ELEMENTS OF METRIC GEAR TECHNOLOGY

Gears are some of the most important elements used in machinery. There are few
mechanical devices that do not have the need to transmit power and motion between rotating
shafts. Gears not only do this most satisfactorily, but can do so with uniform motion and
reliability. In addition, they span the entire range of applications from large to small. To
summarize:
1. Gears offer positive transmission of power.
2. Gears range in size from small miniature instrument installations, that measure in only
several millimeters in diameter, to huge powerful gears in turbine drives that are several meters
in diameter.
3. Gears can provide position transmission with very high angular or linear accuracy; such as
used in servomechanisms and military equipment.
4. Gears can couple power and motion between shafts whose axes are parallel, intersecting or
skew.
5. Gear designs are standardized in accordance with size and shape which provides for
widespread interchangeability.
This technical manual is written as an aid for the designer who is a beginner or only
superficially knowledgeable about gearing. It provides fundamental theoretical and practical
information. Admittedly, it is not intended for experts.
Those who wish to obtain further information and special details should refer to the
reference list at the end of this text and other literature on mechanical machinery and
components.
SECTION 1

INTRODUCTION TO METRIC GEARS

This technical section is dedicated to details of metric gearing because of its

increasing importance. Currently, much gearing in the United States is still based upon the inch
system. However, with most of the world metricated, the use of metric gearing in the United
States is definitely on the increase, and inevitably at some future date it will be the exclusive
system.
It should be appreciated that in the United States there is a growing amount of metric
gearing due to increasing machinery and other equipment imports. This is particularly true of
manufacturing equipment, such as printing presses, paper machines and machine tools.
Automobiles are another major example, and one that impacts tens of millions of individuals.
Further spread of metric gearing is inevitable since the world that surrounds the United States is
rapidly approaching complete conformance. England and Canada, once bastions of the inch
system, are well down the road of metrication, leaving the United States as the only significant
exception.
Thus, it becomes prudent for engineers and designers to not only become familiar with metric
gears, but also to incorporate them in their designs. Certainly, for export products it is
imperative; and for domestic products it is a serious consideration. The U.S. Government, and
in particular the military, is increasingly insisting upon metric based equipment designs.
Recognizing that most engineers and designers have been reared in an environment of
heavy use of the inch system and that the amount of literature about metric gears is limited, we
are of fering this technical gear section as an aid to understanding and use of metric gears. In
the following pages, metric gear standards are introduced along with information about
interchangeability and noninterchangeability. Although gear theory is the same for both the inch
and metric systems, the formulae for metric gearing take on a dif ferent set of symbols. These
equations are fully defined in the metric system. The coverage is thorough and complete with

the intention that this be a source for all information about gearing with definition in a metric
format.

1.1 Comparison Of Metric Gears With American Inch Gears

1.1.1 Comparison of Basic Racks
In all modern gear systems, the rack is the basis for tooth design and manufacturing
tooling. Thus, the similarities and differences between the two systems can be put into proper
perspective with comparison of the metric and inch basic racks.
In both systems, the basic rack is normalized for a unit size. For the metric rack it is 1
module, and for the inch rack it is 1 diametral pitch.
1.1.2 Metric ISO Basic Rack
The standard ISO metric rack is detailed in Figure 1-1. It is now the accepted standard
for the international community, it having eliminated a number of minor differences that existed
between the earlier versions of Japanese, German and Russian modules. For comparison, the
standard inch rack is detailed in Figure 1-2. Note that there are many similarities. The principal
factors are the same for both racks. Both are normalized for unity; that is, the metric rack is
specified in terms of 1 module, and the inch rack in terms of 1 diametral pitch.

Fig. 1-1 The Basic Metric Rack From ISO 53 Normalized For Module 1

ha = Addendum
hf = Dedendum
c = Clearance
hw = Working Depth
h = Whole Depth
p = Circular Pitch
rf = Root Radius
s = Circular Tooth
Thickness
a = Pressure Angle

Fig. 1-2 The Basic Inch Diametral Pitch Rack Normalized For 1 Diametral Pitch

From the normalized metric rack, corresponding dimensions for any module are
obtained by multiplying each rack dimension by the value of the specific module m. The major
tooth parameters are defined by the standard, as:
Tooth Form:

Straight-sided full depth, forming the basis of a family of full depth

interchangeable gears.
Pressure Angle: A 20 pressure angle, which conforms to worldwide acceptance of this as the
most versatile pressure angle.
Addendum:
This is equal to the module m, which is similar to the inch value that becomes
1/p.
Dedendum:
This is 1.25 m ; again similar to the inch rack value.
Root Radius: The metric rack value is slightly greater than the American inch rack value.
Tip Radius:
A maximum value is specified. This is a deviation from the American inch rack
which does not specify a rounding.
1.1.3 Comparison of Gear Calculation Equations
Most gear equations that are used for diametral pitch inch gears are equally applicable
to metric gears if the module m is substituted for diametral pitch. However, there are exceptions
when it is necessary to use dedicated metric equations. Thus, to avoid confusion and errors, it is
most effective to work entirely with and within the metric system.
1.2

Metric Standards Worldwide

1.2.1 ISO Standards

Metric standards have been coordinated and standardized by the International
Standards Organization (ISO). A listing of the most pertinent standards is given in Table 1-1.
1.2.2 Foreign Metric Standards
Most major industrialized countries have been using metric gears for a long time and
consequently had developed their own standards prior to the establishment of ISO and SI units.
In general, they are very similar to the ISO standards. The key foreign metric standards are
listed in Table 1-2 for reference.
1.3 Japanese Metric Standards In This Text
1.3.1 Application of JIS Standards
Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS) define numerous engineering subjects including
gearing. The originals are generated in Japanese, but they are translated and published in
English by the Japanese Standards Association.
Considering that many metric gears are produced in Japan, the JIS standards may
apply. These essentially conform to all aspects of the ISO standards.

Table 1-1 ISO Metric Gearing Standards

ISO 53:1974

Cylindrical gears for general and heavy engineering Basic rack

ISO 54:1977

Cylindrical gears for general and heavy engineering Modules and

diametral pitches

ISO 677:1976

Straight bevel gears for general and heavy engineering Basic rack

ISO 678:1976

Straight bevel gears for general and heavy engineering Modules and
diametral pitches

ISO 701:1976

International gear notation symbols for geometrical data

ISO 1122-1:1983

Glossary of gear terms Part 1: Geometrical definitions

ISO 1328:1975

Parallel involute gears ISO system of accuracy

ISO 1340:1976
ISO 1341:1976
ISO 2203:1973
ISO 2490:1975
ISO/TR 4467:1982
ISO 4468:1982
ISO 8579-1:1993
ISO 8579-2:1993
ISO/TR 100641:1992

Cylindrical gears Information to be given to the manufacturer by the

purchaser in order to obtain the gear required
Straight bevel gears Information to be given to the manufacturer by the
purchaser in order to obtain the gear required
Technical drawings Conventional representation of gears
Single-start solid (monobloc) gear hobs with axial keyway, 1 to 20 module
and 1 to 20 diametral pitch Nominal dimensions
Addendum modification of the teeth of cylindrical gears for speed-reducing
and speed-increasing gear pairs
Gear hobs Single-start Accuracy requirements
Acceptance code for gears Part 1: Determination of airborne sound
power levels emitted by gear units
Acceptance code for gears Part 2: Determination of mechanical
vibrations of gear units during acceptance testing
Cylindrical gears Code of inspection practice Part 1: Inspection of
corresponding flanks of gear teeth

Table 1-1 Foreign Metric Gearing Standards

AUSTRALIA
AS B 62
AS B 66
AS B 214
AS B 217
AS 1637

1965
1969
1966
1966

Bevel gears
Worm gears (inch series)
Geometrical dimensions for worm gears Units
Glossary for gearing
International gear notation symbols for geometric data (similar to ISO 701)

FRANCE
NF E 23-001
NF E 23-002
NF E 23-005
NF E 23-006
NF E 23-011

1972
1972
1965
1967
1972

NF E 23-012

1972

NF L 32-611

1955

Glossary of gears (similar to ISO 1122)

Glossary of worm gears
Gearing Symbols (similar to ISO 701)
Tolerances for spur gears with involute teeth (similar to ISO 1328)
Cylindrical gears for general and heavy engineering Basic rack and modules
(similar to ISO 467 and ISO 53)
Cylindrical gears Information to be given to the manufacturer by the purchaser
Calculating spur gears to NF L 32-610

Table 1-2 (Cont.) Foreign Metric Gearing Standards

GERMANY DIN (Deutsches Institut fr Normung)
DIN 37
DIN 780 Pt 1
DIN 780 Pt 2
DIN 867

12.61
05.77
05.77
02.86

DIN 868
DIN 3961
DIN 3962 Pt 1
DIN 3962 Pt 2
DIN 3962 Pt 3
DIN 3963
DIN 3964

12.76
08.78
08.78
08.78
08.78
08.78
11.80

DIN 3965 Pt 1
DIN 3965 Pt 2
DIN 3965 Pt 3
DIN 3965 Pt 4

08.86
08.86
08.86
08.86

DIN 3966 Pt 1

08.78

DIN 3966 Pt 2
DIN 3967
DIN 3970 Pt 1
DIN 3970 Pt 2
DIN 3971
DIN 3972
DIN 3975
DIN 3976

08.78
08.78
11.74
11.74
07.80
02.52
10.76
11.80

DIN 3977

02.81

DIN 3978
DIN 3979
DIN 3993 Pt 1
DIN 3993 Pt 2

08.76
07.79
08.81
08.81

DIN 3993 Pt 3

08.81

DIN 3993 Pt 4

08.81

DIN 3998
Suppl 1
DIN 3998 Pt 1
DIN 3998 Pt 2
DIN 3998 Pt 3
DIN 3998 Pt 4

09.76
09.76
09.76
09.76
09.76

DIN 58405 Pt 1
DIN 58405 Pt 2
DIN 58405 Pt 3
DIN 58405 Pt 4
DIN ISO 2203

05.72
05.72
05.72
05.72
06.76

Conventional and simplified representation of gears and gear pairs [4]

Series of modules for gears Modules for spur gears [4]
Series of modules for gears Modules for cylindrical worm gear transmissions [4]
Basic rack tooth profiles for involute teeth of cylindrical gears for general and heavy
engineering [5]
General definitions and specification factors for gears, gear pairs and gear trains [11]
Tolerances for cylindrical gear teeth Bases [8]
Tolerances for cylindrical gear teeth Tolerances for deviations of individual parameters [11]
Tolerances for cylindrical gear teeth Tolerances for tooth trace deviations [4]
Tolerances for cylindrical gear teeth Tolerances for pitch-span deviations [4]
Tolerances for cylindrical gear teeth Tolerances for working deviations [11]
Deviations of shaft center distances and shaft position tolerances of casings for cylindrical
gears [4]
Tolerancing of bevel gears Basic concepts [5]
Tolerancing of bevel gears Tolerances for individual parameters [11]
Tolerancing of bevel gears Tolerances for tangential composite errors [11]
Tolerancing of bevel gears Tolerances for shaft angle errors and axes intersection point
deviations [5]
Information on gear teeth in drawings Information on involute teeth for cylindrical gears [7]
Information on gear teeth in drawings Information on straight bevel gear teeth [6]
System of gear fits Backlash, tooth thickness allowances, tooth thickness tolerances
Principles [12]
Master gears for checking spur gears Gear blank and tooth system [8]
Master gears for checking spur gears Receiving arbors [4]
Definitions and parameters for bevel gears and bevel gear pairs [12]
Reference profiles of gear-cutting tools for involute tooth systems according to DIN 867 [4]
Terms and definitions for cylindrical worm gears with shaft angle 90 [9]
Cylindrical worms Dimensions, correlation of shaft center distances and gear ratios of worm
gear drives [6]
Measuring element diameters for the radial or diametral dimension for testing tooth thickness
of cylindrical gears [8]
Helix angles for cylindrical gear teeth [5]
Tooth damage on gear trains Designation, characteristics, causes [11]
Geometrical design of cylindrical internal involute gear pairs Basic rules [17]
Geometrical design of cylindrical internal involute gear pairs Diagrams for geometrical limits
of internal gear-pinion matings [15]
Geometrical design of cylindrical internal involute gear pairs Diagrams for the determination
of addendum modification coefficients [15]
Geometrical design of cylindrical internal involute gear pairs Diagrams for limits of internal
gear-pinion type cutter matings [10]
Denominations on gear and gear pairs Alphabetical index of equivalent terms [10]
Denominations on gears and gear pairs General definitions [11]
Denominations on gears and gear pairs Cylindrical gears and gear pairs [11]
Denominations on gears and gear pairs Bevel and hypoid gears and gear pairs [9]
Denominations on gears and gear pairs Worm gear pairs [8]
Spur gear drives for fine mechanics Scope, definitions, principal design data, classification
[7]
Spur gear drives for fine mechanics Gear fit selection, tolerances, allowances [9]
Spur gear drives for fine mechanics Indication in drawings, examples for calculation [12]
Spur gear drives for fine mechanics Tables [15]
Technical Drawings Conventional representation of gears

NOTES:
1. Standards available in English from: ANSI, 1430 Broadway, New York, NY 10018; or Beuth
Verlag GmbH, Burggrafenstrasse 6, D-10772 Berlin, Germany; or Global Engineering
Documents, Inverness Way East, Englewood, CO 80112-5704
2. Above data was taken from: DIN Catalogue of Technical Rules 1994, Supplement, Volume 3,
Translations

Table 1-2 (Cont.) Foreign Metric Gearing Standards

UNI 3521
UNI 3522
UNI 4430
UNI 4760
UNI 6586

1954
1954
1960
1961
1969

UNI 6587
UNI 6588

1969
1969

UNI 6773

1970

B 0003
B 0102
B 1701
B 1702
B 1703
B 1704
B 1705
B 1721
B 1722
B 1723
B 1741
B 1751
B 1752
B 1753
B 4350
B 4351
B 4354
B 4355
B 4356
B 4357
B 4358

1989
1988
1973
1976
1976
1978
1973
1973
1974
1977
1977
1976
1989
1976
1991
1985
1988
1988
1985
1988
1991

ITALY
Gearing Module series
Gearing Basic rack
Spur gear Order information for straight and bevel gear
Gearing Glossary and geometrical definitions
Modules and diametral pitches of cylindrical and straight bevel gears for general
and heavy engineering (corresponds to ISO 54 and 678)
Basic rack of cylindrical gears for standard engineering (corresponds to ISO 53)
Basic rack of straight bevel gears for general and heavy engineering
(corresponds to ISO 677)
International gear notation Symbols for geometrical data (corresponds to ISO
701)

JAPAN JIS (Japanese Industrial Standards)

Drawing office practice for gears
Glossary of gear terms
Involute gear tooth profile and dimensions
Accuracy for spur and helical gears
Backlash for spur and helical gears
Accuracy for bevel gears
Backlash for bevel gears
Shapes and dimensions of spur gears for general engineering
Shape and dimensions of helical gears for general use
Dimensions of cylindrical worm gears
Tooth contact marking of gears
Master cylindrical gears
Methods of measurement of spur and helical gears
Measuring method of noise of gears
Gear cutter tooth profile and dimensions
Straight bevel gear generating cutters
Single thread hobs
Single thread fine pitch hobs
Pinion type cutters
Rotary gear shaving cutters
Rack type cutters

NOTE:
Standards available in English from: ANSI, 1430 Broadway, New York, NY 10018; or
International Standardization Cooperation Center, Japanese Standards Association, 4-1-24
Akasaka, Minato-ku, Tokyo 107

Table 1-2 (Cont.) Foreign Metric Gearing Standards

UNITED KINGDOM BSI (British Standards Institute)
BS 235
BS 436 Pt 1

1972
1987

BS 436 Pt 2

1984

BS 436 Pt 3

1986

BS 721 Pt 1
BS 721 Pt 2
BS 978 Pt 1
BS 978 Pt 2
BS 978 Pt 3
BS 978 Pt 4
BS 1807
BS 2007

1984
1983
1984
1984
1984
1965
1981
1983

BS 2062 Pt 1
BS 2062 Pt 2

1985
1985

BS 2518 Pt 1
BS 2518 Pt 2
BS 2519 Pt 1
BS 2519 Pt 2

1983
1983
1976
1976

BS 2697
BS 3027
BS 3696 Pt 1
BS 4517
BS 4582 Pt 1
BS 4582 Pt 2
BS 5221
BS 5246
BS 6168

1976
1968
1984
1984
1984
1986
1987
1984
1987

Specification of gears for electric traction

Spur and helical gears Basic rack form, pitches and accuracy (diametral pitch
series)
Spur and helical gears Basic rack form, modules and accuracy (1 to 50 metric
module)
(Parts 1 & 2 related but not equivalent with ISO 53, 54, 1328, 1340 & 1341)
Spur gear and helical gears Method for calculation of contact and root
bending stresses, limitations for metallic involute gears
(Related but not equivalent with ISO / DIS 6336 / 1, 2 & 3)
Specification for worm gearing Imperial units
Specification for worm gearing Metric units
Specification for fine pitch gears Involute spur and helical gears
Specification for fine pitch gears Cycloidal type gears
Specification for fine pitch gears Bevel gears
Specification for fine pitch gears Hobs and cutters
Specification for marine propulsion gears and similar drives: metric module
Specification for circular gear shaving cutters, 1 to 8 metric module, accuracy
requirements
Specification for gear hobs Hobs for general purpose: 1 to 20 d.p., inclusive
Specification for gear hobs Hobs for gears for turbine reduction and similar
drives
Specification for rotary form relieved gear cutters Diametral pitch
Specification for rotary relieved gear cutters Metric module
Glossary for gears Geometrical definitions
Glossary for gears Notation (symbols for geometrical data for use in gear
rotation)
Specification for rack type gear cutters
Specification for dimensions of worm gear units
Specification for master gears Spur and helical gears (metric module)
Dimensions of spur and helical geared motor units (metric series)
Fine pitch gears (metric module) Involute spur and helical gears
Fine pitch gears (metric module) Hobs and cutters
Specifications for general purpose, metric module gear hobs
Specifications for pinion type cutters for spur gears 1 to 8 metric module
Specification for nonmetallic spur gears

NOTE:
Standards available from: ANSI, 1430 Broadway, New York, NY 10018; or BSI, Linford Wood,
Milton Keynes MK146LE, United Kingdom
1.3.2 Symbols
Gear parameters are defined by a set of standardized symbols that are defined in JIS B
0121 (1983). These are reproduced in Table 1-3.
The JIS symbols are consistent with the equations given in this text and are consistent
with JIS standards. Most differ from typical American symbols, which can be confusing to the
first time metric user. To assist, Table 1-4 is offered as a cross list.

Table 1-3A The Linear Dimensions and Circular Dimensions

Terms
Center Distance
Circular Pitch (General)
Standard Circular Pitch
Radial Circular Pitch
Circular Pitch
Perpendicular to Tooth
Axial Pitch
Normal Pitch
Radial Normal Pitch
Normal Pitch
Perpendicular to Tooth
Whole Depth
Addendum
Dedendum
Caliper Tooth Height
Working Depth
Tooth Thickness (General)
Circular Tooth Thickness
Base Circle Circular
Tooth Thickness
Chordal Tooth Thickness
Span Measurement
Root Width
Top Clearance
Circular Backlash
Normal Backlash
Blank Width
Working Face Width

Symbols
a
p
p
pt
pn
px
pb
pbt
pbn
h
ha
hf

h
h' hw
s
s

sb
s
s
e
c
jt
jn
b
bbw

Terms
Lead
Contact Length
Contact Length of Approach
Contact Length of Recess
Contact Length of Overlap
Diameter (General)
Standard Pitch Diameter
Working Pitch Diameter
Outside Diameter
Base Diameter
Root Diameter
Radius (General)
Standard Pitch Radius
Working Pitch Radius
Outside Radius
Base Radius
Root Radius
Radius of Curvature
Cone Distance (General)
Cone Distance
Mean Cone Distance
Inner Cone Distance
Back Cone Distance
Mounting Distance
Offset Distance

Symbols
pz
ga
gf
ga
gb
d
d
d' dw
da
db
df
r
r
r' rw
ra
rb
rf
p
R
Re
Rm
Ri
Rv
*A
*E

* These terms and symbols are specific to JIS Standard

Table 1-3B Angular Dimensions
Terms
Pressure Angle (General)
Standard Pressure Angle
Working Pressure Angle
Cutter Pressure Angle
Radial Pressure Angle
Pressure Angle Normal to
Tooth
Axial Pressure Angle
Helix Angle (General)
Standard Pitch Cylinder Helix
Angle
Outside Cylinder Helix Angle
Base Cylinder Helix Angle
Lead Angle (General)
Standard Pitch Cylinder Lead
Angle
Outside Cylinder Lead Angle
Base Cylinder Lead Angle

Symbols

' or w
0
t
n
x

a
b

a
b

Terms

Shaft Angle
Cone Angle (General)
Pitch Cone Angle
Outside Cone Angle
Root Cone Angle
Addendum Angle
Dedendum Angle
Radial Contact Angle
Overlap Contact Angle
Overall Contact Angle
Angular Pitch of Crown Gear
Involute Function

Symbols

a
f
a
f
a

inv

Table 1-3C Size Number, Ratios & Speed Terms

Terms

Symbols

Number of Teeth
Equivalent Spur Gear Number of
Teeth
Number of Threads in Worm
Number of Teeth in Pinion
Number of Teeth Ratio
Speed Ratio
Module
Radial Module
Normal Module
Axial Module

z
zv
zw
zl
u
i
m
mt
mn
mx

Terms

Symbols

Contact Ratio
Radial Contact Ratio
Overlap Contact Ratio
Total Contact Ratio

Angular Speed
Linear or Tangential Speed
Revolutions per Minute
Coefficient of Profile Shift
Coefficient of Center Distance
Increase

*
v
n
x
y

NOTE: The term "Radial" is used to denote parameters in the plane of rotation perpendicular to the axis.

