstable

nucleuses in to isobaric nucleus with charge differing Z = 1.
the following three processes are called beta decay
1.

Emission of electron ( -) by the nucleus

2.

Emission of positron ( +) by the nucleus

3.

Electron capture (EC) by the nucleus

In nuclear stability, the neutron-proton ratio (N/P) ratio is crucial. If it is too high or too
low, nucleus will eventually rearrange it self in to a more stable configuration. --decay
which is the emission of energetic electrons, results when an N/P is too high for stability;
positron emission or electron capture occurs when it is too low for stability. The half life
of - radioactive nuclei varies from 10-2s to 2 x 1015years.The energy of -decay lies
between 18Kev ( for

H ) and 16.6 Mev (for

12

7N

)[9].

1.4.1.1. --Decay

During the --decay a neutron of a nucleus changes to a proton. The --decay process
represented by the equation:
1

on

p + - + (antineutrino)

Thus a parent nucleus undergoes --decay can be represented by the generalized

equation
A
ZX

A Z+1 Y+ - + ( antineutrino) + Q

Where Q - is the energy released during the transition.

This energy is shared between the - and anti-neutrino. Unlike the alpha particles which
are mono energetic from a given source, - particles are emitted with a range of energies
lying between zero to maximum energy Emax (end point energy). The anti-neutrino
corresponding to the electron of zero energy, takes away the total energy released in the

--decay. Similarly, the anti-neutrino corresponding to the maximum energy Emax of the
electron gets no energy.
Energetic of --decay

For a nuclide undergoes --decay we have the equation

A
ZX

A Z+1 Y+ - + ( antineutrino

In terms of nuclear mass the mass energy equation will be

Mn C2 = Mn/ C2 + moC2 + Q
Where mo is the rest mass of electron, M and M/ are rest mass parent nucleus and
daughter nucleus respectively.
Q = ( Mn M/o mo )C2

If the small difference in the binding energy of the orbital electrons between the atom(ZX
and AZ+1Y )is neglected the above equation becomes
Q = [ M Zmo ( M/ - ( Z + 1 )mo + mo ) ] C2
Q = ( M M/ ) C2

Where M and M are atomic mass of parent and daughter atom respectively.
For negatron emission to be energetically possible, i.e. to occur spontaneously as in
radioactive decay become Q must be positive or M > M/.
Positron emission ( +-decay)

1.4.1.2.

+ Emission occurs if N/P ratio is not enough for the stability of the nucleus. That is,
those nuclei emit positrons, which are deficient in neutrons. The process is represented by
1

1p

n + + + (neutrino)

This leads to the generalized equations

A
Z

X A Z-1 Y + + + + Q

Where Q is the amount of energy released in the +-decay is shared between + and .
Therefore, similar to the -, the spectrum of + is also continuous. The positron is the
anti particle of an electron and will enter an annihilation reaction when two particles
meet. Since electrons are normally abundant in materials, positrons are annihilate soon
after their emission. As a result two gamma rays each having energy 0.511Mev are
released.
Energetic of +-decay

Similar to --decay, for +-decay we have the equation

A

Z-1

Y + + + ( antineutrino)

From the energy conservation we have

MZ / C2 = M/(Z-1) C2 + moC2 + Q
Where MZ and M(Z-1) are nuclear mass of parent and daughter nucleus, Q is the energy
released during the decay process.
Q = ( M/Z - M/(z-1) mo) C2

In terms of atomic masses the above equation will be

Q = ( Mz M(z-1) 2mo)C2
Thus positron decay can occur if
MZ > MZ-1 +2m0 or MZ MZ-1 > 2mo
It should be noted that the condition for positron decay includes a factor 2mo. this only
because atomic masses have been used in stating the condition instead of nuclear masses.
When a positron is emitted from the nucleus one unit of positive charge is carried away
and an orbital electron must leave the parent atom also to keep the atom electrically
neutral. Thus, two electron masses are lost and the parent atom must be at least 2mo
heavier than daughter atom for positron decay to be energetically possible.
1.4.1.3. Electron capture (EC)

A nucleus can also relieve a low neutron-proton ratio (N/P) by capturing and absorbing
an electron from a shell (mostly from K-shell). When the negative electron enters the
nucleus, the positive charge of one proton is cancelled and proton is converted to a

neutron. During the electron capture process the only particle that is emitted the mono
energetic neutrino. This process can be represented by
1

1P

+ 0-1e

n + (antineutrino)

This leads to the generalized equation

A

X +-1 0e

A
z-1

Y+ +Q

EC and +-decay both results in reducing the charge number of decaying nucleus by
one. Both these processes (EC and +-decay) usually occur in the same nucleus. In some
cases where sufficient energy (1.022Mev) is not available for the creation of +, electron
capture is the only process of the decay.
In an electron capture, radiation is not emitted directly from the nucleus but results from
the changes within the electron shells. EC creates a vacancy in one shell, which is quickly
filled by an electron from a higher energy location. As electron moves down to the Kshell, it gives off an amount of energy equivalent to the difference in binding energy of
the two levels. This energy is emitted in a characteristic X-rays photon. For example, the
decay of 55Fe by EC results in the emission of the characteristic X-rays of Manganese. It
is by means of X-rays that a nuclei decaying by EC can be detected. Auger effect
competes with the emission of the X-rays in EC. Auger effect is the de-excitation of an
atom by electron emission. The electron emitted in Auger effect is called auger electron.
Most auger electrons have relatively low energies. Thus some radioactive nuclide, which
decay by EC may give low energy gamma rays[ 1].

Energetic of EC
Electron capture can occur if MZ > MZ-1
Where MZ and Mz-1 are atomic masses of parent and daughter atoms respectively.
From this condition, it can be seen that EC is energetically more favourable than positron
decay but EC is not always observed even though the condition MZ > MZ-1 may be
satisfied. This is because even the inner most K-orbital electron, the one most likely to be
captured, spends very little time close to the nucleus so that the probability of capture is

small. As soon as the available energy exceeds 2mo, positron emission becomes possible
and is usually more probable than electron capture.
1.5

Gamma rays

1.5.1

Nature of gamma ray

Gamma rays are a short-wave electromagnetic radiation of nuclear origin. The

energy of nuclear gamma quantum usually varies from 10Kev to 5Mev
(10-8 10-11)[9]. Thus gamma rays can be considered as hard X-rays. However,
the origin of gamma rays is different. Gamma rays are emitted by the nucleus when it
makes a transition from a higher excited state to a lower excited state. In radioactive
decay, daughter nucleus usually left in an excited state. Subsequently the daughter
nucleus de-excites from these higher levels by emitting gamma rays.
Gamma rays being electromagnetic radiation travels with speed of light.

Gamma

rays can be considered as a photon having a corpuscular nature with their energy being
unitized.

1.5.2

The nuclear de-excitation mechanism.

Excited nucleus may de-excite by different mechanism. If the energy of the

excitation is less than the binding energy of the nucleon, nucleon emission is not possible.
In such a case the excited nuclides are de-excited either by gamma decay or by another
process, Internal conversion or pair production.
1.5.2.1

Gamma decay

It is one of the process in which the excess energy (excitation energy)

Of the excited nuclides is removed. In particular radioactivity, decay of nuclides either by
alpha or by beta decay process results in the formation of daughter nuclides more often in
there excited states. These excited states usually decay instantaneously by gamma
emission. There are one single radiation transition when the nucleus emit a single

quantum at once goes over to the ground state (Fig 1.1a), or cascade of several -quanta
(Fig 1.1b). In both case the excess energy (excitation energy) is removed[9].
E

E2

E1
T=0

(a)

T2

21

T1
T0

(b)
Fig 1.1

1.5. 2.2

Internal conversion
The emission of gamma quantum is not the only process resulting in the release

of energy excess from the nucleus. The coulomb field of nucleus can transfer
all the excitation energy directly to the atomic electron. The nucleus transfer to
the ground state with out emitting gamma quantum and the atom
ejects an electron of internal conversion. Most probable is the transfer of energy to K
electron nearest to the nucleus. How ever, the emission of electron of internal
conversions with L, M -----etc atomic shells is possible. Since the excitation energy of
nucleus is strictly defined value, the kinetic energy of an electrons of internal conversion
Te is also the same in all cases of the electron emission from the given shall:
Te(K) = E* - Ek

where E* is the excitation energy of the nucleus

Te(L) = E* - EL,

EK, EL ------- are the bond energies of the electrons

in the corresponding shells of the atom. If the excitation energy (E*) of nucleus
is less than the bond energy of K shell electron, then the separation of the K
electron from the atom does not appear feasible and electrons of internal
conversion can be ejected only from the subsequent electron shells. Apart from
the possibility of the emitting - quanta, there is a probability of emitting
electrons of internal conversion by the nucleus. Other wise stated, Part of the
excited nuclei transfer their energy to -quanta, and others ,to the atomic
electrons. The two processes compete in removing the excess energy of the
nucleus. If the number of electrons observed per excited nucleus is Ne and the
number of - rays is N ,the internal conversion coefficient( ) is defined as

= Ne/N
where may have any value between zero and infinity The absolute value of

is the higher, the longer the life time with respect to the emission of quantum, the higher Z of the electron shells of the atom to the nucleus[6].
1.5.2.3

Conversion with pair production.

