Handout - Introduction to Drinking Water Treatment

Design aspects
of drinking water
treatment plants
percentage not connected and number of deceased due to typhoid

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1900

1920

1940

1960

1980
year

% not connected

number per 100,000 inhabitants

Contents
1. The technical setup of drinking water supply
2. Drinking water resources
3. Production
3.1 Groundwater
3.2 Surface water
3.2.1 Surface water using direct treatment
3.2.2 Surface water using soil aquifer recharge
4. Transport and Distribution
4.1 Transport
4.2 Storage
4.3 Distribution network
4.4 Drinking water installations
5. Planning process for public water supply
5.1 Identication
5.2 Denition
5.3 Design
5.4 Contract
5.5 Construction, start-up and operation
5.6 Laws, permits and standards
6. Costs
6.1 Investment costs
Denition
Investment costs and capacity
6.2 Operational (exploitation) costs
Denition
Structure
7. The practice of designing (Heel example)
7.1 Preliminary studies
7.2 Block diagram, site layout plan and sketch design
7.3 Preliminary design
7.4 Final design and detailed design
7.5 Construction and start-up
This handout is based on Drinking Water, Principles and Practices by de Moel et al.

1. The technical setup of drinking water

supply
The public water supply played an important role
in the development of our modern society. The
supply of good and reliable (i.e., safe) drinking
water, since about 1850, has caused public health
in Western Europe and North America to drastically improve. The public drinking water supply
is important for economic development as well.
Because of the supply of good and inexpensive
water, any economic development is less tied to
the direct surroundings. Therefore industries and
companies can ourish more easily.
The public drinking water supply typically has a
technical setup, as shown in Figure 1.
Production consists of the abstraction of raw water
(either groundwater from the soil or surface water
from rivers, canals and lakes) followed by treatment, in order to obtain drinking water quality.
When production is located remote from the supply area, the water is rst transported via pumps
and pipes.
To reduce the daily variation in the water demand,
distribution reservoirs are used. From these reservoirs, the drinking water is pressurized for distribution to the supply area using distribution pumps.

In the supply area, there is a distribution network

available (a system of larger and smaller pipes),
transporting water to customers. In some cases,
water towers are used in the distribution networks
in order to lessen pressure uctuations.
A customer typically has a home connection to the
distribution network (including a water meter), that
distributes drinking water to the different taps in
and around the house (bath, toilet, kitchen, washing machine, garden, etc.).
The quality of drinking water should comply with
legal standards. In the Netherlands, the drinking
water supply is regulated by the Water Supply Act
and the specic quality standards are elaborated
in the Decree on the Water Supply.
The Dutch legislation is stricter than the general
European one. Internationally, there is much reference to the directives from the World Health
Organization (WHO).
The technical installations and the operation of a
drinking water production plant are primarily determined by the microbiological parameters. This is
because the concentration of bacteria in source
waters might be between 10,000 to 1,000,000,000
times higher than the maximum acceptable value
in drinking water. Therefore, even a small con-

production

abstraction

treatment

distribution

storage

Figure 1 - Setup of the drinking water supply system

transport

storage

distribution network

tamination or a small disturbance in the production

process may cause the standards to be exceeded.
Also, bacteria populations may develop during long
retention times in installations or pipes.

2. Drinking water resources

Most of the water on earth (97%) is salty whereas
only 3% is fresh water, from which more than two
thirds is frozen. The unfrozen fraction is predominantly underground water leaving a small fraction
to surface water (see Figure 2).
For the production of drinking water, almost exclusive use is made of water containing only a limited
amount of dissolved compounds (fresh water).
This choice is made in view of the high costs of
removing salts from water.
Desalination of brackish water or sea water is
only used in drinking water production when fresh
water is scarce, like in arid areas (Saudi Arabia,
Libya) and on tourist islands (like Malta, Aruba or
Bermuda).

chosen considerably more carefully. In general a

minimum retention time of 50 years in the underground is used to determine the size of the water
abstraction area..
Groundwater abstraction inuences the water
level in the soil. This may cause desiccation of
the surrounding area, resulting in agricultural and
environmental damage. Therefore, permits are
required for groundwater abstraction, in which the
maximum amounts to be abstracted are regulated
(yearly, monthly and daily maxima).
Due to the long underground retention time,
groundwater is usually microbiologically stable and
of an almost consistent good quality.

Thus, the main sources for production of drinking

water are fresh groundwater and surface water.

3. Production
3.1 Groundwater
Groundwater can be abstracted in substantial
amounts if an extensive, porous aquifer is available
and if recharge from the surface or the surroundings is possible.
For drinking water production it is important that
the aquifer is more or less isolated from the upper
soil (conned aquifer) to avoid contamination.
In order to further prevent contamination, the
abstraction area is marked as such, according to
strict regulations regarding land use and the use
of dangerous compounds (oil, pesticides, etc.).
In areas where the aquifer has an open connection to the upper soil, the water abstraction area is

Figure 2- Fractions of water on earth

These properties mean that often, only limited and

relatively simple treatment is necessary.
The chemical composition of the water, however,
strongly depends on the local circumstances,
which may cause wide differences.
The most important factor determining the quality
of groundwater is related to the oxygen content
of the water or to the degree of oxygen shortage
(aerobic/ anoxic/ anaerobic)

The oxygen content actually determines the

amount to which a few undesirable compounds
can dissolve from the soil (iron, manganese,
ammonium, methane, hydrogen sulde).
Generally, the oxygen content can be easily predicted based on the origin of the groundwater
(Figure 3). Though rainwater contains oxygen in
all cases, this oxygen can be consumed by the
decay of organic compounds in the soil. . Besides,
a longer retention time in the ground yields a lower
oxygen concentration (water under a clay layer).
Aerobic groundwater is mostly abstracted from the
phreatic sand layer. It contains oxygen and typically needs only very little treatment.
Anoxic groundwater is typically located under a
continuous clay layer in the underground. Due
to this layer, no oxygen is present in the water,
but ammonium, iron and manganese are. These
compounds are undesirable in the water and they
need to be removed. However, the concentrations
of these compounds are rather low.
Anaerobic groundwater is typically located below
a peat layer. This water is characterized by the
absence of oxygen and nitrate and by the presence of ammonium, iron, manganese, methane
and hydrogen sulde.
A second important factor in determining the quality of groundwater is its pH value.
Rainwater always contains a small amount of carbon dioxide (CO2), though at larger concentrations,
in industrial countries.
Because of the oxidation of organic matter (formation of CO2), the CO2 concentration in the groundwater may dramatically rise. In acid environments
undesirable metals like nickel and aluminium may
also dissolve from the soil matrix.
Carbon dioxide may react with limestone in the
ground, causing the pH value to increase, but also
causing a considerable increase in the hardness
and bicarbonate concentration of the water.
A third factor determining the quality of the groundwater is related to land use. Due to fertilizing in
agriculture, the amount of nitrates in groundwater

aerobic freatic groundwater

clay layer

light anaerobic groundwater

peat layer
deep anaerobic groundwater

Figure 3- Consumption of oxygen in the soil has an inuence on the composition of groundwater

can signicantly increase (Figure 4) and, in addition, pesticides may enter the groundwater.
Finally, industrial contamination of the soil inuences the quality of the groundwater.
Because of the variety of differences in water quality prior to treatment, there is no uniform treatment
setup for groundwater. In the Netherlands, almost
exclusively well-protected anoxic groundwater is
abstracted, requiring aeration and rapid ltration in
any treatment process (Figures 5 and 6). Aeration
brings oxygen in the water and removes the dissolved gases, like carbon dioxide. After this, iron,
manganese and ammonium oxidize, causing these
compounds to be removed in the subsequent lter.
To reduce the amount of abstracted water, the
water companies also treat and reuse the backwash water from their rapid lters.
.
Being abstracted directly adjacent to surface water,
riverbank groundwater is a mixture of aerobic surface water inltrated into the soil, via the riverbank
, with natural anoxic or anaerobic groundwater.

