Membrane

Structure and
Function
Chapter Concepts
4.1 Plasma Membrane Structure and Function
The plasma membrane regulates the passage of
molecules into and out of the cell. 68
The membrane contains lipids and proteins. Each
protein has a specific function. 70

4.2 The Permeability of the Plasma Membrane

Some substances, particularly small, noncharged
molecules, pass freely across the plasma
membrane. Ions and other types of molecules
need assistance to cross the membrane. 72

4.3 Diffusion and Osmosis

Molecules spontaneously diffuse (move from an
area of higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration), and some can diffuse across a
plasma membrane. 73
Water diffuses across the plasma membrane, and
this can affect cell size and shape. 74

4.4 Transport by Carrier Proteins

Carrier proteins assist the transport of some ions
and molecules across the plasma membrane. 76

4.5 Exocytosis and Endocytosis

Vesicle formation takes other substances
into the cell, and vesicle fusion with the plasma
membrane discharges substances from the
cell. 78

A single cell about to be pierced by a fine probe so that DNA can

be removed by the suction tube on the bottom. An intact plasma
membrane is necessary to the life of any cell and if it is ruptured
the cell cannot continue to exist.

67

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Cell Biology

anners flying on a castle wall mark off the community

within from the surrounding countryside. Inside, residents go about their appointed tasks for the good of
the community. Commands passed along from royalty to
knights to workers are obeyed by all. The almost impenetrable wall prevents the enemy without from entering and disturbing the peace within. Only certain small creatures can
pass through the open slitlike windows, and the drawbridge
must be lowered for most needed supplies.
The plasma membrane, which carries markers identifying it as belonging to the individual, can be likened to the castle wall. Under the command of the nucleus, the organelles
carry out their specific functions and contribute to the working of the cell as a whole. Very few molecules can freely cross
the membrane, and most nutrients must be transported
across by special carriers. The cell uses these nutrients as a
source of building blocks and energy to maintain the cell. The
operations of the cell will continue only as long as the plasma
membrane selectively permits specific materials to enter and
leave and prevents the passage of others.

4.1

Plasma Membrane Structure and

Function
The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer in which
protein molecules are either partially or wholly embedded
(Fig. 4.1). The phospholipid bilayer has a fluid consistency,
comparable to that of light oil. The proteins are scattered
throughout the membrane; therefore they form a mosaic pattern. This description of the plasma membrane is called the
fluid-mosaic model of membrane structure.
Phospholipids spontaneously arrange themselves into
a bilayer. The hydrophilic (water loving) polar heads of
the phospholipid molecules face the outside and inside of
the cell where water is found, and the hydrophobic (water
fearing) nonpolar tails face each other (Fig. 4.1). In
addition to phospholipids, there are two other types of
lipids in the plasma membrane. Glycolipids have a structure similar to phospholipids except that the hydrophilic
head is a variety of sugars joined to form a straight or

Outside cell

glycolipid

hydrophilic
heads

carbohydrate
chain

glycoprotein

hydrophobic
tails

hydrophilic
heads

phospholipid
bilayer

integral
protein

cholesterol

peripheral
protein

plasma
membrane

Inside cell
filaments of
the cytoskeleton

Figure 4.1

Fluid-mosaic model of plasma membrane structure.

The membrane is composed of a phospholipid bilayer in which proteins are embedded. The hydrophilic heads of phospholipids are a part of the
outside surface and the inside surface of the membrane. The hydrophobic tails make up the interior of the membrane. Note the plasma
membranes asymmetrycarbohydrate chains are attached to the outside surface and cytoskeleton filaments are attached to the inside surface.

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Chapter 4

branching carbohydrate chain. Cholesterol is a lipid that is

found in animal plasma membranes; related steroids are
found in the plasma membrane of plants. Cholesterol reduces the permeability of the membrane to most biological
molecules.
The proteins in a membrane may be peripheral proteins
or integral proteins. Peripheral proteins occur either on the
outside or the inside surface of the membrane. Some of these
are anchored to the membrane by covalent bonding. Still
others are held in place by noncovalent interactions that can
be disrupted by gentle shaking or by change in the pH.
Integral proteins are found within the membrane and
have hydrophobic regions embedded within the membrane
and hydrophilic regions that project from both surfaces of
the bilayer:

hydrophobic
region

Membrane Structure and Function

69

move through the hydrophobic center of the membrane.)

The fluidity of a phospholipid bilayer means that cells are
pliable. Imagine if they were notthe long nerve fibers in
your neck would crack whenever you nodded your head!
Although some proteins are often held in place by cytoskeletal filaments, in general proteins are free to drift laterally in the fluid lipid bilayer. This has been demonstrated
by fusing mouse and human cells, and watching the movement of tagged proteins (Fig. 4.2). Forty minutes after fusion, the proteins are completely mixed. The fluidity of the
membrane is needed for the functioning of some proteins
such as enzymes which become inactive when the membrane solidifies.
The fluidity of the membrane, which is dependent
on its lipid components, is critical to the proper
functioning of the membranes proteins.

hydrophilic
regions

mouse cell

Many integral proteins are glycoproteins, which have

an attached carbohydrate chain. As with glycolipids, the
carbohydrate chain of sugars projects externally. Therefore it can be said that the plasma membrane is sugarcoated.
The plasma membrane is asymmetrical: the two halves
are not identical. The carbohydrate chains of the glycolipids and proteins occur only on the outside surface and
the cytoskeletal filaments attach to proteins only on the inside
surface.

cell

human cell

fusion

immediately after fusion

The plasma membrane consists of a phospholipid

bilayer. Peripheral proteins are found on the
outside and inside surface of the membrane.
Integral proteins span the lipid bilayer and often
have attached carbohydrate chains.