Table 1-3D Accuracy / Error Terms

Terms

Symbols

Single Pitch Error

Pitch Variation
Partial Accumulating Error
(Over Integral k teeth)
Total Accumulated Pitch Error

fpt
*fu or fpu
Fpk
Fp

Terms

Symbols

Normal Pitch Error

Involute Profile Error
Runout Error
Lead Error

fpb
ff
Fr
Fb

*These terms and symbols are specific to JIS Standards

Table 1-4 Equivalence Of American And Japanese Symbols

American
Symbol

Japanese
Symbol

BLA

jt

Ba
C
C
Co
Cstd
D
Db
Do
DR
F
K
L

jn
a
a
aw
d
db
da
df
b
K
L

M
N

Nc

zc

Nomenclature
backlash, linear measure
along pitch circle
backlash, linear measure
along line-of-action
backlash in arc minutes
center distance
change in center distance
operating center distance
standard center distance
pitch diameter
base circle diameter
outside diameter
root diameter
face width
factor, general
length, general; also lead
of worm
measurement over-pins
number of teeth, usually
gear
critical number of teeth for
no undercutting

American
Symbol

Japanese
Symbol

Nv

zv

Pd
Pdn
Pt
R

p
pn

Rb
Ro
RT
T
Wb
Y

rb
ra

Z
a
b
c
d
dw

i
ha
hf
c
d
dp

e
hk

hw

Nomenclature
virtual number of teeth for
helical gear
diametral pitch
normal diametral pitch
horsepower, transmitted
pitch radius, gear or
general use
base circle radius, gear
outside radius, gear
testing radius
tooth thickness, gear
beam tooth strength
Lewis factor, diametral
pitch
mesh velocity ratio
addendum
dedendum
clearance
pitch diameter, pinion
pin diameter, for over-pins
measurement
eccentricity
working depth

Table 1-4 (Cont.) Equivalence of American and Japanese Symbols

American
Symbol

Japanese
Symbol

ht
mp
n
nw
pa

h
e
z1
zw
px

pb
pc
pcn
r
rb

pb
p
pn
r
rb

rf
ro
t

rf
ra
s

American
Symbol

Nomenclature
whole depth
contact ratio
number of teeth, pinion
number of threads in
worm
axial pitch
base pitch
circular pitch
normal circular pitch
pitch radius, pinion
base circle radius,
pinion
fillet radius
outside radius, pinion
tooth thickness, and for
general use, for toleranc

Japanese
Symbol

yc

inv

inv

Nomenclature
Lewis factor, circular
pitch
pitch angle, bevel gear
rotation angle, general
lead angle, worm
gearing
mean value
gear stage velocity
ratio
pressure angle
operating pressure
angle
helix angle (bb=base
helix angle; bw =
operating helix angle)
angular velocity
involute function

1.3.3 Terminology
Terms used in metric gearing are identical or are parallel to those used for inch gearing. The one
major exception is that metric gears are based upon the module, which for reference may be considered
as the inversion of a metric unit diametral pitch.
Terminology will be appropriately introduced and defined throughout the text.
There are some terminology difficulties with a few of the descriptive words used by the Japanese
JIS standards when translated into English. One particular example is the Japanese use of the term
"radial" to describe measures such as what Americans term circular pitch. This also crops up with contact
ratio. What Americans refer to as contact ratio in the plane of rotation, the Japanese equivalent is called
"radial contact ratio". This can be both confusing and annoying. Therefore, since this technical section is
being used outside Japan, and the American term is more realistically descriptive, in this text we will use
the American term "circular" where it is meaningful. However, the applicable Japanese symbol will be
used. Other examples of giving preference to the American terminology will be identified where it occurs.
1.3.4 Conversion
For those wishing to ease themselves into working with metric gears by looking at them in terms
of familiar inch gearing relationships and mathematics, Table 1-5 is offered as a means to make a quick
comparison.
Table 1-5 Spur Gear Design Formulas

To Obtain

From Known

Use This Formula*

Pitch Diameter

Module

Circular Pitch

Module

p c = m =

Module

Diametral Pitch

m=

Number of Teeth

Module and Pitch Diameter

N=

Addendum
Module
* All linear dimensions in millimeters
Symbols per Table 1-4

D = mN

25.4
Pd

D
m

a=m

To Obtain
Dedendum
Outside Diameter
Root Diameter
Base Circle Diameter
Base Pitch

Table 1-5 (Cont.) Spur Gear Design Formulas

From Known
Use This Formula*
Module
b = 1.25m
Module and Pitch Diameter or
D0 = D + 2m = m(N+2)
Number of Teeth
Pitch Diameter and Module
DR = D 2.5m
Pitch Diameter and Pressure Angle
Db = D cos
Module and Pressure Angle
pb = mcos

Tooth Thickness at
Standard Pitch Diameter

Module

Center Distance

Module and Number of Teeth

Contact Ratio

Outside Radii, Base Circle Radii,

Center Distance, Pressure Angle

mp =

Backlash (linear)
Backlash (linear)
Backlash (linear) Along
Line-of-action

Change in Center Distance

Change in Tooth Thickness
Linear Backlash Along Pitch Circle

B = 2(C)tan
B = T
BLA = B cos

Backlash, Angular

Linear Backlash

Ba = 6880

Min. No. of Teeth for No

Undercutting

Pressure Angle

Nc =

m
2
m( N 1 + N 2 )
C=
2
Tstd =

R0 1 Rb +

R0 + 2 Rb C sin

m cos

B
(arc minutes)
D

2
sin 2

*All linear dimensions in millimeters

Symbols per Table 1-4
SECTION 2

INTRODUCTION TO GEAR TECHNOLOGY

This section presents a technical coverage of gear fundamentals. It is intended as a broad

coverage written in a manner that is easy to follow and to understand by anyone interested in knowing
how gear systems function. Since gearing involves specialty components, it is expected that not all
designers and engineers possess or have been exposed to every aspect of this subject. However, for
proper use of gear components and design of gear systems it is essential to have a minimum
understanding of gear basics and a reference source for details.
For those to whom this is their first encounter with gear components, it is suggested this
technical treatise be read in the order presented so as to obtain a logical development of the subject.
Subsequently, and for those already familiar with gears, this material can be used selectively in random
access as a design reference.
2.1 Basic Geometry Of Spur Gears
The fundamentals of gearing are illustrated through the spur gear tooth, both because it is the
simplest, and hence most comprehensible, and because it is the form most widely used, particularly for
instruments and control systems.
The basic geometry and nomenclature of a spur gear mesh is shown in Figure 2-1. The
essential features of a gear mesh are:
1. Center distance.
2. The pitch circle diameters (or pitch diameters).
3.Size of teeth (or module).
4. Number of teeth.

5. Pressure angle of the contacting involutes.

Details of these items along with their interdependence and definitions are covered in subsequent
paragraphs.

Fig. 2-1 Basic Gear Geometry

2.2 The Law Of Gearing

A primary requirement of gears is the constancy of angular velocities or proportionality of position
transmission. Precision instruments require positioning fidelity. High-speed and or high-power gear trains
also require transmission at constant angular velocities in order to avoid severe dynamic problems.
Constant velocity (i.e., constant ratio) motion transmission is defined as "conjugate action" of the
gear tooth profiles. A geometric relationship can be derived (2, 12)* for the form of the tooth profiles to
provide conjugate action, which is summarized as the Law of Gearing as follows:
"A common normal to the tooth profiles at their point of contact must, in all positions of the
contacting teeth, pass through a fixed point on the line-of-centers called the pitch point."
Any two curves or profiles engaging each other and satisfying the law of gearing are conjugate
curves.
2.3 The Involute Curve
There is almost an infinite number of curves that can be developed to satisfy the law of gearing,
and many different curve forms have been tried in the past. Modern gearing (except for clock gears) is
based on involute teeth. This is due to three major advantages of the involute curve:
1. Conjugate action is independent of changes in center distance.
2. The form of the basic rack tooth is straight-sided, and therefore is relatively simple and can be
accurately made; as a generating tool it imparts high accuracy to the cut gear tooth.
3. One cutter can generate all gear teeth numbers of the same pitch.
The involute curve is most easily understood as the trace of a point at the end of a taut string that
unwinds from a cylinder. It is imagined that a point on a string, which is pulled taut in a fixed direction,
projects its trace onto a plane that rotates with the base circle. See Figure 2-2. The base cylinder, or
base circle as referred to in gear literature, fully defines the form of the involute and in a gear it is an
inherent parameter, though invisible.
The development and action of mating teeth can be visualized by imagining the taut string as
being unwound from one base circle and wound on to the other, as shown in Figure 2-3a. Thus, a single
point on the string simultaneously traces an involute on each base circle's rotating plane. This pair of
involutes is conjugate, since at all points of contact the common normal is the common tangent which
passes through a fixed point on the line-of-centers. If a second winding/ unwinding taut string is wound
around the base circles in the opposite direction, Figure 2-3b, oppositely curved involutes are generated
which can accommodate motion reversal. When the involute pairs are properly spaced, the result is the
involute gear tooth, Figure 2-3c.

Fig. 2-3 Generation and Action of Gear Teeth

Fig. 2-2 Generation of an Involute by a Taut String

2.4 Pitch Circles

Referring to Figure 2-4, the tangent to the two base circles is the line of contact, or line-of-action
in gear vernacular. Where this line crosses the line-of-centers establishes the pitch point, P. This in turn
sets the size of the pitch circles, or as commonly called, the pitch diameters. The ratio of the pitch
diameters gives the velocity ratio:
Velocity ratio of gear 2 to gear 1 is:

i=

d1
d2

(2-1)

2.5 Pitch And Module

Essential to prescribing gear geometry is the size, or spacing of the teeth along the pitch circle.
This is termed pitch, and there are two basic forms.
Circular pitch A naturally conceived linear measure along the pitch circle of the tooth spacing.
Referring to Figure 2-5, it is the linear distance (measured along the pitch circle arc) between
corresponding points of adjacent teeth. It is equal to the pitch-circle circumference divided by the number
of teeth:

p = pitch circle =

pitch circle circumference

d
=
number of teeth
z

(2-2)

Module Metric gearing uses the quantity module m in place of the American inch unit,
diametral pitch. The module is the length of pitch diameter per tooth. Thus:

m=

d
z

(2-3)

Relation of pitches: From the geometry that defines the two pitches, it can be shown that
module and circular pitch are related by the expression:

p
=
m

(2-4)

Fig. 2-5 Definition of Circular Pitch

Fig. 2-4 Definition of Pitch Circle and

Pitch Point

Diametral pitch (Pd )is widely used in England and America to represent the tooth size. The relation
between diametral pitch and module is as follows:

m=

25.4
Pd

(2-5)

2.6 Module Sizes And Standards

Module mrepresents the size of involute gear tooth. The unit of module is mm. Module is
converted to circular pitch p, by the factor .
p = m

(2-6)

Table 2-1 is extracted from JIS B 1701-1973 which defines the tooth profile and dimensions of
involute gears. It divides the standard module into three series. Figure 2-6 shows the comparative size of
various rack teeth.
Table 2-1 Standard Values of Module
unit: mm
Series 1

Series 2

Series 3

Series 1

0.1

Series 2

Series 3

3.5
0.15

3.75

0.2

4
0.25

4.5

0.3

5
0.35

5.5

0.4

6
0.45

6.5

0.5

7
0.55

0.6

9
0.65

10

0.7
0.75

12

0.9

16

11

0.8

14

1
1.25
1.5

18
20
22
1.75

25

2.25

32

2.75

40

28

2.5

36

45
3.25

50

Note: The preferred choices are in the seriesorder beginning with 1.

Fig. 2-6 Comparative Size of Various Rack Teeth

Circular pitch, p, is also used to represent tooth size when a special desired spacing is wanted, such as to
get an integral feed in a mechanism. In this case, a circular pitch is chosen that is an integer or a special
fractional value. This is often the choice in designing position control systems. Another particular usage is
the drive of printing plates to provide a given feed.
Most involute gear teeth have the standard whole depth and a standard pressure angle = 20.
Figure 2-7 shows the tooth profile of a whole depth standard rack tooth and mating gear. It has an
addendum of ha = 1m and dedendum hf 1.25m. If tooth depth is shorter than whole depth it is called a
stub tooth; and if deeper than whole depth it is a high depth tooth.
The most widely used stub tooth has an addendum ha = 0.8m and dedendum hf = 1m. Stub teeth
have more strength than a whole depth gear, but contact ratio is reduced. On the other hand, a high
depth tooth can increase contact ratio, but weakens the tooth.
In the standard involute gear, pitch p times the number of teeth becomes the length of pitch circle:
d = mz
Pitch diameter (d) is then:
(2-7)
d = mz

Fig. 2-7 The Tooth Profile and Dimension of Standard Rack

Metric Module and Inch Gear Preferences: Because there is no direct equivalence between the pitches
in metric and inch systems, it is not possible to make direct substitutions. Further, there are preferred
modules in the metric system. As an aid in using metric gears, Table 2-2 presents nearest equivalents for
both systems, with the preferred sizes in bold type.

Table 2-2 Metric/American Gear Equivalents

Diametral
Pitch,
P

Module,
m

203.2000
200
180
169.333
150
127.000
125
120
101.600
96
92.3636
84.6667
80
78.1538
72.5714
72
67.733
64
63.500
50.800
50
48
44
42.333
40
36.2857
36
33.8667
32
31.7500
30
28.2222
28
25.4000
24
22
20.3200
20
18
16.9333
16
15
14.5143
14
13
12.7000
12
11.2889
11
10.1600
10

0.125
0.12700
0.14111
0.15
0.16933
0.2
0.20320
0.21167
0.25
0.26458
0.275
0.3
0.31750
0.325
0.35
0.35278
0.375
0.39688
0.4
0.5
0.50800
0.52917
0.57727
0.6
0.63500
0.7
0.70556
0.75
0.79375
0.8
0.84667
0.9
0.90714
1
1.0583
1.1545
1.25
1.2700
1.4111
1.5
1.5875
1.6933
1.75
1.8143
1.9538
2
2.1167
2.25
2.3091
2.50
2.5400

Circular Pitch

Circular Tooth
Thickness

Addendum

in

mm

in

mm

in

mm

0.0155
0.0157
0.0175
0.0186
0.0209
0.0247
0.0251
0.0262
0.0309
0.0327
0.0340
0.0371
0.0393
0.0402
0.0433
0.0436
0.0464
0.0491
0.0495
0.0618
0.0628
0.0655
0.0714
0.0742
0.0785
0.0866
0.0873
0.0928
0.0982
0.0989
0.1047
0.1113
0.1122
0.1237
0.1309
0.1428
0.1546
0.1571
0.1745
0.1855
0.1963
0.2094
0.2164
0.2244
0.2417
0.2474
0.2618
0.2783
0.2856
0.3092
0.3142

0.393
0.399
0.443
0.471
0.532
0.628
0.638
0.665
0.785
0.831
0.864
0.942
0.997
1.021
1.100
1.108
1.178
1.247
1.257
1.571
1.596
1.662
1.814
1.885
1.995
2.199
2.217
2.356
2.494
2.513
2.660
2.827
2.850
3.142
3.325
3.627
3.927
3.990
4.433
4.712
4.987
5.320
5.498
5.700
6.138
6.283
6.650
7.069
7.254
7.854
7.980

0.0077
0.0079
0.0087
0.0093
0.0105
0.0124
0.0126
0.0131
0.0155
0.0164
0.0170
0.0186
0.0196
0.0201
0.0216
0.0218
0.0232
0.0245
0.0247
0.0309
0.0314
0.0327
0.0357
0.0371
0.0393
0.0433
0.0436
0.0464
0.0491
0.0495
0.0524
0.0557
0.0561
0.0618
0.0654
0.0714
0.0773
0.0785
0.0873
0.0928
0.0982
0.1047
0.1082
0.1122
0.1208
0.1237
0.1309
0.1391
0.1428
0.1546
0.1571

0.196
0.199
0.222
0.236
0.266
0.314
0.319
0.332
0.393
0.416
0.432
0.471
0.499
0.511
0.550
0.554
0.589
0.623
0.628
0.785
0.798
0.831
0.907
0.942
0.997
1.100
1.108
1.178
1.247
1.257
1.330
1.414
1.425
1.571
1.662
1.813
1.963
1.995
2.217
2.356
2.494
2.660
2.749
2.850
3.069
3.142
3.325
3.534
3.627
3.927
3.990

0.0049
0.0050
0.0056
0.0059
0.0067
0.0079
0.0080
0.0083
0.0098
0.0104
0.0108
0.0118
0.0125
0.0128
0.0138
0.0139
0.0148
0.0156
0.0157
0.0197
0.0200
0.0208
0.0227
0.0236
0.0250
0.0276
0.0278
0.0295
0.0313
0.0315
0.0333
0.0354
0.0357
0.0394
0.0417
0.0455
0.0492
0.0500
0.0556
0.0591
0.0625
0.0667
0.0689
0.0714
0.0769
0.0787
0.0833
0.0886
0.0909
0.0984
0.1000

0.125
0.127
0.141
0.150
0.169
0.200
0.203
0.212
0.250
0.265
0.275
0.300
0.318
0.325
0.350
0.353
0.375
0.397
0.400
0.500
0.508
0.529
0.577
0.600
0.635
0.700
0.706
0.750
0.794
0.800
0.847
0.900
0.907
1.000
1.058
1.155
1.250
1.270
1.411
1.500
1.588
1.693
1.750
1.814
1.954
2.000
2.117
2.250
2.309
2.500
2.540

NOTE: Bold face diametral pitches and modules designate preferred values.

Table 2-2 (Cont.) Metric/American Gear Equivalents

Diametral
Pitch,
P

Module,
m

9.2364
9
8.4667
8
7.8154
7.2571
7
6.7733
6.3500
6
5.6444
5.3474
5.0800
5
4.6182
4.2333
4
3.9077
3.6286
3.5000
3.1750
3.1416
3
2.8222
2.5400
2.5000
2.3091
2.1167
2
1.8143
1.5875
1.5000
1.4111
1.2700
1.1545
1.0583
1.0160
1
0.9407
0.9071
0.8467
0.7938
0.7697
0.7500
0.7056
0.6513
0.6350
0.6048
0.5644
0.5080
0.5000

2.75
2.8222
3
3.1750
3.25
3.5
3.6286
3.75
4
4.2333
4.5
4.75
5
5.0800
5.5000
6
6.3500
6.5000
7
7.2571
8
8.0851
8.4667
9
10
10.160
11
12
12.700
14
16
16.933
18
20
22
24
25
25.400
27
28
30
32
33
33.867
36
39
40
42
45
50
50.800

Circular Pitch

Circular Tooth
Thickness

Addendum

in

mm

in

mm

in

mm

0.3401
0.3491
0.3711
0.3927
0.4020
0.4329
0.4488
0.4638
0.4947
0.5236
0.5566
0.5875
0.6184
0.6283
0.6803
0.7421
0.7854
0.8040
0.8658
0.8976
0.9895
1.0000
1.0472
1.1132
1.2368
1.2566
1.3605
1.4842
1.5708
1.7316
1.9790
2.0944
2.2263
2.4737
2.7211
2.9684
3.0921
3.1416
3.3395
3.4632
3.7105
3.9579
4.0816
4.1888
4.4527
4.8237
4.9474
5.1948
5.5658
6.1842
6.2832

8.639
8.866
9.425
9.975
10.210
10.996
11.400
11.781
12.566
13.299
14.137
14.923
15.708
15.959
17.279
18.850
19.949
20.420
21.991
22.799
25.133
25.400
26.599
28.274
31.416
31.919
34.558
37.699
39.898
43.982
50.265
53.198
56.549
62.832
69.115
75.398
78.540
79.796
84.823
87.965
94.248
100.531
103.673
106.395
113.097
122.522
125.664
131.947
141.372
157.080
159.593

0.1701
0.1745
0.1855
0.1963
0.2010
0.2164
0.2244
0.2319
0.2474
0.2618
0.2783
0.2938
0.3092
0.3142
0.3401
0.3711
0.3927
0.4020
0.4329
0.4488
0.4947
0.5000
0.5236
0.5566
0.6184
0.6283
0.6803
0.7421
0.7854
0.8658
0.9895
1.0472
1.1132
1.2368
1.3605
1.4842
1.5461
1.5708
1.6697
1.7316
1.8553
1.9790
2.0408
2.0944
2.2263
2.4119
2.4737
2.5974
2.7829
3.0921
3.1416

4.320
4.433
4.712
4.987
5.105
5.498
5.700
5.890
6.283
6.650
7.069
7.461
7.854
7.980
8.639
9.425
9.975
10.210
10.996
11.399
12.566
12.700
13.299
14.137
15.708
15.959
17.279
18.850
19.949
21.991
25.133
26.599
28.274
31.416
34.558
37.699
39.270
39.898
42.412
43.982
47.124
50.265
51.836
53.198
56.549
61.261
62.832
65.973
70.686
78.540
79.796

0.1083
0.1111
0.1181
0.1250
0.1280
0.1378
0.1429
0.1476
0.1575
0.1667
0.1772
0.1870
0.1969
0.2000
0.2165
0.2362
0.2500
0.2559
0.2756
0.2857
0.3150
0.3183
0.3333
0.3543
0.3937
0.4000
0.4331
0.4724
0.5000
0.5512
0.6299
0.6667
0.7087
0.7874
0.8661
0.9449
0.9843
1.0000
1.0630
1.1024
1.1811
1.2598
1.2992
1.3333
1.4173
1.5354
1.5748
1.6535
1.7717
1.9685
2.0000

2.750
2.822
3.000
3.175
3.250
3.500
3.629
3.750
4.000
4.233
4.500
4.750
5.000
5.080
5.500
6.000
6.350
6.500
7.000
7.257
8.000
8.085
8.467
9.000
10.000
10.160
11.000
12.000
12.700
14.000
16.000
16.933
18.000
20.000
22.000
24.000
25.000
25.400
27.000
28.000
30.000
32.000
33.000
33.867
36.000
39.000
40.000
42.000
45.000
50.000
50.800

NOTE: Bold face diametral pitches and modules designate preferred values.

2.7 Gear Types And Axial Arrangements

In accordance with the orientation of axes, there are three categories of gears:
1. Parallel Axes Gears
2. Intersecting Axes Gears
3. Nonparallel and Nonintersecting Axes Gears
Spur and helical gears are the parallel axes gears. Bevel gears are the intersecting axes gears.
Screw or crossed helical, worm and hypoid gears handle the third category. Table 2-3 lists the gear types
per axes orientation.
Also, included in Table 2-3 is the theoretical efficiency range of the various gear types. These
figures do not include bearing and lubricant losses. Also, they assume ideal mounting in regard to axis
orientation and center distance. Inclusion of these realistic considerations will downgrade the efficiency
numbers.
Table 2-3 Types of Gears and Their Categories
Categories of Gears

Parallel Axes Gears

Intersecting Axes Gears

Nonparallel and
Nonintersecting Axes
Gears

Types of Gears
Spur Gear
Spur Rack
Internal Gear
Helical Gear
Helical Rack
Double Helical Gear
Straight Bevel Gear
Spiral Bevel Gear
Zerol Gear
Worm Gear
Screw Gear
Hypoid Gear

Efficiency (%)

98 ... 99.5

98 ... 99
30 ... 90
70 ... 95
96 ... 98

2.7.1 Parallel Axes Gears

1. Spur Gear
This is a cylindrical shaped gear in which
the teeth are parallel to the axis. It has the largest
applications and, also, it is the easiest to manufacture.

Fig. 2-8 Spur Gear

2. Spur Rack
This is a linear shaped gear which can mesh with
a spur gear with any number of teeth. The spur rack is a portion
of a spur gear with an infinite radius.
Fig. 2-9 Spur Rack

3. Internal Gear
This is a cylindrical shaped gear but with
the teeth inside the circular ring. It can mesh
with a spur gear. Internal gears are often used in
planetary gear systems.

Fig. 2-10 Internal Gear and

Spur Gear

4. Helical Gear
This is a cylindrical shaped gear with helicoids
teeth. Helical gears can bear more load than
spur gears, and work more quietly. They are
widely used in industry. A disadvantage is the
axial thrust force the helix form causes.

Fig. 2-11 Helical Gear

5. Helical Rack
This is a linear shaped gear which meshes with
a helical gear. Again, it can be regarded as a
portion of
a helical gear with infinite radius.
Fig. 2-12 Helical Rack

6. Double Helical Gear This is a gear with both

left-hand and right-hand helical teeth. The
double helical form balances the inherent thrust
forces.
.
Fig. 2-13 Double Helical Gear

2.7.2 Intersecting Axes Gears

1. Straight Bevel Gear
This is a gear in which the teeth have
tapered conical elements that have the same
direction as the pitch cone base line (generatrix).
The straight bevel gear is both the simplest to
produce and the most widely applied in the
bevel gear family.
Fig. 2-14 Straight Bevel Gear

2. Spiral Bevel Gear

This is a bevel gear with a helical angle
of spiral teeth. It is much more complex to
manufacture, but offers a higher strength and
lower noise.