One more mechanism of releasing the excess energy from the nucleus is called
conversion with pair production. If the excitation energy of the nucleus E* > 2 mc2 = 1.02
MeV, then in the Coulomb field of the nucleus, an electron-positron pair may be
produced which car rise off all the excitation energy of the atomic nucleus. As the
emission of conversion electrons, conversion with pair production is not the conversion
proper, i.e., is not the transformation of a gamma-quantum, previously emitted from the
nucleus, into an electron positron pair, but is an additional method of giving off the
nuclear energy into the outer space. The probability of this process is always low in
comparison with the probability of emitting a y-quant urn. Near the threshold, the
fraction of the decays of the nuclear excited levels with pair production is ~ 10-4 of the
decays with a gamma -quantum emission, and with the excitation energy close to the
bond energy of the nucleon in the nucleus, it makes some tenths of per cent. In contrast to
the internal conversion coefficient the probability of conversion with pair production is

slightly lower with the increase of Z of the nucleus as well as with the increase of the
nuclear transition multipolarity.
The kinetic energy released in the-process of pair production, Ep = E* - 2mc2, is
distributed between the electron, the positron and the remaining atom. Since the atomic
mass is large, all the released energy is practically carried off by the electron and the
positron. Their energy distributions are continuous, are in the range from zero to the
maximum value of Ep and are symmetric with respect to Ep/2, in neglecting the
interaction of these particles with the Coulomb field of the nucleus.

1.5.3

Energetic of gamma decay.

Excited nuclei de-excited by emitting the energetic photon and goes over to

the ground state.Scince mass and charge of photon are zero; in the process both atomic
number and nucleon number are unchanged. But in these transition due to the rearrangement of the nucleon with in the nucleus there is amass decrease. Thus for excited
nuclei (

A
z

X*) de-excited by photon emission we have an equation.

A
z

X*

A
z

X +Q

In any reaction both momentum and energy must be conserved. There for; the above
process , interims of nuclear mass. The total energy conservation will be
Mo*c2 = Moc2 + E + Tnu

( *)

Where E is energy of emitted photon and Tnu is the kinetic energy of the recoil
nucleus.
The above equation can be re written
E = E + Tnuc

where E is the excess energy of the nucleus.

From the conservation of linear momentum we can have:

P + pnu =0

 pnu = - P

p = p
pnu = p
pnu = E / c

(**)

since p = E / c

Since recoil energy is very small none relativistic expression can be used
Tnu = P2 nu

--------------------

( ***)

2Mo

Using the equation ( ** ) in to the equation (***) gives :

Tnu = E
2Moc2
For nuclei with A=100 , Tnuc = 0.1- 10Kev which is very small. Thus the gamma
quanta carries away on overwhelming part of the nuclear excitation energy[9].

1.5.4

Source of gamma rays

Gamma ray is emitted by excited nuclei in their transition to lower lying

nuclear levels excited nuclei may be created during the - decay and - decay of
radioactive nuclides( natural or artificial ).creation of excited nuclei is also possible by
varies nuclear reactions. In these case, if the excitation energy of the daughter product
(excited nuclei) is less than the nucleon binding energy only gamma quanta is emitted in

the transition. There for radioactive nucleus and nuclear reaction can be considered as
gamma ray sources.

1.5.4.1.

Gamma ray following beta decay.

Most beta decays populate an excited state of the product nucleus, so that the

subsequent de-excitation gamma rays are emitted together with beta particles in many
common beta sources. Four common examples widely used isotopes for experiments as
gamma ray source are:

137
55

57
22
Cs, 2757 Co, 55
Coand 11
Na

The decay scheme of each of each of them are illustrated in fig (1. 2). For

the

examples shown the beta decay is a relatively slow process characterized by a half life
of hundreds of days or greater, where as the excited states in the daughter nucleus have a
much short average life time (typically of the order of Pico seconds or less). De
excitation takes place through the emission of gamma ray photon whose energy is
essentially equal to the difference in energy between the initial and final nuclear states.
The gamma rays there fore appears with a half life characteristic of the parent beta decay
with an energy that reflects the energy level structure of the daughter nucleus [7].
i)

- decay of

In
of

137
56

137
55

Cs there are two final state, the ground state and excited state

*
Ba 92% of the case the final state is the excited state ( 137
56 Ba ). This

transformation can be represented by the following equation.

137
55

Cs 137
56 Ba * + (ie) + Ve, whichis1%

137
55

Cs 137
56 Ba + (ie) + Ve, ( whichis8%)

Thedecoyschemof 137
55CsisshowninFig (

The decay scheme

ii)

137
55

Cs is shown in Fig(1. 2a)

In electron ( ) decoy of isotopes of

60
27

Co 99% of the time it decays to 2.505Mev

60
Ni * ). This level decay by emitting gamma ray (with energy 1.73Mev) in to
level ( 28

1.332 Mev level. This lower level again decoy by emitting r-ray in to the ground state
60
( 28
Ni ). The decoy scheme of

60
27

Co is shown in fig (1.2b)

22
11

iii)

Na decoy via positron decay or electron capture. The isotope of

22
11

Na can

decay via positron or electron capture positron decay is more probable than EC. 90%
the time positron decay is occur. The decay scheme of
57
27

iv)

22
11

Na is shown in fig (1.2c)

57
Co Decay by EC to excited stores of iron ( 26
Fe * ). 90% of transition goes to

0.927Mev level by emitting lower level (0.014Mev) goes to the ground state
57
26

of

Fe by emitting gamma ray with energy 0.014Mev. Decay scheme

of 2757 Co is shown in fig (1.2d)

137
35

Cs T1 = 30
2

60
27

92%
0.51Mev

137

8%

Co(T1 = 5.27 y )
2

99%0.31Mev

0.1%, 1.48Mev

(662 Kev),90%by

1.17 Mev

2+

10%( IC )
137
56

60
28

Na (T1 = 2.6 y )
2

EC
10%

57
27

+ 90%

Co(T1 = 270d )
2

E.C

1.274

1
Ne

1 = 1.27 Mev(100%
(c)

Ni

1 = 1.173Mev (100%)
2 = 1.332Mev (100%)

(b)

22
10

1.332

0+

Ba

(a)

22
11

2.505

4+

5/2

3/2

0.136

2 (90%)

10%

0.014

57
26

Fe

1 = 0.136 Mev (11%)

2 = 0.122Mev (87%)

Figure 1.2 Decay of

1.5.4.2

137

Cs, 2760 Co, 22 Naand 57Co .

Isomeric Transition (IT)

Nuclides having excited levels, which dont decay instantaneously, are

called

isomeric nuclei. These levels are celled isomeric levels. They decay either by r- emission
or internal conversion. The transition leading to the de excitation of such levels are &
isomeric level decays by r- emission to the ground level, which is stable.
a) The decay of

60m

Co by isomeric transition is shown in fig (1.3a.) The half life f

60m

Co isomeric level of

60

Co, is 10.6min after eradiation

nucleus undergoes an

isobaric ( A & Z unchanged ) transition, it usually contains too much energy to be is

in final stable or daughter state. When the excited level only to be final state or
daughter. When the exited level only decays by - emission to the ground level, as in
the case shown bellow. The members of the isomeric pair are said to be genetically
related
b) In113m, with a half life of 104 min, emits a r-ray with an energy of 0.392 Mev and
became stable In113 as shown in fig(1.3b )
60m

Co (10.6min)
&T

113

In (104m in)

0.392

Zn69m (14h)

0.438

0.059mw
Zn69

(0.90) Ma
O

a)

60

113

Co (5.27yrs )

In

c)

Ga69

( b)

Fig 1.3 Isomeric Transitions

c) In some Isomeric pairs the ground state, instead of being stable , may be
radioactive and decay by - emission. They 14hr Zn69m emits a 0.438 Mev - ray
and goes to the ground state of Zn69. The decay scheme is shown in fig1.3c Generally,
in must isomeric transitions, a nuclease will emit is excess energy in the form of gamma
radiation.

1.5.4.3

Alpha decay: If the alpha particles emission leaves the daughter nucleus in

an exited state, they drop to the ground state will be accomplished by the emission of one
or more gamma rays. In many transitions only a fraction of the alpha particle emission
leave the daughter in an exited state; the rest lead to the ground state directly, after the
emission of a more energetic alpha. In some transitions there will be no gamma emission,
in others several photons may follow the particle emission.
In general the photon emission will follow the particle in 10-6 seconds or less.
Occasionally the exited state will be Meta stable, and gamma emission will be delayed
four hours or even days. The diagram of alpha transition with possible formation of exit
states of the product nucleus is given in figure (1.4).

A
Z

2
1

0
A-4

Z-2

Fig1.4 alpha transition

The production of long-ranged particle during - decay is possible in the natural radioactive substance, two are known Rac' and ThC' which have very short half lives
(1.6x10-4 & 2x10-7 respectively and the nucleus of which result from the preceding - decay, mainly in their excited states, the transition in to the ground state with -quantum
emission is usually the first to take place, and then -decay follows[6].