The Fluidity of the Plasma Membrane

At body temperature, the phospholipid bilayer of the

plasma membrane has the consistency of olive oil. The
greater the concentration of unsaturated fatty acid
residues, the more fluid is the bilayer. In each monolayer,
the hydrocarbon tails wiggle, and the entire phospholipid
molecule can move sideways at a rate averaging about
2 mthe length of a prokaryotic cellper second. (Phospholipid molecules rarely flip-flop from one layer to the
other, because this would require the hydrophilic head to

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mixed membrane proteins

Figure 4.2

Experiment to demonstrate lateral drifting of

plasma membrane proteins.

After human and mouse cells fuse, the plasma membrane proteins of
the mouse (blue circles) and of the human cell (red circles) mix within
a short time.

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Cell Biology

The Mosaic Quality of the Membrane

The plasma membranes of various cells and the membranes
of various organelles each have their own unique collections
of proteins. The proteins form different patterns according
to the particular membrane and also within the same membrane at different times. When you consider that the plasma
membrane of a red blood cell contains over 50 different
types of proteins, you can see why the membrane is said to
be a mosaic.
The integral proteins largely determine a membranes
specific functions. As we will discuss in more detail, certain
plasma membrane proteins are involved in the passage of
molecules through the membrane. Some of these are channel proteins through which a substance can simply move
across the membrane; others are carrier proteins that combine with a substance and help it to move across the membrane. Still others are receptors; each type of receptor
protein has a shape that allows a specific molecule to bind to
it. The binding of a molecule, such as a hormone (or other
signal molecule), can cause the protein to change its shape
and bring about a cellular response. Some plasma membrane proteins are enzymatic proteins that carry out metabolic reactions directly. The peripheral proteins associated
with the membrane often have a structural role in that they
help stabilize and shape the plasma membrane.
Figure 4.3 depicts the various functions of membrane
proteins.

Channel Protein
Allows a particular molecule or ion to cross the
plasma membrane freely. Cystic fibrosis, an
inherited disorder, is caused by a faulty chloride
(Cl ) channel; a thick mucus collects in airways
and in pancreatic and liver ducts.

Carrier Protein
Selectively interacts with a specific molecule
or ion so that it can cross the plasma
membrane. The inability of some persons
to use energy for sodium-potassium
(Na+K+) transport has been suggested as
the cause of their obesity.

Cell Recognition Protein

The MHC (major histocompatibility complex)
glycoproteins are different for each person, so
organ transplants are difficult to achieve. Cells
with foreign MHC glycoproteins are attacked
by blood cells responsible for immunity.

The mosaic pattern of a membrane is dependent

on the proteins, which vary in structure and function.

CellCell Recognition

The carbohydrate chains of glycolipids and glycoproteins

serve as the fingerprints of the cell. The possible diversity
of the chain is enormous; it can vary by the number of sugars (15 is usual, but there can be several hundred), by
whether the chain is branched, and by the sequence of the
particular sugars.
Glycolipids and glycoproteins vary from species to
species, from individual to individual of the same species,
and even from cell to cell in the same individual. Therefore,
they make cellcell recognition possible. Researchers working with mouse embryos have shown that as development
proceeds, the different type cells of the embryo develop their
own carbohydrate chains and that these chains allow the tissues and cells of the embryo to sort themselves out.
As you probably know, transplanted tissues are often rejected by the body. This is because the immune system is
able to recognize that the foreign tissues cells do not have
the same glycolipids and glycoproteins as the rest of the
bodys cells. We also now know that a persons particular
blood type is due to the presence of particular glycoproteins
in the membrane of red blood cells.

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Receptor Protein
Is shaped in such a way that a specific molecule
can bind to it. Pygmies are short, not because
they do not produce enough growth hormone,
but because their plasma membrane growth
hormone receptors are faulty and cannot
interact with growth hormone.

Enzymatic Protein
Catalyzes a specific reaction. The membrane
protein, adenylate cyclase, is involved in ATP
metabolism. Cholera bacteria release a toxin
that interferes with the proper functioning of
adenylate cyclase; sodium ions and water leave
intestinal cells and the individual dies from
severe diarrhea.

Figure 4.3

Membrane protein diversity.

These are some of the functions performed by proteins found in the

plasma membrane.

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The Growing Field of Tissue Engineering