Fig. 2-15 Spiral Bevel Gear

3. Zerol Gear
Zerol gear is a special case of spiral
bevel gear. It is a spiral bevel with zero degree
of spiral angle tooth advance. It has the
characteristics of both the straight and spiral
bevel gears. The forces acting upon the tooth
are the same as for a straight bevel gear.
Fig. 2-16 Zerol Gear
2.7.3 Nonparallel And Nonintersecting Axes
Gears
1. Worm And Worm Gear
Worm set is the name for a meshed
worm and worm gear. The worm resembles a
screw thread; and the mating worm gear a
helical gear, except that it is made to envelope
the worm as seen along the worm's axis. The
outstanding feature is that the worm offers a
very large gear ratio in a single mesh. However,
transmission efficiency is very poor due to a
great amount of sliding as the worm tooth
engages with its mating worm gear tooth and
forces rotation by pushing and sliding. With
proper choices of materials and lubrication, wear
can be contained and noise is reduced.

Fig. 2-17 Worm Gear

2. Screw Gear (Crossed Helical Gear)

Two helical gears of opposite helix
angle will mesh if their axes are crossed. As
separate gear components, they are merely
conventional helical gears. Installation on
crossed axes converts them to screw gears.
They offer a simple means of gearing skew axes
at any angle. Because they have point contact,
their load carrying capacity is very limited.
Fig. 2-18 Screw Gear
2.7.4 Other Special Gears
1. Face Gear
This is a pseudobevel gear that is
limited to 90O intersecting axes. The face gear
is a circular disc with a ring of teeth cut in its
side face; hence the name face gear. Tooth
elements are tapered towards its center. The
mate is an ordinary spur gear. It offers no
advantages over the standard bevel gear,
except that it can be fabricated on an ordinary
shaper gear generating machine.

Fig. 2-19 Face Gear

2. Double Enveloping Worm Gear

This worm set uses a special worm
shape in that it partially envelops the worm gear
as viewed in the direction of the worm gear axis.
Its big advantage over the standard worm is
much higher load capacity. However, the worm
gear is very complicated to design and produce,
and sources for manufacture are few.

Fig. 2-20 Double Enveloping Worm Gear

3. Hypoid Gear
This is a deviation from a bevel gear
that originated as a special development for the
automobile industry. This permitted the drive to
the rear axle to be nonintersecting, and thus
allowed the auto body to be lowered. It looks
very much like the spiral bevel gear. However, it
is complicated to design and is the most difficult
to produce on a bevel gear generator.

Fig. 2-21 Hypoid Gear

SECTION 3 DETAILS OF INVOLUTE GEARING

3.1 Pressure Angle
The pressure angle is defined as the angle between the line-of-action (common tangent to the
base circles in Figures 2-3 and 2-4) and a perpendicular to the line-of-centers. See Figure 3-1. From the
geometry of these figures, it is obvious that the pressure angle varies (slightly) as the center distance of a
gear pair is altered. The base circle is related to the pressure angle and pitch diameter by the equation:
db = d cos

(3-1)

where d and are the standard values, or alternately:

db = d cos

(3-2)

where d' and ' are the exact operating values.

The basic formula shows that the larger the pressure angle the smaller the base circle. Thus, for
standard gears, 14.5 pressure angle gears have base circles much nearer to the roots of teeth than 20
gears. It is for this reason that 14.5 gears encounter greater undercutting problems than 20 gears. This
is further elaborated on in SECTION 4.3.

Fig. 3-1 Definition of Pressure Angle

3.2 Proper Meshing And Contact Ratio

Figure 3-2 shows a pair of standard gears meshing together. The contact point of the two
involutes, as Figure 3-2 shows, slides along the common tangent of the two base circles as rotation
occurs. The common tangent is called the line-of-contact, or line-of-action.
A pair of gears can only mesh correctly if the pitches and the pressure angles are the same. Pitch
comparison can be module (m), circular (p), or base(pb ).
That the pressure angles must be identical becomes obvious from the following equation for base
pitch:
(3-3)
pb = m cos

Thus, if the pressure angles are different, the base pitches cannot be identical.
The length of the line-of-action is shown as ab in Figure 3-2.

Fig. 3-2 The Meshing of Involute Gear

3.2.1 Contact Ratio

To assure smooth continuous tooth action, as one pair of teeth ceases contact a succeeding pair
of teeth must already have come into engagement. It is desirable to have as much overlap as possible.
The measure of this overlapping is the contact ratio. This is a ratio of the length of the line-of-action to the
base pitch. Figure 3-3 shows the geometry. The length-of-action is determined from the intersection of
the line-of-action and the outside radii. For the simple case of a pair of spur gears, the ratio of the lengthof-action to the base pitch is determined from:

( Ra Rb ) + (ra + rb ) a sin
2

p cos

(3-4)

It is good practice to maintain a contact ratio of 1.2 or greater. Under no circumstances should the
ratio drop below 1.1, calculated for all tolerances at their worst-case values.
A contact ratio between 1 and 2 means that part of the time two pairs of teeth are in contact and
during the remaining time one pair is in contact. A ratio between 2 and 3 means 2 or 3 pairs of teeth are
always in contact. Such a high contact ratio generally is not obtained with external spur gears, but can be
developed in the meshing of an internal and external spur gear pair or specially designed nonstandard
external spur gears.
More detail is presented about contact ratio, including calculation equations for specific gear
types, in SECTION 11.

Fig. 3-3 Geometry of Contact Ratio

3.3 The Involute Function

Figure 3-4 shows an element of involute curve. The definition of involute curve is the curve
traced by a point on a straight line which rolls without slipping on the circle.

The circle is called the base circle of the involutes. Two opposite hand involute curves meeting at a cusp
form a gear tooth curve. We can see, from Figure 3-4, the length of base circle arc ac equals the length
of straight line bc.

tan =

bc rb
=
= (radian)
Oc rb

(3-5)

The in Figure 3-4 can be expressed as inv + , then Formula (3-5) will become:
inv = tan

(3-6)

Function of , or inv , is known as involute function. Involute function is very important in

gear design. Involute function values can be obtained from appropriate tables. With the center
of the base circle O at the origin of a coordinate system, the involute curve can be expressed
by values of x and y as follows:

x = r cos(inv ) =

rb
cos(inv )
cos
(3-7)

y = r sin(inv ) =

where,

r=

rb
sin(inv )
cos

rb
cos

Fig. 3-4 The Involute Curve

SECTION 4 SPUR GEAR CALCULATIONS

4.1 Standard Spur Gear
Figure 4-1 shows the meshing of standard spur gears. The meshing of standard spur gears
means pitch circles of two gears contact and roll with each other. The calculation formulas are in Table 41.

Fig. 4-1 The Meshing of Standard Spur Gears

( = 20, z1 = 12, z2 = 24, x1 = x2 = 0)
Table 4-1 The Calculation of Standard Spur Gears
No.

Item

Symbol

1
2

Module
Pressure Angle
Number of
Teeth

Formula

Center
Distance

Pitch Diameter

12

( z1 + z 2 ) m *
2
zm

Base Diameter
db
dcos
Addendum
ha
1.00m
Dedendum
hf
1.25m
Outside
9
da
d+2m
Diameter
10
Root Diameter
df
d-2.5m
*The subscripts 1 and 2 of z1 and z2 denote pinion and gear.
6
7
8

Gear
3
200

z1, z2*

Example
Pinion

24
54.000

36.000

72.000

33.829

67.658
3.000
3.750

42.000

78.000

28.500

64.500

All calculated values in Table 4-1 are based upon given module (m) and number of teeth (z1 and
z2 ). If instead module (m), center distance (a) and speed ratio (i ) are given, then the number of teeth, z1
and z2, would be calculated with the formulas as shown in Table 4-2.

No.
1
2
3

Table 4-2 The Calculation of Teeth Number

Item
Symbol
Formula
Module
m
Center Distance
a
Speed Ratio
i

Sum of No. of Teeth

z1+z2

Number of Teeth

z1,z2

Example
3
54.000
0.8

2a
m

i ( z1 + z 2 )
i +1

36

( z1 + z 2 )
i +1

16

20

Note that the numbers of teeth probably will not be integer values by calculation with the formulas
in Table 4-2. Then it is incumbent upon the designer to choose a set of integer numbers of teeth that are
as close as possible to the theoretical values. This will likely result in both slightly changed gear ratio and
center distance. Should the center distance be inviolable, it will then be necessary to resort to profile
shifting. This will be discussed later in this section.
4.2 The Generating Of A Spur Gear
Involute gears can be readily generated by rack type cutters. The hob is in effect a rack cutter.
Gear generation is also accomplished with gear type cutters using a shaper or planer machine.
Figure 4-2 illustrates how an involute gear tooth profile is generated. It shows how the pitch line
of a rack cutter rolling on a pitch circle generates a spur gear.

Fig. 4-2 The Generating of a Standard Spur Gear

( = 20, z = 10, x = 0)

4.3 Undercutting
From Figure 4-3, it can be seen that the maximum length of the line-of-contact is limited to the
length of the common tangent. Any tooth addendum that extends beyond the tangent points (T and T') is
not only useless, but interferes with the root fillet area of the mating tooth. This results in the typical
undercut tooth, shown in Figure 4-4. The undercut not only weakens the tooth with a wasp-like waist, but
also removes some of the useful involute adjacent to the base circle.

Fig. 4-3 Geometry of Contact Ratio

Fig. 4-4 Example of Undercut Standard Design Gear

(12 Teeth, 20 Pressure Angle)
From the geometry of the limiting length-of-contact (T-T', Figure 4-3), it is evident that
interference is first encountered by the addenda of the gear teeth digging into the matingpinion tooth
flanks. Since addenda are standardized by a fixed value (ha = m), the interference condition becomes
more severe as the number of teeth on the mating gear increases. The limit is reached when the gear
becomes a rack. This is a realistic case since the hob is a rack-type cutter. The result is that standard
gears with teeth numbers below a critical value are automatically undercut in the generating process. The
condition for no undercutting in a standard spur gear is given by the expression:
Max addendum =

ha

mz
sin 2
2

and the minimum number of teeth is:

(4-1)

2
zc
sin 2
This indicates that the minimum number of teeth free of undercutting decreases with increasing
pressure angle. For 14.5 the value of zc is 32, and for 20 it is 18. Thus, 20 pressure angle gears with
low numbers of teeth have the advantage of much less undercutting and, therefore, are both stronger and
smoother acting.

4.4 Enlarged Pinions

Undercutting of pinion teeth is undesirable because of losses of strength, contact ratio and
smoothness of action. The severity of these faults depends upon how far below zc the teeth number is.
Undercutting for the first few numbers is small and in many applications its adverse effects can be
neglected.
For very small numbers of teeth, such as ten and smaller, and for high-precision applications,
undercutting should be avoided. This is achieved by pinion enlargement (or correction as often termed),
wherein the pinion teeth, still generated with a standard cutter, are shifted radially outward to form a full
involute tooth free of undercut. The tooth is enlarged both radially and circumferentially. Comparison of a
tooth form before and after enlargement is shown in Figure 4-5.

Fig. 4-5 Comparison of Enlarged and Undercut

Standard Pinion
(13 Teeth, 20 Pressure Angle, Fine Pitch Standard)

4.5 Profile Shifting

As Figure 4-2 shows, a gear with 20 degrees of pressure angle and 10 teeth will have a huge
undercut volume. To prevent undercut, a positive correction must be introduced. A positive correction, as
in Figure 4-6, can prevent undercut.

Fig. 4-6 Generating of Positive Shifted Spur Gear

( = 20, z = 10, x = +0.5)

Undercutting will get worse if a negative correction is applied. See Figure 4-7.
The extra feed of gear cutter (xm) in Figures 4-6 and 4-7 is the amount of shift or correction. And
x is the shift coefficient.

Fig. 4-7 The Generating of Negative Shifted Spur Gear

( = 20, z = 10, x = -0.5)
The condition to prevent undercut in a spur gear is:

m xm

zm
sin 2
2

(4-2)

The number of teeth without undercut will be:

zc =

2(1 x)
sin 2

(4-3)

The coefficient without undercut is:

x =1

zc
sin 2
2

(4-4)

Profile shift is not merely used to prevent undercut. It can be used to adjust center distance
between two gears.
If a positive correction is applied, such as to prevent undercut in a pinion, the tooth thickness at
top is thinner.
Table 4-3 presents the calculation of top land thickness.

Table 4-3 The Calculations of Top Land Thickness

No.

Item

Symbol

Formula

Pressure angle
at outside circle
of gear

d
cos ( b )
da

Half of top land

angle of outside
circle

Top land
thickness

sa

2z

2 x tan (inv inv a )

+
(radian)
z
da

Example
m = 2, = 20,
z = 16,
x = +0.3, d = 32,
db = 30.07016
da = 37.2
a = 36.06616
inv a = 0.098835
inv = 0.014904
= 1.59815
(0.027893 radian)
sa = 1.03762

4.6 Profile Shifted Spur Gear

Figure 4-8 shows the meshing of a pair of profile shifted gears. The key items in profile shifted
gears are the operating (working) pitch diameters (dw)and the working (operating) pressure angle (w).
These values are obtainable from the operating (or i.e., actual) center distance and the following
formulas:

z1
z1 + z 2
z2
= 2a x
z1 + z 2

d w1 = 2a x
d w2

d b1 + d b 2
2a x

w = cos 1

(4-5)

Fig. 4-8 The Meshing of Profile Shifted Gears

( = 20, z1 = 12, z2 = 24, x1 = +0.6, x2 = +0.36)

In the meshing of profile shifted gears, it is the operating pitch circles that are in contact and roll
on each other that portrays gear action. The standard pitch circles no longer are of significance; and the
operating pressure angle is what matters.
A standard spur gear is, according to Table 4-4, a profile shifted gear with 0 coefficient of shift;
that is, x1 = x2 = 0.
Table 4-4 The Calculation of Positive Shifted Gear (1)
Formula

Example
Pinion
Gear
3
200
12
24
0.6
0.36

No.

Item

Symbol

1
2
3
4

Module
Pressure Angle
Number of Teeth
Coefficient of Profile Shift

z1 , z2
x1 , x2

Involute Function w

inv w

x + x2
2 tan 1
z1 + z 2

Working Pressure Angle

Find from Involute

Function Table

Center Distance
Increment Factor

Center Distance

ax

9
10

Pitch Diameter
Base Diameter

d
db

zm
d cos

36.000
33.8289

72.000
67.6579

11

Working Pitch Diameter

dw

db
cos w

37.667

75.333

12

Addendum

3.700

Whole Depth
Outside Diameter
Root Diameter

(1+y-x2)m
(1+y-x1)m
[2.25+y-(x1+x2)]m
d+2ha
d-2ha

4.420

13
14
15

ha1
ha2
h
da
df

+ inv

0.34316
26.08860

cos

cos w
z1 + z 2

+ y m

z1 + z 2
2

0.83329

56.4999

6.370
44.840
32.100

79.400
66.660

Table 4-5 is the inverse formula of items from 4 to 8 of Table 4

Table 4-5 The Calculation of Positive Shifted Gear (2)
No.

Item

Symbol

Center Distance

ax

Center Distance Increment

Factor

Working Pressure Angle

Sum of Coefficient of Profile

Shift

x1+x2

Coefficient of Profile Shift

x1, x2

Formula

Example
56.4999

a x z1 + z 2

2
m
( z + z 2 ) cos
cos 1 1

2 y + z1+ z2
( z1 + z 2 )(inv a inv )
2 tan

0.8333
26.08860

0.9600
0.6000

0.3600

There are several theories concerning how to distribute the sum of coefficient of profile shift, (x1 + x2 )
into pinion, (x1 ) and gear, (x2 ) separately. BSS (British) and DIN (German) standards are the most often
used. In the example above, the 12 tooth pinion was given sufficient correction to prevent undercut, and
the residual profile shift was given to the mating gear.
4.7 Rack And Spur Gear
Table 4-6 presents the method for calculating the mesh of a rack and spur gear. Figure 4-9a
shows the pitch circle of a standard gear and the pitch line of the rack.
One rotation of the spur gear will displace the rack (l) one circumferential length of the gear's
pitch circle, per the formula:
l = mz

(4-6)

Figure 4-9b shows a profile shifted spur gear, with positive correction xm, meshed with a rack.
The spur gear has a larger pitch radius than standard, by the amount xm. Also, the pitch line of the rack
has shifted outward by the amount xm.
Table 4-6 presents the calculation of a meshed profile shifted spur gear and rack. If the correction
factor x1 is 0, then it is the case of a standard gear meshed with the rack.
The rack displacement, l, is not changed in any way by the profile shifting. Equation (4-6)
remains applicable for any amount of profile shift.
Table 4-6 The Calculation of Dimensions of a Profile Shifted Spur Gear and a Rack
No.
1
2
3

Item

Symbol

Formula

Module
Pressure Angle
Number of Teeth
Coefficient of Profile
Shift
Height of Pitch Line
Working Pressure
Angle

Center Distance

ax

8
9

Pitch Diameter
Base Diameter

d
db

zm
d cos

36.000
33.829
36.000

4
5
6

Example
Spur Gear
Rack
3
200
12
--0.6

x
H

--

32.000
20

zm
+ H + xm
2

10

Working Pitch Diameter

dw

db
cos w

11
12
13
14

Addendum
Whole Depth
Outside Diameter
Root Diameter

ha
h
da
df

m(1+x)
2.25m
d+2ha
da+2h

51.800

---

4.800

3.000
6.750

45.600
32.100

---

Fig. 4-9a The Meshing of Standard

Spur Gear and Rack
( = 20, z1 = 12, x1 = 0)

Fig. 4-9b The Meshing of Profile Shifted

Spur Gear and Rack
( = 20, z1 = 12, x1 = +0.6)

SECTION 5 INTERNAL GEARS

5.1 Internal Gear Calculations
Calculation of a Profile Shifted Internal Gear
Figure 5-1 presents the mesh of an internal gear and external gear. Of vital importance is the
operating (working) pitch diameters, dw, and operating (working) pressure angle, w. They can be derived
from center distance, ax, and Equations (5-1).

z1

d w1 = 2a x
z 2 z1
z2

d w 2 = 2a x
z
z

1
2
d b 2 d b1

2a x

w = cos 1

Table 5-1 shows the calculation steps.

It will become a standard gear calculation if x1 = x2 = 0.

(5-1)

Fig. 5-1 The Meshing of Internal Gear and External Gear

( = 20, z1 = 16, z2 = 24, x1 = x2 = 0.5)
Table 5-1 The Calculation of a Profile Shifted Internal Gear and External Gear (1)

Formula

Example
External
External
Sear(1)
Sear(2)
3
200
12
24
0
0.5

No.

Item

Symbol

1
2
3
4

Module
Pressure Angle
Number of Teeth
Coefficient of Profile Shift

z1 , z2
x1 , x2

Involute Function w

inv w

Working Pressure Angle

Center Distance
Increment Factor

Center Distance

ax

9
10

Pitch Diameter
Base Diameter

d
db

zm
d cos

48.000
45.105

72.000
67.658

11

Working Pitch Diameter

dw

db
cos w

52.673

79.010

12

Addendum

1.500

Whole Depth

14

Outside Diameter

15

Root Diameter

(1+x1)m
(1 -x2)m
2.25m
d1+2ha1
d2+2ha2
da1+2h
da2+2h

3.000

13

ha1
ha2
h
da1
da2
df1
df2

x + x2
+ inv
2 tan 1
z
z
+
2
1

0.060401

Find from Involute

Function Table

31.0937

z 2 z1 cos

1
2 cos w

z 2 z1

+ y m

0.389426

13.1683

6.75
54.000

69.000

40.500

82.500

If the center distance, ax , is given, x1 and x2 would be obtained from the inverse calculation from
item 4 to item 8 of Table 5-1. These inverse formulas are in Table 5-2.
Table 5-2 The Calculation of Shifted Internal Gear and External Gear (2)
No.

Item

Symbol

Center Distance

ax

Center Distance Increment

Factor

Working Pressure Angle

Sum of Coefficient of Profile

Shift

x2-x1

Coefficient of Profile Shift

x1, x2

Formula

Example
13.1683

a x z 2 + z1

2
m

0.38943

( z z1 ) cos
cos 1 2

2 y + z 2 z1
( z 2 z1 )(inv w inv )

31.0937

0.5

2 tan
0

0.5

Pinion cutters are often used in cutting internal gears and external gears. The actual value of
tooth depth and root diameter, after cutting, will be slightly different from the calculation. That is because
the cutter has a coefficient of shifted profile. In order to get a correct tooth profile, the coefficient of cutter
should be taken into consideration.
5.2 Interference In Internal Gears
Three different types of interference can occur with internal gears:
(a) Involute Interference
(b) Trochoid Interference
(c) Trimming Interference
(a) Involute Interference
This occurs between the dedendum of the external gear and the addendum of the internal gear. It
is prevalent when the number of teeth of the external gear is small. Involute interference can be avoided
by the conditions cited below:

tan a2
z1
1
z2
tan w

(5-2)

where a2 is the pressure angle seen at a tip of the internal gear tooth.

d b2
d a2

a 2 = cos 1

(5-3)

and w is working pressure angle:

( z 2 z1 )m cos

2a x

w = cos 1

(5-4)

Equation (5-3) is true only if the outside diameter of the internal gear is bigger than the base
circle:

da2 db2

(5-5)

For a standard internal gear, where = 20, Equation (5-5) is valid only if the number of teeth is
z2 > 34.

(b) Trochoid Interference

This refers to an interference occurring at the addendum of the external gear and the dedendum
of the internal gear during recess tooth action. It tends to happen when the difference between the
numbers of teeth of the two gears is small. Equation (5-6) presents the condition for avoiding trochoidal
interference.

z1
+ inv w inv a 2 2
z2

(5-6)

Here
ra 2 2 ra1 2 a 2
2ara1

1 = cos 1

+ inv a1 inv w

a 2 + ra 2 2 ra1 2

2 = cos

2ara 2

where a1 is the pressure angle of the spur gear tooth tip:

d
a1 = cos 1 b1
d a1
In the meshing of an external gear and a standard internal gear = 20, trochoid interference is
avoided if the difference of the number of teeth, z1 z2 , is larger than 9.
1

(c) Trimming Interference

This occurs in the radial direction in that it prevents pulling the gears apart. Thus, the mesh must
be assembled by sliding the gears together with an axial motion. It tends to happen when the numbers of
teeth of the two gears are very close. Equation (5-9) indicates how to prevent this type of interference.