(A, Z-1)

-0 -1- -2 -3

3
2
1

( A-4, Z-2)
Fig 1.5 production of long rage

Nuclear reaction involving radioactive captures.

1.5.4.4.

In radiation capture reaction a nucleus (projectile) having some energy is

captured by the target nucleus as result excited new system is formed, which de-excited
by emitting gamma ray photons. The radiation capture reaction can be represented by the
following equation:
Xproj + Xtarg Y* Y +
The two common types of radiation capture reactions are (p, ) & ( n , )reaction.

1.

(p , ) reaction
In this reaction the projectile ( proton ) is captured by the target nuclease; as a

result an stable nucleus is formed which goes down to the ground state by
emitting gamma ray photons. The reaction can be represented by

X + 11H

A+1

z+1

Examples of (p, ) reaction

12

6C

27
7

+ 11H 137N*

13Al

3Li

+1 1 H

+1 1 H

28
8

14Si

4Be

C*

28

14Si

7N

28

13

A+1

14Si

4Be

+ -

z+1

C +

2.

( n , ) reaction
( n , ) reaction is another case of radioactive capture in which slow neutron

interacts with target nucleus and excited compound nucleus loss its excess energy, by
emitting gamma rays and become isotope of the target nucleus with mass number one
unit greater. This represented by the equation:
A
zX

+ 0n
1

A+1

ZX

A+1

ZX+

( n , ) reactions have been observed nearly in all of the elements. Many

( n ,

) reaction result in product nuclei which are negatron emitters due to the

increased n/p ratio, in such a case neutron capture is radioactive capture. The sequence of
event in neutron captures reaction or (n, gamma) reaction. When neutron interacts with
target nucleus via a non elastic collision, a compound nucleus form in excited state. The
excitation energy of compound nucleus is due to the binding energy of neutron with
nucleus. The compound nucleus will almost de-excite in to more stable configuration
through the emission of one or more characteristic prompt gamma rays. In many cases,
this new configuration yields a radioactive nucleus which also de-excite (or decay) by
emission of one or more characteristic delayed gamma rays, but at much slower rate
according to the unique half-life of radioactive nucleus.
Example of (n, ) - reaction
27
13

28
al + 01Al*13
Al +

115
49
63
29

116
In+ 01n116
49 In* 49 In +

Cu + 01n 2969 Cu* 2964 Cu +

107
47

108
Ag + 01n108
47 Ag * 47 Ag +

103
45

104
Rh+ 01n103
45 Rh* 45 Rh +

CHAPTER TWO

INTERACTION OF NUCLEAR RADIATION WITH MATTER

2.1

INTERACTION OF GAMMA RAY WITH MATTER

In passing through a material substance a gamma ray, in principle , may interact

with, (a) orbital electrons in the absorber atoms, (b) the nuclei of absorber atoms, and (c)
the coulombs field of in the neighbourhood of the nucleus; arising from the electric
charges of the protons[5] .In fact depending up of its energy a large number of possible
interaction mechanisms are known for gamma rays in matter. For the typical energies of
gamma rays encountered in nuclear spectroscopy (say from 0.1Mev to 10Mev) there are
three important (major) processes by which gamma rays interact with matter and loss
their energy. These are : photoelectric effect, Compton effect, and pair production. They
result in sudden and abrupt changes in the gamma ray photon history, in that, the photon
either disappears entirely or is scattered through the significant angle[4].

2.1.1 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

In the photoelectric absorption process, a photon undergoes an interaction with an

absorber atom in which the photon completely disappears. In its place, an energetic
photoelectron is ejected by the atom from one of its bound shells. The interaction is with
the atom as a whole and cannot take place with free electrons. Because of the necessity
to conserve energy and momentum, a free electron cannot wholly absorb a photon, hence
for gamma rays of sufficient energy, the most probable origin of the photoelectron is the

most tightly bound or K- shell of the atom, since then momentum is most easily
conveyed to the atom. The kinetic energy is given by
Ee= h - Eb --------- 2.1
Where Eb represent the binding energy (ionization energy) of the photoelectron in its
original shell. E = hv is the incident photon energy. It is clear from equation(2.1) that the
processes will take place only if hv >Eb.
After the atomic electron is ejected by a photoelectric effect, the vacancy in that shell
is filled up by another electron from the outer shell. This is followed by emission of Xray photon or Auger electrons consuming the binding energy Eb.The configuration of the
atomic shell recovers with in a very short time after the photoelectric emission. The
atomic X-ray produced as a flow-up of a photoelectric effect are almost completely
absorbed by the matter surrounding the point emission, giving rise to further electrons.
Thus the total energy of the incident gamma ray completely converted in to the kinetic
energy of the electrons.
The probability of photoelectric absorption depends on the gamma ray energy, the
electron binding energy, and the atomic number (Z) of the atom. The probability is
greater the more tightly bound the electrons; therefore K-shell electrons are most affected
(over 80 % of the interaction involves K- electrons), provided the gamma ray energy
exceeds the K electron binding energy. The vacancy in the K-shell is mainly filed by Lshell electron and energy of this quanta is the difference of the binding energy of the
electron in the two shell, for the heaviest atom the amount will be 0.1Mev ( for lead
0.075Mev ).
For energies far above the K- absorption edge and in none relativistic range (h <<
0.511Mev) the cross-section for photoelectric effect (the total photoelectric absorption
cross-section per atom) from K-shell is given by;

ph = eZ5442 (moc2/h )7/2

Where e = 8/3 ro2 is the Thomson scattering cross-section .

Ro= e2/4moc2 = 2.82 x 10-15m is the classical electron radius; =1/137 is the Summer
fields fine structure constant and Z is atomic number of absorber.

The above expression for photoelectric absorption cross section can be written as

ph~ Z5 / ( E )7/2 ----------------------------------- 2.2

where E

=h

Equation 2.2 show that the photoelectric process is the predominant mode of interaction
for gamma rays ( or X rays ) of relatively low energy and absorber material of high
atomic Z material .

Fig 2.1 Schematic representation of the photoelectric absorption

Process.

The plot of the photoelectric absorption coefficient of gamma ray energy shows
that sharp discontinuity at the minimum energy (critical absorption energy) required to
remove the electron in the K, L, M

shells .As a gamma ray energies increases above the

K absorption edge which appears at higher energy relative to the anthers (L edge, Medge -------) there is a fast decrease in value of photoelectric coefficient, hence
photoelectric effect is the predominant mode of interaction at low energy gamma ray.

2.1.2 COMPTON EFFECT

Compton

effect

is

elastic

scattering

of

gamma

quanta (incident photon) by free electrons are bounded in the atom, but appears relatively
to be free and the outer most electrons are having least binding energy or almost free and
hence Compton effect takes place with outer most electron.

In this process

(Compton scattering) incident gamma ray (primary photon), which considered as the
particle collides with a free or weakly bound electron (E > Eb) and transfer parts of its
energy to the electron, and scattered with reduced energy. conservation of energy and
momentum allows only partial energy transfer when the electron is not bound tightly
enough for the atom to absorb recoil energy . This is way the interaction
Involves the outer, least tightly bound electrons in the scattering atom.
To have in formation about the process consider the incident photon (primary
photon ) or gamma quanta having energy E

= h and momentum P = h /c collide

with electron at rest having rest mass mo , after collision the scattered photon ( secondary
photon ) with reduced energy (E/ = h /) and momentum P/ = h /c travels at angle
from the initial direction , while the recoil electron which aquairs the recoil momentum P
= mv at the expense of the decrease of the photon energy travels in the direction at angle

from the initial direction as shown in Fig 2.2

Fig 2.2

A schematic representation of Compton scattering

Since both momentum and total energy is conserved in Compton collision ;

From the conservation of energy we have
E + moc2 = E/ + mc2
Or h + mo c2
Where m = m0 /

+h

+ mc2 -------------------------- 2.3

1-u2/c2 is the relativistic mass of the recoil electron.