Tissue culture, the growing of animal cells in laboratory glass-

blood to clot.
Certain organs produce chemicals that are needed by other
ware, has been done for quite some time, but researchers alcells. Diabetes mellitus occurs when the pancreas is no longer
ways used cancer cells that divide without coaxing. Now
producing insulin, a molecule that causes all cells to take up
researchers have learned how to grow all sorts of human cells
glucose and the liver to store glucose as glycogen. Tissue engiin tissue culture and have hopes that they can even make the
neering can possibly come to the rescue. Insulin-producing panneed for organ transplantation obsolete. Organ transplantation
creatic cells from a pig can be grown in the laboratory. The cells
encounters two hurdles that are hard to overcome: (1) there is
are encased in plastic capsules called microreactors, because rean overwhelming need, but few human organs are available to
actors are typically large vats where chemicals are produced
be transplanted; and (2) immunosuppressive drugs must be ad(Fig. 4A). These capsules are so small they can be placed into the
ministered even if the organs are carefully matched to the
abdomen where they will float freely and produce insulin as
recipient, because the body tends to reject foreign organs. To
needed. The membrane of the capsule contains pores that are
address these problems, some researchers have turned to pigs
large enough to allow oxygen and nutrients to flow in and
as a source of organs for humans. Through genetic engineering,
wastes and insulin to flow out by diffusion. But the membrane
they have crippled the enzymes that produce plasma memof a microreactor will prevent immune cells from coming into
brane carbohydrate chains on pig cells; therefore, the human
contact with the enclosed pancreatic cells. Unless immune cells
body is unable to recognize a pig organ as being foreign. Pigs
actually come in contact with transplanted cells, they cannot
carry viruses such as the one that causes swine flu, but pig
recognize them as foreign and destroy them. Researchers are
viruses are not expected to cause infections in humans. Thereeven busily growing implantable liver tissue. They use a spongy
fore, it is predicted that pig-to-human transplants will someday
material that can be seeded with the patients own liver cells.
be safely done.
Human embryonic cells are grown in tissue culture, and if
Tissue engineering offers another possible solution to the
differentiation can one day be achieved, it may be possible to
transplant problem. Tissue engineering is an endeavor that prosupply Alzheimer patients with nerve cells, and cardiac paduces manufactured bioproducts that can replace normal structients with heart cells, and so forth.
tures in the body. Integra is an artificial skin that consists of a
porous matrix made of the protein collagen and a derivative of
shark cartilage. This product, which is available in unlimited quantity, will not cause an immune reaction. Integra is
used to cover extensive burns. Once the bottom layer of
skin (the dermis) regrows, a graft of the patients own
outer layer of skin (the epidermis) replaces the artificial
matrix.
Researchers have also had success growing human
cartilage for knee operations. In one study, 23 patients
who were experiencing pain because of a lack of cartilage
received a batch of their own chondrocytes (cartilage
cells) grown in the laboratory. All patients reported that
they were doing much better following the procedure.
Other procedures have also been tried. It is possible to
grow tissues to bolster weak ureters that take urine back
to the kidneys instead of to the bladder where it belongs.
And artificial tissue can be stitched into a bladder to increase its capacity. If research continues to be successful,
nearly every human tissue is expected to undergo tissue
engineering. Several groups are working on methods to
reconstruct breast tissue after mastectomy so that one
day women may have an alternative to silicone breast Figure 4A Microreactors.
implants. Epithelial-lined plastic blood vessels are being Microreactors filled with insulin-producing pancreatic cells from pigs
developed because the walls of plastic blood vessels now flourished for 10 weeks in a diabetic mouse without immune systemused to replace weakened arteries sometimes cause the suppressing drugs.

71

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Cell Biology

Active
Transport
Means

Passive
Transport
Means

Table 4.1 Passage of Molecules into and out of Cells

Name

Direction

Requirement

Examples

DIFFUSION

Toward lower
concentration

Concentration
gradient only

Lipid-soluble molecules,
water, and gases

FACILITATED TRANSPORT

Toward lower
concentration

Carrier and
concentration gradient

Some sugars and

amino acids

ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Toward greater
concentration

Carrier plus cellular

energy

Other sugars, amino acids,

and ions

EXOCYTOSIS

Toward outside

Vesicle fuses with

plasma membrane

Macromolecules

Phagocytosis

Toward inside

Vacuole formation

Cells and subcellular material

Pinocytosis
(includes receptormediated endocytosis)

Toward inside

Vesicle formation

Macromolecules

ENDOCYTOSIS

4.2

The Permeability of the Plasma

Membrane
The plasma membrane is differentially (selectively) permeable. Some substances can move across the membrane and
some cannot (Fig. 4.4). Macromolecules cannot diffuse across
the membrane because they are too large. Ions and charged
molecules cannot cross the membrane because they are unable to enter the hydrophobic phase of the lipid bilayer.
Noncharged molecules such as alcohols and oxygen are
lipid-soluble and therefore can cross the membrane with
ease. They are able to slip between the hydrophilic heads of
the phospholipids and pass through the hydrophobic tails of

noncharged molecule
H2O
charged
molecules
and ions

macromolecule

plasma
membrane

Figure 4.4

How molecules cross the plasma membrane.

The curved arrows indicate that these substances cannot cross the
plasma membrane and the back and forth arrows indicate that these
substances can cross the plasma membrane.

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the membrane. Small polar molecules such as carbon dioxide and water also have no difficulty crossing through the
membrane. These molecules follow their concentration
gradient which is a gradual decrease in concentration over
distance. To take an example, oxygen is more concentrated
outside the cell than inside the cell because a cell uses
oxygen during aerobic cellular respiration. Therefore oxygen follows its concentration gradient as it enters a cell. Carbon dioxide, on the other hand, which is produced when a
cell carries on cellular respiration, is more concentrated
inside the cell than outside the cell, and therefore it moves
down its concentration gradient as it exits a cell.
Special means are sometimes used to get ions and
charged molecules into and out of cells. Macromolecules can
cross a membrane when they are taken in or out by vesicle
formation (Table 4.1). Ions and molecules like amino acids
and sugars are assisted across by one of two classes of transport proteins. Carrier proteins combine with an ion or molecule before transporting it across the membrane. Channel
proteins form a channel that allows an ion or charged molecule to pass through. Our discussion in this chapter is
largely restricted to carrier proteins. Carrier proteins are
specific for the substances they transport across the plasma
membrane.
Ways of crossing a plasma membrane are classified as
passive or active (Table 4.1). Passive ways, which do not use
chemical energy, involve diffusion or facilitated transport.
These passive ways depend on the motion energy of ions
and molecules. Active ways, which do require chemical energy, include active transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis.
The plasma membrane is differentially permeable.
Certain substances can freely pass through the
membrane and others must be transported across
either by carrier proteins or by vacuole formation.

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Chapter 4

73

Membrane Structure and Function

water
molecules
(solvent)
dye
molecules
(solute)

a. Crystal of
dye is placed
in water

Figure 4.5

b. Diffusion of
water and dye
molecules

c. Equal distribution
of molecules
results

Process of diffusion.

Diffusion is spontaneous, and no chemical energy is required to bring it about. a. When dye crystals are placed in water, they are concentrated in
one area. b. The dye dissolves in the water, and there is a net movement of dye molecules from higher to lower concentration. There is also a net
movement of water molecules from a higher to a lower concentration. c. Eventually, the water and the dye molecules are equally distributed
throughout the container.