1 + inv w

z2
( 2 + )inv a 2 inv w )
z1

(5-9)

Here

1 = sin 1

1 (cos a1 / cos a 2 ) 2
1 ( z1 / z 2 )

2 = sin 1

(cos a 2 / cos a1 ) 1
( z 2 / z1 ) 1

(5-10)
2

This type of interference can occur in the process of cutting an internal gear with a pinion cutter.
Should that happen, there is danger of breaking the tooling. Table 5-3a shows the limit for the pinion
cutter to prevent trimming interference when cutting a standard internal gear, with pressure angle 20,
and no profile shift, i.e., xc = 0.

zc
z2

Table 5-3a The Limit to Prevent an Internal Gear from Trimming Interference
( = 20, xc = x2 = 0)
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
24
25
34
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
42
43

zc
z2

28
46

30
48

31
49

32
50

33
51

34
52

35
53

38
56

40
58

42
60

zc
z2

44
62

48
66

50
68

56
74

60
78

64
82

66
84

80
98

93
114

100
118

27
45

There will be an involute interference between the internal gear and the pinion cutter if the
number of teeth of the pinion cutter ranges from 15 to 22 (zc = 15 to 22). Table 5-3b shows the limit for a
profile shifted pinion cutter to prevent trimming interference while cutting a standard internal gear. The
correction, xc , is the magnitude of shift which was assumed to be: xc = 0.0075 zc + 0.05.
Table 5-3b The Limit to Prevent an Internal Gear from Trimming Interference
( = 20, x2 = 0)
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
24
25
0.1625 0.17 0.1775 0.185 0.1925
0.2
0.2075 0.215
0.23 0.2375
36
38
39
40
41
42
43
45
47
48

zc
xc
z2
zc
xc
z2

28
0.26
52

30
0.275
54

31
0.2825
55

32
0.29
56

zc
xc
z2

44
0.38
71

48
0.41
76

50
0.425
78

56
0.47
86

33
0.2975
58
60
0.5
90

34
0.305
59

35
0.3125
60

38
0.335
64

64
0.53
95

66
0.545
98

80
0.65
115

40
0.35
66

27
0.2525
50

42
0.365
68

93
0.77
136

100
0.8
141

There will be an involute interference between the internal gear and the pinion cutter if the
number of teeth of the pinion cutter ranges from 15 to 19 (zc = 15 to 19).
5.3 Internal Gear With Small Differences In Numbers Of Teeth
In the meshing of an internal gear and an external gear, if the difference in numbers of teeth of
two gears is quite small, a profile shifted gear could prevent the interference. Table 5-4 is an example of
how to prevent interference under the conditions of z2 = 50 and the difference of numbers of teeth of two
gears ranges from 1 to 8.
Table 5-4 The Meshing of Internal and External Gears of Small
Difference of Numbers of Teeth (m = 1, = 20)
z1

49

48

47

46

x1

z2

50

45

44

43

42

x2

1.00

0.60

0.40

0.30

0.20

0.11

0.06

0.01

61.0605

46.0324

37.4155

32.4521

28.2019

24.5356

22.3755

20.3854

0.971

1.354

1.775

2.227

2.666

3.099

3.557

4.010

1.105

1.512

1.726

1.835

1.933

2.014

2.053

2.088

All combinations above will not cause involute interference or trochoid interference, but trimming
interference is still there. In order to assemble successfully, the external gear should be assembled by
inserting in the axial direction.
A profile shifted internal gear and external gear, in which the difference of numbers of teeth is
small, belong to the field of hypocyclic mechanism, which can produce a large reduction ratio in one step,
such as 1/100.

Speed Ratio =

z 2 z1
z1

(5-11)

In Figure 5-2 the gear train has a difference of numbers of teeth of only 1; z1 = 30 and z2 = 31.
This results in a reduction ratio of 1/30.

Fig. 5-2 The Meshing of Internal Gear and External Gear

in which the Numbers of Teeth Difference is 1
(z2 z1 = 1)
SECTION 6 HELICAL GEARS
The helical gear differs from the spur gear in that its teeth are twisted along a helical path in the
axial direction. It resembles the spur gear in the plane of rotation, but in the axial direction it is as if there
were a series of staggered spur gears. See Figure 6-1. This design brings forth a number of different
features relative to the spur gear, two of the most important being as follows:

1. Tooth strength is improved because of the elongated

helical wraparound tooth base support.
2. Contact ratio is increased due to the axial tooth overlap.
Helical gears thus tend to have greater load carrying
capacity than spur gears of the same size. Spur gears,
on the other hand, have a somewhat higher efficiency.
Helical gears are used in two forms:
1. Parallel shaft applications, which is the largest usage.
2. Crossed-helicals (also called spiral or screw gears)
for connecting skew shafts, usually at right angles.
Fig. 6-1 Helical Gear

6.1 Generation Of The Helical Tooth

The helical tooth form is involute in the plane of rotation and can be developed in a manner
similar to that of the spur gear. However, unlike the spur gear which can be viewed essentially as two
dimensional, the helical gear must be portrayed in three dimensions to show changing axial features.
Referring to Figure 6-2, there is a base cylinder from which a taut plane is unwrapped, analogous
to the unwinding taut string of the spur gear in Figure 2-2. On the plane there is a straight line AB, which
when wrapped on the base cylinder has a helical trace AoBo. As the taut plane is unwrapped, any point
on the line AB can be visualized as tracing an involute from the base cylinder. Thus, there is an infinite
series of involutes generated by line AB, all alike, but displaced in phase along a helix on the base
cylinder.

Fig. 6-2 Generation of the Helical Tooth Profile

Again, a concept analogous to the spur gear tooth development is to imagine the taut plane being
wound from one base cylinder on to another as the base cylinders rotate in opposite directions. The result
is the generation of a pair of conjugate helical involutes. If a reverse direction of rotation is assumed and
a second tangent plane is arranged so that it crosses the first, a complete involute helicoid tooth is
formed.
6.2 Fundamentals Of Helical Teeth
In the plane of rotation, the helical gear tooth is involute and all of the relationships governing
spur gears apply to the helical. However, the axial twist of the teeth introduces a helix angle. Since the
helix angle varies from the base of the tooth to the outside radius, the helix angle is defined as the
angle between the tangent to the helicoidal tooth at the intersection of the pitch cylinder and the tooth
profile, and an element of the pitch cylinder. See Figure 6-3.
The direction of the helical twist is designated as either left or right.The direction is defined by the
right-hand rule.
For helical gears, there are two related pitches one in the plane of rotation and the other in a
plane normal to the tooth. In addition, there is an axial pitch.
Referring to Figure 6-4, the two circular pitches are defined and related as follows:
pn = pt cos = normal circular pitch

(6-1)

Fig. 6-3 Definition of Helix Angle

The normal circular pitch is less than the transverse radial pitch, pt , in the plane of rotation; the
ratio between the two being equal to the cosine of the helix angle.
Consistent with this, the normal module is less than the transverse (radial) module.

Fig. 6-4 Relationship of

Circular Pitches

Fig. 6-5 Axial Pitch of a

Helical Gear

The axial pitch of a helical gear, px , is the distance between corresponding points of adjacent teeth
measured parallel to the gear's axis see Figure 6-5. Axial pitch is related to circular pitch by the
expressions:

p x = pt cot =

pn
= axial pitch
sin

(6-2)

A helical gear such as shown in Figure 6-6 is a cylindrical gear in which the teeth flank are
helicoid. The helix angle in standard pitch circle cylinder is , and the displacement of one rotation is the
lead, L.
The tooth profile of a helical gear is an involute curve from an axial view, or in the plane
perpendicular to the axis. The helical gear has two kinds of tooth profiles one is based on a normal
system, the other is based on an axial system.
Circular pitch measured perpendicular to teeth is called normal circular pitch, pn. And pn divided
by is then a normal module, mn.

mn =

pn

The tooth profile of a helical gear with applied normal module, mn , and normal pressure angle n
belongs to a normal system.

Fig. 6-6 Fundamental Relationship of a Helical Gear (Right-Hand)

In the axial view, the circular pitch on the standard pitch circle is called the radial circular pitch, pt . And pt
divided by is the radial module, mt .

mt =

pt

(6-4)

6.3 Equivalent Spur Gear

The true involute pitch and involute geometry of a helical gear is in the plane of rotation.
However, in the normal plane, looking at one tooth, there is a resemblance to an involute tooth of a pitch
corresponding to the normal pitch. However, the shape of the tooth corresponds to a spur gear of a larger
number of teeth, the exact value depending on the magnitude of the helix angle.

The geometric basis of deriving the

number of teeth in this equivalent tooth
form spur gear is given in Figure 6-7. The
result of the transposed geometry is an
equivalent number of teeth, given as:

zv =

z
cos 3

(6-5)

This equivalent number is also called a

virtual number because this spur gear is
imaginary. The value of this number is
used in determining helical tooth strength.
Fig. 6-7 Geometry of Helical Gear's
Virtual Number of Teeth

6.4 Helical Gear Pressure Angle

Although, strictly speaking, pressure angle exists only for a gear pair, a nominal pressure angle
can be considered for an individual gear. For the helical gear there is a normal pressure, n , angle as well
as the usual pressure angle in the plane of rotation, . Figure 6-8 shows their relationship, which is
expressed as:

tan

tan n
cos

(6-6)

Fig. 6-8 Geometry of Two Pressure Angles

6.5 Importance Of Normal Plane Geometry

Because of the nature of tooth generation with a rack-type hob, a single tool can generate helical
gears at all helix angles as well as spur gears. However, this means the normal pitch is the common
denominator, and usually is taken as a standard value. Since the true involute features are in the
transverse plane, they will differ from the standard normal values. Hence, there is a real need for relating
parameters in the two reference planes.
6.6 Helical Tooth Proportions
These follow the same standards as those for spur gears. Addendum, dedendum, whole depth
and clearance are the same regardless of whether measured in the plane of rotation or the normal plane.
Pressure angle and pitch are usually specified as standard values in the normal plane, but there are times
when they are specified as standard in the transverse plane.

6.7 Parallel Shaft Helical Gear Meshes

Fundamental information for the design of gear meshes is as follows:
Helix angle Both gears of a meshed pair must have the same helix angle. However, the helix
direction must be opposite; i.e., a left-hand mates with a right-hand helix.
Pitch diameter This is given by the same expression as for spur gears, but if the
normal module is involved it is a function of the helix angle. The expressions are:

d = zm t =

z
m n cos

(6-7)

Center distance Utilizing Equation (6-7), the center distance of a helical gear
mesh is:

a=

( z 1 + z 2 )m n
2 cos

(6-8)

Note that for standard parameters in the normal plane, the center distance will not be a standard
value compared to standard spur gears. Further, by manipulating the helix angle, , the center distance
can be adjusted over a wide range of values. Conversely, it is possible:
1. to compensate for significant center distance changes (or errors) without changing the speed
ratio between parallel geared shafts; and
2. to alter the speed ratio between parallel geared shafts, without changing the center distance,
by manipulating the helix angle along with the numbers of teeth.

6.8 Helical Gear Contact Ratio

The contact ratio of helical gears is enhanced by the axial overlap of the teeth. Thus, the contact
ratio is the sum of the transverse contact ratio, calculated in the same manner as for spur gears, and a
term involving the axial pitch.

()total = ()trans + ()axial

or

(6-9)

r = +
Details of contact ratio of helical gearing are given later in a general coverage of the subject; see
SECTION 11.1.

6.9 Design Considerations

6.9.1 Involute Interference
Helical gears cut with standard normal pressure angles can have considerably higher pressure
angles in the plane of rotation see Equation (6-6) depending on the helix angle. Therefore, the
minimum number of teeth without undercutting can be significantly reduced, and helical gears having very
low numbers of teeth without undercutting are feasible.
6.9.2 Normal Vs. Radial Module (Pitch)
In the normal system, helical gears can be cut by the same gear hob if module mn and pressure
angle n are constant, no matter what the value of helix angle .
It is not that simple in the radial system.The gear hob design must be altered in accordance with
the changing of helix angle , even when the module mt and the pressure angle t are the same.
Obviously, the manufacturing of helical gears is easier with the normal system than with the radial
system in the plane perpendicular to the axis.

6.10 Helical Gear Calculations

6.10.1 Normal System Helical Gear
In the normal system, the calculation of a profile shifted helical gear, the working pitch diameter
dw and working pressure angle wt in the axial system is done per Equations (6-10). That is because
meshing of the helical gears in the axial direction is just like spur gears and the calculation is similar.

z1
z 1 + z/ 2
z2
= 2a x
z 1 + z/ 2

d w1 = 2a x
dw2

(6-10)

d + db2
wt = cos 1 b1
2a x

Table 6-1 shows the calculation of profile shifted helical gears in the normal system. If normal
coefficients of profile shift xn1 , xn2 are zero, they become standard gears.

No.
1
2
3
4

Table 6-1 The Calculation of a Profile Shifted Helical Gear in the Normal System (1)
Example
Item
Symbol
Formula
Pinion
Gear
Normal Module
mn
3
Normal Pressure Angle
n
20
Helix Angle

30
Number of Teeth & Helical
z1 , z2
12 (L)
60 (R)
Hand
t

Radial Pressure Angle

Normal Coefficient of Profile

Shift

xn1 , xn2

Involute Function

inv wt

Radial Working Pressure Angle

Center Distance Increment

Factor

10

Center Distance

ax

11

Standard Pitch Diameter

12

Base Diameter

db

13

Working Pitch Diameter

ha1

14

Addendum

ha2

15
16
17

Whole Depth
Outside Diameter
Root Diameter

h
da
df

wt

wt

tan 1 (

tan n
)
cos

22.79588
0.09809

x + x n2
2 tan n n1
z1 + z 2

+ inv t

Find from Involute Function

Table

cos t

1
cos

wt

z1 z 2

+ y m n
2 cos

zm n
cos
z1 + z 2
2 cos

d cos t
db
cos wt
(1 + y xn2) mn
(1 + y xn1) mn
[2.25 + y (xn1 + xn2)]mn
d + 2 ha
da 2 h

0.023405
23.1126
0.09744
125 .000
41.569

207.846

38.322

191.611

41.667

208.333

3.292

2.998

6.748
48.153
213.842
34.657
200.346

If center distance, ax , is given, the normal coefficient of profile shift xn1 and xn2 can be calculated
from Table 6-2. These are the inverse equations from items 4 to 10 of Table 6-1.
Table 6-2 The Calculations of a Profile Shifted Helical Gear in the Normal System (2)
No.
1

Item
Center Distance

Symbol
ax

Formula

Example
125

a x z1 + z 2

m n 2 cos

0.097447

wt

( z 1 + z 2 ) cos t
cos 1

( z 1 + z 2 ) + 2y cos

23.1126

Sum of Coefficient of Profile Shift

xn1 + xn2

( z 1 + z 2 )(inv wt inv t )
2 tan n

0.09809

Normal Coefficient of Profile Shift

xn1 + xn2

Center Distance Increment Factor

Radial Working Pressure Angle

4
5

0.09809

The transformation from a normal system to a radial system is accomplished by the following
equations:
xt = xn cos

mn
cos
tan n
t = tan 1
cos

mt =

(6-11)

6.10.2 Radial System Helical Gear

Table 6-3 shows the calculation of profile shifted helical gears in a radial system. They become
standard if xt1 = xt2 = 0.
Table 6-3 The Calculation of a Profile Shifted Helical Gear in the Radial System (1)
No.
1
2
3

Item

Symbol

Formula

Radial Module
Radial Pressure Angle
Helix Angle
Number of Teeth & Helical
Hand
Radial Coefficient of Profile
Shift

z1 , z2

12 (L)

60 (R)

xn1 , xn2

0.34462

Involute Function

inv wt

x + xt2
+ inv t
2 tan t t1
z1 + z 2

0.0183886

Radial Working Pressure Angle

wt

Find from Involute Function

Table

21.3975

Center Distance Increment

Factor

Center Distance

ax

10
11

Standard Pitch Diameter

Base Diameter

d
db

4
5

wt

mn
n

Example
Pinion
Gear
3
20
30

cos t

1
cos

wt

z1 + z2
+ y mt

2
z1 + z 2
2

zmt
d cos t

0.33333
109. 0000
36.000
33.8289

180.000
169.1447

12

Working Pitch Diameter

13

Addendum

14
15
16

Whole Depth
Outside Diameter
Root Diameter

db
cos wt
(1 + y xt2) mt
(1 + y xt1) mt
[2.25 + y (xt1 + xt2)]mt
d + 2 ha
da 2 h

dw
ha1
ha2
h
da
df

36.3333

181.6667

4.000

2.966

6.716
44.000
185.932
30.568
172.500

Table 6-4 presents the inverse calculation of items 5 to 9 of Table 6-3.

Table 6-4 The Calculation of a Shifted Helical Gear in the Radial System (2)
No.
1

Item
Center Distance

Symbol
ax

Center Distance Increment Factor

Radial Working Pressure Angle

Sum of Coefficient of Profile Shift

xn1 + xn2

Normal Coefficient of Profile Shift

xn1 + xn2

wt

Formula
a x z1 + z 2

mt
2

( z + z 2 ) cos t
cos 1 1

( z1 + z 2 ) + 2

( z 1 + z 2 )(inv wt inv t )
2 tan n

Example
109
0.33333
21.39752
0.34462
0.34462

The transformation from a radial to a normal system is described by the following equations:

xn =

xt
cos

mn = mt cos

(6-12)

n = tan-1 (tant cos)

6.10.3 Sunderland Double Helical Gear
A representative application of radial system is a double helical gear, or herringbone gear, made
with the Sunderland machine. The radial pressure angle, t , and helix angle, , are specified as 20 and
22.5, respectively. The only differences from the radial system equations of Table 6-3 are those for
addendum and whole depth. Table 6-5 presents equations for a Sunderland gear.

No.
1
2
3
4
5

Table 6-5 The Calculation of a Double Helical Gear of SUNDERLAND Tooth Profile
Example
Item
Symbol
Formula
Pinion
Gear
Radial Module
mt
3
Radial Pressure Angle
t
20
Helix Angle

22.5
Number of Teeth & Helical
z1 , z2
12
60
Hand
Radial Coefficient of Profile
xt1 , xt2
0.34462
0
Shift

wt

inv wt

x + xt2
+ inv t
2 tan t t1
z1 + z 2

0.0183886

wt

Find from Involute Function

Table

21.3975

Involute Function

Radial Working Pressure Angle

Center Distance Increment

Factor

Center Distance

ax

10
11

Standard Pitch Diameter

Base Diameter

d
db

12

Working Pitch Diameter

dw

13

Addendum

14
15
16

Whole Depth
Outside Diameter
Root Diameter

ha1
ha2
h
da
df

cos t

1
cos

wt

z1 + z2
+ y mt

2
z1 + z 2
2

zmt
d cos t
db
cos wt
(0.8796 + y xt2) mt
(0.8796 + y xt1) mt
[1.8849 + y (xt1 + xt2)]mt
d + 2 ha
da 2 h

0.33333
109. 0000
36.000
33.8289

180.000
169.1447

36.3333

181.6667

3.639

2.605

5.621
43.278
185.210
32.036
173.968

6.10.4 Helical Rack

Viewed in the normal direction, the meshing of a helical rack and gear is the same as a spur gear
and rack. Table 6-6 presents the calculation examples for a mated helical rack with normal module and
normal pressure angle standard values. Similarly, Table 6-7 presents examples for a helical rack in the
radial system (i.e., perpendicular to gear axis).
No.
1
2
3

Item

Symbol

Normal Module
Normal Pressure Angle
Helix Angle
Number of Teeth & Helical
Hand
Normal Coefficient of Profile
Shift

mn
n

Formula

Example
Pinion
Gear
2.5
20
105749

20 (R)

- (L)

xn

Pitch Line Height

27.5

Radial Pressure Angle

Mounting Distance

ax

Pitch Diameter

10
11
12
13
14

Base Diameter
Addendum
Whole Depth
Outside Diameter
Root Diameter

db
ha
h
da
df

tan 1 (

tan n
)
cos

zmn
+ H + x n mn
2 cos
zm n
cos

d cos t
mn (1 + xn)
2.25 mn
d + 2 ha
da 2 h

20.34160
52.965
50.92956

47.75343
2 .500
2 .500
5.625
55.929
44.679

Table 6-7 The Calculation of a Helical Rack in the Radial System

No.
1
2
3

Item

Symbol

Radial Module
Radial Pressure Angle
Helix Angle
Number of Teeth & Helical
Hand
Radial Coefficient of Profile
Shift

mn
n

Formula

Example
Pinion
Gear
2.5
20
105749

20 (R)

- (L)

xt

Pitch Line Height

27.5

Mounting Distance

ax

zmn
+ H + x t mt
2

Pitch Diameter

zmt

Base Diameter

db

d cos t

10
11
12
13

Addendum
Whole Depth
Outside Diameter
Root Diameter

ha
h
da
df

mt (1 + xt)
2.25 mt
d + 2 ha
da 2 h

52.500
50.000
46.98463
2 .500
2 .500
5.625
55.000
43.750

The formulas of a standard helical rack are similar to those of Table 6-6 with only the normal
coefficient of profile shift xn = 0. To mesh a helical gear to a helical rack, they must have the same helix
angle but with opposite hands.
The displacement of the helical rack, l, for one rotation of the mating gear is the product of the
radial pitch, pt, and number of teeth.

l=

m n
z = pt z
cos

(6-13)

According to the equations of Table 6-7, let radial pitch pt = 8 mm and displacement l = 160 mm.
The radial pitch and the displacement could be modified into integers, if the helix angle were chosen
properly.
In the axial system, the linear displacement of the helical rack, l, for one turn of the helical gear
equals the integral multiple of radial pitch.

l = zm t

(6-14)

SECTION 7 SCREW GEAR OR CROSSED HELICAL GEAR MESHES

These helical gears are also known as spiral gears. They are true helical gears and only differ in
their application for interconnecting skew shafts, such as in Figure 7-1. Screw gears can be designed to
connect shafts at any angle, but in most applications the shafts are at right angles.

7.1 Features
7.1.1 Helix Angle And Hands
The helix angles
need not be the same.
However, their sum must
equal the shaft angle:
1 + 2 =

(7-1)

where 1 and 2 are the

respective helix angles of
the two gears, and is the
shaft angle (the acute angle
between the two shafts
when viewed in a direction
paralleling a common
perpendicular between the
shafts).
Except for very
small shaft angles, the helix
hands are the same.
Fig. 7-1 Types of Helical Gear Meshes
NOTES:
1. Helical gears of the same hand operate at right angles.
2. Helical gears of opposite hand operate on parallel shafts.
3. Bearing location indicates the direction of thrust.
7.1.2 Module
Because of the possibility of different helix angles for the gear pair, the radial modules may not be
the same. However, the normal modules must always be identical.
7.1.3 Center Distance
The pitch diameter of a crossed-helical gear is given by Equation (6-7), and the center distance
becomes:

a=

mn
z
z2
( 1 +
)
2 cos 1 cos 2

(7-2)

Again, it is possible to adjust the center distance by manipulating the helix angle. However, helix
angles of both gears must be altered consistently in accordance with Equation (7-1).

7.1.4 Velocity Ratio

Unlike spur and parallel shaft helical meshes, the velocity ratio (gear ratio) cannot be determined
from the ratio of pitch diameters, since these can be altered by juggling of helix angles. The speed ratio
can be determined only from the number of teeth, as follows:

velocity ratio = i =

z1
z2

(7-3)

or, if pitch diameters are introduced, the relationship is:

i=

z 1 cos 2
z 2 cos 1

(7-4)

7.2 Screw Gear Calculations

Two screw gears can only mesh together under the conditions that normal modules, mn1, and,
mn2 , and normal pressure angles, n1, n2 , are the same. Let a pair of screw gears have the shaft angle
and helical angles 1 and 2:
If they have the same hands, then:
= 1 + 2

(7-5)

If they have the opposite hands, then:

= 1 2 , or = 2 1
If the screw gears were profile shifted, the meshing would become a little more complex. Let w1,
w2 represent the working pitch cylinder;
If they have the same hands, then:
= w1 + w2
If they have the opposite hands, then:
= w1 w2 , or = w2 w1

Fig. 7-2 Screw Gears of Nonparallel and

Nonintersecting Axes

(7-6)

Table 7-1 presents equations for a profile shifted screw gear pair. When the normal coefficients
of profile shift xn1 = xn2 = 0, the equations and calculations are the same as for standard gears.
Table 7-1 The Equations for a Screw Gear Pair on Nonparallel and
Nonintersecting Axes in the Normal System
No.