Since its main fraction is natural groundwater,

riverbank groundwater is anoxic or anaerobic.

Figure 4 - Contamination of the soil is a threat to the

quality of groundwater

Therefore, aeration and filtration are also in

the basis of riverbank groundwater treatment.
However, eventual iron occulation, due to the mixing of anaerobic groundwater with aerobic surface
water, makes that groundwater wells may clog.
The retention time of the river water in the soil is
from one month to longer than one year and the
ow velocity in the ground is about 0.1 m/d. The
variations in quality (salinity, and temperature) are
levelled off by the retention time and dispersion in
the soil and therefore the vulnerability of riverbank
groundwater to calamities is small.
When the river is contaminated, the inltration
of water into the soil cannot be stopped causing
contaminations to enter the soil.

Therefore, the treatment setup of a riverbank

groundwater plant is typically extended with activated carbon ltration (combined with UV treatment) to remove organic micro-pollutants (e.g.
pesticides) from the water.
The capacity of a pumping station is related to
the number of wells that can be constructed.
Generally, pumping stations are small, of a size
similar to that of a groundwater plant. The sites are
usually located not far from the distribution area.
Because of the short transport distances and the
simple treatment setup (compared to surface water
projects), the investment and exploitation costs
are relatively low.

3.2 Surface water

Surface water is commonly available in large
amounts and it is easily abstracted (rivers and
lakes). In the case of rivers having a low minimum discharge, sometimes very large storage
reservoirs are constructed to cover drier periods.
Drinking water production from surface water
requires an extensive treatment process. Typically,
it is necessary to remove suspended solids, turbidity, pathogenic micro-organisms, as well as organic
and inorganic micro-pollutants (e.g. pesticides
and heavy metals).

spray aeration

cascades

pre-filter
clear water storage

abstraction well

post-filter
clear water pump

Figure 5 - Drinking water production from slightly anaerobic groundwater

Figure 6 - Modern design of Welschap pumping station (Noord-Brabant) where anaerobic groundwater is treated to
produce drinking water

There are two systems for the production of drinking water from surface water:
- storage in reservoirs followed by an extensive
treatment process (direct treatment)
- pre-treatment, soil aquifer recharge and
abstraction followed by a limited post-treatment
(surface water using soil aquifer recharge)
Figures 7 and 8 show the production sites of
drinking water and the origin of drinking water,
respectively.
3.2.1 Surface water using direct treatment
When abstracting river water for direct treatment to
drinking water, signicant variations of water discharge and quality should be considered. Besides,
surface water is rather vulnerable to pollution.
For these reasons a storage reservoir is required
before the treatment process itself.
The surface water that is used as a source for
drinking water production is usually located at a
large distance from the distribution area., requiring
long transport distances (see Figure 9).

In order to prevent sedimentation and biological growth in the transport pipes, either the total
treatment process is situated at the inlet site or
a pre-treatment plant is constructed there. The
main treatment plant is then constructed near the
distribution area.
Reservoirs
In the Netherlands, the surface water used for
drinking water production is mainly abstracted from
the Rhine and Meuse rivers. Due to the large uctuations of quality and quantity., water abstraction
from the river is not always possible. In order to
be able to supply drinking water, a storage reservoir should be available to cover periods of intake
interruptions (Figure 10).
In most cases, the results of a contamination are
only known a week after doing analysis. Therefore,
there is usually an analysis reservoir or compartment situated before the storage reservoir..
Moreover, these reservoirs are also large to allow
for a long retention time. The ow velocity in a
reservoir is much slower than the ow velocity in
a river, causing the settlement of suspended solids. A dampening of concentration peaks is also

groundwater

groundwater

surface water

surface water
mixed

Figure 7 - Sites for the production of drinking water in

the Netherlands

achieved. However, because of the mere size of

the reservoirs, the processes in them are not fully
controllable. Weather and wind have a substantial
inuence on the processes.
Because of the long retention time in the reservoirs, some suspended particles settle and are
removed from the water. However, colloidal particles will not settle, because of their size and their
stability.
To remove these particles, coagulation-occulation
is necessary. Coagulation is the process of adding positively charged salts to the water (iron or
aluminum salts, Figure 11), to reduce the negative
charges of the colloidal particles and destabilize
them. Flocculation is the subsequent process
where neutralized particles collide to form larger
ocs..
After the flocs have formed, they need to be
removed. This can be done in two ways (see
Figure 12). The rst method is to let the ocs, which
have a density slightly higher than that of water,
settle to the bottom (sedimentation). The second
method is to let them collide with small air bubbles,
causing the density of the ocs decrease below
that of water, thus making them oat (otation).

Figure 8 - Origin of drinking water in the Netherlands

The removed ocs also contain heavy metals,

organic matter, and viruses.
Not all ocs are removed during sedimentation or
otation. Small ocs may remain in the water and
may be removed using rapid sand ltration.

intake
treatment
intake and treatment

Groningen

transport
Andijk
Weesperkaspel
Loenen

Berenplaat

Kralingen
Baanhoek
Brabantse Biesbosch
Zevenbergen

Braakman

Figure 9 - Direct production of drinking water from

surface water in the Netherlands

Figure 10 - The three Biesbosch reservoirs for the drinking water supply in the southwestern part of the Netherlands

In 1987 small amounts of the pesticide Bentazon

were found in the drinking water of Amsterdam, the
Netherlands. This pesticide was probably present
in the water for a long time, but because analytical capabilities to detect these micro-pollutants
were not yet well-developed, this contamination
could not be proven before then. The detection
of Bentazon in the drinking water initiated more
extensive monitoring campaigns towards the
presence of other micro-pollutants present in the
surface water.
Organic micro-pollutants (e.g pesticides) can be
removed from the water using activated carbon
ltration, which is somewhat similar to rapid ltration, but uses activated carbon grains instead of
sand. Activated carbon is able to adsorb organic
micro-pollutants. until it becomes saturated. At
that moment the activated carbon needs to be
regenerated.
Activated carbon ltration is typically used after
rapid ltration, where any remaining ocs will be

retained. The activated carbon lter is therefore

not loaded with suspended material, so it rarely
needs to be backwashed.
Surface water also contains many pathogenic
micro-organisms. These micro-organisms enter
the water through sewage - mostly treated - and
the drainage of pavements.
Disinfection, i.e, the removal or deactivation of
pathogenic micro-organisms, is partially obtained
by oc removal and rapid ltration, but this removal
is not sufcient, which requires an additional treatment step.
In the past, chlorine was applied for this purpose
but due to its harmful side effects, it is not used in
the Netherlands anymore.
Other methods of disinfection include the use of
ozonation and Ultra Violet light (UV). Ozonation
applies the strong oxidizer ozone to kill pathogenic
micro-organisms. However, the use of ozone is
also hindered by some harmful side effects.

ozone

caustic soda

ferric salt

floc aid

post-disinfection

ferric salt
pump

pump
flocculation

basin

double-layered filters
precipitation

activated carbon filters

Figure 11 - The production of drinking water from surface water with direct treatment

UV disinfection treats the water with UV radiation

inactivating pathogenic microorganisms.

back the salt water and to maintain a fresh water

barrier.