4.3

Diffusion and Osmosis

Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a higher to a

lower concentrationthat is, down their concentration
gradientuntil equilibrium is achieved and they are distributed equally. Diffusion is a physical process that can be
observed with any type of molecule. For example, when a
crystal of dye is placed in water (Fig. 4.5), the dye and water molecules move in various directions, but their net
movement, which is the sum of their motion, is toward the
region of lower concentration. Therefore, the dye is eventually dissolved in the water, resulting in a colored solution. A solution contains both a solute, usually a solid, and
a solvent, usually a liquid. In this case, the solute is the dye
and the solvent is the water molecules. Once the solute and
solvent are evenly distributed, they continue to move
about, but there is no net movement of either one in any
direction.
As discussed, the chemical and physical properties of
the plasma membrane allow only a few types of molecules
to enter and exit a cell simply by diffusion. Gases can diffuse
through the lipid bilayer; this is the mechanism by which
oxygen enters cells and carbon dioxide exits cells. Also, consider the movement of oxygen from the alveoli (air sacs) of
the lungs to blood in the lung capillaries (Fig. 4.6). After inhalation (breathing in), the concentration of oxygen in the
alveoli is higher than that in the blood; therefore, oxygen diffuses into the blood. The principle of diffusion can be employed in the treatment of certain human disorders, as is
discussed in the Science Focus on page 71.

alveoli

capillary
oxygen

Figure 4.6

Gas exchange in lungs.

Oxygen (O2) diffuses into the capillaries of the lungs because there is
a higher concentration of oxygen in the alveoli (air sacs) than in the
capillaries.

Molecules diffuse down their concentration

gradients. A few types of small molecules can
simply diffuse through the plasma membrane.

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Cell Biology

less water
(higher
percentage
of solute)

solution rises
due to movement
of water toward
lower percentage
of solute

net movement of water

to inside of thistle tube
solute

water

more water
(lower
percentage
of solute)

10%

<10%

5%

> 5%

a.

c.

differentially permeable membrane

Figure 4.7

b.

Osmosis demonstration.

(Far left) A thistle tube, covered at the broad end by a differentially permeable membrane, contains a 10% sugar solution. The beaker contains a
5% sugar solution. (Middle) The solute (green circles) is unable to pass through the membrane, but the water (blue circles) passes through in
both directions. There is a net movement of water toward the inside of the thistle tube, where there is a lower percentage of water molecules.
(Far right) Due to the incoming water molecules, the level of the solution rises in the thistle tube.

Osmosis
Osmosis is the diffusion of water into and out of cells. To illustrate osmosis, a thistle tube containing a 10% sugar solution1 is covered at one end by a differentially permeable
membrane and is then placed in a beaker containing a 5%
sugar solution (Fig. 4.7). The beaker contains more water
molecules (lower percentage of solute) per volume, and the
thistle tube contains fewer water molecules (higher percentage of solute) per volume. Under these conditions, there is a
net movement of water from the beaker to the inside of the
thistle tube across the membrane. The solute is unable to
pass through the membrane; therefore, the level of the solution within the thistle tube rises (Fig. 4.7c).
Notice the following in this illustration of osmosis:
1. A differentially permeable membrane separates two
solutions. The membrane does not permit passage of
the solute.
2. The beaker has more water (lower percentage of
solute), and the thistle tube has less water (higher
percentage of solute).
3. The membrane permits passage of water, and there is a
net movement of water from the beaker to the inside of
the thistle tube.
4. In the end, the concentration of solute in the thistle
tube is less than 10%. Why? Because there is now less
solute per volume. And the concentration of solute in
the beaker is greater than 5%. Why? Because there is
now more solute per volume.

Water enters the thistle tube due to the osmotic pressure

of the solution within the thistle tube. Osmotic pressure is
the pressure that develops in a system due to osmosis2. In

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other words, the greater the possible osmotic pressure the

more likely water will diffuse in that direction. Due to
osmotic pressure, water is absorbed from the human large
intestine, is retained by the kidneys, and is taken up by
capillaries from tissue fluid.

Tonicity
Tonicity refers to the strength of a solution in relationship to
osmosis. In the laboratory, cells are normally placed in isotonic solutions; that is, the solute concentration is the same
on both sides of the membrane, and therefore there is no net
gain or loss of water (Fig. 4.8). The prefix iso means the same
as, and the term tonicity refers to the strength of the solution.
A 0.9% solution of the salt sodium chloride (NaCl) is known
to be isotonic to red blood cells. Therefore, intravenous solutions medically administered usually have this tonicity.
Solutions that cause cells to swell, or even to burst, due to
an intake of water are said to be hypotonic solutions. The
prefix hypo means less than, and refers to a solution with a
lower percentage of solute (more water) than the cell. If a cell
is placed in a hypotonic solution, water enters the cell; the net
movement of water is from the outside to the inside of the cell.
Any concentration of a salt solution lower than 0.9% is
hypotonic to red blood cells. Animal cells placed in such a
solution expand and sometimes burst due to the buildup of
pressure. The term lysis is used to refer to disrupted cells; hemolysis, then, is disrupted red blood cells.
1

Percent solutions are grams of solute per 100 ml of solvent. Therefore, a 10%
solution is 10 g of sugar with water added to make up 100 ml of solution.

Osmotic pressure is measured by placing a solution in an osmometer and then

immersing the osmometer in pure water. The pressure that develops is the osmotic
pressure of a solution.

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Chapter 4

Membrane Structure and Function

75

plasma
membrane

Animal
Cells

Under isotonic
conditions, there is no net
movement of water.

In a hypotonic environment,
water enters the cell, which
may burst (lysis).

cell
wall

nucleus

Plant
Cells

In a hypertonic environment,
water leaves the cell, which
shrivels (crenation).

plasma membrane

chloroplast

Under isotonic conditions,

there is no net movement of
water.

Figure 4.8

In a hypotonic environment,
vacuoles fill with water, turgor
pressure develops, and
chloroplasts are seen next to the
cell wall.

In a hypertonic environment,
vacuoles lose water, the
cytoplasm shrinks (plasmolysis),
and chloroplasts are seen in the
center of the cell.

Osmosis in animal and plant cells.