Item

Symbol

Formula

1
2
3

Normal Module
Normal Pressure Angle
Helix Angle

Number of Teeth & Helical Hand

Number of Teeth of an
Equivalent Spur Gear

zv

Radial Pressure Angle

Normal Coefficient of Profile

Shift

xn

Involute Function wn

Normal Working Pressure Angle

wn

Find from Involute Function Table

10

Radial Working Pressure Angle

wt

tan 1(

11

Center Distance Increment

Factor

12

Centre Distance

ax

13

Pitch Diameter

14

Base Diameter

db

15

Working Pitch Diameter

mn
n

z1,z2

inv wn

dw1
dw2

z
cos 3
tan n
tan 1(
)
cos

2 tan n (

x n1 + x n2
) + inv n
z v1 + z v 2

tan wn
)
cos

cos n
1
( z v1 + z v 2 )(
1)
2
cos wn

z1
z1

+
+ y mn
2
cos
2
cos

1
2

zm n
cos

d cos t
2a x

d1
d1 + d 2

2a x

d2
d1 + d 2

Example
Pinion
Gear
3
20
20
30
15 (R)

24 (L)

18.0773

36.9504

21.1728

22.7959

0.4

0.2

0.0228415
22.9338
24.2404

26.0386

0.55977
67.1925
47.8880

83.1384

44.6553

76.6445

49.1155

85.2695

20.4706

30.6319

16

Working Helix Angle

17

Shaft Angle

18

Addendum

19

Whole Depth

ha1
ha2
h

tan 1 w tan
d

w1 + w2 or w1 w2
(1 + y xn2)mn
(1 + y xn1)mn
[2.25 + y (xn1 + xn2)]mn

20

Outside Diameter

da

d + 2 ha

56.0466

90.0970

21

Root Diameter

df

da 2 h

42.7880

76.8384

51.1025
4.0793

3.4793

6.6293

Standard screw gears have relations as follows:

dw1 = d1 , dw2 = d2
(7-7)

w1 = 1 , w2 = 2
7.3 Axial Thrust Of Helical Gears

In both parallel-shaft and crossed-shaft applications, helical gears develop an axial thrust load.
This is a useless force that loads gear teeth and bearings and must accordingly be considered in the
housing and bearing design. In some special instrument designs, this thrust load can be utilized to
actuate face clutches, provide a friction drag, or other special purpose. The magnitude of the thrust load
depends on the helix angle and is given by the expression:
t
WT = W tan

(7-8)

where
WT = axial thrust load, and
t
W = transmitted load.
The direction of the thrust load is related to the hand of the gear and the direction of rotation. This
is depicted in Figure 7-1. When the helix angle is larger than about 20, the use of double helical gears
with opposite hands (Figure 7-3a) or herringbone gears (Figure 7-3b) is worth considering.

Figure 7-3a

Figure 7-3b

More detail on thrust force of helical gears is presented in SECTION 16.

SECTION 8 BEVEL GEARING

For intersecting shafts, bevel gears offer a good means of

transmitting motion and power. Most transmissions occur at right
angles, Figure 8-1, but the shaft angle can be any value. Ratios
up to 4:1 are common, although higher ratios are possible as well.

Fig. 8-1 Typical Right Angle

Bevel Gear

8.1 Development And Geometry Of Bevel Gears

Bevel gears have tapered elements because they are generated and operate, in theory, on the
surface of a sphere. Pitch diameters of mating bevel gears belong to frusta of cones, as shown in Figure
8-2a. In the full development on the surface of a sphere, a pair of meshed bevel gears are in conjugate
engagement as shown in Figure 8-2b.
The crown gear, which is a bevel gear having the largest possible pitch angle (defined in Figure
8-3), is analogous to the rack of spur gearing, and is the basic tool for generating bevel gears. However,
for practical reasons, the tooth form is not that of a spherical involute, and instead, the crown gear profile
assumes a slightly simplified form. Although the deviation from a true spherical involute is minor, it results
in a line-of-action having a figure-8 trace in its extreme extension; see Figure 8-4. This shape gives rise
to the name "octoid" for the tooth form of modern bevel gears.

Fig. 8-2 Pitch Cones of Bevel Gears

Fig. 8-3 Meshing Bevel Gear Pair with Conjugate Crown Gear

Fig. 8-4 Spherical Basis of Octoid Bevel Crown Gear

8.2 Bevel Gear Tooth Proportions

Bevel gear teeth are proportioned in accordance with the standard system of tooth proportions
used for spur gears. However, the pressure angle of all standard design bevel gears is limited to 20.
Pinions with a small number of teeth are enlarged automatically when the design follows the Gleason
system.
Since bevel-tooth elements are tapered, tooth dimensions and pitch diameter are referenced to
the outer end (heel). Since the narrow end of the teeth (toe) vanishes at the pitch apex (center of
reference generating sphere), there is a practical limit to the length (face) of a bevel gear. The geometry
and identification of bevel gear parts is given in Figure 8-5.

8.3 Velocity Ratio

The velocity ratio, i , can be derived from the ratio of several parameters:

i=

z 1 d1 sin 1
=
=
z
d 2 sin 2

(8-1)

where: = pitch angle (see Figure 8-5)

8.4 Forms Of Bevel Teeth*
In the simplest design, the tooth elements are straight radial, converging at the cone apex.
However, it is possible to have the teeth curve along a spiral as they converge on the cone apex,
resulting in greater tooth overlap, analogous to the overlapping action of helical teeth. The result is a
*

The material in this section has been reprinted with the permission of McGraw Hill Book
Co., Inc., New York, N.Y. from "Design of Bevel Gears" by W. Coleman, Gear Design and
Applications, N. Chironis, Editor, McGraw Hill, New York, N.Y. 1967, p. 57.

Fig. 8-5 Bevel Gear Pair Design Parameters

spiral bevel tooth. In addition, there are other possible variations. One is the zerol bevel, which is a
curved tooth having elements that start and end on the same radial line.
Straight bevel gears come in two variations depending upon the fabrication equipment. All current
Gleason straight bevel generators are of the Coniflex form which gives an almost imperceptible convexity
to the tooth surfaces. Older machines produce true straight elements. See Figure 8-6a.
Straight bevel gears are the simplest and most widely used type of bevel gears for the
transmission of power and/or motion between intersecting shafts. Straight bevel gears are recommended:
1. When speeds are less than 300 meters/min (1000 feet/min) at higher speeds, straight bevel
gears may be noisy.
2. When loads are light, or for high static loads when surface wear is not a critical factor.
3. When space, gear weight, and mountings are a premium. This includes planetary gear sets,
where space does not permit the inclusion of rolling-element bearings.

Other forms of bevel gearing include the following:

Coniflex gears (Figure 8-6b) are produced by current Gleason straight bevel gear generating
machines that crown the sides of the teeth in their lengthwise direction. The teeth, therefore, tolerate
small amounts of misalignment in the assembly of the gears and some displacement of the gears under
load without concentrating the tooth contact at the ends of the teeth. Thus, for the operating conditions,
Coniflex gears are capable of transmitting larger loads than the predecessor Gleason straight bevel
gears.
Spiral bevels (Figure 8-6c) have curved oblique teeth which contact each other gradually and
smoothly from one end to the other. Imagine cutting a straight bevel into an infinite number of short face
width sections, angularly displace one relative to the other, and one has a spiral bevel gear. Welldesigned spiral bevels have two or more teeth in contact at all times. The overlapping tooth action
transmits motion more smoothly and quietly than with straight bevel gears.
Zerol bevels (Figure 8-6d) have curved teeth similar to those of the spiral bevels, but with zero
spiral angle at the middle of the face width; and they have little end thrust.
Both spiral and Zerol gears can be cut on the same machines with the same circular face-mill
cutters or ground on the same grinding machines. Both are produced with localized tooth contact which
can be controlled for length, width, and shape.
Functionally, however, Zerol bevels are similar to the straight bevels and thus carry the same
ratings. In fact, Zerols can be used in the place of straight bevels without mounting changes.
Zerol bevels are widely employed in the aircraft industry, where ground-tooth precision gears are
generally required. Most hypoid cutting machines can cut spiral bevel, Zerol or hypoid gears.

Fig. 8-6 Forms of Bevel Gear Teeth

8.5 Bevel Gear Calculations

Let z1 and z2 be pinion and gear tooth numbers; shaft angle ; and pitch cone angles 1 and 2 ;
then:

tan 1 =

sin
z2
+ cos
z1

(8-2)
tan 2 =

sin
z1
+ cos
z2

Generally, shaft angle = 90 is most used. Other angles (Figure 8-7) are sometimes
used. Then, it is called bevel gear in nonright angle drive. The 90 case is called bevel gear in
right angle drive.
When = 90, Equation (8-2) becomes:

1 = tan 1 (

z1
)
z2
(8-3)

z
2 = tan 1 ( 2 )
z1

Miter gears are bevel gears with = 90

and z1 = z2. Their speed ratio z1 / z2 = 1. They
only change the direction of the shaft, but do not
change the speed.
Figure 8-8 depicts the meshing of bevel
gears. The meshing must be considered in pairs.
It is because the pitch cone angles 1 and 2 are
restricted by the gear ratio z1 / z2. In the facial
view, which is normal to the contact line of pitch
cones, the meshing of bevel gears appears to be
similar to the meshing of spur gears.

Fig. 8-7 The Pitch Cone Angle of Bevel Gear

Fig. 8-8 The Meshing of Bevel Gears

8.5.1 Gleason Straight Bevel Gears

The straight bevel gear has
straight teeth flanks which are along the
surface of the pitch cone from the bottom
to the apex. Straight bevel gears can be
grouped into the Gleason type and the
standard type.
In this section, we discuss the
Gleason straight bevel gear. The
Gleason Company defined the tooth
profile as: whole depth h =2.188 m; top
clearance ca = 0.188 m; and working
depth hw = 2.000 m.
The characteristics are:
Design specified profile shifted
gears:
In the Gleason system, the pinion
is positive shifted and the gear is
negative shifted. The reason is to
distribute the proper strength between
the two gears. Miter gears, thus, do not
need any shifted tooth
profile.
The top clearance is designed to
be parallel
The outer cone elements of two
paired bevel gears are parallel. That is to
ensure that the top clearance along the
whole tooth is the same. For the standard
bevel gears, top clearance is variable. It
is smaller at the toe and bigger at the
heel. Table 8-1 shows the minimum
number of teeth to prevent undercut in
the Gleason system at the shaft angle
= 90.
Fig. 8-9 Dimensions and Angles of Bevel Gears

Table 8-1 The Minimum Numbers of Teeth to Prevent Undercut

Pressure
Angle
(14.5)
20
(25)

Combination of Numbers of Teeth

29 / Over 29
16 / Over 16
13 / Over 13

28 / Over 29
15 / Over 17
--

27 / Over 31
14 / Over 20
--

26 / Over 35
13 / Over 30
--

z1
z2

25 / Over 40
---

24 / Over 57
---

Table 8-2 presents equations for designing straight bevel gears in the Gleason system. The meanings of
the dimensions and angles are shown in Figure 8-9. All the equations in Table 8-2 can also be applied to
bevel gears with any shaft angle.

Table 8-2 The Calculations of Straight Bevel Gears of the Gleason System
No.

Item

1
2
3

Shaft Angle
Module
Pressure Angle

Number of Teeth

Pitch Diameter

Pitch Cone Angle

Symbol

Formula

z1 , z2
d
1
2

Cone Distance

Re

Face Width

Addendum

ha1
ha2

10

Dedendum

hf

11

Dedendum Angle

12

zm
sin

tan 1(

z2
cos
z1

Example
Pinion
Gear
90
3
20
20

40

60

120

26.56505

63.43495

1
d2
2 sin 2
It should be less than Re / 3 or
10 m
2.000 m ha2
0.460m
0.540m +
z 2 cos 1

z 1 cos 2

67.08204
22

4.035

1.965

2.188 m - ha

2.529

4.599

tan-1(hf / ha)

2.15903

3.92194

Addendum Angle

a1
a2

f2
f1

3.92194

2.15903

13

Outer Cone Angle

+ a

30.48699

65.59398

14

Root Cone Angle

24.40602

59.51301

15

Outside Diameter

da

d + 2 ha cos

67.2180

121.7575

16

Pitch Apex to Crown

Re cos - ha sin

58.1955

28.2425

17

Axial Face Width

Xb

b cos a
cos a

19.0029

9.0969

18

Inner Outside Diameter

di

da

44.8425

81.6609

2b sin a
cos a

The straight bevel gear with crowning in the Gleason system is called a Coniflex gear. It is
manufactured by a special Gleason Coniflex machine. It can successfully eliminate poor tooth wear due
to improper mounting and assembly.
The first characteristic of a Gleason straight bevel gear is its profile shifted tooth. From Figure 810, we can see the positive tooth profile shift in the pinion. The tooth thickness at the root diameter of a
Gleason pinion is larger than that of a standard straight bevel gear.

Fig. 8-10 The Tooth Profile of Straight Bevel Gears

8.5.2. Standard Straight Bevel Gears

A bevel gear with no profile shifted tooth is a standard straight bevel gear. The applicable
equations are in Table 8-3.
Table 8-3 Calculation of a Standard Straight Bevel Gears
No.

Item

1
2
3

Shaft Angle
Module
Pressure Angle

Number of Teeth

Pitch Diameter

Pitch Cone Angle

Symbol

Formula

z1 , z2
d
1
2

zm
tan 1(

sin
z2
cos
z1

Example
Pinion
Gear
90
3
20
20

40

60

120

26.56505

63.43495

1
d2
2 sin 2

67.08204

Cone Distance

Re

Face Width

It should be less than Re / 3 or

10 m

Addendum

ha

1.00m

3.00

10

Dedendum

hf

1.25m

3.75

Dedendum Angle

12

Addendum Angle

tan (ha / Re)

13
14
15

Outer Cone Angle

Root Cone Angle
Outside Diameter

a
f
da

+ a
f
d + 2 ha cos

16

Pitch Apex to Crown

17

Axial Face Width

18

Inner Outside Diameter

11

22

-1

3.19960

-1

2.56064

tan (hf / Re)

2.56064
23.36545
65.3666

65.99559
60.23535
122.6833

Re cos - ha sin

58.6584

27.3167

Xb

b cos a
cos a

19.2374

8.9587

di

da

43.9292

82.4485

2b sin a
cos a

These equations can also be applied to bevel gear sets with other than 90 shaft angle.
8.5.3 Gleason Spiral Bevel Gears
A spiral bevel gear is one with a
spiral tooth flank as in Figure 8-11. The
spiral is generally consistent with the curve of
a cutter with the diameter dc. The spiral angle
is the angle between a generatrix element
of the pitch cone and the tooth flank. The
spiral angle just at the tooth flank center is
called central spiral angle m. In practice,
spiral angle means central spiral angle.
All equations in Table 8-6 are
dedicated for the manufacturing method of
Spread Blade or of Single Side from
Gleason. If a gear is not cut per the Gleason
system, the equations will be different from
these.
The tooth profile of a Gleason spiral
bevel gear shown here has the whole depth h
= 1.888 m; top clearance ca = 0.188 m; and
working depth hw = 1.700 m. These Gleason
spiral bevel gears belong to a stub gear
system. This is applicable to gears with
modules m > 2.1.
Table 8-4 shows the minimum
number of teeth to avoid undercut in the
Gleason system with shaft angle = 90 and
pressure angle n = 20.

Fig. 8-11 Spiral Bevel Gear (Left-Hand)

m = 35

Table 8-4 The Minimum Numbers of Teeth to Prevent Undercut

Pressure
Angle
20

Combination of Numbers of Teeth

17 / Over 17

16 / Over 18

15 / Over 19

14 / Over 20

z1
z2

13 / Over 22

12 / Over 26

If the number of teeth is less than 12, Table 8-5 is used to determine the gear sizes.

Table 8-5 Dimensions for Pinions with Numbers of Teeth Less than 12
Number of Teeth in Pinion
Number of Teeth in Gear
Working Depth
Whole Depth
Gear Addendum
Pinion Addendum

z1
z2
hw
h
ha2
ha1

10

11

Over 34

Over 33

Over 32

Over 31

Over 30

Over 29

1.500
1.666
0.215
1.285
0.911
0.803
---

1.560
1.733
0.270
1.290
0.957
0.818
0.757
--

1.610
1.788
0.325
1.285
0.975
0.837
0.777
0.777

1.650
1.832
0.382
1.270
0.997
0.860
0.828
0.828

1.680
1.865
0.435
1.245
1.023
0.888
0.884
0.883

1.695
1.882
0.490
1.205
1.053
0.948
0.946
0.945

30
40
Circular Tooth
Thickness of Gear
50
60
Pressure Angle
n
Spiral Angle
m
Shaft Angle

NOTE: All values in the table are based on m = 1.

20
35... 40
90

All equations in Table 8-6 are also applicable to Gleason bevel gears with any shaft angle. A
spiral bevel gear set requires matching of hands; left-hand and right-hand as a pair.

8.5.4 Gleason Zerol Spiral Bevel Gears

When the spiral angle m = 0, the bevel gear is called a Zerol bevel gear. The calculation
equations of Table 8-2 for Gleason straight bevel gears are applicable. They also should take care again
of the rule of hands; left and right of a pair must be matched. Figure 8-12 is a lefthand Zerol bevel gear.

Fig. 8-12 Left-Hand Zerol Bevel Gear

Table 8-6 The Calculations of Spiral Bevel Gears of the Gleason System

1
2
3

Shaft Angle
Outside Radial Module
Normal Pressure Angle

m
n

Example
Pinion
Gear
90
3
20

Spiral Angle

35

No. of Teeth and Spiral Hand

Radial Pressure Angle

tan n
tan 1
cos m

Pitch Diameter

zm

tan 1(

No.

Item

Pitch Cone Angle

Symbol

Formula

z1 , z2

Cone Distance

Re

10

Face Width

20 (L)

sin
)
z2
cos
z1

1
d2
2 sin 2

40 (R)

23.95680

60

120

26.56505

63.43495

67.08204

It should be less than Re / 3 or

10 m

20

1.700m ha2
11

Addendum

ha1
ha2

12

Dedendum

hf

13

Dedendum Angle

14

Addendum Angle

15
16
17

Outer Cone Angle

Root Cone Angle
Outside Diameter

f
a1
a1
a
f
da

18

Pitch Apex to Crown

19

Axial Face Width

20

Inner Outside Diameter

0.460m +

0.390m
z 2 cos 1

z1 cos 2

3.4275

1.6725

2.2365

3.9915

1.90952

3.40519

3.40519

1.90952

29.97024
24.65553
66.1313

65.34447
60.02976
121.4959

Re cos - ha sin

58.4672

28.5041

Xb

b cos a
cos a

17.3563

8.3479

di

da

46.1140

85.1224

1.888m - ha
-1

tan (hf / Re)

f2
f1
+ a
f
d + 2 ha cos

2b sin a
cos a

SECTION 9 WORM MESH

The worm mesh is another gear type used for connecting skew shafts, usually 90. See Figure 91. Worm meshes are characterized by high velocity ratios. Also, they offer the advantage of higher load
capacity associated with their line contact in contrast to the point contact of the crossed-helical mesh.

9.1 Worm Mesh Geometry

Although the worm tooth form can be of a variety, the most popular is equivalent to a V-type
screw thread, as in Figure 9-1. The mating worm gear teeth have a helical lead. (Note: The name worm
wheel is often used interchangeably with worm gear.) A central section of the mesh, taken through the
worm's axis and perpendicular to the worm gear's axis, as shown in Figure 9-2, reveals a rack-type tooth
of the worm, and a curved involute tooth form for the worm gear. However, the involute features are only
true for the central section. Sections on either side of the worm axis reveal nonsymmetric and noninvolute
tooth profiles. Thus, a worm gear mesh is not a true involute mesh. Also, for conjugate action, the center
distance of the mesh must be an exact duplicate of that used in generating the worm gear.
To increase the length-of-action, the worm gear is made of a throated shape to wrap around the
worm.

Fig. 9-1 Typical Worm Mesh

Fig. 9-2 Central Section of a Worm

and Worm Gear

9.1.1 Worm Tooth Proportions

Worm tooth dimensions, such as addendum, dedendum, pressure angle, etc., follow the same
standards as those for spur and helical gears. The standard values apply to the central section of the
mesh. See Figure 9-3a. A high pressure angle is favored and in some applications values as high as 25
and 30 are used.
9.1.2 Number Of Threads
The worm can be considered resembling a helical gear with a high helix angle.

For extremely high helix angles, there is one continuous tooth or thread. For slightly smaller angles, there
can be two, three or even more threads. Thus, a worm is characterized by the number of threads, zw.
9.1.3 Pitch Diameters, Lead and Lead Angle
Referring to Figure 9-3:

z w pn
sin
zp
Pitch diameter of worm gear = dg = g n
cos
Pitch diameter of worm = d w =

(9-1)
(9-2)

where:
zw = number of threads of worm; zg = number of teeth in worm gear

z w pn
cos
z
m
z p
= lead angle = tan -1 ( w ) = sin 1 ( w n )
dw
d w

L = lead of worm = z wp x =

pn = px cos

Fig. 9-3 Worm Tooth Proportions and Geometric Relationships

9.1.4 Center Distance

C=

dw + Dg
2

pn z g
z
(
+ w )
2 cos sin

(9-3)

9.2 Cylindrical Worm Gear Calculations

Cylindrical worms may be considered cylindrical type gears with screw threads. Generally, the
mesh has a 90O shaft angle. The number of threads in the worm is equivalent to the number of teeth in a
gear of a screw type gear mesh.
Thus, a one-thread worm is equivalent to a one-tooth gear; and two-threads equivalent to two-teeth, etc.
Referring to Figure 9-4, for a lead angle , measured on the pitch cylinder, each rotation of the worm
makes the thread advance one lead.
There are four worm tooth profiles in JIS B 1723, as defined below.
Type I Worm: This worm tooth profile is trapezoid in the radial or axial plane.
Type II Worm: This tooth profile is trapezoid viewed in the normal surface.
Type III Worm: This worm is formed by a cutter in which the tooth profile is trapezoid form
viewed from the radial surface or axial plane set at the lead angle. Examples are milling and grinding
profile cutters.
Type IV Worm: This tooth profile is involute as viewed from the radial surface or at the lead
angle. It is an involute helicoid, and is known by that name.
Type III worm is the most popular. In this type, the normal pressure angle n has the tendency to
become smaller than that of the cutter, c.
Per JIS, Type III worm uses a radial module mt and cutter pressure angle c = 20 as the module
and pressure angle. A special worm hob is required to cut a Type III worm gear.
Standard values of radial module, mt , are presented in Table 9-1.
Table 9-1 Radial Module of Cylindrical Worm Gears
1

1.25

1.60

2.00

2.50

3.15

4.00

5.00

6.30

8.00

10.00

12.50

16.00

20.00

25.00

--

Fig. 9-4 Cylindrical Worm (Right-Hand)

Because the worm mesh couples nonparallel and nonintersecting axes, the radial surface of the worm, or
radial cross section, is the same as the normal surface of the worm gear. Similarly, the normal surface of
the worm is the radial surface of the worm gear. The common surface of the worm and worm gear is the
normal surface. Using the normal module, mn, is most popular. Then, an ordinary hob can be used to cut
the worm gear.
Table 9-2 presents the relationships among worm and worm gear radial surfaces, normal
surfaces, axial surfaces, module, pressure angle, pitch and lead.
Table 9-2 The Relations of Cross Sections of Worm Gears
Worm
Axial Surface

Normal Surface

mn
cos

Radial Surface

mn
sin

mn

mt =

t = tan 1 (

p x = m

p n = m n

p t = m t

L = m x z w

L=

mx =

x = tan 1 (

tan n
)
cos

Radial Surface

m n z w
cos
Normal Surface

tan n
)
sin

L = m t z w tan
Axial Surface

Worm Gear
NOTE: The Radial Surface is the plane perpendicular to the axis.