Where C = 2.988 x 10-8 m/s is the speed of light and h = 6.66 x 10-34Js is the
plank constant

v and v / are frequency of incident gamma ray and scattered gamma ray

respectively.
From the conservation of momentum: Liner momentum conservation in the X
direction gives

h v /c + hv / /c cos + mvcos -----------------------*

Linear momentum conservation in y direction gives

0=h

v / /c sin

- mv sin ------- --------------* *

To eliminate we can write the above equations (* **) as follows

mvcos = + h v /c

- + hv / /c cos ----------------------------------2.4

mv sin = + hv / /c sin ---------------------------------------------------2.5

By squaring and adding equation 2.4 and 2.5 we get

m2u2 = (hv /c - hv / /c cos) 2 = (+ hv / /c sin ) 2
m u c2 = (+ hv )2 + ( hv / )2 2h / cos -----------------------2.6

From equation 2.3 we have mc2 = h ( v v /) +moc2

Squaring equation 2.3 gives
m2c2 = h2 ( v 2+

/2

- 2 / ) 2h( ( v v ) moc2 + m2o c4 -------2.7

Subtraction of 2.6 from 2.7 gives

m2 c2 (c2 u2)

= mo 2 c4 2h2 / (1- cos) + 2h ( v v /) moc2 ---2.8

Substitution of expression m = mo /

(1- u2/c2) in to equation 2.8 gives

M2oc2/ 1-u2 /c2 [c2 u2] = mo2 c4 2h2 vv / (1-cos) + 2h ( v v ) moc2

2h ( v v ) moc2 - 2h2 / (1- cos ) = 0

v v / / = h/moc2 ( 1- cos )

1 / / - 1/ = h/moc2 (1- cos)--------------------------------2.9

Multiplying both side of equation 2.9 by c gives

c / c / = h/moc2 ( 1- cos ), or

h/moc( 1- cos)-------------------------------------------2.10

where is wave length of primary gamma ray photon,

gamma ray photon and

is wave length of scattered

is the change in wavelength of Compton scattered

gamma ray or Compton shift

h/moc =0.0242 Ao is Compton wavelength
The wave length shift or Compton shift

- , thus dependent on the on the angle of

scattering angle and can be written as; = 0.0242 (1-cos ) where measured in Ao .
It does not depend on the scattering material( Z ) and energy of incident gamma ray .
From this relation we see that, for = 0, = 0 = / or h = h /, there is no
Compton effect; this is for very low incident gamma ray energy (h << moc2) which
described latter.
For =90; = 0.0242Ao
For = 180; = 0.0484 Ao maximum change in back scattered gamma ray, which
means that the change in wave length of gamma radiation interacting with electron never
exceed 0.0484Ao. Energy of scattered photon is minimum but never zero, so that complete absorption
is not possible. Compton effect is the process of partial scattering and partial absorption as apart of the
energy is transferred to an electron. In Compton process the dependence of both kinetic energy of
recoiling electron and energy of scattered gamma ray on the scattering angle () and energy of
incident gamma ray can be found from equation (2.9) follows:
The kinetic energy of the scattered gamma ray is given by:
E/ =h / ------------------------------------------------------------------a
By solving for frequency of scattered gamma ray from equation 2.9 we get;

= (moc2 )/( moc2+h (1-cos))------------------------------------b

Substitution of equation (b) in to equation (a) gives:

E/ = h moc2/moc2+h (1-cos)

E/ = h /[1+h /moc2(1-cos)------------------------------------------------2.11

where moc2 is the rest mass energy of electron = 0.511Mev

The kinetic energy of recoiling electron is given by:
Te = h h / -----------------------------------------------------------------------c
Using equation 2.11 in to equation (c)
Te = h h /[ 1+ h /moc2(1-cos )]

Te = [(h ) 2/moc2(1-cos)]/ [1+h /moc2(1-cos )] -----------------------2.12

The relation between the angle

at which the recoil electron leaves and the angle at which the

scattered gamma ray leaves can be easily obtained by taking the ratio of equation 2.4 and 2.5 together
with equation (b ) , the relation is given by ;
Cot = (1+h /moc2) Tan(/2) ---------------------------------------------------------- 2.13
Where Tan/2 =(1-cos)/sin
From this relation (2.13), as the gamma ray scattered in the range, from = 0 to =180; the recoiling
electrons can emitted in the range from

=90 to 0.

For backward scattered gamma ray ( =180 ) , the electron scattered forward ( =0) .For these causes
the energy of scattered gamma ray which is minimum , given by equation 2.14 and energy of the
scattered electron ,which is maximum , given by equation 2.15 :
E/(min) = h /[1+2h /moc2] --------------------------------------------------2.14
= moc2/2 = 255.5Kev ; if h >> moc2/2 .

Te = h /[1+ moc2/2h ]-------------------------------------------------2.15

= h -moc2/2 = h - 256 Kev; if h >>moc2/2
For forward scattered gamma ray ( = 0 ) , the electron recoil in the direction of ( =90 );
for this case the energy of scattered gamma ray is equal to the energy of incident gamma ray and
energy transferred to the electron is zero ; which means there is no interaction.
The energy given to the scattered electron ranges from zero to the maximum given by equation 2.15.

The Klein has theoretically calculated the Compton scattering cross sections and
Nishina From this formula for energy photon ( <<1) the scattering cross section per
electron is given by
e c

= e ( 1- 2 + 26/5 2 --------- )

where = h / moc2 and

= 8/3 ( e2/ moc2 )2 = 6.651 x10-28 m2 is

Thomson cross section and for high energy photon ( > 1 ) the scattering cross
section per electron is given by
e c=

8/3 c ln (2 ) +
--------------------

The above asymptotic expression for

show that at low energy e

decreases with increasing photon energy, and at high energy it falls off mor rapidly with
increasing photon energy .In Compton process the assumed electrons are free .For photon
energies of well above the binding energies it assume that all atomic electrons are
available for the process, and Compton cross section per atom is given by

= Z

where Z is atomic number of scatter;

Thus the probability of Compton scattering per atom of the absorber depends on the
number of the electrons available as scattering targets and therefore increases linearly
with Z . The Compton mass scattering coefficient is given by

( c )m = [NAZ e c ]/M
Where NA is Avogadro,s number and M is atomic mass .
The variation of c and ( c )m with energy of incident photon is the same as the energy
variation of e c which described above

2.1.3

Pair production

Pair production is the third mechanism by which gamma ray interact with matter
with the production of an electron- positron pair ( e- +e+). A gamma ray with energy
of at least twice the rest mass energy of electron (2moc2 = 2. 02 Mev) can create an
electron positron when it is under the influence of the strong magnetic field in the
vicinity of nucleus (see fig 2.3)

Fig. 2.3 A schematic representation of pair production.

In this interaction the nucleus receive a very small amount of recoil energy to conserve
momentum, but the nucleus is otherwise unchanged and the gamma ray photon
completely disappears and is replaced by an electron positron pair . The probability of
this interaction remains very low until the gamma ray energy approach several Mev and
there for pair production is predominantly confined to high energy gamma rays .This
interaction has a threshold of 1.02Mev because that is the minimum energy required to
create the electron and positron. If the incident gamma ray energy (h ) exceeds this
value (1.02Mev) the excess appears in the form of kinetic energy shared by he electron
positron pair. Therefore, the process consists of converting the incident gamma ray
photon into electron and positron kinetic energies, which total
T- + T+ = h - 2moc2 _______________________ 2.16
Where T- and T+ are kinetic energy of electron and positron respectively. The electron
positron from pair production is rapidly slowed down in the absorber. After losing its
kinetic energy , the positron combines with electron in an annulations process ,which
releases two gamma rays with energy of 0.511Mev . This lower energy gamma rays may
interact further with absorbing material or may escape. The relative importance the three
process for different absorber material and gamma ray energies conventionally illustrated
in fig (2.4) .The line at the left represents the energy at which photoelectric absorption
and Compton scattering are equally probable as a function of absorber atomic number.

The line at which the right represents the energy at which the Compton scattering and
pair production are equally probable. Three areas are thus defined on the plot with in
which photoelectric absorption, Compton scattering and pair production each
predominate [7].

Fig 2.4 The relative importance of the three major types of gamma ray interaction. The line show the
values of Z and h for which the two neighboring effects are just equal.

2.2

IN TERACTION OF LIGHT CHARGED PARTICLES WITH MATTER

Electrons ( - - particle and positrons are classified as light charged particles.

These particles interacts with matter through different process. The following dissections
are for the incident energies of the order 0.1- 5MeV.for these energies, Coulomb forces
are mainly responsible for the interaction.

2.2.3

Interaction of electron with matter

Following are the four important processes by which electrons lose their kinetic
energy during their passage through matter:
(i) Inelastic collisions of electrons: Inelastic collisi0ns of incident electrons with
bound atomic electrons in the matter is the most important mechanism by which incident
electrons lose their energy in their passage through matter. During such inelastic
collisions incident electron transfers part of its energy to a bound atomic electron taking it
to an excited state (excitation) or an unbound state (ionization). This problem has been
treated quantum mechanically and it has been shown that the mean energy Joss due to
inelastic collisions is given by the following formula for electron energies E < m. C2:

dE 4e 4 nZ 1.16m0V 2
=
In
dx
2I
m0V 2

Where n = number of atoms per cm3, Z = atomic number of the absorber, e, mO = charge
and rest mass of the electron respectively, 1 = mean excitation energy of the atomic
electrons.
(ii) Irradiative collisions of electrons with atomic nucleus: Incident electron passing
through the field of a nucleus experiences a deflection with a resultant emission of
radiation. This process is known as bremsstrahlung. This leads to a loss of kinetic energy
of the incident electron. This can be considered as a irradiative type of inelastic collision
between the electron and an atomic nucleus. The rate of energy loss by this interaction is
proportional to Z 2, where Z is the atomic number of the target atom. Actually
the rate of such irradiative loss is given [I] by
2
dE Z n
(
e + m0 c 2 )