3.2.2 Surface water using soil aquifer recharge

The pre-treatment prevents the clogging of the

pipes and contamination of the inltration area.
The inltrated water comes from the major rivers
and lakes, in most cases, and needs to comply
with the requirements of the Inltration Regulation.
Therefore, the pre-treatment of recharge water can
be extensive (Figure 14).

An example of surface water using soil aquifer is

found on the Dutch dune areas
The many small lakes (Figure 13) found in those
areas, are often recharge facilities that have been
used for quite a long time to produce drinking
water.
Originally, the dunes were only fed by rainwater
and dune water was only used by the local population. After 1853, the dune water supply was
extended to Amsterdam as well. The amount of
abstracted water increased further and further.
As a consequence, some wells yielded salt water
during the 1950s.
Since that time, surface water is pre-treated before
being inltrated into the dunes, in order to push

After the water has been re-abstracted, it is posttreated, because it has become anoxic during
the soil passage and therefore contains iron,
manganese and ammonium. The post-treatment
is thus similar to the set-up of the treatment of
groundwater.
The inltration areas act as a storage system to
cover periods in which the surface water is contaminated and to reduce quality uctuations.
After the post-treatment, the water is transported to
a reservoir near the distribution area, from where
it is distributed.
Table 1 shows the total amounts of drinking water
produced from surface water through soil aquifer
recharge in The Netherlands.

4. Transport and Distribution

4.1 Transport

Figure 12 - Flocculation, with oc removal via otation

or sedimentation

In the setup, shown in Figure 1, there is a large

distance between the production plant and the
supply area, which is bridged by a transport sys-

Table 1

- Amount of inltration at Dutch drinking water

companies (VEWIN 2001)

Water balance inltration

Amount
(million m3/y)
213
219
181
38
-6

Total inltrated amount

Total abstracted amount
- abstracted from the dunes
- abstracted elsewhere
- change in storage volume

Figure 13 - Inltration area in the Dutch dunes

tem. Transport systems consist of both pipes and

pumping stations, where the necessary pressure
is provided (Figure 15).
The Dutch water companies have a total of about
500 kilometers of transport pipes which have diameters between 400 and 1,000 mm.
A transport system is designed based on the maximum daily use (measured once every ten years)
of the supply area. The pressure in the transport
system is determined by the height of the water
level in the storage reservoir and by the hydraulic
resistance.

4.2 Storage
The setup in Figure 1 shows that storage takes
place in (drinking water) reservoirs. These reservoirs are often called clear water tanks. They
achieve a dampening of the daily use uctuations,
so that production and transport can continue on a
more or less constant level. The required capacity of clear water reservoirs is roughly 25% of the
daily use (or the daily production), or the production of 6 hours.

activated carbon
filters

raw water pump

At the Dutch production sites, storage of 1,500 to

10,000 m3 of drinking water is available. Because
of supply uncertainty in the case of maintenance or
defects, this storage capacity is subdivided across
several distinct reservoirs or compartments. Clear
water reservoirs are, of course, closed to maintain
the quality of the drinking water. For the respiration of these reservoirs - when the water level
changes, air will ow in or out - special air lters
are employed.
In Figure 16 the clear water reservoirs and their
relatively large size at the Berenplaat production
plant of the Rotterdam water supply are clearly
discernible.
Water towers generally contain between 250 and
1,000 m3. These towers barely play any role in
the dampening of uctuations in use. They mainly
dampen the pressure, for short periods and in case
of a severely uctuating demand. In former days
water towers were used as water hammer vessels
for the distribution pumps. When the water level
in the tower fell, an extra distribution pump was
switched on. In this way, water towers could maintain a relatively constant pressure and could also
guarantee some minutes of delivery even after a
power failure at the distribution pumps.

4.3 Distribution network

dunes

aeration

post-disinfection

transportation pump
clear water pump

rubbish grid
fish excluding
flocculation

basin

intake
microsieve

sand filters

filtration storage

infiltration

sand filter
clear water storage

chemical dosing
sedimentation

Figure 14 - Pre-treatment, inltration and post-treatment of inltration water

10

the majority of them have a diameter between 75

and 150 mm.

Figure 15 - Pumps used for the transportation of drinking

water

From the storage reservoirs, the drinking water is

pumped into the distribution network using high
pressure pumps. Figure 17 shows an overview
of a distribution network for a water company in a
rural area. From the production site (pumping station), there are pipes going to the different villages
and hamlets, where there is a water pipe in every
street with houses.
In the Netherlands, there are over 100,000 km
of water pipes with an external diameter over 50
mm, which amounts to about 7 m per inhabitant.
The smaller branches and home connections are
not included in this pipe length. Those additions
will make the total pipe length per person about
10 - 13 m. In the distribution network, pipes may
have a diameter up to 1,800 mm (Rotterdam), but

The design criterion for a distribution network

is to maintain a supply pressure of 20 m above
ground level (200 kPa) in the farthest branches
of the network (at the home water meters). In
order to achieve this, a minimum pressure of 25
m above ground level (250 kPa) in the streets is
usually targeted. In rural areas with remotely situated clients, this might imply that during maximum
demand there should be a pressure of 60 m above
ground level at the production site. During the
night, though, a pressure of slightly over 25 m will
sufce, because during very low use the hydraulic
resistance of the network will be very small. Near
the production site, therefore, there would be large
pressure differences.
Actually, the differences will not be that great in
practice, because there seldom is a maximum
day and because the difference between the
normal demand and the maximum demand is
relatively high (Figure 18).
To keep the pressure in the distribution network
within certain boundaries, in some cases, boosters are used. These are pumps which have been
constructed in the pipe to bring the water to a
higher pressure.
In an area of variable topography, the distribution network is subdivided into different pressure
zones. This prevents a high distribution pressure
in the lower areas. When water is produced in the

Figure 16- The round and square clear water reservoirs at the Berenplaat production site (Zuid-Holland)

11

stenenkamer
teuge
twello

consumption (m3/h)

pumping station

300
250
200
150
100
50

wilp

12

18

24
time (h)

consumption on maximum day

consumption on average day

Figure 18 - Model for water consumption on an average

day and on an extreme day

voorst
klarenbeek

Figure 17 - A distribution network in a rural area

lower regions, pumping energy is also saved by

this practice.
In apartment buildings it will be impossible to have
sufcient pressure on the upper oors. Therefore,
those dwellings are equipped with booster installations which consist of pumps and a pressure tank.
The pressure tanks function as a water hammer
vessel and for pressure smoothing.
The underground distribution of drinking water
is virtually invisible. And, above ground, only the
water towers can be seen (Figures 19 and 20).
Today, water towers are no longer necessary. Speed-controlled pumps can deliver any
desired amount of water on a continuous scale.
Emergency power aggregates can provide power
within 30 seconds and water hammer vessels at
the distribution pumps have a sufcient capacity
to cover this period.

at the water meter, after which the client is the

owner of that water.
In the Netherlands there are about 6 million technical connections to the drinking water network,
of which 5.7 million are for small users. Ninety-six
percent of all connections have a meter.
Table 2 indicates the lengths of the pipes of the
Dutch water companies, per pipe material (service
pipes excluded). The total length of over 100,000
km increases some 2.5% per year, mainly because
of the development of new residential areas (new
3%; 0.5% removed). The low removal percentage
suggests a pipe lifetime of 200 years. The technical and economic lifetime of pipes is shorter, which
suggests that more pipes will need to be changed
in the future.
Formerly, cast iron was used for pipes of smaller
diameters. Nowadays, those pipes are mostly
made of plastics (PVC, PE). Because of the sustainability and costs, asbestos cement, was often
used for the middle-sized pipes. Due to the health
risks of working with asbestos cement, its use is
no longer permitted. The consequences of this
for existing pipes are currently being discussed.