Reference to Figure 9-4 can help the understanding of the relationships in Table 9-2. They are similar to
the relations in Formulas (6-11) and (6-12) that the helix angle be substituted by (90 ). We can
consider that a worm with lead angle is almost the same as a screw gear with helix angle (90 ).
9.2.1 Axial Module Worm Gears
Table 9-3 presents the equations, for dimensions shown in Figure 9-5, for worm gears
with axial module, mx, and normal pressure angle n = 20.

Fig. 9-5 Dimensions of Cylindrical Worm Gears

Table 9-3 The Calculations of Axial Module System Worm Gears (See Figure 9-5)
No.
1
2
3

Item
Axial Module
Normal Pressure Angle
No. of Threads, No. of Teeth

Standard Pitch Diameter

Lead Angle

Coefficient of Profile Shift

Center Distance

Addendum

Whole Depth

10

Outside Diameter

11

Throat Diameter

12

Throat Surface Radius

Symbol
mx
n
zw , z2
d1
d2

xa2
ax
ha1
ha2
h
da1
da2
dth
ri

Example
Worm
Wheel

Formula

3
20
Q mx
z2 mx

tan 1 (

Note1

30 (R)

44.000

90.000

mx zm
)
d1

7.76517
-

d1 + d 2
+ x a2m x
2
1.00mx
(1.00 + xa2)mx
2.25mx
d1 + 2ha1
d2 + 2ha2 + mx Note 2
d2 + 2ha2
d1
h a1
2
da1 2h
dth 2h

0
67.000

3.000

3.000
6.750

50.000

99.000

96.000

19.000

df1
36.500
df2
Double-Threaded Right-Hand Worm
Note 1: Diameter Factor, Q , means pitch diameter of worm, d1 , over axial module, mx .
13

Root Diameter

Q=

82.500

d1
mx

Note 2: There are several calculation methods of worm outside diameter da2 besides those
in Table 9-3.
Note 3: The length of worm with teet , b1, would be sufficient if: b1 = mx (4.5 + 0.02z2)
Note 4: Working blank width of worm gear b e = 2m x (Q + 1). So the actual blank width of b be + 1.5mx
would be enough.
9.2.2 Normal Module System Worm Gears
The equations for normal module system worm gears are based on a normal module, mn,
and normal pressure angle, n = 20. See Table 9-4, on the following page.

Table 9-4 The Calculations of Normal Module System Worm Gears

Normal Module

mn

Example
Worm
Worm
Gear
3

Normal Pressure Angle

20

No. of Threads, No. of Teeth

No.

Item

Symbol

Formula

zw , z2

30 (R)

Pitch Diameter of Worm

d1

44.000

Lead Angle

sin 1 (

Pitch Diameter of Worm Gear

d2

z 2mn
cos

Coefficient of Profile Shift

xn2

Center Distance

ax

Addendum

ha1
ha2

10

Whole Depth

11

Outside Diameter

12

Throat Diameter

13

Throat Surface Radius

14

Root Diameter

h
da1
da2
dth

mn z w
)
d1

d1 + d 2
+ x a2m x
2
1.00m
(1.00 + xn2)mn
2.25mn
d1 + 2ha1
d2 + 2ha2 + mx
d2 + 2ha2

7.83748
-

90.8486

-0.1414
67.000

3.000

2.5758
6.75

50.000

99.000

96.000

ri

d1
h a1
2

19.000

df1
df2

da1 2h
dth 2h

36.500

82.500

Double-Threaded Right-Hand Worm

Note: All notes are the same as those of Table 9-3.

9.3 Crowning Of The Worm Gear Tooth

Crowning is critically important to worm gears (worm wheels). Not only can it eliminate abnormal
tooth contact due to incorrect assembly, but it also provides for the forming of an oil film, which enhances
the lubrication effect of the mesh. This can favorably impact endurance and transmission efficiency of the
worm mesh. There are four methods of crowning worm gears:
1. Cut Worm Gear With A Hob Cutter Of Greater Pitch Diameter Than The Worm.
A crownless worm gear results when it is made by using a hob that has an identical pitch
diameter as that of the worm. This crownless worm gear is very difficult to assemble correctly. Proper
tooth contact and a complete oil film are usually not possible.
However, it is relatively easy to obtain a crowned worm gear by cutting it with a hob whose pitch
diameter is slightly larger than that of the worm. This is shown in Figure 9-6. This creates teeth contact in
the center region with space for oil film formation.

2. Recut With
Adjustment.

Hob

Center

Distance

The first step is to cut the worm gear at

standard center distance. This results in no
crowning. Then the worm gear is finished with
the same hob by recutting with the hob axis
shifted parallel to the worm gear axis by h.
This results in a crowning effect , shown in
Figure 9-7.
3. Hob Axis Inclining From Standard
Position.
In standard cutting, the hob axis is
oriented at the proper angle to the worm gear
axis. After that, the hob axis is shifted slightly left
and then right, , in a plane parallel to the
worm gear axis, to cut a crown effect on the
worm gear tooth. This is shown in Figure 9-8.
Only method 1 is popular. Methods 2 and 3 are
seldom used.

Fig. 9-6 The Method of Using a

Greater Diameter Hob

4. Use A Worm With A Larger Pressure Angle

Than The Worm Gear.
This is a very complex method, both
theoretically and practically. Usually, the
crowning is done to the worm gear, but in this
method the modification is on the worm. That is,
to change the pressure angle and pitch of the
worm without changing the pitch line parallel to
the axis, in accordance with the relationships
shown in Equations 9-4:
px cos x = px 'cos x'

Fig. 9-7 Offsetting Up or Down

(9-4)

In order to raise the pressure angle from

before change, x', to after change, x , it is
necessary to increase the axial pitch, px ', to a
new value, px , per Equation (9-4). The amount
of crowning is represented as the space
between the worm and worm gear at the
meshing point A in Figure 9-9.

Fig. 9-8 Inclining Right or Left

This amount may be approximated by the following

equation:
Amount of Crowning

=k

p x p x ' d1
px
2

(9-5)

where:
d1 = Pitch diameter of worm
k = Factor from Table 9-5 and Figure 9-10
px = Axial pitch after change
px' = Axial pitch before change
Table 9-5 The Value of Factor k
x

14.5

17.5

20

22.5

0.55

0.46

0.41

0.375

Fig. 9-9 Position A is the Point of

Determining Crowning
Amount

An example of calculating worm crowning is shown in Table 9-6.

Table 9-6 The Calculation of Worm Crowning
Item
Symbol
Formula

No.
1
2
3
4

Before Crowing
Axial Module
mx'
Normal Pressure Angle
n'
Number of Threads of Worm
zw
Pitch Diameter of Worm
d1

Lead Angle

'

Axial Pressure Angle

x '

7
8
9
10

Axial Pitch
Lead
Amount of Crowning
Factor (k )

px '
L'
CR'
k

Example
3
20
2
44.000

m x ' zw
)
d1
tan n '
)
tan 1 (
cos '
mx
mxzv
*
From Table 9-5
tan 1 (

7.765166
20.170236
9.424778
18.849556
0.04
0.41

After Crowning

2C R
+ 1)
kd1

11

Axial Pitch

tx

tx' (

12

Axial Pressure Angle

cos 1 (

13

Axial Module

mx

14

Lead Angle

tan 1 (

m x zw
)
d1

7.799179

15

Normal Pressure Angle

tan 1 (tan x cos )

20.671494

16 Lead
L
mxzw
*It should be determined by considering the size of tooth contact surface.

18.933146

px '
cos x ' )
px

px

9.466573
20.847973
3.013304

Because the theory and

equations of these methods are
so complicated, they are beyond
the scope of this treatment. Usually,
all stock worm gears are
produced with crowning.

Fig. 9-10 The Value of Factor (k )

9.4 Self-Locking Of Worm Mesh

Self-locking is a unique characteristic of worm meshes that can be put to advantage. It is the
feature that a worm cannot be driven by the worm gear. It is very useful in the design of some equipment,
such as lifting, in that the drive can stop at any position without concern that it can slip in reverse.
However, in some situations it can be detrimental if the system requires reverse sensitivity, such as a
servomechanism.
Self-locking does not occur in all worm meshes, since it requires special conditions as outlined
here. In this analysis, only the driving force acting upon the tooth surfaces is considered without any
regard to losses due to bearing friction, lubricant agitation, etc. The governing conditions are as follows:
Let Fu1 = tangential driving force of worm
Then, Fu1 = Fn (cos n sin cos )

(9-6)

where:
n = normal pressure angle
= lead angle of worm
= coefficient of friction
Fn = normal driving force of worm
If Fu1 > 0 then there is no self-locking
effect at all. Therefore, Fu1 0 is the critical limit of
self-locking.
Let n in Equation (9-6) be 20, then the
condition:
Fu1 0 will become:
(cos 20 sin cos ) 0

Fig. 9-11 The Critical Limit of Self-locking of Lead

Angle and Coefficient of Friction

Figure 9-11 shows the critical limit of self-locking for lead angle and coefficient of friction .
Practically, it is very hard to assess the exact value of coefficient of friction . Further, the bearing loss,
lubricant agitation loss, etc. can add many side effects. Therefore, it is not easy to establish precise selflocking conditions. However, it is true that the smaller the lead angle , the more likely the self-locking
condition will occur.

SECTION 10 TOOTH THICKNESS

There are direct and indirect methods for measuring tooth thickness. In general, there are three
methods:
Chordal Thickness Measurement
Span Measurement
Over Pin or Ball Measurement
10.1 Chordal Thickness Measurement
This method employs a tooth caliper
that is referenced from the gear's outside
diameter. Thickness is measured at the pitch
circle. See Figure 10-1.

Fig. 10-1 Chordal Thickness Method

10.1.1 Spur Gears

Table 10-1 presents equations for each chordal thickness measurement.
Table 10-1 Equations for Spur Gear Chordal Thickness
No.

Item

Symbol

Formula

+ 2 x tan )m

Half of Tooth Angle

at Pitch Circle

sj

90 360 x tan
+
z
z

Chordal Thickness

hj

z m sin

Chordal Addendum

Circular Tooth Thickness

zm
(1 + cos ) + ha
2

Example
m = 10
_= 20
z = 12
x = +0.3
ha = 13.000
s = 17.8918
_= 8.54270
sj = 17.8256
hj = 13.6657

10.1.2 Spur Racks And Helical Racks

The governing equations become simple since the rack tooth profile is trapezoid, as
shown in Table 10-2.
Table 10-2 Chordal Thickness of Racks
No.

Item

Symbol

Formula

ChordalThickness

sj

Chordal Addendum

hj

ha

or

mn
2

NOTE: These equations are also applicable to helical racks.

Example
m=3
_= 20
sj = 4.7124
ha = 3.0000

10.1.3 Helical Gears

The chordal thickness of helical gears should be measured on the normal surface basis as shown
in Table 10-3. Table 10-4 presents the equations for chordal thickness of helical gears in the radial
system.
Table 10-3 Equations for Chordal Thickness of Helical Gears in the Normal System
No.

Item

Symbol

Formula

+ 2 xn tan n )mn

Normal Circular Tooth Thickness

sn

Number of Teeth of an Equivalent

Spur Gear

zv

Half of Tooth Angle at Pitch Circle

Chordal Thickness

sj

zv mn sin v

Chordal Addendum

hj

zv mn
(1 cos v ) + ha
2

z
cos 3
90 360 xn tan n
+
zv
zv

Example
mn = 5
n = 20
= 25 00' 00"
z = 16
xn = +0.2
ha = 6.0000
sn = 8.5819
zv = 21.4928
v = 4.57556
sj = 8.5728
hj = 6.1712

Table 10-4 Equations for Chordal Thickness of Helical Gears in the Radial System
No.

Item

Symbol

Formula

+ 2 xt tan t )mt cos

Normal Circular Tooth Thickness

sn

Number of Teeth of an Equivalent

Spur Gear

zv

Half of Tooth Angle at Pitch Circle

Chordal Thickness

sj

zv mt sin v

Chordal Addendum

hj

zv mt
(1 cos v ) + ha
2

z
cos 3
90 360 xt tan t
+
zv
zv

Example
m=4
t = 20
= 22 30' 00"
z = 20
xt = +0.3
ha = 4.7184
sn = 6.6119
zv = 25.3620
v = 4.04196
sj = 6.6065
hj = 4.8350

NOTE: Table 10-4 equations are also for the tooth profile of a Sunderland gear.
Table 10-5 Equations for Chordal Thickness of Gleason Straight Bevel Gears
No.

Item

Symbol

Circular Tooth Thickness Factor

(Coefficient of Horizontal Profile
Shift)

Circular Tooth Thickness

s1
s2

Formula
Obtain from Figure 10-2
(on the following page)

m s 2
m
2

( ha1 ha 2 ) tan Km

s3
6d 2

Chordal Thickness

sj

Chordal Addendum

hj

ha +

s 2 cos
4d

Example
m=4
_ = 20
= 90
z1 = 16
z2 = 40
z1 / z2 = 0.4
K = 0.0259
ha1 = 5.5456
ha2 = 2.4544
1 = 21.8014
2 = 68.1986
s1 = 7.5119
s2 = 5.0545
sj1 = 7.4946
sj2 = 5.0536
hj1 = 5.7502
hj2 = 2.4692

Fig. 10-2 Chart to Determine the Circular Tooth Thickness Factor K for Gleason
Straight Bevel Gear (See Table 10-5)

Table 10-6 presents equations for chordal thickness of a standard straight bevel gear.
Table 10-6 Equations for Chordal Thickness of Standard Straight Bevel Gears
No.

Item

Symbol
s

Formula

m
2

Circular Tooth Thickness

Number of Teeth of an
Equivalent Spur Gear

zv

Back Cone Distance

Rv

Half of Tooth Angle at Pitch

Circle

Chordal Thickness

sj

zv m sin v

Chordal Addendum

hj

ha + Rv (1 cos v)

z
cos
d
2 cos
90
zv

Example
m=4
= 20
z1 = 16
d1 = 64
ha = 4.0000
1 = 21.8014
s = 6.2832
zv1 = 17.2325
Rv1 = 34.4650
v1 = 5.2227
sj1 = 6.2745
hj1 = 4.1431

= 90
z2 = 40
d2 = 160
2 = 68.1986
zv2 = 107.7033
Rv2 = 215.4066
v2 = 0.83563
sj2 = 6.2830
hj2 = 4.0229

If a standard straight bevel gear is cut by a Gleason straight bevel cutter, the tooth angle should
be adjusted according to:

tooth angle ( ) =

180 s
( + hf tan )
R 2

(10-1)

This angle is used as a reference in determining the circular tooth thickness, s, in setting up the
gear cutting machine.
Table 10-7 presents equations for chordal thickness of a Gleason spiral bevel gear.
No.

Item

Symbol

Circular Tooth
Thickness Factor

Circular Tooth
Thickness

s1
s2

Formula
Obtain from Figure 10-3

p s2
tan n
p
( ha1 ha 2 )
Km
2
cos m

Example
_= 90 m = 3 n = 20
z1 = 20 z2 = 40 m = 35
ha1 = 3.4275 ha2 = 1.6725
K = 0.060
p = 9.4248
s1 = 5.6722
s2 = 3.7526

Figure 10-3 is shown on the following page.

The calculations of circular thickness of a Gleason spiral bevel gear are so complicated that we
do not intend to go further in this presentation.
10.1.5 Worms And Worm Gears
Table 10-8 presents equations for chordal thickness of axial module worms and worm gears.
Table 10-8 Equations for Chordal Thickness of Axial Module Worms and Worm Gears
No.

Item

Symbol
sx1

Axial Circular Tooth Thickness

of Worm Radial Circular Tooth
Thickness of Worm Gear

Formula
mx
2

sx2

+ 2 x x 2 tan x )mx

No. of Teeth in an Equivalent

Spur Gear (Worm Gear)

zv2

z2
cos 3

Half of Tooth Angle at Pitch

Circle (Worm Gear)

v2

90 360 x x 2 tan x
+
zv 2
zv 2

sj1

sx1 cos

Chordal Thickness
sj2

zv mx cos sin v2

hj1

ha1 +

( s x1 sin cos )2
4 d1

hj2

ha 2 +

zv mx cos
(1 cos v 2 )
2

Example

Chordal Addendum

mx = 3
n = 20
zw = 2
z2 = 30
d1 = 38
d2 = 90
ax = 65
xx2 = +0.33333
ha1 = 3.0000
ha2 = 4.0000
= 8.97263
x = 20.22780
sx1 = 4.71239
sx2 = 5.44934
zv2 = 31.12885
v2 = 3.34335
sj1 = 4.6547
sj2 = 5.3796
hj1 = 3.0035
hj2 = 4.0785

Fig. 10-3 Chart to Determine the Circular Tooth Thickness Factor K for Gleason Spiral Bevel Gears

Table 10-9 contains the equations for chordal thickness of normal module worms and worm
gears.

Table 10-9 Equations for Chordal Thickness of Normal Module Worms and Worm Gears
No.

Item

Symbol
sn1

Axial Circular Tooth Thickness

of Worm Radial Circular Tooth
Thickness of Worm Gear

sn2

No. of Teeth in an Equivalent

Spur Gear (Worm Gear)

zv2

z2
cos 3

Half of Tooth Angle at Pitch

Circle (Worm Gear)

v2

90 360 xn 2 tan n
+
zv 2
zv 2

sj1

sn1 cos

Chordal Thickness
sj2

zv mn cos sin v2

hj1

ha1 +

( sn1 sin )2
4 d1

hj2

ha 2 +

zv mn cos
(1 cos v 2 )
2

Formula
mn
2

+ 2 x n 2 tan xn )mn

Chordal Addendum

Example
mn = 3
n = 20
zw = 2
z2 = 30
d1 = 38 d2 = 91.1433
ax = 65
xn2 = 0.14278
ha1 = 3.0000
ha2 = 3.42835
= 9.08472
sn1 = 4.71239
sn2 = 5.02419
zv2 = 31.15789
v2 = 3.07964
sj1 = 4.7124
sj2 = 5.0218
hj1 = 3.0036
hj2 = 3.4958

10.2 Span Measurement Of Teeth

Span measurement of teeth, sm, is a measure over a number of teeth, zm, made by means of a
special tooth thickness micrometer. The value measured is the sum of normal circular tooth thickness on
the base circle, sbn , and normal pitch, pen (zm 1).
10.2.1 Spur And Internal Gears
The applicable equations are presented in Table 10-10.
Table 10-10 Span Measurement of Spur and Internal Gear Teeth
No.

Item

Symbol

Formula

Span Number of Teeth

zm

zmth = zK(f) + 0.5 See NOTE

Select the nearest natural number of
zmth as zm.

Span Measurement

sm

m cos [ (zm 0.5) +z inv ] +

2xm sin

Example
m=3
= 20
z = 24
x = +0.4
zmth = 3.78787
zm = 4
sm = 32.8266

NOTE:
K( f ) =

[sec (1 + 2 f )2 cos 2 inv 2 f tan ]

where f =

x
z

(10-2)

Figure 10-4 shows the span

measurement of a spur gear. This
measurement is on the outside of the
teeth.
For internal gears the tooth
profile is opposite to that of the
external spur gear. Therefore, the
measurement is between the inside of
the tooth profiles.
10.2.2 Helical Gears
Tables 10-11 and 10-12
present
equations
for
span
measurement of the normal and the
radial systems, respectively, of helical
gears.
Fig. 10-4 Span Measurement of Teeth (Spur Gear)

Table 10-11 Equations for Span Measurement of the Normal System Helical Gears
No.

Item

Symbol

Formula

Span Number of Teeth

zm

zmth = zK(f) + 0.5 See NOTE

Select the nearest natural number of
zmth as zm.

Span Measurement

sm

mn cos n [ (zm 0.5) +z inv t ] +

2xnmn sin n

Example
m=3
= 20
z = 24
x = +0.4
zmth = 3.78787
zm = 4
sm = 32.8266

NOTE:
K( f , ) =

[(1 +

sin 2
) (cos 2 + tan 2 n )(sec + 2 f )2 1 inv t 2 f tan n ]
cos 2 + tan 2 n

(10-3)

xn
z

where f =

Table 10-12 Equations for Span Measurement of the Radial System Helical Gears
No.

Item

Symbol

Formula

Span Number of Teeth

zm

zmth = zK(f) + 0.5 See NOTE

Select the nearest natural number of
zmth as zm.

Span Measurement

sm

mt cos n [ (zm 0.5) + z inv t ] +

2xt mt sin n

Example
mt = 3, t = 20,
z = 24
= 22 30' 00"
xt = +0.4
n = 18.58597
zmth = 4.31728
zm = 4
sm = 30.5910

NOTE:
K( f , ) =

where f =

[(1 +

sin 2
) (cos 2 + tan 2 n )(sec + 2 f )2 1 inv t 2 f tan n ]
cos 2 + tan 2 n

xt
z cos

(10-4)

There is a requirement of a minimum blank

width to make a helical gear span measurement. Let
bmin be the minimum value for blank width. Then
bmin = sm sin b + b

(10-5)

where b is the helix angle at the base cylinder,

b = tan1 (tan cos t)
= sin1 (sin cos n)

(10-6)

From the above, we can determine that at least 3mm

of b is required to make a stable measurement of sm.
10.3 Over Pin (Ball) Measurement
As shown in Figures 10-6 and 10-7,
measurement is made over the outside of two pins that
are inserted in diametrically opposite tooth spaces, for
even tooth number gears; and as close as possible for
odd tooth number gears.
Fig. 10-5 Blank Width of Helical Gear

Fig. 10-6 Even Number of Teeth

Fig. 10-7 Odd Number of Teeth

The procedure for measuring a rack with a pin or a ball is as shown in Figure 10-9 by putting pin
or ball in the tooth space and using a micrometer between it and a reference surface. Internal gears are
similarly measured, except that the measurement is between the pins. See Figure 10-10. Helical gears
can only be measured with balls. In the case of a worm, three pins are used, as shown in Figure 10-11.
This is similar to the procedure of measuring a screw thread. All these cases are discussed in detail in the
following sections.
Note that gear literature uses over pins and over wires terminology interchangeably. The over
wires term is often associated with very fine pitch gears because the diameters are accordingly small.