A
dx r

Where E is the energy of the electron, n the atomic density and A the mass number of the
absorber. In addition there is also a probability that the electrons can excite the nuclei in a

similar inelastic collision. However the cross section for this process is generally very
low at the energies, which we are considering.
(iii) Elastic collisions of electrons: The incident electrons can have an elastic collision
with a nucleus resulting in a deflection of electron without any radiative loss or excitation
of nucleus. The cross section for this process is of the order of (e2/mo V2)2 (where V =
velocity of incident electron) and it increases with Z2.
For practical purposes, the total energy loss per unit path-length(the total linear
stopping power) of the electrons is the sum of ionization and radiation loss, i.e.
dE
dE
dE
=
+

dx Total dx ionization dx radiation

Empirically, the following relation is found to be approximately true

(dE / dx )rad
(dE / dx )ion

EZ
800

Where E = electron energy in Me V, and Z = atomic number of absorber. For the electron
of interest here(such as beta particles )typical energies are less than a few Mev.Ther for
radiative

loss are always a small fraction of energy losses due to ionization and

excitation.
As long as the absorber thickness is quite small, there will be a single scattering and
we can neglect the possibility that the same electron is scattered twice. For thicker
absorber one has to consider plural scattering in which case the incident electrons
undergo a small number of collisions. When the latter number becomes large. (> 20) we
speak in terms of multiple scattering. The theory of plural and multiple scattering is more
complicated. As beta particle travels through matter, their negative charge
interacts with the negative charge of orbital electrons, ejecting them from their
orbits (producing ion pairs) or causing excitation. This process will continue until
the electron has lost enough energy to be captured by a nucleus
Beta particles with their small mass, high velocity and single charge will travel
through matter further than an alpha particle before producing ionization.
Therefore, a beta particle will deposit their energy over a greater range than
alpha particles of comparable energy Since its mass is equal to that of an
electron, a large deflection.

2.2.2.

Positrons

The interaction of positrons with matter is almost identical with that of electron but
for some minor differences. However, there is a very important way in which positrons
can annihilate with the electrons in matter. This annihilation can either be a free
annihilation with an electron or via the formation of a (e+ e-) hydrogen-like atom called
positron. The positron annihilation leads to 2 photons if the electron-positron spin is anti
parallel and into 3 photons if the spin orientation is parallel.

2.3

INTENSITY OF RADIATION

Intensity of radiation is defined as the amount electro magnetic energy incident on the
surface per unit area per unit time .In particular the intensity of gamma rays is given by
the amount of photons (quanta ) passing through a unit area per unit time. Most
radioactive sources are isotropic in nature ,this means that radiation (from a radiation
source ) are given equally in all direction. The intensity of radiation (gamma rays ) at a
given distance from a radiation source can be determined by the inverse square law.
The inverse square law is used to calculate the decrease in radiation intensity due to an
increase in distance from the radiation source.
Inverse square law : I = Io / 4 R2
I = Intensity at a distance D from a surface of radiation source
Io = Intensity at the surface of the source

CHAPTER TREE
DETECTION OF GAMMA AND BETA RADIATION
3.1 INTRODUCTION

There are three method of nuclear radiation detection :

I ) method based on the collection of charge produced by the radiation : when

ionization radiation passed through the media ion pairs are produced and detected. These
method are applicable for both charged and uncharged partecle.Inusterement based on
these method includes : Gas-filled detector and solid sate detector.( II) method based on
the visualization of the path ( truck) of the particles (radiation ) these method are used for
the detection of charged particles. The instrument based on these methods are: solid state
truck detectors ; Wilson cloud chamber; bubble chamber and nuclear emulsion plate
spark chamber. (III) method based on collections of the scintillation: these methods are
applicable both for charged and un charged particles; the instrument based on the this
method are ; scintillation detectors and ceenkov detector.In this chapter only the first
method and the basic function of gas-filled detectors are discussed. Again, the method of
verification of inverse square law is included in this chapter.

3.2

THE GAS-FILLED IONIZATION DETECTOR

The ionization chamber, proportional counter and Geiger-Muller counter,

which are very similar in their construction and operation, are called gas-filled counters.
They are one of the oldest and simplest detectors of nuclear radiation. A gas filled
detector is basically a metal chamber filled with a gas (mostly Argon) at normal pressure
or less and an electric field is applied to a volume of gas enclosed in the chamber. A
schematic diagram of a gas filled detector is shown in fig 3.1.External voltage Vis
applied between the wall of the gas filled chamber (cathode) and the central wire (which
act as anode) through an external resistance R.The capacity of the electrode and the
counting system is Co
.

In this way an electric field is set up in the volume of the gas.

Fig 3.1 A schematic diagram of a gas- filled detector

An ionizing radiation (gamma or beta negative particle) passing through the gas have
ionization energy loss in the detector in producing in the free electrons and positive ions
for example if the filled gas is argon , a positive argon and an electron is produced
(Ar Ar+ + e-

). These ion pairs are produced either by the direct interaction of

incident beta particle with gas atom or by a secondary electrons formed during the
gamma ray interaction with in the detector.
If E the average energy loss then the ion produced will be E / W. Where W is the
average energy required to produce one ion pair, for most of the gas W = 32eV/ ion pair.
In th absence of the electric filled ,the ion pairs thus created will just recombine. How
ever, in the presence of the applied electric filed the positive and negative ions will move
along the radial electric liens of force towards the outer wall (cathode) and the central
wire (anode) respectively. Normally the negative ions (electrons) moves with much drift
velocities (10-6) as compared to the positive ions. The net result is that a charge Q collects
on the anode, thus a changing its potential by Q/C0.The change in the potential drop
across R will give rise to an electric pulse signal. Thus the passage of a nuclear radiation
( -ray or - - ray) through the detector will give rise to a pulse signal, which can be
processed by a preamplifier etc. for counting. A plot of out put pulse height at the anode
( or relative number of ions collected by the anode) will depend on (i) external voltage
applied (ii) initial ionizing event.
The difference between varies types of gas counters operated in pulse mode are
illustrated in fig 3.2. The amplitude of the observed pulse from the detector is plotted
versus the applied voltage or electric field within the detector. At low anode voltage, the
electrons may recombine with the ions. Recombination may also occur for high density.
As the voltage increases the recombination decreases. At sufficient high voltage nearly
all the electrons are collected and the detector is known as ionization chamber (region A).
In the ionization chamber, as the voltage increases pulse height remains constant. Pulse
height in this detector depends on the initial number of ions produced (energy loss). As
the voltage increases (electric field with in the chamber) still further electrons are
accelerated towards the anode at energies high enough to ionize other atoms of the gas,
those creating a large electrons (secondary electrons) and thus multiplication starts. The

collected charge then begins to multiply, and the observed pulse amplitude will increase.
Over some regions of the electric field(region B), the gas multiplication will be linear and
the collected charge will be proportional to the number of original ion pair created by
incident radiation (gamma rays or beta rays). This is the region of true proportionality
and represents the mode of operation of conventional proportional counters. In this
counter, under constant operating conditions, the observed pulse amplitude still indicates
the number of ion pairs created with in the counter. Although their charge has been
greatly amplified, simply the voltage pulse proportional to the energy of the particles
generating the pulse. Increasing of the applied voltage further can introduce non-linear
effects. This is due to the space charge created by the positive ion, which alter the electric
field. Because, further gas multiplication is dependent on the magnitude of electric field,
some non-linear ties will begin to be observed. Their effects make the one set of the
region of limited proportionality in which the pulse height (amplitude) still increases with
increasing number of initial ion pairs, but not in a linear fashion. At further higher
voltages (region C) the electron multiplication is even greater number of electrons
collected is independent of the initial ionization. This detector is known as the GeigerMuller counter in which the output pulse is the same for all particles. At still higher
voltage, continuous discharges occur.

Fig 3.2

Output pulse height from a gas filled detector verses the

applied voltage. Curve (I) and (II) refers to two different ionizing events
Gas multiplication and Avalanche formation
Most o the gas filled chamber has cylindrical geometry. For this cylindrical geometry the
strength of the electric field at a radial distance r from the central wire is given by:

E =

Vo
r ln(b / a )

Where Vo is the applied voltage and a and b are the radii of the central wire and the
cylindrical electrodes respectively. I n The high voltage region such as region B and C
( fig 3.2) t he electric field in the neighborhood of the central wire is very high and such
high electric field causes gas multiplication. When the electrons of the initial ionization
reach the region of high field strengths, they can pick up enough kinetic energy
between collision s to make more ions; electrons so formed can continue the process.
This is called an avalanche. Avalanche effects were first used to detect single particles
by Rutherford and Geiger in 1908. If there were no ion pairs initially, Mno electrons &
Mno positive ions will be formed, mostly in the space very close to the wire when the

avalanche has stopped. The avalanche terminates when all free electrons have been
collected at the anode. As we raise the counter potential, the avalanches are more
effective so that M is larger. One usually gets multiplication factors M in the range of
102-104
To understand the gas multiplication let us assume that every electron produced in the
primary ionization gives rise to a total of n se To understand the gas multiplication let
us assume that every electron produced in the primary ionization gives rise to a total of
n secondary electrons by collisions. The production of secondary electrons during the
collision in the gas will also give rise to photons which in turn can produce photo
electrons in the volume of the counter. Let p be the probability that each secondary
electron will give rise to a photoelectron. Thus there will be np photoelectrons in all.If
each photoelectron, intern, produces n electrons by further collisions, we shall have
a second generation avalanche of n2p electrons, which in turn give rise to more photo
electrons and so on. Finally, the total number of electrons will be :

M = n + n2p +n3p2

+ .
Where M is the gas multiplication factor. For practical proportional counter, np < 1 and
the above series converges so that M can be written as a sum of geometric series,
M = n(1 + n 2p2 + n 3p 3 )
=

n
1 np

It is thus seen that in a proportional counter the total number of secondary electrons is
proportional to the number of initial or primary ion pairs, but with the total number of
ions multiplied by a factor of M. multithread M is the gas multiplication factor. For
practical proportional counter, np < 1 and the above series converges so that M can be
written as a sum of geometric series,
.e. M = n(1 + n 2p2 + n 3p 3 )
=

n
1 np

It is thus seen from the result that in a proportional counter the total number of
secondary electrons is proportional to the number of initial or primary ion pairs, but
with the total number of ions multiplied by a factor of M.