The arrows indicate the net movement of water. In an isotonic solution, a cell neither gains nor loses water; in a hypotonic solution, a cell gains
water; and in a hypertonic solution, a cell loses water.

The swelling of a plant cell in a hypotonic solution creates turgor pressure. When a plant cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, we observe expansion of the cytoplasm
because the large central vacuole gains water and the plasma
membrane pushes against the rigid cell wall. The plant cell
does not burst because the cell wall does not give way. Turgor pressure in plant cells is extremely important to the
maintenance of the plants erect position. If you forget to water your plants they wilt due to decreased turgor pressure.
Solutions that cause cells to shrink or to shrivel due to a
loss of water are said to be hypertonic solutions. The prefix
hyper means more than, and refers to a solution with a
higher percentage of solute (less water) than the cell. If a cell
is placed in a hypertonic solution, water leaves the cell; the
net movement of water is from the inside to the outside of
the cell.
Any solution with a concentration higher than 0.9%
sodium chloride is hypertonic to red blood cells. If animal

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cells are placed in this solution, they shrink. The term crenation refers to red blood cells in this condition. Meats are
sometimes preserved by salting them. The bacteria are not
killed by the salt but by the lack of water in the meat.
When a plant cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, the
plasma membrane pulls away from the cell wall as the
large central vacuole loses water. This is an example of
plasmolysis, a shrinking of the cytoplasm due to osmosis.
Dead plants you see along a salted roadside after the
winter died because they were exposed to a hypertonic
solution.

In an isotonic solution, a cell neither gains nor

loses water. In a hypotonic solution, a cell gains
water. In a hypertonic solution, a cell loses water
and the cytoplasm shrinks.

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Cell Biology

Outside

Inside

carrier

Outside

carrier

protein

Inside

protein

2
2
ene

3
Membrane

Figure 4.9

rgy

Membrane

Figure 4.10 Active transport.

Facilitated transport.

A carrier protein speeds the rate at which a solute crosses a membrane

from higher solute concentration to lower solute concentration.
(1) Molecule enters carrier. (2) Molecule is transported across the
membrane and exits on inside. (3) Carrier returns to its former state.

Active transport allows a solute to cross the membrane from lower

solute concentration to higher solute concentration. (1) Molecule enters
carrier. (2) Chemical energy of ATP is needed to transport the molecule
which exits inside of cell. (3) Carrier returns to its former state.

4.4

proteins are specific. For example, various sugar molecules

of identical size might be present inside or outside the cell,
but glucose can cross the membrane hundreds of times
faster than the other sugars. This is a good example of the
differential permeability of the membrane.
The carrier for glucose has been isolated and a model
has been developed to explain how it works (Fig. 4.9). It
seems likely that the carrier has two conformations and that
it switches back and forth between the two states. After glucose binds to the open end of a carrier, it closes behind the
glucose molecule. As glucose moves along, the constricted
end of the carrier opens in front of the molecule. After glucose is released into the cytoplasm of the cell, the carrier
changes its conformation so that the binding site for glucose
is again open. This process can occur as often as 100 times
per second. Apparently, the cell has a pool of extra glucose
carriers. When the hormone insulin binds to a plasma membrane receptor, more glucose carriers ordinarily appear in
the plasma membrane. Some forms of diabetes are caused
by insulin insensitivity; that is, the binding of insulin does
not result in extra glucose carriers in the membrane.
The model shows that after a carrier has assisted the
movement of a molecule to the other side of the membrane,
it is free to assist the passage of other similar molecules. Neither diffusion, explained previously, nor facilitated transport requires an expenditure of chemical energy because the
molecules are moving down their concentration gradient in
the same direction they tend to move anyway.

Transport by Carrier Proteins M

The plasma membrane impedes the passage of all but a few

substances. Yet, biologically useful molecules do enter and
exit the cell at a rapid rate because there are carrier proteins
in the membrane. Carrier proteins are specific; each can
combine with only a certain type of molecule, which is then
transported through the membrane. It is not completely understood how carrier proteins function; but after a carrier
combines with a molecule, the carrier is believed to undergo
a change in shape that moves the molecule across the membrane. Carrier proteins are required for facilitated and active
transport (see Table 4.1).
Some of the proteins in the plasma membrane
are carriers; they transport biologically useful
molecules into and out of the cell.

Facilitated Transport

Facilitated transport explains the passage of such molecules

as glucose and amino acids across the plasma membrane,
even though they are not lipid soluble. The passage of glucose and amino acids is facilitated by their reversible combination with carrier proteins, which in some manner
transport them through the plasma membrane. These carrier

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Chapter 4

Membrane Structure and Function

77

Active Transport
During active transport, ions or molecules move through
the plasma membrane, accumulating either inside or outside the cell. For example, iodine collects in the cells of the
thyroid gland; nutrients are completely absorbed from
the gut by the cells lining the digestive tract, and sodium
ions (Na ) can be almost completely withdrawn from
urine by cells lining the kidney tubules. In these instances,
substances have moved to the region of higher concentration, exactly opposite to the process of diffusion. It has
been estimated that up to 40% of a cells energy supply
may be used for active transport of solute across its
membrane.
Both carrier proteins and an expenditure of energy are
needed to transport molecules against their concentration
gradient (Fig. 4.10). In this case, energy (ATP molecules) is
required for the carrier to combine with the substance to be
transported. Therefore, it is not surprising that cells involved primarily in active transport, such as kidney cells,
have a large number of mitochondria near the membrane
through which active transport is occurring.
Proteins involved in active transport often are called
pumps, because just as a water pump uses energy to move
water against the force of gravity, proteins use energy to
move a substance against its concentration gradient. One
type of pump that is active in all cells, but is especially associated with nerve and muscle cells, moves sodium ions
(Na) to the outside of the cell and potassium ions (K) to
the inside of the cell. These two events are presumed to be
linked, and the carrier protein is called a sodiumpotassium pump. A change in carrier shape after the attachment, and again after the detachment, of a phosphate
group allows the carrier to combine alternately with
sodium ions and potassium ions (Fig. 4.11). The phosphate
group is donated by ATP, which is broken down enzymatically by the carrier.
The passage of salt (NaCl) across a plasma membrane
is of primary importance in cells. The chloride ion (Cl)
usually crosses the plasma membrane because it is attracted by positively charged sodium ions (Na). First,
sodium ions are pumped across a membrane, and then
chloride ions simply diffuse through channels that allow
their passage. As noted in Figure 4.3, the chloride ion
channels malfunction in persons with cystic fibrosis, and
this leads to the symptoms of this inherited (genetic)
disorder.