4.4 Drinking water installations

Every dwelling is connected to the street water
pipe through a home connection, which is also
called a service pipe. The home connection ends

12

Before the last world war, the sanitary equipment

for social housing was limited to a kitchen tap
and a ushing toilet. Nowadays, a shower or a

bath is also deemed necessary. Even, more and

more bedrooms are equipped with washbasins.
In addition, the single tap in the kitchen or in the
garden shed has been extended by connections
for a washing machine and/or a dishwasher. The
garden tap is no longer only used for watering the
garden or cleaning the pavement, but for cleaning
the car as well. This water civilization has made
the sanitary installation quite a complex system of
pipes and installations.

Figure 20 - Water tower in Dokkum

Table 2

- Lengths and (most common) diameters of

the distribution pipes of Dutch water companies, excl. pipes with an inside diameter
<45 mm (VEWIN 2000)

Piping material
PVC
Asbestos cement
Cast iron
PE
Steel
Nodulair cast iron
Concrete
Other
Total

Length
(1000 km)
50
35
12
4
3
2
1
1
108

(%)
46
32
11
4
3
2
1
1
100

Diameter
(mm)
100 - 400
250 600
50 200
50 100
> 500
> 500
> 800
-

pump

Figure 19 - Principle of a water tower

13

5. Planning and design process for

public water supply
Extensive preparations are necessary in order to
build drinking water production plants. The government plays an important role in the planning process, as public health is one of the main concerns.
However, water companies are responsible for the
construction and operation of the infrastructure.
Usually, it takes many years from the time the
rst idea for expanding water production facilities
comes up, until the completion and start-up of
the new plant. During this period, a highly diverse
development process is carried out, involving
many different specialties, such as environmental
science, hydrology, hydraulics, structural engineering, electrical engineering, architecture, law, and
economics.
The expansion of the infrastructure for drinking
water production requires therefore a multi-disciplinary approach. A successful project requires
a lot of organization. Besides, it is necessary to
consider that the existing water supply must not
be compromised during construction works.
The planning process for a public water supply
is embedded in the general spatial planning process. The primary structure of and the hierarchy
in this process in the Netherlands are summarized
in Table 3. The planning process needs to comply with the legal framework, in which the Water
Supply Act is especially important.

Table 3

Identication

A construction project for public water supply

can be initiated by different motivations. First of
all, it is necessary to analyse which problem or
problems must be solved with the project. Typical
problems are:
- insufcient capacity due to growing demand
- decrease of production capacity due to a different source policy (i.e., reduction in groundwater
abstraction)
- economic considerations: scaling up of plants
- technical obsolescence of current installations
- new requirements regarding the treatment process (more stringent quality levels or changes in
raw water quality)
.Within the water supply plan of the company and
the multi-year investment plan, possible solutions
are drawn up and provisional decisions are made.
This is based on feasibility studies which compare
several alternatives. Technological research leads
to a general direction for the desired treatment
process. Prior to the construction process, the
following questions need to be answered:
- what, where, and what capacity needs to be
constructed?
- when should it be completed?
- what needs to be achieved?
- what are the estimated costs?
These questions are answered in several preliminary studies, like:
- feasibility studies (technological, technical,
nancial, economic, environmental impact)
- location studies (possibility of land acquisition)
- literature studies
- project comparisons by site visits

- Hierarchical planning process for the public drinking water supply in the Netherlands

Planning level
National policy plan
National section plan
Provincial plan
Regional plan
Municipal plan
Company plan

14

5.1

Name
Policy plan for drinking and industrial water supply
Ten-year plan
Provincial policy plans
Provincial management plans
Regional plans
Land use plans
Water supply plan
Multi-year investment plan
Business plan

Timeframe (years)
20 30
5 10
5 10
5 10
5 10
5 10
10 30
5 10
5

Organization
Ministry VROM
VEWIN
Province
Province
Province
Municipality
Company
Company
Company

- specialist research (hydraulics, (soil) mechanics, ergonomics, material science, control engineering, physics, chemistry, environmental
science, social aspects, etc.)
- system design studies (comparison of different
treatment methods)
During these preliminary studies, the following data
should be collected:
- existing plants (raw water source, process ow
diagram, hydraulic scheme, drawings, operating
experiences)
- surrounding area (drawings, descriptions,
measurements, photographs) concerning foundations, soil conditions, groundwater levels, wires,
pipes, roads, working areas, property rights, obligations, utility company connections, etc.
- necessary permits (provincial, municipal, water
boards, spatial planning legislation, utility companies, public services, etc.)
The nal part of the identication phase is the decision to start a new construction project.

5.2

Denition

To be able to begin a construction project, the following documents need to be drawn up::
- requirements program
- sketch design
- building scheme
Requirements program
The term requirements program is broadly used
and has many different meanings, varying from a
precise contract document to a general wish list.
It is also applied to the collection of documents in
the construction phase.
A requirements program is, preferably, limited to
the purpose and outlines of the construction project, including:
- motivation for the project
- summary of preliminary studies
- purpose of the project
- wishes and side purposes
- future developments after construction
Based on the requirements program, a sketch
design can be formulated.

Sketch design
In the sketch design, general options are considered, and the chosen one is sketched in terms of
its technical and spatial outline. A sketch design
can consist of the collection of relevant preliminary
studies and reviews, as well as a more detailed
items such as:
- treatment scheme (i.e., block diagram)
- rough hydraulic line scheme
- rough terrain arrangement
- phasing of construction
- cost estimation
A sketch design gives a good indication of the
dimensions of the construction project. It includes,
not only the construction phases but also the plan
and terrain arrangements for future expansions
. This design is important to inform all parties
involved in the projects next phases.
The building scheme can be formulated on the
basis of the sketch design.
Building scheme
The building scheme is the general project plan,
covering all aspects of the construction phase. It
contains the full project denition and consists of:
- requirements program
- sketch design
- time schedule for design, contracting and construction
- design of the project organization (task setting
between different parties involved in future studies
and construction)
- estimation of investment costs (total project
costs)
The building scheme is also important for internal decision making of the water company itself,
including considerations such as the project mandate for organizational, technical, contractual and
nancial aspects.