10.3.1 Spur Gears

In measuring a gear, the size of the pin must be such that the over pins measurement is larger
than the gear's outside diameter. An ideal value is one that would place the point of contact (tangent
point) of pin and tooth profile at the pitch radius. However, this is not a necessary requirement. Referring
to Figure 10-8, following are the equations for calculating the over pins measurement for a specific tooth
thickness, s, regardless of where the pin contacts the tooth profile:
For even number of teeth:

dm =

d cos
+ dp
cos 1

(10-7)

For odd number of teeth:

dm =

d cos
90
cos(
) + dp
cos 1
z

(10-8)

where the value of 1 is obtained from:

dp

s
+ inv +

d
d cos z

inv1 =

(10-9)

When tooth thickness, s, is to be calculated from a known over pins measurement, dm, the above
equations can be manipulated to yield:

s = d(

where

cos c =

+ inv c inv +

dp
d cos

(10-10)

d cos
2Rc

(10-11)

For even number of teeth:

Rc =

dm d p

(10-12)

For odd number of teeth:

Rc =

dm dp

(10-13)

2 cos(

90
)
z

In measuring a standard
gear, the size of the pin must
meet the condition that its surface
should have the tangent point at
the standard pitch circle. While,
in measuring a shifted gear, the
surface of the pin should have the
tangent point at the d + 2xm circle.

Fig. 10-8 Over Pins Diameter of Spur Gear

The ideal diameters of pins when calculated from the equations of Table 10-13 may not be
practical. So, in practice, we select a standard pin diameter close to the ideal value. After the actual
diameter of pin dp is determined, the over pin measurement dm can be calculated from Table 10-14.
Table 10-13 Equations for Calculating Ideal Pin Diameters
No.
1
2
3
4

Item
Half Tooth Space Angle at
Base Circle
The Pressure Angle at the
Point Pin is Tangent to Tooth
Surface
The Pressure Angle at Pin
Center
Ideal Pin Diameter

Symbol

Formula

2z

2 x tan
z
zm cos

inv )

cos 1 [

tan p +

dp

Example

( z + 2 x )m

m=1
= 20
z = 20
x=0

= 0.0636354

p = 20

zm cos ( inv +

NOTE: The units of angles /2 and are radians.

= 0.4276057

dp = 1.7245

Table 10-14 Equations for Over Pins Measurement for Spur Gears
No.

Item

Actual Diameter of Pin

Involute Function

The Pressure Angle at Pin

Center

Symbol
dp
inv

Formula
See NOTE

dp
mz cos

Over Pins Measurement

2z

+ inv +

2 x tan
z

Find from Involute Function Table

Even Teeth

Example

dm

zmcos
+ dp
cos

Let dp = 1.7, then:

inv =
0.0268197
= 24.1350
dm = 22.2941

90
zmcos
cos
+ dp
z
cos
NOTE: The value of the ideal pin diameter from Table 10-13, or its approximate value, is applied as the
actual diameter of pin dp here.
Odd Teeth

Table 10-15 is a dimensional table under the condition of module m = 1 and pressure angle =
20 with which the pin has the tangent point at d + 2xm circle.

Table 10-15 The Size of Pin which Has the Tangent Point at d + 2xm Circle of Spur Gears
m = 1, = 20

Number
of Teeth
z
10
20
30
40
50

-0.4

1.6231
1.6418
1.6500
1.6547

-0.2
1.6348
1.6599
1.6649
1.6669
1.6680

0
1.7886
1.7245
1.7057
1.6967
1.6915

0.2
1.9979
1.8149
1.7632
1.7389
1.7248

0.4
2.2687
1.9306
1.8369
1.7930
1.7675

0.6
2.6079
2.0718
1.9267
1.8589
1.8196

0.8
3.0248
2.2389
2.0324
1.9365
1.8810

1.0
3.5315
2.4329
2.1542
2.0257
1.9516

60
70
80
90
100

1.6577
1.6598
1.6614
1.6625
1.6635

1.6687
1.6692
1.6695
1.6698
1.6700

1.6881
1.6857
1.6839
1.6825
1.6814

1.7155
1.7090
1.7042
1.7005
1.6975

1.7509
1.7392
1.7305
1.7237
1.7184

1.7940
1.7759
1.7625
1.7521
1.7439

1.8448
1.8193
1.8003
1.7857
1.7740

1.9032
1.8691
1.8438
1.8242
1.8087

110
120
130
140
150

1.6642
1.6649
1.6654
1.6659
1.6663

1.6701
1.6703
1.6704
1.6705
1.6706

1.6805
1.6797
1.6791
1.6785
1.6781

1.6951
1.6931
1.6914
1.6900
1.6887

1.7140
1.7104
1.7074
1.7048
1.7025

1.7372
1.7316
1.7269
1.7229
1.7195

1.7645
1.7567
1.7500
1.7444
1.7394

1.7960
1.7855
1.7766
1.7690
1.7625

160
170
180
190
200

1.6666
1.6669
1.6672
1.6674
1.6676

1.6706
1.6707
1.6708
1.6708
1.6708

1.6777
1.6773
1.6770
1.6767
1.6764

1.6877
1.6867
1.6858
1.6851
1.6844

1.7006
1.6989
1.6973
1.6960
1.6947

1.7164
1.7138
1.7114
1.7093
1.7074

1.7351
1.7314
1.7280
1.7250
1.7223

1.7567
1.7517
1.7472
1.7432
1.7396

Coefficient of Profile Shift, x

10.3.2 Spur Racks And Helical Racks

In measuring a rack, the pin is ideally
tangent with the tooth flank at the pitch line. The
equations in Table 10-16 can, thus, be derived. In the
case of a helical rack, module m, and pressure angle
, in Table 10-16, can be substituted by normal
module, mn, and normal pressure angle, n , resulting
in Table 10-16A.

Fig. 10-9 Over Pins Measurement for a Rack

Using a Pin or a Ball
Table 10-16 Equations for Over Pins Measurement of Spur Racks
No.

Item

Symbol

Ideal Pin Diameter

dp

Over Pins
Measurement

dm

Formula

Example

m s j
cos
m s j d p
1
H
+
(1 +
)
2 tan
2
sin

m=1
= 20
sj = 1.5708
Ideal Pin Diameter
dp' = 1.6716
Actual Pin Diameter
dp = 1.7
H = 14.0000
dm = 15.1774

Table 10-16A Equations for Over Pins Measurement of Helical Racks

No.

Item

Symbol

Ideal Pin
Diameter

dp

Over Pins
Measurement

dm

Formula

Example

mn s j
cos n
mn s j d p
1
+
H
(1 +
)
2 tan n
2
sin n

m=1
= 20
sj = 1.5708
= 15
Ideal Pin Diameter
dp' = 1.6716
Actual Pin Diameter dp = 1.7
H = 14.0000
dm = 15.1774

10.3.3 Internal Gears

As shown in Figure 10-10, measuring an
internal gear needs a proper pin which has its
tangent point at d + 2xm circle. The equations are
Table 10-17 for obtaining the ideal pin diameter.
The equations for calculating the between pin
measurement, dm, are given in Table 10-18.

in

Fig. 10-10 Between Pin Dimension of Internal Gears

Table 10-17 Equations for Calculating Pin Size for Internal Gears
No.
1
2
3
4

Item

Symbol

Formula

2 x tan
z
zm cos

Half Tooth Space Angle at

Base Circle
The Pressure Angle at the
Point Pin is Tangent to Tooth
Surface
The Pressure Angle at Pin
Center

cos 1 [

tan p +

Ideal Pin Diameter

dp

NOTE: The units of angles /2 and are radians.

2z

inv )

( z + 2 x )m

zm cos ( inv )
2

Example
m=1
= 20
z = 40
x=0

= 0.054174

p = 20
= 0.309796
dp = 1.6489

Table 10-18 Equations for Between Pins Measurement of Internal Gears

No.

Item

Symbol

Actual Diameter of Pin

Involute Function

The Pressure Angle at

Pin Center

dp
inv

Formula
See NOTE

2z

+ inv )

Between Pins
Measurement

dp
zm cos

2 x tan
z

Find from Involute Function Table

Even Teeth

Example

dm

zmcos
dp
cos

Let dp = 1.7, then:

inv = 0.0089467
= 16.9521
dm = 37.5951

90
zmcos
cos
dp
z
cos
NOTE: First, calculate the ideal pin diameter. Then, choose the nearest practical actual pin size.
Odd Teeth

Table 10-19 lists ideal pin diameters for standard and profile shifted gears under the condition of
module m = 1 and pressure angle = 20, which makes the pin tangent to the pitch circle d + 2xm.
Table 10-19 The Size of Pin that is Tangent at Pitch Circle d + 2xm of Internal Gears
m = 1, = 20

Number
of Teeth
z
10
20
30
40
50

-0.4

1.4687
1.5309
1.5640
1.5845

-0.2
1.4789
1.5604
1.5942
1.6123
1.6236

0
1.5936
1.6284
1.6418
1.6489
1.6533

0.2
1.6758
1.6759
1.6751
1.6745
1.6740

0.4
1.7283
1.7047
1.6949
1.6895
1.6862

0.6
1.7519
1.7154
1.7016
1.6944
1.6900

0.8
1.7460
1.7084
1.6956
1.6893
1.6856

1.0
1.7092
1.6837
1.6771
1.6744
1.6732

60
70
80
90
100

1.5985
1.6086
1.6162
1.6222
1.6270

1.6312
1.6368
1.6410
1.6443
1.6470

1.6562
1.6583
1.6600
1.6612
1.6622

1.6737
1.6734
1.6732
1.6731
1.6729

1.6839
1.6822
1.6810
1.6800
1.6792

1.6870
1.6849
1.6833
1.6820
1.6810

1.6832
1.6815
1.6802
1.6792
1.6784

1.6725
1.6721
1.6718
1.6717
1.6716

110
120
130
140
150

1.6310
1.6343
1.6371
1.6396
1.6417

1.6492
1.6510
1.6525
1.6539
1.6550

1.6631
1.6638
1.6644
1.6649
1.6653

1.6728
1.6727
1.6727
1.6726
1.6725

1.6785
1.6779
1.6775
1.6771
1.6767

1.6801
1.6794
1.6788
1.6783
1.6779

1.6778
1.6772
1.6768
1.6764
1.6761

1.6715
1.6714
1.6714
1.6714
1.6713

160
170
180
190
200

1.6435
1.6451
1.6466
1.6479
1.6491

1.6561
1.6570
1.6578
1.6585
1.6591

1.6657
1.6661
1.6664
1.6666
1.6669

1.6725
1.6724
1.6724
1.6724
1.6723

1.6764
1.6761
1.6759
1.6757
1.6755

1.6775
1.6772
1.6768
1.6766
1.6763

1.6758
1.6755
1.6753
1.6751
1.6749

1.6713
1.6713
1.6713
1.6713
1.6713

Coefficient of Profile Shift, x

10.3.4 Helical Gears

The ideal pin that makes contact at the d + 2xn mn pitch circle of a helical gear can be obtained
from the same above equations, but with the teeth number z substituted by the equivalent (virtual) teeth
number zv.
Table 10-20 presents equations for deriving over pin diameters.

Table 10-20 Equations for Calculating Pin Size for Helical Gears in the Normal System
No.

Item

Symbol

Number of Teeth of an
Equivalent Spur Gear

Half Tooth Space Angle at

Base Circle

The Pressure Angle at the

Point Pin is Tangent to Tooth
Surface

Formula

Example

z
cos 3

zv

2 x tan n
inv n
2z
zn

cos 1 (

zv cos n
zv + 2 xn

Pressure Angle at Pin Center

tan v +

Ideal Pin Diameter

dp

zv mn cos n ( invv +

mn = 1
n= 20
z = 20
= 150000
xn = 0
zv = 22.19211

NOTE: The units of angles v /2 and v are radians.

= 0.0427566

p = 24.90647
v = 0.507078
dp = 1.9020

Table 10-21 presents equations for calculating over pin measurements for helical gears in the
normal system.
Table 10-21 Equations for Calculating Over Pins Measurement for Helical Gears in the Normal
System
No.

Item

Symbol

Actual Pin Diameter

dp

Involute Function

inv

Pressure Angle at Pin

Center

Formula
See NOTE

dp
mn z cos n

Over Pins
Measurement

2z

+ inv t +

2 xn tan n
z

Find from Involute Function Table

Even Teeth

Example

dm

zmn cos t
+ dp
cos cos

Let dp = 2, then:
t=20.646896
inv = 0.58890
= 30.8534
dm = 24.5696

90
zmn cos t
cos
+ dp
z
cos cos
NOTE: The ideal pin diameter of Table 10-20, or its approximate value, is entered as the actual diameter
of dp.
Odd Teeth

Table 10-22 and Table 10-23 present equations for calculating pin measurements for helical
gears in the radial (perpendicular to axis) system.

Table 10-22 Equations for Calculating Pin Size for Helical Gears in the Radial System
No.

Item

Symbol

Number of Teeth of an
Equivalent Spur Gear

Half Tooth Space Angle at

Base Circle

The Pressure Angle at the

Point Pin is Tangent to Tooth
Surface

Formula

Example

z
cos 3

zv
v

2 zv

2 xt tan t
zv
zv cos n

inv n

cos 1 (

mt = 3
t = 20
z = 36
= 33 33' 26.3"
n = 16.87300
xt = + 0.2
zv = 62.20800

xt
zv + 2
cos

Pressure Angle at Pin Center

tan v +

Ideal Pin Diameter

dp

zv mt cos cos n ( invv +

NOTE: The units of angles v /2 and v are radians.

v
2

= 0.014091

v = 18.26390
v = 0.34411
inv v = 0.014258
dp = 4.2190

Table 10-23 Equations for Calculating Over Pins Measurement for Helical Gears in the Radial
System
No.

Item

Symbol

Actual Pin Diameter

dp

Formula
See NOTE

dp
2

Involute Function
Pressure Angle at
Pin Center

inv

mt z cos cos n

Over Pins
Measurement

2z

+ inv t +

Find from Involute Function Table

Even Teeth

Example

dm

zmt cos t
+ dp
cos

2 xt tan t
z

dp = 4.2190
inv = 0.024302
= 23.3910
dm = 114.793

90
zmt cos t
cos
+ dp
z
cos
NOTE: The ideal pin diameter of Table 10-22, or its approximate value, is applied as the actual diameter
of pin dp here.
Odd Teeth

10.3.5 Three Wire Method Of Worm Measurement

The teeth profile of Type III worms which
are most popular are cut by standard cutters with
a pressure angle c = 20. This results in the
normal pressure angle of the worm being a bit
smaller than 20.The equation below shows how
to calculate a Type III worm in an AGMA system.

90
r
n = c
sin 3
2
zw r c cos + r

(10-14)

where:
r = Worm Pitch Radius
rc = Cutter Radius
zw = Number of Threads
= Lead Angle of Worm

Fig. 10-11 Three Wire Method of a Worm

The exact equation for a three wire method of Type III worm is not only difficult to comprehend,
but also hard to calculate precisely. We will introduce two approximate calculation methods here:
(a) Regard the tooth profile of the worm as a linear tooth profile of a rack and apply its equations.
Using this system, the three wire method of a worm can be calculated by Table 10-24.

Table 10-24 Equations for Three Wire Method of Worm Measurement, (a)-1
No.

Item

Symbol

Formula

Ideal Pin Diameter

dp

mx
2 cos x

Three Wire
Measurement

dm

d1

1
mx
)
+ (1 +
2 tan x
sin x

Example
mx = 2
n = 20
zw = 1
d1 = 31
= 3.691386 x = 20.03827
dp' = 3.3440; let dp = 3.3
dm = 35.3173

These equations presume the worm lead angle to be very small and can be neglected. Of course,
as the lead angle gets larger, the equations' error gets correspondingly larger. If the lead angle is
considered as a factor, the equations are as in Table 10-25.

Table 10-25 Equations for Three Wire Method of Worm Measurement, (a)-2
No.

Item

Symbol

Ideal Pin Diameter

dp

Three Wire
Measurement

dm

Formula

mn
2 cos n
1
mn
+ d p (1 +
d1
)
2 tan n
sin x

( d p cos n sin )2
2 d1

Example
mx = 2
zw = 1
= 3.691386
mn = 1.99585
dp = 3.3363; let
dm = 35.3344

n = 20
d1 = 31
dp = 3.3

(b) Consider a worm to be a helical gear.

This means applying the equations for calculating over pins measurement of helical gears to the
case of three wire method of a worm. Because the tooth profile of Type III worm is not an involute curve,
the method yields an approximation. However, the accuracy is adequate in practice.
Tables 10-26 and 10-27 contain equations based on the axial system. Tables 10-28 and 10-29
are based on the normal system.
Table 10-26 Equation for Calculating Pin Size for Worms in the Axial System, (b)-1
No.

Item

Number of Teeth of an
Equivalent Spur Gear

Half Tooth Space Angle at

Base Circle

Symbol
zv

Formula

Example

zw
cos ( 90 )

mx = 2
n = 20
zw = 1
d1 = 31
= 3.691386
zv = 3747.1491

2 zv

The Pressure Angle at the

Point Pin is Tangent to Tooth
Surface

cos 1 (

Pressure Angle at Pin Center

tan v +

Ideal Pin Diameter

dp

zv mx cos cos n ( invv +

inv n
zv cos n
)
zv

v
2

NOTE: The units of angles v / 2 and v are radians.

v
2

= 0.014485

v = 20
v = 0.349485
inv v = 0.014960
dp = 3.3382

Table 10-27 Equation for Three Wire Method for Worms in the Axial System, (b)-2
No.
1

Item

Symbol

Actual Pin Size

dp

Formula

Example

See NOTE

dp

+ inv t Let dp = 3.3

Involute Function

Pressure Angle at Pin

Center

Find from Involute Function Table

Three Wire Measurement

dm

zw mx cos t
+ dp
tancos

inv

mx zw cos cos n

2 zw

t = 79.96878
inv t = 4.257549
inv = 4.446297
= 80.2959
dm = 35.3345

NOTE: 1. The value of ideal pin diameter from Table 10-26, or its approximate value, is to be used
as the actual pin diameter, dp.
2. t = tan 1 (

tan n
)
sin

Table 10-28 shows the calculation of a worm in the normal module system. Basically, the normal module
system and the axial module system have the same form of equations. Only the notations of module
make them different.
Table 10-28 Equation for Calculating Pin Size for Worms in the Normal System, (b)-3
No.

Item

Number of Teeth of an
Equivalent Spur Gear

Half Tooth Space Angle at

Base Circle

Symbol
zv

Formula

Example

zw
cos 3 ( 90 )

mn = 2.5
n = 20
zw = 1
d1 = 37
= 3.874288
zv = 3241.792

2 zv

The Pressure Angle at the

Point Pin is Tangent to Tooth
Surface

cos 1 (

Pressure Angle at Pin Center

tan v +

Ideal Pin Diameter

dp

zv mn cos n ( invv +

inv n
zv cos n
)
zv

v = 20
v = 0.349550
inv v = 0.0149687
dp = 4.1785

NOTE: The units of angles v /2 and v are radians.

v
2

= 0.014420

Table 10-29 Equations for Three Wire Method for Worms in the Normal System, (b)-4
No.

Item

Symbol
dp

Formula

Example

See NOTE

Actual Pin Size

Involute Function

Pressure Angle at Pin

Center

Find from Involute Function Table

Three Wire Measurement

dm

zw mn cos t
+ dp
tancos

dp
inv

mn zw cos cos n

2 zw

+ inv t dp = 4.2

t = 79.48331
inv t = 3.999514
inv = 4.216536
= 79.8947
dm = 42.6897

NOTE: 1. The value of ideal pin diameter from Table 10-28, or its approximate value, is to be used as the
actual pin diameter, dp.
2. t = tan 1 (

tan n
)
sin

10.4 Over Pins Measurements For Fine Pitch Gears With Specific Numbers Of Teeth
Table 10-30 presents measurements for metric gears. These are for standard ideal tooth
thicknesses. Measurements can be adjusted accordingly to backlash allowance and tolerance; i.e., tooth
thinning.

TABLE 10-30 METRIC GEAR OVER PINS MEASUREMENT

Pitch Diameter and Measurement Over Wires for External, Module Type Gears, 20-Degree Pressure Angle

Continued on the next page

TABLE 10-30 (Cont.) METRIC GEAR OVER PINS MEASUREMENT

Pitch Diameter and Measurement Over Wires for External, Module Type Gears, 20-Degree Pressure Angle

Continued from the previous page

Continued on the next page

TABLE 10-30 (Cont.) METRIC GEAR OVER PINS MEASUREMENT

Pitch Diameter and Measurement Over Wires for External, Module Type Gears, 20-Degree Pressure Angle

Continued from the previous page

Continued on the next page

TABLE 10-30 (Cont.) METRIC GEAR OVER PINS MEASUREMENT

Pitch Diameter and Measurement Over Wires for External, Module Type Gears, 20-Degree Pressure Angle

Continued from the previous page

Continued on the next page

TABLE 10-30 (Cont.) METRIC GEAR OVER PINS MEASUREMENT

Pitch Diameter and Measurement Over Wires for External, Module Type Gears, 20-Degree Pressure Angle

Continued from the previous page

Continued on the next page

TABLE 10-30 (Cont.) METRIC GEAR OVER PINS MEASUREMENT

Pitch Diameter and Measurement Over Wires for External, Module Type Gears, 20-Degree Pressure Angle

Continued from the previous page

Continued on the next page

TABLE 10-30 (Cont.) METRIC GEAR OVER PINS MEASUREMENT

Pitch Diameter and Measurement Over Wires for External, Module Type Gears, 20-Degree Pressure Angle

Continued from the previous page

Continued on the next page

TABLE 10-30 (Cont.) METRIC GEAR OVER PINS MEASUREMENT

Pitch Diameter and Measurement Over Wires for External, Module Type Gears, 20-Degree Pressure Angle

Continued from the previous page

Continued on the next page

TABLE 10-30 (Cont.) METRIC GEAR OVER PINS MEASUREMENT

Pitch Diameter and Measurement Over Wires for External, Module Type Gears, 20-Degree Pressure Angle

Continued from the previous page

SECTION 11 CONTACT RATIO

To assure continuous smooth tooth
action, as one pair of teeth ceases action a
succeeding pair of teeth must already have
come into engagement. It is desirable to
have as much overlap as is possible. A
measure of this overlap action is the contact
ratio. This is a ratio of the length of the lineof-action to the base pitch. Figure 11-1
shows the geometry for a spur gear pair,
which is the simplest case, and is
representative of the concept for all gear
types. The length-of-action is determined
from the intersection of the line-of-action and
the outside radii. The ratio of the lengthofaction to the base pitch is determined from:
Fig. 11-1 Geometry of Contact Ratio

( R a R b ) + ( r a r b ) a sin
2

m cos

(11-1)

It is good practice to maintain a contact ratio of 1.2 or greater. Under no circumstances should the
ratio drop below 1.1, calculated for all tolerances at their worst case values.
A contact ratio between 1 and 2 means that part of the time two pairs of teeth are in contact and
during the remaining time one pair is in contact. A ratio between 2 and 3 means 2 or 3 pairs of teeth are
always in contact. Such a high ratio is generally not obtained with external spur gears, but can be
developed in the meshing of internal gears, helical gears, or specially designed nonstandard external
spur gears.
When considering all types of gears, contact ratio is composed of two components:
1. Radial contact ratio (plane of rotation perpendicular to axes),
2. Overlap contact ratio (axial),
The sum is the total contact ratio, .
The overlap contact ratio component exists only in gear pairs that have helical or spiral tooth forms.
11.1 Radial Contact Ratio Of Spur And Helical Gears,
The equations for radial (or plane of rotation) contact ratio for spur and helical gears are given in
Table 11-1, with reference to Figure 11-2.
When the contact ratio is inadequate, there are three means to increase it. These are somewhat
obvious from examination of Equation (11-1).
1. Decrease the pressure angle. This makes a longer line-of-action as it extends through the
region between the two outside radii.
2. Increase the number of teeth. As the number of teeth increases and the pitch diameter grows,
again there is a longer line-of-action in the region between the outside radii.
3. Increase working tooth depth. This can be done by adding addendum to the tooth and thus
increase the outside radius. However, this requires a larger dedendum, and requires a special tooth
design.