According to Townsend avalanche, each free electron created in a collision can

potentially create more free electrons for additional ionization in the form of cascade
of gas multiplication process. Hence the fractional increase in the number of electrons
per unit path length is governed by the Townsend equation;

dn
= dx
n
where is called the first Townsend coefficient. Its value is zero for electric field
values below the threshold and generally increases with increasing field strength above
this minimum. For spatially constant field (as in parallel plate geometry), is a
constant in Townsend equation Its solution then predicts that the density of electrons
grows exponentially with distance as the avalanche progresses:
n(x) = n(0) ex

3.3.

The Geiger-Muller counter

The Geiger Muller counter (commonly referred to as the G.M. counter or simply Geiger
tube) and one of the oldest radiation detector types in existence having been introduced
by Geiger and Muller in 1928.
In the GM tube, substantially higher electric fields are created that enhanced the
intensity of each avalanche. Under proper conditions a situation is created that in which
one avalanche can it self trigger a second avalanche at a different position with in the
tube. At a critical value of the electric filed, each avalanche can create, and on the
average at least one more avalanche, and a self propagation chain reaction results. At
still greater value of the electric fields, the process becomes rapidly divergent and, in
principle, an exponentially growing number of avalanche could be created with in a very
short time. Once this Geiger discharge reaches a certain sizes, however, connective
effects of all the individual avalanches come in to play and ultimately terminate chain
reaction. Because this limiting point always reached after about the same number of
avalanches have been creased. All pulses form a Geiger tube are of the some amplitude
regardless of the number of original ion pairs that initiated the process. A Geiger tube can
therefore function only a simple counter of radiation induced events and can not be
applied in direct radiation spectroscopy because all information on the amount of energy

deposited by the incident radiation is lost. Atypical pulse from a Geiger tube represents
an unusually large amounts of collected charge, about 109-1010 ion pairs being formed in
the discharge. Therefore the out put pulse amplified is also large (typically of the order of
volts). This high level signal allows considerable simplification tube made in the
associated electronics, often completely eliminating the need for external amplification

3.3.1. The Geiger-Muller counting plateau

In using the a Geiger counter for measurement of counting rates, operating voltage should
be determined. Because, the Geiger tube functions as a simple counter. It application
requires only that operating conditions be established in which each pulse is registered by
counting system. This operating point is normally chosen by recording a plateau curve
from the system under conditions in which a radiation source generates events of constant
rate within the tube. The counting rate is recorded as the high voltage applied to the tube
is raised from an initially low value. An operating point is then selected that normally
corresponds to flat region or plateau on the resulting rate versus voltage curve. An
operating point on the counting plateau then ensures that all the pulse of interest from the
detector is counted [7].

Fig 3.3 Plateau characteristics of GM counter

Geiger discharge

G.M.counters are usually filled with noble gases like argon, neon, helium
etc.ln the Geiger Muller region C (Fig.3.2 ) np < 1and the series in equation 4.6
diverges. We have therefore a new phenomenon in the Geiger region. It is the spread of
the discharge along the wire by the action of photon generated in the avalanche. The
result is that the discharge spreads all along the wire forming an ion sheath and an out
put pulse of the order of few volts is obtained. This discharge has to be quenched.
Otherwise it can sustain itself and multiple pulses can occur. his discharge has to be
quenched. Otherwise it can sustain itself and multiple pulses can occur.
2
Quenching of discharge
There are two ways in which this discharge can be quenched, (i) externally- by
suitable electronic circuit or (ii) more simply in an internal way by adding a poly atomic
gas, like ethyl alcohol vapor, to the argon gas (ratio argon 90% by weight, ethyl alcohol
10%)
(a)

External Quenching: The mechanism of operation depends upon emission of

ultraviolet radiation (photons) from many atoms excited during the avalanche of
electrons towards the anode wire. In the earlier forms of Geiger counter these photons
eject photoelectrons from the metal walls of the counter. The photoelectrons are
accelerated towards the anode, near which they produce further avalanche which

spread in this manner along the entire length of the anode. The process ceases only
when the space charge of slowly moving
positive ions reduces the electric field sufficiently to limit the number of electrons and
excited atoms in the avalanche. When, eventually, positive ions reach the cathode they
also may eject photo electrons and so initiate a self sustaining discharge in the counter.
A number of electronic circuit arrangements have been devised to prevent secondary
pulses due to positive ion impacts. This may be done by lowering the voltage v after
each count, which intern lowers the speed of the counter. Such counters are called nonself quenching. To decrease the attracting potential which is responsible for motion
multiplication of electrons emitted from the cathode we can use an external resistance.
ii) Internal Quenching: More elegantly the quenching is done in a gas itself. For
discharge to maintain itself, either one or more of the huge number of positive ions
formed in an avalanche or a photon must release a new electron in the gas or at the
cathode to start the process over again.When a positive argon ion, is neutralized on a
metallic surface a considerable amount of energy is released that may be used to expel an
electron from the surface. This makes using argon alone difficult. But poly atomic gases
do not behave this way. Counters containing poly atomic gases are called self-quenching.
A small amount of poly atomic vapor such as alcohol or acetone is introduced into the
gas filling. This causes photons from the electron avalanche to be strongly absorbed in
the vapors, owing to its low ionization potential, and photoelectrons are produced close to
the anode wire.
Since the ionization energy of alcohol is less than that of argon, we get :
Ar+ +C2H5OH

Ar + (C2H5OH)+,

While going towards cathode Ar+ loses their charge to alcohol. When alcohol molecules,
(C2H5OH)+ reach the cathode they become neutral by absorbing electrons from the
cathode. But since dissociation energy of alcohol molecules is very low ( 3ev) they
dissociate into C2H5+and OH-and no photon emission that can lead to photoelectrons.
Thus secondary discharge is quenched. However, gradually alcohol molecules can be
exhausted and result in poor characteristics of G.M.tube because gas pressure slowly
increases due to the increase in molecular fragments.

Therefore, self-quenching has got a lifetime, i.e. lifetime not in terms of time but
in terms of number of particles due to the gradual decomposition of organic vapour. This
depends upon the utilization of alcohol molecule (dissociation). Organic quenched tubes
have a useful lifetime of about 1010 counts. To solve this problem halogen quenching
gases such as chlorine, bromine, etc are used. In the halogen- quenched tube, the
quenching gas is apparently not consumed in the quenching process. It appears that the
diatomic halogen gas molecules are dissociated in the quenching, and that there is a
recombination mechanism present to replenish the supply of quenching gas. Unlike
alcohol after dissociation chlorine is regained so that the problem of exhaustion is solved.
This not only extends greatly the life of the tube for a normal use, but also makes possible
to run the tube at higher voltages without sacrificing the life of the tube. This later feature
means that the out put voltage pulse of 10volts or more can be obtained from the tube in
normal operation. But the halogen vapors cannot be used with some cathode materials
because of chemical action. Cathodes of stainless steel have proved satisfactory. Selfquenching counters containing halogen fillings have indefinite lives because the halogen
ions are neutralized at the walls without dissociation (or electron emission). Nearly allmodern Geiger counters are of this type.

3. Time behavior: Following the Geiger discharge, the electric field has been

reduced below the critical point by the positive space charge. If another ionizing occurs
under these conditions, a second pulse will not be observed because gas multiplication is
prevented. During this time the tube is therefore dead and any radiation interactions that
occur in the tube during this time will be lost. Technically, the dead time of the Geiger
tube is defined as the period between the initial pulse and the time at which the second
Geiger discharge, regardless of its size can be developed. In most Geiger tubes, this time
is of the order of 50-100 s. In any practical counting system, some finite pulse
amplitude must be achieved before the second pulse is recorded, and the elapsed time
required to develop a second discharge that exceeds this amplitude is sometimes called
the resolving time of the system. In practice, these two terms are often used

interchangeably and the term dead time may also be used to describe the combined
behavior of the detector- counting system. The recovery time is the time interval required
for the tube to return to its original state and become capable of producing a second pulse
of full amplitude.