5.3

Design

Designing a drinking water production plant is a

creative process, inuenced by several factors,
of different importance and typically subject to
personal preferences. These differences make

15

people to conceive different results. Thus, the

design needs to be negotiated. The nal design is
a compromise between the parties involved (e.g.,
managers, economists, ecologists, PR-ofcers,
designers, builders, etc.).
During the design process, it is important that the
motivation for selecting the chosen solution is clear
to third parties as well. The large number of parties
involved necessitates an open planning so they
have insight into the progress of the design and
the effects on their own roles. A phased procedure,
including a characteristic coarse-to-ne approach
is necessary.
At the end of every design phase, a complete
image of the construction should be presented.
This will make clear not only the progress in that
phase, but also the way in which the design might
have been modied from prior phases. Often,
besides the sketch design phase, three other
design phases can be discerned:
- preliminary design
- nal design
- detailed design

Changing the design

The coarse-to-ne approach is applied due to the
need for design changeability. From identication
to start-up, the project proceeds within smaller and
smaller boundaries. This is expressed in:
- more precise estimations of costs
- more expensive design changes
- less freedom to change plans
In Table 4 some characteristic phases in the
construction process have been quantied. The
given values are indicative for a drinking water
production plant.
Design documents
During the design process, a number of documents
are prepared. It is desirable that these documents
remain up to date, so they represent reliable
images of the completed construction during later
phases (not only during construction, but during
actual operation as well). Figure 21 shows a diagram of the information ow during the construc-

16

Table 4

- Sketch of the construction process, upon

completion of the different phases

Phase
Identication
Sketch design
Preliminary design
Final design
Detailed design
Building

Accuracy Changeability
of costs
of design
50%
30%
100%
25%
40%
15%
10%
5%
2%
1%
-

Change
in costs
1%
5%
10%
25%
100%

tions life cycle. Most of the information related to

the various stages of the design is recorded in the
design documents.
Preliminary design
The preliminary design is intended to give a rough
layout of the plants elements, including their location, size of buildings and a description of any large
mechanical or electronic devices needed by the
plant during operation.
Also during this phase, the different construction
forms for the desired process will be considered,
possibly including a detailed preliminary design
of the different options. A consideration of costs,
operation, exibility, robustness, etc. makes these
details necessary.
Activities for the preliminary design include:
- processing of responses to the sketch design
- discussing the design with other stakeholders,
like government agencies, suppliers, third parties

information flow
initiative stage

life cycle
building
information flow
design stage

information flow
building stage

information flow
operation stage

Figure 21 - Design documents provide information for

the building and operation phases

- formulating process descriptions

- formulating the necessary technical design
drawings for the different operating conditions
(minimal, maximal and normal capacity) among
which are:
- process ow diagram (PFD) (including rough
balance sheets of water, energy and chemicals)
- hydraulic line scheme
- rough design of buildings (necessary space,
building height)
- calculating rough dimensions of buildings and
determining their sizes
- formulating construction drawings (oor plans,
sections, views)
- specifying main components of (civil) structure
(foundation, materials, architecture, spatial coding)
- specifying main components of mechanical
installations (capacity, number, type, material)
- specifying main components of electrical installations, instruments and control systems
- formulating rough estimates of:
- construction costs
- operation costs
- construction time
- handing out documents for approval of the
results of the preliminary design
Final design
The nal design follows directly from the preliminary design. This design is more detailed and contains construction drawings and the calculations of
those parts which were considered black boxes
during earlier phases.
Activities for the nal design consist of the following elements:
- processing responses to the preliminary design
- discussing the design with other stakeholders
like government agencies, suppliers, third partners
- calculating nal capacity and dimensions
- elaborating preliminary designs into nal construction drawings
- formulating:
- process ow diagrams (PFD) for mainstream
and secondary ows (chemicals, energy, sludge
treatment, backwash water treatment)
- hydraulic line scheme
- piping and instrument diagrams (P&ID)

- control schemes based on an automatization

master plan
- deciding on necessary space for auxiliary facilities
- preparing requisitions for technical details and
prices of necessary installations
- preparing requisitions for necessary permits
including completing necessary documents
- discussing nancial topics and contracts
- discussing the method of contracting
- estimating investment costs and completion
time
- handing out documents for approval of the nal
design
Detailed design
The detailed design focuses on the construction
part of the project. For the concrete structure, this
refers to reinforcement calculations, drawings and
nishing elements (faades, window frames, partition walls, roong, etc.).
The mechanical part of the installation is elaborated upon with respect to the pipes (support
constructions, division of pipeline parts, detailed
design of vessels and appurtenances).
The electrical installation deals with cable calculations and control board design, for example.
The control system is concerned with the design
of control and computer programs.

5.4

Contract

In almost every project, the actual building is done

by contractors and suppliers.
This makes it important, then, that the principal
be provided with the expected construction and
goods of the required quality, at the agreed upon
price, and at the pre-set time. Therefore, offers
need to be requested that can serve as future
contract documents, and later checked to determine whether the delivered item agrees with the
negotiations and what the consequences will be
for diverging from those plans.
Commonly, contracts are agreed upon with many
bidders. This is because most bidders only can
deliver within a very specic range or because
they cannot guarantee quality for the entire project.

17

Though a great variety of contracts exist, both in

type and in range, the following steps can always
be expected:
- formulating contract documents (specications)
- requesting bids
- granting bids
Due to the large number and variety of contracts
and to the necessity of monitoring all forms of
progress, a separate department is charged with
contract writing.
Specications
The specications consist of a detailed description and drawings of the plant. The goal is to give
as accurate a picture as possible of the various
parts of the plant.
The specications have the following functions:

- it is the chief source of information for describing the work to be conducted, so an accurate price
can be set
- it is one of the instruments for steering, controlling and supervising the building process
- it is part of the contract, together with a description of tasks, rights and obligations of both parties

5.5

After the project has been assigned, construction

begins. Only seldom is a structure built on a location where no disturbance of the present production takes place (Figure 22).
Because of the hygienic nature of drinking water
supply, special measures to prevent contamination of the operations production process need
to be taken.

Figure 22 - The building area is 3-6 times larger than the building

18

Construction, start-up and operation

Estimating investment costs

A surface water treatment plant of 20 million m3/y (design capacity 3,200 m3/h) consists of several processes, like those below.
Process part
Flocculation
Flotation
Filtration
Activated carbon ltration
Clear water storage
Clear water pumping station

Residence time
Surface load
Surface load
Empty bed contact time
Volume
Capacity

20 min
15 m / h
7m/h
15 min
20,000 m3
5,760 m3 / h

1,070 m3
215 m2
460 m2
800 m3

Volume
Surface
Surface
Volume of carbon

Based on these process units, the investment costs (level of policy plan or sketch design) are estimated
using the cost functions for the process units. The table below gives the result of the cost estimation.
Cost element

Costs
(million )

Construction and equipment costs for process units:

- Flocculation
- Flotation
- Filtration
- Activated carbon ltration
- Clean water storage
- Clean water pumping station
Subtotal process units

2.3
2.8
6.8
6.7
3.7
7.3
29.6

Other (non-process related) investment costs (41% of subtotal process units)

- Land costs (2% of subtotal process units)
- Other construction costs (5% of subtotal process units)
- Additional costs:
- Preparation and supervision (20% of subtotal process units)
- Financing costs (10% of subtotal process units)
- Other additional costs (4% of subtotal process units)
Total investment costs

12.1

41.7

It is always necessary to work clean during the

construction. A dirty building place will contaminate
new parts of the plant as well. At the start-up, such
contamination can be quite troublesome, making it
difcult to attain the required microbiological quality
of the drinking water being produced.