Outside

Inside

Carrier has a
shape that allows
it to take up three
sodium ions (Na+).

3 Na+
carrier

ATP
ATP is split, and
phosphate group is
transferred to carrier.

3 Na+

ADP

Change in shape
3 Na+
results that
causes carrier to
release three sodium
K+
ions (Na+) outside
the cell. New shape
allows carrier to take up
potassium ions (K+).

P
Phosphate group is
released from carrier.

K+

Change in shape results

that causes carrier to
release potassium ions (K+)
inside the cell. New shape is
suitable to take up three sodium
ions (Na+) once again.

Figure 4.11 The sodium-potassium pump.

A carrier protein actively moves three sodium ions (Na) to the

outside of the cell for every potassium ion (K) pumped to the inside
of the cell. Note that chemical energy of ATP is required.

During facilitated transport, substances follow their

concentration gradient. During active transport,
substances are moved against their concentration
gradient.

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K+

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4.5

Part 1

4-12

Cell Biology

Exocytosis and Endocytosis

What about the transport of macromolecules such as

polypeptides, polysaccharides, or polynucleotides, which
are too large to be transported by carrier proteins? They are
transported in or out of the cell by vesicle formation, thereby
keeping the macromolecules contained so that they do not
mix with those in the cytoplasm.

plasma
membrane

red blood
cell

Exocytosis
During exocytosis, vesicles often formed by the Golgi apparatus and carrying a specific molecule, fuse with the plasma
membrane as secretion occurs. This is the way that insulin
leaves insulin-secreting cells, for instance.

vacuole
a. Phagocytosis

solute

plasma membrane

vesicle
b. Pinocytosis

Inside

receptor
protein

solute

Notice that the membrane of the vesicle becomes a part of

the plasma membrane. During cell growth, exocytosis is
probably used as a means to enlarge the plasma membrane,
whether or not secretion is also taking place.

Endocytosis

During endocytosis, cells take in substances by vesicle formation (Fig. 4.12). A portion of the plasma membrane invaginates to envelop the substance, and then the membrane
pinches off to form an intracellular vesicle.
When the material taken in by endocytosis is large, such
as a food particle or another cell, the process is called phagocytosis. Phagocytosis is common in unicellular organisms
like amoebas and in amoeboid cells like macrophages,
which are large cells that engulf bacteria and worn-out red
blood cells in mammals. When the endocytic vesicle fuses
with a lysosome, digestion occurs.
Pinocytosis occurs when vesicles form around a liquid
or very small particles. Blood cells, cells that line the kidney
tubules or intestinal wall, and plant root cells all use this
method of ingesting substances. Whereas phagocytosis can
be seen with the light microscope, the electron microscope
must be used to observe pinocytic vesicles, which are no
larger than 12 m.

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c. Receptor-mediated
endocytosis

vesicle

Figure 4.12 Three methods of endocytosis.

a. Phagocytosis occurs when the substance to be transported into
the cell is large; certain specialized cells in the body can engulf wornout red blood cells by phagocytosis. Digestion occurs when the
resulting vacuole fuses with a lysosome. b. Pinocytosis occurs when
a macromolecule such as a polypeptide is to be transported into the
cell. The result is a small vacuole or vesicle. c. Receptor-mediated
endocytosis is a form of pinocytosis. The substance to be taken in (a
ligand) first binds to a specific receptor protein which migrates to a
pit or is already in a pit. The vesicle that forms contains the ligand
and its receptor. Sometimes the receptor is recycled, as shown in
Figure 4.13.

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Chapter 4

receptor
protein

Membrane Structure and Function

79

solute

endocytosis

2
receptor
protein
3

solutes
removed

exocytosis

a.

b.

Figure 4.13 Receptor-mediated endocytosis.

a. (1) The receptors in the coated pits combine only with a solute. (2) The vesicle that forms is at first coated with a fibrous protein (blue squares),
but soon the vesicle loses its coat. (3) Solutes leave the vesicle. (4) When exocytosis occurs, membrane and therefore receptors are returned to
the plasma membrane. b. Electron micrographs of a coated pit in the process of forming a vesicle.

Receptor-mediated endocytosis is a form of pinocytosis

that is quite specific because it involves the use of a receptor
protein shaped in such a way that a specific molecule such
as vitamins, peptide hormones, and lipoproteins can bind to
it. The binding of a solute to the receptors causes the receptors to gather at one location. This location is called a coated
pit because there is a layer of fibrous protein on the cytoplasmic side (see step 1, Fig. 4.13). Once the vesicle is
formed, the fibrous coat is released and the vesicle appears
uncoated (see step 2). The fate of the vesicle and its contents
depends on the kind of solute it contains. Sometimes the
solute simply enters the cytoplasm (step 3). A spent hormone, on the other hand, may be digested when the vesicle
fuses with a lysosome. The membrane of the vesicle and,
therefore, the receptors are returned to the plasma membrane (step 4), or the vesicle can go to other membranous
locations.
Aside from simply allowing substances to enter cells selectively from an extracellular fluid, coated pits are also involved
in the transfer and exchange of substances between cells.