3.3.2

Measuring the intensity 0f gamma rays and beta rays using the Geiger
counter.

G.M counter which is based on the principle of charge collection, at its operating
voltage will give an out put pulse for each of quantum radiation ( - ray photon or -particle) that interact with in its active volume. - Rays or -- particles, which are
emitted at a constant, rate from a point source, are inters the G.M tube and produce ion
pairs in the active volume of the tube. For each ion pair produced the charge is collected
at the anode wire and creates electric pulse, which are counted by the counter.
This counting rate is scales with the intensity of the radiations (gamma rays and beta
rays) that interact with counter gas. This counting rate is scales with intensity of
radiations interacting with the gas of the tube. In measuring the intensity of nuclear
radiation of interest care must be taken for the irrelevant radiation, which contributes for
the measured counts. This irrelevant radiation, which may be from the cosmic rays or
from the environmental radioactive sources. Hence to find the effective intensity
(intensity of nuclear radiation of interest) the background count is measured for along
period of time and subtracted from the measured counts. The resultant counting rate is
the intensity of the nuclear radiation.
In order to measure the intensity of nuclear radiations (gamma or beta) at different
distance from the source the counting rate is recorded for each position of the source and
with back ground rate subtract, the resultant counting rate represent the intensity of a
nuclear radiation from the corresponding position of the source.

3.3.3

Method of verification of inverse square law

The inverse square law is used to calculate the decrease in radiation intensity due
to an increase in distance from the radiation source. Since all the radioactive
sources are isotropic in nature their radiation intensity obeys this law. In order to
verify this law the intensities of radiation are measured using the GM counter (as
in section 3.3.2) and for each measured intensities the corresponding distance,
may be the distance from the source holder to the window of the tube or to any
fixed arbitrary point are measured using the distance measuring device. Having
the measured intensities and distance; for isotropic emission the intensity at any
point is given by:
I=I
Where D is the actual distance from active surface of the source to the point at which the
intensity is measured. But the distance measured is the distance between the top of the
Source holder and window of the tube. The top of the source holder may not coincide
with the active surface of the source and also the window may note coincide with the
point where the actually ionization take places in side the detector. Hence the correction
for the measured distance has to be made.

Correction for the measured distance:

This correction for the measured distance can be done by the following two methods.
Method 1

Let D = Ri + Ro ---------------------------------------------------- 3.2

Where Ro is the correction factor
Ri is the distance measured
D is the distance after correction
Substitution of equation (3 .2) in to equation (3.1) gives
Ii = I0 / 4 ( Ri+ Ro)2 ---------*
Let assume that at the minimum measurable distance ( Ri = 0) ,the corresponding
measured intensity is Io and given by
Io = Io/4 Ro2 ----------**
The intensity for Ri 0 will be
Ii = Io / 4 (Ro + Ri )2 --------***

Taking the both side ratio of equation ( ** ) and equation ( *** ) results in
(Io/Ii 1 )Ro2 2RiR0 Ri2 = 0
Which is quadratic equation. Its solution is given by
Ro = Ri ( 1 Io /Ii) / ( Io/Ii 1) ---------- 3.4
All quantities in right hand side of equation 3.4 are measurable. Thus using this equation
the Ro values is computed for each vales of Ri 0 and the corresponding intensity
( Ii Io ) and its average is taken .If this Ro is added to the all measured distance (Ri), the
distance (D) in equation (3.2 )represents the actual distances between the effective
surface of the source and the point at which the ionization is takes place in the tube (
Intensity is measured ).
Method 2

This correction factor (Ro) can also found graphically by substituting equation( 3.2) in
to equation( 3.1) and solving for R, which gives
R = constant x 1/ I - Ro
Where the constant =

------------------

3.5

Io / 4

This is the form of y = mx + c (c = -Ro). There fore a graph R verses 1/ I is a straight

line with intercept Ro , and this Ro value is added to all values of R.
Now we have the measured intensities and corresponding corrected distances. From
equation 3.1, taking natural logarithms of on both sides we have :
LnI = Ln(Io)/4 - 2InD . This is in the form y = c + mx ( m = -2 ) . There fore a graph
of LnI verses LnD is straight line with slope 2.This verifies inverse square law.

CHAPTER 4

EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF INVERSE SQUARE LAW

4 .1 Objective of the experiment:

To show the intensity of radiation (gamma rays and beta rays)

emitted isotropic ally from a point source varies inversely as a square of the
distance from the source
4.2 Equipment
GM counter
Gamma ray and Beta ray source (
0.8mm tick Aluminum foil
Ruler
4.3

Equip mental set up

Fig 4 .1 Experimental set up

Fig 4.2 Block diagram of GM counter

13 7

CS )

4.4 Experimental Procedure:

1 Plateau characteristic of GM counter is plotted and from this the
operating voltage is determined.
2 Obtaining pure gamma rays from the source, this can be done by
placing the beta negative absorber ( Al foil) on the surface of
source.
3 To find the intensity of the gamma rays at varies distance from the
source, starting from the minimum measurable distance between
windows of GM tube and the source holder at each varies distance
of the source record the count for 100sec or greater .In this
measurement at each distance the active surface of the source must
be parallel to the windows of the tube.
4 Repeat the measurement many times to determined the variation of
intensity with distance.
5 Repeat the above procedure with beta negative absorber removed.
6 Record the bock ground counting with source removed. This bock
ground counting which is irrelevant to my experiment may come
from environment radioactivity, cosmic rays etc.
7 Subtract the back ground count rate from each measured count rate
.8 Platte graph of lnI vs lnD , the slop should be 2

4.5 Experimental result

Part I Determination of plateau characteristics G M counter

The recorded Data for the determination of plateau characteristics of GM

counter ( -counter) is shown in table-1. Th is data is taken under constant
radiation from radiation source ( 137Cs).
Time of counting 100 sec

410

420

430

440

450

460

470

480

490

500

510

520

530

540

550

560

570

30902

40088

40694

41312

41812

42066

42518

42614

42922

42884

43126

43306

43176

43177

43150

43323

Table 1.Recorded counting rate and voltage applied

For the recorded data in table- 1 the plot of counting rate verses the applied
voltage is shown in fig 4.3

fig 4.3 graph of counting rate verses applied voltage

From fig 4.3 the plateau curve almost flat for a voltage range of 420 v- 490v
There fore the working voltage of this GM tube will be 460v.which is the
average value of the two extreme point of the flat region.
At this value of voltage all the pulse of interest from the detector are collected.

Part II

1. Data measured for variation of intensity of pure gamma rays with distance.
Operating voltage 460v

Back ground counting 100

0.8mm thick Al foil
Source of gamma rays 137Cs
Time of counting 100 sec
Counting rate
Distance in cm (R)

Decrease

Increase

Average

Corrected I = C-B

2058

2066

2062

1962

0.5

1239

1235

1237

1133

830

834

832

732

1.5

615

610

614

514

2.0

479

483

481

381

2.5

377

397

387

287

3.0

333

323

328

228

3.5

277

285

281

181

4.0

242

252

247

147

4.5

221

229

225

125

5.0

207

206

205

105

5.5

190

186

188

88

6.0

171

168

174

74

6.5

161

167

163

63

151

159

155

55

Table 2. The recorded counting rate and corresponding possible measured distance.

2. Data measured for variation of intensity of gamma rays and beta rays ( + ) with
distance

Operating voltages 460v.

Source of gamma and beta 137Cs.
Back ground counting (B) 106
Time of counting 100 sec.
Counting rate
Distance in cm (R)

Decrease

Increase

Average

Corrected I = C-B

95500

95300

95400

95294

0.5

49200

49200

49200

49094

36800

36800

36800

36694

1.5

22840

22880

22860

22754

17670

17650

17660

17554

2.5

13030

13010

13020

12941

9800

9800

9800

9694

3.5

7400

7400

7400

7294

6260

6300

6280

6174

4.5

4950

4930

4940

4834

3738

3756

3747

3641

5.5

3300

3306

3303

3197

2910

2930

2920

2814

6.5

2581

2611

2596

2490

2315

2325

2320

2214

Table 3. The recorded counting rate and corresponding possible measured distance.

In the above two tables (table-2 and table-3) the intensities of radiation are
calculated by subtracting the back ground counting rate from each of the
average recorded counting rate.

4. 5

Data analysis and discussion

Data analysis

In the above data the measured distance is the distance between the source
(137Cs) holder and the point near to the window of GM tube. This distance is
not represent the distance between the active surface of the source (137Cs)
and the point at which the intensity of the radiation is measured (the point at
which the actual ionization take place in side the tube) so that correction
should be made for the measured distance. Correction factor for the
measured distance can be found from a graph of R (distance) verses intensity
(1/ I ) .For measured intensity of gamma rays and corresponding distance
R in table 2 . (The values for 1/ I are tabulated in table-6), the plot R verses
1/ I is shown in fig 4.4.similarly using the data in table-3(The values for
1/ I are tabulated in table-7), a plot of R verses 1/ I is shown in fig 4.5 .In
both case the graph is straight line, this is a good agreement theory. The
correction factor can be found by extra plot. By using this extra plot the
value of the correction factor ( Ro ) may be 0.75cm.