Only after it has been proved that the plant truly

produces reliable drinking water, can the water be
supplied to the distribution network.
During this introductory phase, the operators need
to become familiar with the installation.

The main tasks for the water company during

construction are:
- direction of the construction process
- supervision of the construction process
- conduction of guarantee measurements and
takeover

After the start-up, the new plant will be included

in the normal operation of the water company.
During the production period it is not uncommon
to replace whole installation components, due to
technological obsolescence.

At takeover, the water company begins the plants

operation. This includes the start-up of the production process.

The main mechanical parts are seldom replaced.

Rather, a whole new plant will be constructed.

19

5.6. Laws, permits and standards

make up a rather complex system of technical

directives and obligations.

Laws and permits

Building a production plant for drinking water supply is bound to normal legal obligations. Many of
those regulations are carried out by permit procedures. Those require the intended activity to be
specied, including the way it will comply with the
relevant legislation. After the competent authority
has approved the application, the legal requirement will have been fullled.
Typical permits for normal construction work are:
- tree cutting permit (making the area construction ready)
- building permit (for construction)
- environmental permit (for operation)
- draining permit (for discharge of drain water)
- abstraction permit for groundwater

Even when the permit does not necessitate it,

testing the design against the standards is desirable in almost any case. On the one hand, this is
because standards dene several quality levels
for the construction and, on the other hand, the
standards create a more uniform design process.
This improves the quality of the design and the
efciency of the design process.
Standards are important in regulating responsibility for the design. They also play an important
role in fostering good communication between the
different parties involved in a construction project,
as standards dene the meaning of specic concepts as well.

Standards
Many permit procedures require the design to
comply with specic standards. These standards

Estimating operational costs

A surface water treatment plant of 20 million m3/y (design capacity 3,200 m3/h) exists for several processes, like in the previous example.
The operational parameters are given below.
Process unit
Flocculation
Flotation
Filtration
Activated carbon ltration
Clear water storage
Clear water pumping station

Energy
Energy
Energy
Energy

24 Wh / m3
50 Wh / m3
12 Wh / m3
8 Wh / m3

Energy

200 Wh / m3

Dosing Fe
Suspended solids (sludge)
Suspended solids (sludge)
Regeneration

5 mg / l
20 mg / l
5 mg / l
15,000 BV

Based on this, operational costs (sketch design phase) can be estimated as given below.
Process unit

Flocculation
Flotation
Filtration
Activated carbon ltration
Clear water storage
Clear water pumping station
Total

20

Total Fixed costs Consumables

( / m3)
0.047
0.053
0.088
0.116
0.039
0.108
0.446

( / m3)
0.017
0.022
0.046
0.051
0.025
0.058
0.220

( / m3)
0.017
0.017
0.004
0.030
0.000
0.012
0.081

Maintenance
( / m3)
0.002
0.002
0.006
0.005
0.001
0.007
0.024

Specic Administrative
operational costs
costs
( / m3)
( / m3)
0.006
0.005
0.008
0.005
0.018
0.009
0.018
0.010
0.010
0.003
0.020
0.010
0.081
0.042

6. Costs

possible, which is a factor of 2 between the most

expensive and the least expensive project design.

6.1. Investment costs

Denition
The investment costs represent the total costs
of developing a project or plant. These costs are
paid during the preparation and construction of
the project until the moment that the project (e.g.,
treatment plant) is taken into operation. From that
moment on, the installation generates revenues
and the costs afterwards are considered to be
operational costs. Usually this timing corresponds
to the date the completed construction is taken
over by the principal (water company).
Investment costs can also appear during the operation period of the asset. Examples include expansion of the plant and replacement of major parts.
Table 5 shows the initial cost estimations for some
functions
Investment costs and capacity
To transfer the investment costs of a realized project to a future project, the following questions are
important to consider:
- is the treatment scheme of the projects equal?
- is the capacity of the projects equal?
- is the complexity and/or luxury level of the
projects equal?
To compare production plants with different treatment schemes, investment functions per treatment
process can be formulated. By adding the costs of
the different processes, the total investment costs
can be determined.
The complexity may differ per project. Sometimes
the building permit only allows a very restricted
building area, which means that a complex piled
up construction is needed. Therefore, the investment costs are higher.
Also, aspects like representative buildings, with
facilities for excursions, inuence construction
costs.
Because of these variations, the investment
costs differ, even when the treatment scheme
and capacity are equal. Differences of 30% are

Scale factor
Of course, the capacity of the plant determines, to
an important extent, its investment costs.
For the relation between capacity and investment
costs, cost functions can be formulated.
The relation between capacity and investment
costs are usually well described by the general
formula:
K = a * (capacity)b
where:
K = investment costs
a = costs factor ( - )
b = scale factor ( - )

(E)

In Figure 23 this relationship is given graphically

for various scale factors. In this relationship the
scale factor is the most important part.

Table 5

- Examples of investment cost functions for

initial cost estimations

Process / Process part

Production from groundwater
Production from bank ltration
Production from surface water
(direct)
Production from surface water
(soil aquifer recharge)
Groundwater abstraction
Aeration
Degasifying
Rapid sand ltration
Filter backwash water treatment
Raw water pumping
Microstrainers
Flocculation
Floc removal
(sedimentation/otation)
Rapid sand ltration
Activated carbon ltration (GAC)
Softening
Disinfection
Membrane ltration
Slow sand ltration
Clear water pumping station
Clear water storage

Cost factor
( / m3 yearly capacity)
1.5 - 3.5
2.0 - 4.0
3.0 - 5.0
4.0 - 8.0
0.10 - 0.15
0.10 - 0.15
0.20 - 0.30
0.30 - 0.55
0.05 - 0.15
0.10 - 0.15
0.05 - 0.15
0.10 - 0.25
0.5 - 0.25
0.30 - 0.55
0.50 - 0.90
0.35 - 0.60
0.05 - 0.20
1.00 - 2.00
0.70 - 1.50
0.40 - 0.70
0.20 - 0.35

21

investment costs

These costs are made during (parts of) the operation period of the installation or plant and after
completion of the construction.

4
3
2
1
0
0

4
capacity

b = 1.0

b = 0.75

b = 0.5

Figure 23 - Relationship between capacity and investment costs for different scale factors

The cost ratio of two different capacities depends

only on the scale factor:
A scale factor of 1.0 indicates that there is a linear relationship between capacity and investment
costs. This usually occurs when more of the same
elements are needed for a larger plant, like in
membrane ltration in which more of the relatively
expensive membrane elements are necessary.
An example is rapid sand lters that, due to restrictions in backwash water facilities, are usually not
larger than 30 - 50 m2.
A scale factor of 0.6 - 0.7 occurs for process parts
for which, at a larger capacity, the size of the elements increases. Reservoirs are a typical example.
When the water height of a reservoir is selected,
then with a larger volume the surface of the oor
and roof will change on a linear scale with the volume (scale factor 1.0). The surface of the walls will
change with the square root of the volume (scale
factor 0.5).
In practice the scale factor for units of water production plants will be between 0.6 and 0.9, within
the capacity range of factor 2 to 6.

6.2 Operational (exploitation) costs

The operational costs contain all costs which are
made or will be made to use an object, construction or plant.