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Such exchanges take place when the substances move from

maternal blood into fetal blood at the placenta, for example.
The importance of receptor-mediated endocytosis is
demonstrated by a genetic disorder called familial hypercholesterolemia. Cholesterol is transported in blood by a
complex of lipids and proteins called low-density lipoprotein (LDL). These individuals have inherited a gene that
causes them to have a reduced number and/or defective receptors for LDL in their plasma membranes. Instead of cholesterol entering cells, it accumulates in the walls of arterial
blood vessels, leading to high blood pressure, occluded
(blocked) arteries, and heart attacks.

Substances are secreted from a cell by exocytosis.

Substances enter a cell by endocytosis. Receptormediated endocytosis allows cells to take up
specific kinds of molecules and then sort them
within the cell.

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Part 1

4-14

Cell Biology

uch celebrities as Mohammad Ali, a

former heavyweight boxing champion,
Janet Reno, the attorney general of the
United States, and Michael J. Fox, a
favorite movie actor, have Parkinson disease. By age 65, Parkinson disease (PD)
affects roughly one of every 100 Americans. Due to the death of brain cells that
produce a substance called dopamine, motor control is not as smooth as it should be.
The three obvious signs of Parkinson are
slowness of movement, tremor, and rigidity. As the disease worsens, patients
become unable to carry out even the simplest activities.
You might think that the condition
could be cured by simply giving a patient
dopamine, but dopamine, like many other
chemical substances, cannot cross the
blood-brain barrier. The blood-brain barrier

is simply due to the impermeability of the

capillaries serving the brain. Nutrients, such
as glucose, and essential amino acids can
only pass through due to facilitated transport. Most drugs cant get through at all.
Luckily a precursor of dopamine
called L-dopa can get through the bloodbrain barrier, and when L-dopa is given as
a medication, it will be changed into
dopamine until there are few cells left to
do the job. Along the way, physicians and
patients are faced with a wide assortment
of adjunct remedies. Some of these are surgical procedures. Michael J. Fox opted for
pallidotomy, a procedure that kills off cells
that go out of control when the dopamineproducing cells die off. An experimental
surgical procedure, however, involves the
transplantation of dopamine-producing
fetal tissue into the brains of people with

Summarizing the Concepts

4.1 Plasma Membrane Structure and Function
There are two components of the plasma membrane: lipids and proteins. In the lipid bilayer, phospholipids are arranged with their hydrophilic heads at the surfaces and their hydrophobic tails in the
interior. The lipid bilayer has the consistency of oil, and therefore proteins can move laterally in the membrane. Glycolipids and glycoproteins are involved in marking the cell as belonging to a particular
individual and tissue.
The hydrophobic portion of an integral protein lies in the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane, and the hydrophilic portion lies at the
surface. Proteins act as receptors, carry on enzymatic reactions, join
cells together, form channels, or act as carriers to move substances
across the membrane.

4.2 The Permeability of the Plasma Membrane

Some substances like gases and water are free to cross a plasma membrane, and others, particularly ions, charged molecules, and macromolecules, have to be assisted across. Passive ways of crossing a
plasma membrane (diffusion and facilitated transport) do not require
an expenditure of chemical energy. Active ways of crossing a plasma
membrane (active transport and vesicle formation) do require an expenditure of chemical energy.

4.3 Diffusion and Osmosis

Lipid-soluble compounds, water, and gases simply diffuse across the

membrane from the area of higher concentration to the area of lower
concentration.

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PD. People who have received such transplants report a lessening of symptoms.
Is it ethical to use tissue from aborted
fetuses for transplants? Is it possible that
women would have abortions just to make
fetal tissue available to loved ones, or for
payment? Should there be governmental
safeguards to prevent such a possibility?

Questions

Go To Student OLC

1. Is it ethical to use fetal tissue to prevent

older people from having a debilitating
disorder? Why or why not?
2. Suppose you had a choice between using
fetal tissue (no payment required) and
adult cells bioengineered to produce
dopamine (payment required), which
would you choose and why?
3. Do you favor banning all research using
fetal tissue, or doing such research under
certain circumstances? Explain.

The diffusion of water across a differentially permeable membrane is called osmosis. Water moves across the membrane into the
area of lower water (higher solute) content. When cells are in an isotonic solution, they neither gain nor lose water; when they are in a hypotonic solution, they gain water; and when they are in a hypertonic
solution, they lose water.

4.4 Transport by Carrier Proteins

Some molecules are transported across the membrane by carrier proteins that span the membrane.
During facilitated transport, a carrier protein assists the movement of a molecule down its concentration gradient. No energy is
required.
During active transport, a carrier protein acts as a pump that
causes a substance to move against its concentration gradient. The
sodium-potassium pump carries Na to the outside of the cell and K
to the inside of the cell. Energy in the form of ATP molecules is required
for active transport to occur.

4.5 Exocytosis and Endocytosis

Larger substances can enter and exit a membrane by endocytosis and
exocytosis. Exocytosis involves secretion. Endocytosis includes
phagocytosis and pinocytosis which includes receptor-mediated endocytosis. Receptor-mediated endocytosis makes use of receptor
molecules in the plasma membrane. Once specific solutes bind to
their receptors, the coated pit becomes a coated vesicle. After losing
the coat, the vesicle can join with the lysosome, or after freeing the
solute, the receptor-containing vesicle can fuse with the plasma
membrane.

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Chapter 4

Studying the Concepts

1. Describe the structure of the plasma membrane, including the
phospholipid bilayer and the various types of proteins. 6870
2. Why is a plasma membrane called differentially permeable? 72
3. What are the mechanisms by which substances enter and exit
cells? Which are passive ways, and which are active ways? 72
4. Define diffusion, and give an example. 73
5. Define osmosis. Define isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic
solutions, and give examples of how these concentrations
affect red blood cells. 7475
6. Draw a simplified diagram of a red blood cell before and
after being placed in these solutions. What terms are used to
refer to the condition of the red blood cell in a hypertonic
solution and in a hypotonic solution? 75
7. Draw a simplified diagram of a plant cell before and after
being placed in these solutions. Describe the cell contents
under these conditions. 75
8. How does facilitated transport differ from simple diffusion
across the plasma membrane? 76
9. How does active transport differ from facilitated transport?
Give an example. 77
10. Diagram and define endocytosis and exocytosis. Describe
and contrast three methods of endocytosis. 7879

Testing Yourself
Choose the best answer for each question.
1. Label this diagram of the plasma membrane.
c.
a.

d.

b.
e.

f.

j.
i.

g.

h.