B
Linear Fit of Data1_B

Intensity(1/ square of intensity)

0.14

0.12

0.10

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02
-1

Distance(R)

Plot of 1/ I ( ) verses distance ( R )

Fig 4.4

B
Linear Fit of Data1_B
0.022

Intensity(1/squre root of intensity)

0.020
0.018
0.016
0.014
0.012
0.010
0.008
0.006
0.004
0.002
-1

Distance(R)

Fig 4.5 plot of 1/ I ( + ) ( verses distance D)

Alternatively this correction factor can be found by simple calculation as

follows.
using equation (3.4)
Ro = R i ( 1 Io /Ii) / ( Io/Ii 1)
The calculated correction factor (Ro) for measured distance in table-2 and
table-3 are tabulated in table 4 and table-5.

Ri(cm)

.5

Ro(in

1.58 1.57 1.57 1.57 1.55 1.55

1.5

2.5

3.5

4.5

5.5

6.5

1.53 1.51 1.52 1.51 1.48 1.45 1.42 1.41

cm)

Table 4 . The calculated correction factor for intensity of gamma rays in

table 2

Ri (cm)
.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

4.5

5.5

6.5

Ro(cm)
1.44 1.77 1.53 1.59 1.53 1.46 1.4

1.42 1.36 1.36 1.33 1.29 1.3

Table 5. The calculated correction factor for gamma and beta rays in table 3

The calculated correction factors for each measured distance are almost
constant. From table 4 and table-5 the average values of Ro are 1.51cm and
1.43cm.These value of Ro is added to all measured distance in table-2 and
table-3 and tabulated in table-6 and table-7.Know the corrected distance is
the distance from the active source of 137Cs to the point at which the
intensity is measured. The value of measured intensities of gamma ray in
table-2 and corresponding corrected distance are calculated in natural
logarithm scale as shown in table-6 .similarly for intensity of gamma ray
together with beta negative ( rays ) these values are tabulated in table-7
Operating voltage 460v
Bock ground counting 100
Source of gamma rays 137Cs
Time of counting 100sec

1.3

D = R+R

0
.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
5.5
6
6.5
7

1.51
2.01
2.51
3.01
3.51
4.01
4.51
5.01
5.51
6.01
6.51
7.01
7.51
8.01
8.51

Counting rate
C

I=C-B

2062
1237
832
614
481
387
328
281
247
225
205
188
174
163
155

1962
1133
732
514
381
287
228
181
147
125
105
88
74
63
55

1/ I

Ln I

LnD

0.022
0.0296
0.0369
0.044
0.051
0.059
0.066
0.074
0.0825
0.0894
0.0976
0.1066
0.116
0.126
0.135

7.58
7.036
6.59
6.24
5.94
5.71
5.429
5.199
4.99
4.828
4.65
4.477
4.3
4.143
4

0.412
0.698
0.92
1.102
1.256
1.389
1.506
1.611
1.706
1.793
1.873
1.947
2.016
2.081
2.141

Table 6 . The summarized data table for gamma ray

Operating voltage 460v
Back ground counting 106
Source of gamma rays and beta

particles

137

Cs

Time of counting 100sec

R(cm)

0
0.5
1
1.5

D = Ro +
R

Counting
rate
C

I=C-B

1/ I

Ln I

Ln D

1.4
1.9
2.4
2.9

89400
49200
36800
22860

89294
49094
36694
22754

0.0033
0.0045
0.0052
0.0066

11.4
10.8
10.5
10.03

0.34
0.64
0.84
1.065

2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
5.5
6
6.5
7

3.4
3.9
4.4
4.9
5.4
5.9
6.4
6.9
7.4
7.9
8.4

17660
13020
9800
7400
6280
4940
4200
3540
2920
2596
2320

17554
12914
9694
7294
6174
4834
4094
3434
2814
2490
2214

0.00755
0.00879
0.01
0.012
0.013
0.014
0.0156
0.017
0.0188
0.02
0.021

9.77
9.466
9.179
8.894
8.728
8.483
8.31
8.141
7.94
7.83
7.7

1.22
1.36
1.48
1.59
1.69
1.775
1.86
1.93
2
2.07
2.13

Table 7. The summarized data table for gamma and beta radiation
From the above datas it is observed that both intensity of pure gamma
ray photon (shown in table-6) and intensity of gamma ray-photon together
with negative beta particles (table-7) emitted from 137Cs decreases as the
distance of the source (137Cs) from the windows of the tube increases. This
shows that as the source move away from the iterance windows of the tube
the number of ionizing radiation ( - ray photons and - particles )
interring through the windows of the tube decreases
Our aim is to confirm (to verify) the inverse square law, which state that the
intensity of radiation from radiation source (point of emission) falls off as
1/ D2 or intensity of radiation at any point from the source is given by:
I = Io / 4 D2
For the above equation taking natural logarithm on both sides give:
Ln I = Ln ( Io / 4 ) - 2 In D. This is a form of linear equation in which the
plot of Ln I verses Ln D is the straight line with slope -2.

From the present data, for intensity of gamma ray-photon and corresponding
distance (corrected) in table-6, the plot of intensity verses distance is shown
in fig 4.6. For intensity of gamma ray-photon together with beta negative
particles and corresponding distance in table -7 ,the plot of intensity verses
distance in natural logarithm scale is shown in fig-4.7.

E
8.0
7.5

Model: user1
Chi^2/DoF=0.00254
R^2
=0.99804
a
-2.01676 0.02478
b
8.36791 0.03859

7.0

Intensity(Ln(I))

6.5
6.0
5.5
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2.0

2.2

Distance(Ln(D))

Fig 4 .6 The graph of measured intensity of gamma ray photon from 37Cs
verses distance in natural logarithm

H
11.5

Equation: y=a*x+b

11.0

a
b

-2.10085
12.22458

0.03399
0.05297

Intensity(Ln I)

10.5
10.0
9.5
9.0
8.5
8.0
7.5
0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2.0

2.2

Distance(R)
Fig-4.7 .The measured intensity of gamma ray-photon and beta particles from 137Cs
verses distance in natural logarithm scale.

Discussion
Fig-4.5 shows the result of the linear fit of measured intensity of gamma rays and
distance. the calculated average slope of this curve is 2.01676 0.02478.The theoretical
value of the slope is 2.In comparison with this theoretical, the above experimentally
determined value of the slope has 4% error. The above result indicate that the intensity of
gamma- rays from the source( 137Cs ) varies inversely as square of the distance from the
source.
Fig- 4.6. Shows the result of linear fit of measured intensity of radiations ( gamma rays
together with negative beta particles or negatrons) and distance. The calculated average
slope of the curve is 2.1008 0 .03399. In comparison with theoretical value, the
calculated present slope shows 2.45 % error. This result indicate that intensity of
radiations ( + - ) from 137Cs falls off as 1/ D2. In both case the inverse square law is
verified.

4.7 Conclusion
The theory say that for radiation emitted from a point source its
intensity falls off as inverse of square of the distance from the source. The
plot of measured intensity verses distance in natural logarithm scale is
straight and slop of the line is 2.In this experiment, for radiation
( raysand particles) emitted from 137Cs source the slop of measured
intensity verses distance ( in natural logarithm scales ) is straight line. In
the case of gamma rays the calculated average slop of the line is
2.01676 0.02478 and for the case in which both - rays and - - particles
are considered the calculated average slope of the line is 2.1008 0.03399.
These value of the slop with small error agrees with the theoretical value. The error may
arises from the measurement of the distance and stastical fluctuations of the counting
rate. The same reason may given for the observed uncertainty. The above value of the
slop tells as that the intensity of radiation ( ( raysand rays) from 137Cs source falls
off as inverse of the square of the distance from the source. From this experiment I can
further conclude that for any radiation emitted isotropic ally from the source the intensity
of radiation varies inversely as the square of the distance from the source.

Reference

[1]. Tiwari. Fundemantals of Nuclear physics, 1974

[2]. Luke C.L. Yuan. Methods of experimental physics, volume 5, part A, 1961.
[3]. A.W. Harrison. Intermediate Atomic and Nuclear physics, 1966
[4]. R.M. Singru. Introduction to experimental nuclear physics, 1972.
[5]. J.M. Reid. The Atomic Nucleus, 1972.
[6]. A. Klimov. Nuclear physics and Nuclear reactors.
[7] G.f. Knoll Radiation detection and measurement
[8] Fay Atzenberg- selove. Nuckear Sepctroscopy, part A
[9] K.N. Mukhin. Experimental Nuclear physics volume I, physics of Atomic Nucleus.
First Published 1987. Revised from the 1938 Russian edition.

Approved by the examination committee

Name
Professor A.K Chaubey

Sig.
......................

_________
Advisor
Dr. Tilahun Tesfaye
Examiner

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