22

The operational costs are estimated to calculate

the total cost price of the different parts of the
company. This is important for the calculation of
costs to the buyers, because there are different
rates charged, such as to large consumers, for
bulk delivery to other water supply companies, or
for rate differences per part of the distribution area.
The operational costs will also be calculated when
determining various alternatives during the preliminary studies. The operational costs will eventually
be calculated back into consumers rates.
A uniform and unambiguous concept denition is
needed to explain and justify the operational costs.
A classication is given in Table 6. In the table a
few typical cost items for drinking water supply
are included.

7. The practice of designing (Heel

example)
In the previous sections the basic elements of the
design process have been explained. In the following, the design process will be further elaborated
on using a concrete project: the construction of a
new drinking water production plant, in Heel, for
the Limburg Water Company.
The design is further discussed regarding the
phases previously described and the necessary
documents, according to the NEN/ISO 10628
Flow diagrams for process plants.
The following items will be elucidated:
- preliminary studies
- sketch design and building scheme
- preliminary design
- nal design and detailed design
- construction and start-up

Table 6

- Denition of operational costs (according to NEN 2632)

Part
1 Fixed costs

Consumables

Maintenance costs

Administrative management costs

Specic operational costs

Sub part
a1
a2
a3
a4
a5
a6
c1
c2
c3
c4
b1
c5

b2
b3
c6
c7
a7
b4
b5
b6
c8
c9
c10
a8
b7
c11

Interest
Replacement reserve (depreciation of actual building costs)
Ground rent
Owners part real estate tax
Assurance costs (re, glass, etc.)
Governmental contribution (taxes, levies, etc.)
Rent
Loss of rent
Environmental tax
Users part real estate tax
Energy costs (electricity and fuels) (maintain)
Energy costs (electricity and fuels) (use)
Water
Chemicals
Other consumables (regeneration activated carbon, seeding material, etc.)
Removal waste products
Technical maintenance (maintain)
Cleaning maintenance (maintain)
Technical maintenance (use)
Cleaning maintenance (use)
Accounting costs (property)
Accounting costs (maintain)
Rental costs
Administrative staff costs
Moving costs
Mediation costs
Accounting costs (use)
Surveillance costs (property)
Surveillance and security (maintain)
Surveillance and security (use)
Operation installations
Quality monitoring

a costs related to property ownership

b costs related to ready-to-use maintenance
c costs related to partial or complete use

7.1 Preliminary studies

Background
The water supply in Limburg fully relied on groundwater. Already in 1972, the Drinking and industrial
water supply structure scheme, suggested that for
further expansion the use of surface water would
be necessary.
In 1980, when desiccation became a political
issue, a decrease in groundwater abstraction in
Limburg was proposed. This would only be possible if the above project was completed.
Several investigations on decreasing desiccation suggested that the best solution would be
to reduce all groundwater abstraction sites in

central and north Limburg by 50% of the allowed

maximum - a maximum which was always used
or even surpassed.
In 1993 the practical implementation was started.
In 1995, the provincial government of Limburg and
the Limburg Water Company agreed to construct
the project, in combination with a decrease in
groundwater abstraction. The construction started
in 1998 and the plant started production in 2002.
Alternatives
Introducing surface water to decrease production
of drinking water from groundwater plants, could
be done in a threefold way.
In the rst case all the groundwater would be transported to Heel, mixed there with the new plants

23

production from surface water, and afterwards

distributed over all north and central Limburg. An
advantage of this is a uniform scheme and a constant water quality over the entire province (i.e.,
no local differences).
In the second case, the groundwater plants would
supply the boundary locations of the distribution
area, while the centrally located Heel site would
supply the immediate surroundings. An advantage
of this solution is that ground- and surface water
systems would remain separated.
In the third case, the water produced in Heel would
be transported to the different groundwater sites
and mixed with the locally produced water there.
These alternatives have been thoroughly compared, by investigating the consequences for the
water quality, distribution infrastructure, possibility
for phasing the project, costs, reliability, etc. Of
course, this needed several design activities. All
three possible solutions would require extensive,
extra distribution infrastructures (Figure 24).

Without describing the decision process in detail,

the nal decision was to add the surface water to
the groundwater (Figure 25).
Water supply plan
In most cases the production capacity is not
reduced drastically. Usually, the increase in the
water demand leads to new production plants or
capacity increase of current plants.
Figure 26 shows how such a demand coverage
can be monitored. The net demand is shown,
based on one of the different situations (minimum,
maximum and most probable). From those gures
and a reserve, a gross demand can be calculated.
New capacity is realized stepwise, making available a spare capacity. In a water supply plan, the
calculations are based on yearly capacities. Based
on the expected maximum peak factor, the maximum daily production can be determined.
The water supply plan describes which production
plants need to be functional and when to increase

Figure 24 - For all alternatives, a considerable pipeline infrastructure was needed

24

capacity

Venray
Breehei

over capacity

Houthuizen

reserve

Californi

Venlo
Tegelen

Helden

Reuver

gross water demand

time

net water demand

capacity

Figure 26 - Growth and coverage of water demand

Weert
Beegden
Heel

Roermond
Herten
t Reutje

Susteren

Figure 25 - Surface water treatment in Heel supplies

drinking water to the province of Limburg in
addition to the existing groundwater plants

a plants production capacity. The uncertainty in

the predictions might lead to shifting the moment
at which the additional capacity is realized.
To estimate the time when an extra facility to handle additional capacity will be required, one can
calculate backwards to determine the last possible moment to start preparations for building the
new plant.

7.2 Block diagram, site layout plan and

sketch design
Besides the required capacity, the treatment
process needs to be decided upon as well. The
following research methods are used to come to
this decision:
- evaluation of current experience
- investigation of new treatment techniques
- pilot research (semi-technical scale)
- full-scale research (temporary production plant)

Time and means do not always allow the use of

all those methods. This increases the uncertainty
of the process design and of the entire operation.
In the plant this can be compensated for by
increasing exibility and safety in the design (larger
buildings or increased possibilities for expansion)
and in the operation (increased control options,
increased doses). Either of these will increase the
investment costs and complicate the operation.
The start-up can take longer as well, because
operators might not be familiar, or are less familiar,
with the chosen treatment process.
Block diagram (treatment scheme)
The treatment process in this phase is represented
as a block diagram (ISO 10628), which can also
be used for treatment plants or other units.
The block diagram consists of named rectangular
blocks, connected to each other by streamlines
and it includes
the names of in- and out-owing mass and energy
ows (for the block diagram as a whole), as well
as the
directions of the main streams between the blocks.
Also, a block diagram may contain additional
information, like the names of the ows between
the blocks, the amounts of in- and out-owing
mass and energy ows, the amounts of the most
important ows between the blocks, and the typical process conditions. A limited block diagram is
shown in Figure 27.

25

- clean water reservoirs with high pressure

pumping station
- treatment plant
- sludge and backwash water treatment units
- energy supply (including emergency power)
- additional services (e.g., workshops)
- main roads and transport routes
- space for future expansion
When formulating the site layout plan, the building boundaries are either not important or not yet
known. Generally, the spatial demand per process
part can be determined. The spatial demand of
most processes (i.e., ltration, occulation, sedimentation, etc.) is about 2 to 3 times as much as
the actual area necessary for the process. This is
because of necessary pipe galleries and control
rooms. Besides, during construction a large space
around the building is required.
Finally, it is desirable to consider future developments and replacements. For a replacement, the
new construction should be nished before an old
construction is demolished, to maintain continuity
in the supply of drinking water. Figure 29 gives
an artistic impression of the Heel production site.