2. The fluid-mosaic model of membrane structure refers to

a. the fluidity of proteins in the membrane and the pattern of
phospholipids in the membrane.
b. the fluidity of phospholipids and the pattern of proteins in
the membrane.
c. the fluidity of cholesterol and the pattern of sugar chains
outside the membrane.
d. the lack of fluidity of internal membranes compared to the
plasma membrane, and the ability of the proteins to move
laterally in the membrane.
e. the fluidity of hydrophobic regions, proteins and mosaic
pattern of hydrophilic regions.

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Membrane Structure and Function

81

3. A phospholipid molecule has a head and two tails. The tails

are found
a. at the surfaces of the membrane.
b. in the interior of the membrane.
c. spanning the membrane.
d. where the environment is hydrophilic.
e. Both a and b are correct.
4. During diffusion,
a. all molecules move only from the area of higher to lower
concentration.
b. solvents move from the area of higher to lower concentration.
c. there is a net movement of molecules from the area of
higher to lower concentration.
d. a cell must be present for any movement of molecules to
occur.
e. molecules move against their concentration gradient if
they are small and charged.
5. When a cell is placed in a hypotonic solution,
a. solute exits the cell to equalize the concentration on both
sides of the membrane.
b. water exits the cell toward the area of lower solute concentration.
c. water enters the cell toward the area of higher solute
concentration.
d. solute exits and water enters the cell.
e. Both c and d are correct.
6. When a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution,
a. solute exits the cell to equalize the concentration on both
sides of the membrane.
b. water exits the cell toward the area of lower solute concentration.
c. water exits the cell toward the area of higher solute
concentration.
d. solute exits and water enters the cell.
e. Both a and c are correct.
7. Active transport
a. requires a carrier protein.
b. moves a molecule against its concentration gradient.
c. requires a supply of energy.
d. does not occur during facilitated transport.
e. All of these are correct.
8. The sodium-potassium pump
a. helps establish an electrochemical gradient across the
membrane.
b. concentrates sodium on the outside of the membrane.
c. utilizes a carrier protein and energy.
d. is present in the plasma membrane.
e. All of these are correct.
9. A scientist observing a protozoan notices a vacuole discharging its contents at the plasma membrane. This is an example
of
a. phagocytosis and vacuole formation.
b. endocytosis and active transport.
c. exocytosis and secretion.
d. active transport and vacuole release.
e. Both c and d are correct.

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Part 1

4-16

Cell Biology

10. Receptor-mediated endocytosis

a. is no different from phagocytosis.
b. brings specific substances into the cell.
c. helps to concentrate proteins in vesicles.
d. All of these are correct.
11. Write hypotonic solution or hypertonic solution beneath each
cell. Justify your conclusions.

a.

cell
wall

b.

Thinking Scientifically
1. Considering the movement of molecules across the plasma
membrane:
a. Contrast the manner in which alcohol and water enter a
cell (page 72).
b. Contrast the manner in which sodium ions (Na) and
chloride ions (Cl) exit a cell (Fig. 4.3).
c. Contrast the manner in which amino acids and proteins
enter a cell (page 72).
d. How might the proteins from question c be digested (chapter 3)?
2. Exocytotic vesicles add plasma membrane to the cell, and
endocytotic vesicles remove plasma membrane.
a. In a cell in which the amount of plasma membrane stays
constant, how many exocytotic vesicles per endocytotic
vesicles would you expect?
b. Imagine a cell that is moving from left to right. If vesicle
formation is facilitating movement, where would you
expect exocytosis to be occurring? Where would you expect endocytosis to be occurring?
c. Receptor-mediated endocytosis is a process by which a
substance combines with a receptor before endocytosis
brings the entire complex into the cell. Imagine a virus that
enters a cell in this manner. If so, what additional step is
needed for the virus to enter the cell proper?

Understanding the Terms

active transport 77
carrier protein 70
channel protein 70
cholesterol 68
concentration gradient 72
differentially permeable 72
diffusion 73
endocytosis 78
enzymatic protein 70
exocytosis 78
facilitated transport 76
fluid-mosaic model 68
glycolipid 68
glycoprotein 69
hypertonic solution 75
hypotonic solution 74
integral protein 69

isotonic solution 74
osmosis 74
osmotic pressure 74
peripheral protein 69
phagocytosis 78
pinocytosis 78
plasmolysis 75
receptor-mediated
endocytosis 79
receptor protein 70
sodium-potassium
pump 77
solute 73
solvent 73
tonicity 74
turgor pressure 75

Match the terms to these definitions:

a.
Movement of molecules from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration.
b.
Internal pressure that adds to the strength of a cell
and builds up when water moves by osmosis into a plant cell.
c.
Solution that contains the same concentration of
solute and water as the cell.
d.
Passive transfer of a substance into and out of a
cell along a concentration gradient by a process that requires
a carrier.
e.
Process in which an intracellular vesicle fuses
with the plasma membrane so that the vesicles contents are
released outside the cell.

Using Technology
Your study of membrane structure and function is
supported by these available technologies:

Essential Study Partner CD-ROM

Cells Cell Membrane
Visit the Mader web site for related ESP activities.

Exploring the Internet

The Mader Home Page provides resources and tools as
you study this chapter.

http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/genbio/mader

Virtual Physiology Laboratory CD-ROM

Diffusion, Osmosis, & Tonicity
Enzyme Characteristics

Life Science Animations 3D Video

4 Diffusion
5 Osmosis

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