Abstraction

Aeration
ration

Filtration
ration

Activated carbon filtration

UV-disinfection
infect

ter storage
stor
Clear water
Figure 27 - Global setup of the treatment scheme

In addition to the block diagram, a more visual

representation of the treatment process can
be drawn. Mostly, this is a rough section of the
process, including the most important pumping
phases. Figure 28 shows an example.

Sketch design
In addition to the documents named above, formulating some very rough design drawings to present
the intended construction to third parties may be
desirable. Usually, a single oor plan and one or
two sections will sufce.

Site layout plan

When the capacity and the treatment processes
are roughly known, a provisional site layout plan
can be drawn. This plan especially aims at the
zoning of the plant area and at the related orientation of the buildings. Site layout plans are usually
drawn at a scale of either 1:500 or 1:1000.

The sketch design names the projected structures

and their dimensions. The building scheme is
formulated based on this design, including plans
for the construction work (Figure 30). One should

Typical zones within a site layout plan are:

abstraction
well
basin

aeration

pumping station 1

rapid filter
activated carbon filter
clear water storage

pump
UV-disinfection
pump

Figure 28 - Visual presentation of the treatment process

26

pumping station 2

Figure 29 - Artistic impression of the Heel production

site

keep in mind that this kind of planning tends to

fail, for example, because of lagging permit procedures.
During preparation for the Heel production plant, it
became clear that the gravel suppliers needed an
extra year to develop the gravel pit and the adjacent shores. Partly because of this extra preparation time, it was possible to raise the operational
level of the reservoir, which increased the groundwater level in the area and, thereby, reduced the
environmental impact. The environmental impact
was quantied as a part of the Environmental
Impact Assessment procedure (EIA).

Hydraulic line scheme

The hydraulic line scheme is a typical design document for water treatment plants. Because of using
open tanks, canals and processes with a free water
surface (i.e., cascades), the water level in the processes becomes quite important, especially when
an energy and cost-saving is desired. There are no
national standards for the hydraulic line scheme.
Basically, the hydraulic line scheme is a vertical
section of the building, presenting the building
elements schematically, and the relevant heights
on an exact scale (Figure 31). In addition, ground
level, roof height, passage height, and other relevant data are indicated.
During the design process, this scheme is rened
and other levels (e.g., emergency overow) are
indicated.
Hydraulics plays a very important role in the design
of a drinking water production plant. One reason
for this is that the water will be divided over several
parallel units more than once. Basically, a hydraulic
division is used here, because of the robustness
of hydraulic control compared to mechanical or
electrical control systems (Figure 32). A hydraulic
control system is often used to compensate for
the increased lter resistance during the process.
Process ow diagram (PFD)
A further elaboration of the treatment process can
be represented as a process ow diagram (PFD)
(ISO 10628).

7.3 Preliminary design

The most important design documents in the preliminary design phase are:
- hydraulic line scheme
- process ow diagram
- design drawings

1998

1999

2000

execution
start drilling
well field

start execution
production plant

A PFD indicates installations, by means of standardized symbols, and the ow of mass and energy
between them. At a minimum, it consists of the
following blocks:
- type of equipment necessary for the process
- coding of the installation

2001

testing

start building
intake work
and pipeline

delivery

2002

start-up
start production

Figure 30 - Actual timeframe for construction of Heel production plant

27

pre-filtration

cascade
34.00+

pre-filtration
buffer
25.7+ (max)
25.3+ (min)

31.5+
32.00+

28.6+ (max)
28.3+ (min)

30.00+

28.2+

(max)

27.1+

(min)

activated
carbon filter

clear water
UVstorage
disinfection
30.8+ (max)
30.5+ (min)
26.5+ (max)
25.8+ (min)

28.00+
26.00+

field level
24.00+

groundwater level

22.00+

Figure 31 - Hydraulic line scheme

- direction and route of in- and outowing mass

and energy
- labelling and quantifying of in- and outowing
masses
- labelling and quantifying of in- and outowing
energy ows
- typical process conditions
Additional information can be included, such as
the magnitudes of ows and amounts between
process steps, major valves, functional indication
of instrument and control systems in a specied
position, additional process conditions, names of
characteristic installation data, names and characteristic data of propulsion systems, and the elevation levels of terraces and installations.
For the design of a drinking water production plant,
it is only useful to formulate a PFD in addition to
the hydraulic line scheme when all parallel process

parts are presented separately. This makes the

diagram correspond to the much used main water
ow diagram (Figure 33).
This specication is desirable so that the PFD can
be used to determine the different hydraulic loads
of units and piping, both in normal and in special
circumstances. For normal conditions one can
describe the different process conditions with the
diagram (e.g., lter during backwash, etc.). The
extraordinary conditions determine the dimensions
of the parts. In this way, the PFD is the basis for the
detailed hydraulic calculations and the functional
description of the control and operating system.
Design drawings
Design drawings represent the physical reality.
During the preliminary design phase, especially the
dimensions of the process units and the different
rooms will be decided.
More and more, these drawings are made by 3D
design systems (Figures 34 and 35).

division flow over streets

FIC

1/4 Q

1/4 Q
FIC

1/4 Q
1/4 Q

FIC

1/4 Q
1/4 Q

FIC

1/4 Q

1/4 Q

filter regulation (compensation the increase of the pressure drop):

Figure 32 - Hydraulic solutions are easier and more

robust

28

Structural aspects
During the preliminary design phase, the dimensions of the structural elements cannot be determined accurately yet because the loads are only
approximated. Nevertheless, it has proven feasible
to make some realistic assumptions instead. For
concrete constructions, the oor and wall sizes are
mostly estimated at 0.4-0.6 m.

activated carbon filters

UV-units

aeration

clear water storage

circulation

transport pumps/
rinse water pumps
clear water

UV
1

clear water

UV
2

UV

pre-filtrate

UV
4

rinse water

UV
pre-filtrate

5
UV
5

6
UV

7
UV

Figure 33 - A part of the process ow diagram (Main water ow diagram)

Architecture
Adjustment of the design because of architectural
considerations may be desirable. Therefore, it
is useful to indicate the functional relationships
between the different components. This will give
a better indication to the architect of the degrees
of freedom and of the consequences of breaking
them (Figures 36 and 37).

7.4 Final design and detailed design

During the nal design and detailed design phases,
many more design documents are still formulated.

Figure 34 - Design of building

Here, only the piping and instrument diagram is

considered.
Piping and instrument diagram (P&ID)
The piping and instrument diagram (P&ID) (ISO
10628) indicates the technical construction of a
process through standardized symbols for installations, pipes, instruments and control systems.
The minimum information in such diagram includes
the following:
- function or type of apparatus, including drives
and installed spare parts

Figure 35 - Design cascade aeration

29

Figure 36- Architectural design drawings

- identication number of apparatus including

drives and installed spare parts
- characteristic data of apparatus (on a separate
list)
- identication of nominal diameter, pressure
class, piping material and classication
- details of installations, pipes, gauges and junctions
- process measurement installations and control
systems with identication
- characteristic data of drivers

Figure 37 - An architects scale model

30

7.5 Construction and start-up

Even during the construction phase, several
design activities are performed. These may include
a further detailed elaboration of the design (i.e.,
form and reinforcement drawings) or temporary
constructions (dam walls, concrete molds).

31