Table 11-1 Equations of Radial Contact Ratio on Parallel Axes Gear,

Formula of Radial Contact Ratio,

Type of Gear Mesh

Spur Pair

Gear
Gear

Spur Gear
and Rack

Gear
Rack

External and
Internal Spur

External Gear
Internal Gear

Helical Pair

Gear
Gear

d a1 2
d
d
d
) ( b1 ) 2 + ( a 2 ) 2 ( b 2 ) 2 a x sin w
2
2
2
2
m cos

d a1 2
d
h x1 m d 1
) ( b1 ) 2 + a 2
sin

2
2
sin
2
m cos
d
d
d
d
( a1 ) 2 ( b1 ) 2 ( a 2 ) 2 ( b 2 ) 2 + a x sin w
2
2
2
2
m cos
d
d
d
d
( a1 )2 ( b1 )2 ( a 2 )2 ( b 2 )2 + ax sin wt
2
2
2
2
mt cos t
(

An example of helical gear:

mn = 3
z2 = 60
t = 22.79588
da2 = 213.842

n = 20
x1 = +0.09809
wt = 23.1126
db1 = 38.322

= 30
x2 = 0
mt = 3.46410
db2 = 191.611

z1 = 12
ax = 125
da1 = 48.153
= 1.2939

Note that in Table 11-1 only the radial or circular

(plane of rotation) contact ratio is considered. This is true
of both the spur and helical gear equations. However, for
helical gears this is only one component of two. For the
helical gear's total contact ratio, , the overlap (axial)
contact ratio, , must be added. See Paragraph 11.4.
11.2 Contact Ratio Of Bevel Gears,
The contact ratio of a bevel gear pair can be
derived from consideration of the equivalent spur gears,
when viewed from the back cone. See Figure 8-8.
With this approach, the mesh can be treated as
spur gears. Table 11-2 presents equations calculating the
contact ratio.
An example of spiral bevel gear (see Table 11-2):
Fig. 11-2 Radial Contact Ratio of
Parallel Axes Gear
m=3
z2 = 40
Rv1 = 33.54102
ha1 = 3.4275
= 1.2825

n = 20
t = 23.95680
Rv2 = 134.16408
ha2 = 1.6725

= 35
d1 = 60
Rvb1 = 30.65152
Rva1 = 36.9685

z1 = 20
d2 = 120
Rvb2 = 122.60610
Rva2 = 135.83658

Table 11-2 Equations for Contact Ratio for a Bevel Gear Pair
Item

Symbol

Equation for Contact Ratio

Back Cone Distance

Rv

d
2 cos

Base Circle Radius of an

Equivalent Spur Gear

Rvb

Outside Radius of an
Equivalent
Spur Gear

Rva

S traight Bevel Gear

Rv cos

Spiral Bevel Gear

Rv cos t
Rv + ha

Spiral Bevel Gear

R va1 R vb1 + R va 2 R vb 2 ( R va + R v 2 ) sin t

2

Contact Ratio

m cos t
11.3 Contact Ratio For Nonparallel And Nonintersecting Axes Pairs,
This group pertains to screw gearing and worm gearing. The equations are approximations by
considering the worm and worm gear mesh in the plane perpendicular to worm gear axis and likening it to
spur gear and rack mesh. Table 11-3 presents these equations.

Table 11-3 Equations for Contact Ratio of Nonparallel and Nonintersecting Meshes
Equation of Contact Ratio,

Type of Gear Mesh

Screw Gear
Screw Gear

Worm
Worm Gear

da1 2
d
d
d
) ( b1 )2 + ( a 2 )2 ( b 2 )2
2
2
2
2
mx cos x

d b1 cost1 d b1 cost 2

2
2
sin n

ha1 x x 2 m x
d
d
d
+ ( th ) 2 ( b 2 ) 2 2 sin x
sin x
2
2
2
m x cos x

Example of worm mesh:

mx = 3
d1 = 44
ha1 = 3

n = 20
d2 = 90
dth = 96

zw = 2
= 7.76517
db2 = 84.48050

z2 = 30
x = 20.17024
= 1.8066

11.4 Axial (Overlap) Contact Ratio,

Helical gears and spiral bevel gears have an overlap of tooth action in the axial direction. This
overlap adds to the contact ratio. This is in contrast to spur gears which have no tooth action in the axial
direction.

Thus, for the same tooth proportions in the plane

of rotation, helical and spiral bevel gears offer a
significant increase in contact ratio. The magnitude of
axial contact ratio is a direct function of the gear width,
as illustrated in Figure 11-3. Equations for calculating
axial contact ratio are presented in Table 11-4.
It is obvious that contact ratio can be increased
by either increasing the gear width or increasing the
helix angle.

Fig. 11-3 Axial (Overlap) Contact Ratio

Table 11-4 Equations for Axial Contact Ratio of Helical and Spiral Bevel Gears,
Type of Gear

Equation of Contact Ratio

Example

Helical Gear

b sin
m n

b = 50, = 30, mn = 3
= 2.6525

Spiral Bevel Gear

Re
b tan m
R e 0.5 b m n

From Table 8-6: Re = 67.08204, b = 20,

m = 35, m = 3, = 1.7462

NOTE: The module m in spiral bevel gear equation is the normal module.

SECTION 12 GEAR TOOTH MODIFICATIONS

Intentional deviations from the involute tooth profile are used to avoid excessive tooth load
deflection interference and thereby enhances load capacity. Also, the elimination of tip interference
reduces meshing noise. Other modifications can accommodate assembly misalignment and thus
preserve load capacity.
12.1 Tooth Tip Relief
There are two types of tooth tip relief. One modifies the addendum, and the other the dedendum.
See Figure 12-1. Addendum relief is much more popular than dedendum modification.

Fig. 12-1 Tip Relief

12.2 Crowning And Side Relieving

Crowning and side relieving are tooth
surface modifications in the axial direction. See
Figure 12-2. Crowning is the removal of a slight
amount of tooth from the center on out to reach
edge, making the tooth surface slightly convex.
This method allows the gear to maintain contact
in the central region of the tooth and permits
avoidance of edge contact with consequent
lower load capacity. Crowning also allows a
greater tolerance in the misalignment of gears in
their assembly, maintaining central contact.
Relieving is a chamfering of the tooth
surface. It is similar to crowning except that it is
a simpler process and only an approximation to
crowning. It is not as effective as crowning.

Fig. 12-2 Crowning and Relieving

12.3 Topping And Semitopping

In topping, often referred to as top
hobbing, the top or outside diameter of the gear
is cut simultaneously with the generation of the
teeth. An advantage is that there will be no burrs
on the tooth top. Also, the outside diameter is
highly concentric with the pitch circle. This
permits secondary machining operations using
this diameter for nesting.
Semitopping is the chamfering of the
tooth's top corner, which is accomplished
simultaneously with tooth generation. Figure 123 shows a semitopping cutter and the resultant
generated semitopped gear. Such a tooth tends
to prevent corner damage. Also, it has no burr.
The magnitude of semitopping should not go
beyond a proper limit as otherwise it would
significantly shorten the addendum and contact
ratio. Figure 12-4 specifies a recommended
magnitude of semitopping.
Both modifications require special
generating tools. They are independent
modifications but, if desired, can be applied
simultaneously.

Fig. 12-3 Semitopping Cutter and the

Gear Profile Generated

Fig. 12-4 Recommended Magnitude

of Semitopping

SECTION 13 GEAR TRAINS

The objective of gears is to provide a desired motion, either rotation or linear. This is
accomplished through either a simple gear pair or a more involved and complex system of several gear
meshes. Also, related to this is the desired speed, direction of rotation and the shaft arrangement.

13.1 Single-Stage Gear Train

A meshed gear is the basic form of a
singlestage gear train. It consists of z1 and z2
numbers of teeth on the driver and driven gears,
and their respective rotations, n1 & n2 . The speed
ratio is then:

speed ratio =

z1 n 2
=
z2
n1

(13-1)

13.1.1 Types Of Single-Stage Gear Trains

Gear trains can be classified into three
types:
1. Speed ratio > 1, increasing: n1 < n2
2. Speed ratio = 1, equal speeds: n1 = n2
3. Speed ratio < 1, reducing: n1 > n2
Figure 13-1 illustrates four basic types.
For the very common cases of spur and bevel
meshes, Figures 13-1(a) and 13-1(b), the
direction of rotation of driver and driven gears are
reversed. In the case of an internal gear mesh,
Figure 13-1(c), both gears have the same
direction of rotation. In the case of a worm mesh,
Figure 13-1(d), the rotation direction of z2 is
determined by its helix hand.

Fig. 13-1 Single-Stage Gear Trains

In addition to these four basic forms, the combination of a rack and gear can be considered a
specific type. The displacement of a rack, l, for rotation of the mating gear is:

l=

mz1

(13-2)

360

where:
m is the standard circular pitch
z1 is the number of teeth of the gear
13.2 Two-Stage Gear Train
A two-stage gear train uses two single-stages in a series. Figure 13-2 represents the basic form
of an external gear two-stage gear train. Let the first gear in the first stage be the driver. Then the speed
ratio of the two-stage train is:

Speed ratio =

z1 z3 n2 n4
=
z2 z4 n1 n3

(13-3)

In this arrangement, n2 = n3
In the two-stage gear train, Figure 13-2, gear 1 rotates in the same direction as gear 4. If gears 2
and 3 have the same number of teeth, then the train simplifies as in Figure 13-3. In this arrangement,
gear 2 is known as an idler, which has no effect on the gear ratio. The speed ratio is then:

Speed ratio =

z1 z3 z1
=
z2 z4 z3

(13-4)

Fig. 13-2 Two-Stage Gear Train

Fig. 13-3 Single-Stage Gear Train with an Idler

13.3 Planetary Gear System
The basic form of a planetary gear system is shown in Figure 13-4. It consists of a Sun Gear (A),
Planet Gears (B), Internal Gear (C) and Carrier (D). The input and output axes of a planetary gear
system are on a same line. Usually, it uses two or more planet gears to balance the load evenly. It is
compact in space, but complex in structure. Planetary gear systems need a high-quality manufacturing
process. The load division between planet gears, the interference of the internal gear, the balance and
vibration of the rotating carrier, and the hazard of jamming, etc. are inherent problems to be solved.
Figure 13-4 is a so called 2K-H type planetary gear system. The sun gear, internal gear, and the
carrier have a common axis.

Fig. 13-4 An Example of a Planetary Gear System

13.3.1 Relationship Among The Gears In A Planetary Gear System

In order to determine the relationship among the

numbers of teeth of the sun gear A, (za), the planet gears B, (zb),
and the internal gear C, (zc), and the number of planet gears, N,
in the system, the
parameters must satisfy the following three conditions:
Condition No. 1: zc = za + 2 zb

(13-

5)
This is the condition necessary for the center distances
of the gears to match. Since the equation is true only for the
standard gear system, it is possible to vary the numbers of teeth
by using profile shifted gear designs.
To use profile shifted gears, it is necessary to match the
center distance between the sun A and planet B gears, ax1, and
the center distance between the planet B and internal C gears,
ax2.
ax1 = ax

(13-6)

Condition No. 2:

( za + zc )
= integer
N

Fig. 13-5(a) Condition No. 1 of

Planetary Gear System

(13-7)

This is the condition necessary for placing planet gears

evenly spaced around the sun gear. If an uneven placement of
planet gears is desired, then Equation (13-8) must be satisfied.

( z a + z c )
= integer
180
where:

(13-8)

= half the angle between adjacent planet gears

Fig. 13-5(b) Condition No. 2
of Planetary Gear System

Condition No. 3:

z b + 2 + < ( z a + z b ) sin(

180
)
N

(13-9)

Satisfying this condition insures that adjacent planet gears

can operate without interfering with each other. This is the condition
that must be met for standard gear design with equal placement of
planet gears. For other conditions, the system must satisfy the
relationship:
dab < 2 ax sin

(13-10)

where:
dab = outside diameter of the planet gears
ax = center distance between the sun and planet gears

Fig. 13-5(c) Condition No. 3 of

Planetary Gear System

Besides the above three basic conditions, there can be an interference problem between the
internal gear C and the planet gears B. See SECTION 5 that discusses more about this problem.
13.3.2 Speed Ratio Of Planetary Gear System
In a planetary gear system, the speed ratio and the direction of
rotation would be changed according to which member is fixed.
Figures 13-6(a), 13-6(b) and 13-6(c) contain three typical types of
planetary gear mechanisms, depending upon which member is locked.
(a) Planetary Type
In this type, the internal gear is fixed. The input is the sun gear and the
output is carrier D. The speed ratio is calculated as in Table 13-1.

Fig. 13-6(a) Planetary Type

Planetary Gear Mechanism
Table 13-1 Equations of Speed Ratio for a Planetary Type
No.
1
2
3

Description
Rotate sun gear A once
while holding carrier
System is fixed as a
whole while rotating +(za
/zc)
Sum of 1 and 2

Sun Gear A
za
+1
+

za
zc

1+

za
zc

Planet Gear B
zb
z
a
zb
+

za
zc

Internal Gear C
zc
z
a
zc

za
zc
1
Speed Ratio =
=
z
zc
1+ a
+1
zc
za

za
zc

za
zc

0
(fixed)

za
zc

za za

zc zb

Carrier D

(13-11)

Note that the direction of rotation of input and output axes are the
same.
Example: za = 16, zb = 16, zc = 48, then speed ratio = 1/4.
(b) Solar Type
In this type, the sun gear is fixed. The internal gear C is the
input, and carrier D axis is the output. The speed ratio is calculated
as in Table 13-2, on the following page.

Fig. 13-6(b) Solar Type Planetary

Table 13-2 Equations of Speed Ratio for a Solar Type

No.
1
2
3

Sun Gear A
za

Description
Rotate sun gear A once
while holding carrier
System is fixed as a
whole while rotating +(za
/zc)

Internal Gear C
zc
z
a
zc

-1

-1

-1

za
1
zc

-1

-1
0
(fixed)

Sum of 1 and 2

Speed Ratio =

+1

Planet Gear B
zb
z
a
zb

za
1
zb

1
1
=
za
za

1
+1
zc
zc

Carrier D
0

(13-12)

Note that the directions of rotation of input and output axes are the same.
Example: za = 16, zb = 16, zc = 48, then the speed ratio = 1/1.3333333.
(c) Star Type
This is the type in which Carrier D is fixed.The planet gears
B rotate only on fixed axes. In a strict definition, this train loses the
features of a planetary system and it becomes an ordinary gear
train. The sun gear is an input axis and the internal gear is the
output. The speed ratio is:

Speed Ratio =

za
zc

(13-13)

Referring to Figure 13-6(c), the planet gears are merely

idlers. Input and output axes have opposite rotations.

Fig. 13-6(c) Star Type Planetary

Gear Mechanism

Example: : za = 16, zb = 16, zc = 48;

then speed ratio = 1/3.

13.4 Constrained Gear System

A planetary gear system which has four gears, as in Figure 13-5, is an example of a constrained
gear system. It is a closed loop system in which the power is transmitted from the driving gear through
other gears and eventually to the driven gear. A closed loop gear system will not work if the gears do not
meet specific conditions.
Let z1, z2 and z3 be the numbers of gear teeth, as in Figure 13-7. Meshing cannot function if the
length of the heavy line (belt) does not divide evenly by circular pitch. Equation (13-14) defines this
condition.

z11 z 2 (180 + 1 + 2 ) z 3 2
+
+
= int eger
180
180
180

(13-14)

where 1 and 2 are in degrees.

Figure 13-8 shows a constrained gear system in which a rack is meshed. The heavy line in
Figure 13-8 corresponds to the belt in Figure 13-7. If the length of the belt cannot be evenly divided by
circular pitch then the system does not work. It is described by Equation (13-15).

z11 z 2 (180 + 1 )
a
+
+
= int eger
180
180
m

Fig. 13-7 Constrained Gear System

(13-15)

Fig. 13-8 Constrained Gear System

Containing a Rack

SECTION 14 BACKLASH
Up to this point the discussion has implied that there is no backlash. If the gears are of standard
tooth proportion design and operate on standard center distance they would function ideally with neither
backlash nor jamming.
Backlash is provided for a variety of reasons and cannot be designated without consideration of
machining conditions. The general purpose of backlash is to prevent gears from jamming by making
contact on both sides of their teeth simultaneously. A small amount of backlash is also desirable to
provide for lubricant space and differential expansion between the gear components and the housing.
Any error in machining which tends to increase the possibility of jamming makes it necessary to increase
the amount of backlash by at least as much as the possible cumulative errors. Consequently, the smaller
the amount of backlash, the more accurate must be the machining of the gears. Runout of both gears,
errors in profile, pitch, tooth thickness, helix angle and center distance all are factors to consider in the
specification of the amount of backlash. On the other hand, excessive backlash is objectionable,
particularly if the drive is frequently reversing or if there is an overrunning load. The amount of backlash
must not be excessive for the requirements of the job, but it should be sufficient so that machining costs
are not higher than necessary.

In order to obtain the amount of backlash desired,

it is necessary to decrease tooth thickness. See Figure
14-1. This decrease must almost always be greater than
the desired backlash because of the errors in
manufacturing and assembling. Since the amount of the
decrease in tooth thickness depends upon the accuracy
of machining, the allowance for a specified backlash will
vary according to the manufacturing conditions.
It is customary to make half of the allowance for
backlash on the tooth thickness of each gear of a pair,
although there are exceptions. For example, on pinions
having very low numbers of teeth, it is desirable to
provide all of the allowance on the mating gear so as not
to weaken the pinion teeth.
Figure 14-1 Backlash, (j ) Between Two
In spur and helical gearing, backlash allowance is
Gears
usually obtained by sinking the hob deeper into the blank
than the theoretically standard depth. Further, it is true that
any increase or decrease in center distance of two gears in any mesh will cause an increase or decrease
in backlash. Thus, this is an alternate way of designing backlash into the system.
In the following, we give the fundamental equations for the determination of backlash in a single
gear mesh. For the determination of backlash in gear trains, it is necessary to sum the backlash of each
mated gear pair. However, to obtain the total backlash for a series of meshes, it is necessary to take into
account the gear ratio of each mesh relative to a chosen reference shaft in the gear train. For details, see
Reference 10 at the end of the technical section.

14.1 Definition Of Backlash

Backlash is defined in Figure 142(a) as the excess thickness of tooth space
over the thickness of the mating tooth.
There are two basic ways in which backlash
arises: tooth thickness is below the zero
backlash value; and the operating center
distance is greater than the zero backlash
value.
If the tooth thickness of either or
both mating gears is less than the zero
backlash value, the amount of backlash
introduced in the mesh is simply this
numerical difference:
j = sstd sact = s

(14-1)

Fig. 14-2(a) Geometrical Definition of Angular Backlash

where:
j = linear backlash measured along
the pitch circle
(Figure 14-2(b))
sstd = no backlash tooth thickness on
the operating pitch circle, which is
the standard tooth thickness for
ideal gears
sact = actual tooth thickness
When the center distance is
increased by a relatively small amount, a, a
backlash space develops between mating
teeth, as in Figure 14-3. The relationship
between center distance increase and linear
backlash jn along the line-of-action is:
jn = 2 a sin

(14-2)

Fig. 14-2(b) Geometrical Definition of

Linear Backlash

(a) Gear Teeth in Tight Mesh

No Backlash

(b) Gear Mesh with Backlash

Due to a

Figure 14-3 Backlash Caused by Opening of

Center Distance

This measure along the line-of-action is useful when inserting a feeler gage between teeth to measure
backlash. The equivalent linear backlash measured along the pitch circle is given by:
j = 2 a tan

(14-3a)

where:
a = change in center distance
= pressure angle
Hence, an approximate relationship between center distance change and change in backlash is:
a = 1.933 j for 14.5 pressure angle gears

(14-3b)

a = 1.374 j for 20 pressure angle gears

(14-3c)

Although these are approximate relationships, they are adequate for most uses. Their derivation,
limitations, and correction factors are detailed in Reference 10. Note that backlash due to center distance
opening is dependent upon the tangent function of the pressure angle. Thus, 20 gears have 41% more
backlash than 14.5 gears, and this constitutes one of the few advantages of the lower pressure angle.
Equations (14-3) are a useful relationship, particularly for converting to angular backlash. Also,
for fine pitch gears the use of feeler gages for measurement is impractical, whereas an indicator at the
pitch line gives a direct measure. The two linear backlashes are related by:

j=

jn
cos

(14-4)

The angular backlash at the gear shaft is usually the critical factor in the gear application. As
seen from Figure 14-2(a), this is related to the gear's pitch radius as follows:

je =

j
( arc minutes )
R1

(14-5)

Obviously, angular backlash is inversely proportional to gear radius. Also, since the two meshing
gears are usually of different pitch diameters, the linear backlash of the measure converts to different
angular values for each gear. Thus, an angular backlash must be specified with reference to a particular
shaft or gear center.
Details of backlash calculations and formulas for various gear types are given in the following
sections.

14.2 Backlash Relationships

Expanding upon the previous definition,
ther backlash jt, normal backlash jn , center
backlash jr e are several kinds of backlash: circular
and angular backlash j (), see Figure 14-4.
Table 14-1 reveals relationships among
circular backlash jt , normal backlash jn and center
backlash jr. In this definition, jr is equivalent to
change in center distance, a, in Section 14.1.

Table 14-1 The Relationships among the Backlashes

No.

Type of Gear Meshes

The Relation
between Circular Backlash
jt and
Normal Backlash jn
jn = jt cos

Spur Gear

Helical Gear

Straight Bevel Gear

Spiral Bevel Gear

jnn = jtt cos n cos m

Worm Worm Gear

jnn = jtt1 cos n cos

jnn = jtt2 cos n cos

jnn = jtt cos n cos

jn = jt cos

The Relation between

Circular Backlash jt
and Center Backlash jr
jt
2 tan
j tt
jr =
2 tan t

jr =

jr =

jt

2 tan sin
jt
jr =
2 tan t sin
j tt 2
jr =
2 tan x

Circular backlash jt has a relation with angular backlash j, as follows:

j = j t

360
(deg rees )
d

(14-6)

14.2.1 Backlash Of A Spur Gear Mesh

From Figure 14-4 we can derive backlash of spur mesh as:

j n = j t cos
jr =

jt
2 tan

(14-7)

14.2.2 Backlash Of Helical Gear Mesh

The helical gear has two kinds of backlash when referring to the tooth space. There is a cross
section in the normal direction of the tooth surface n, and a cross section in the radial direction
perpendicular to the axis, t.

jnn = backlash in the direction

normal to the
tooth surface
jnt = backlash in the circular
direction in
the cross section
normal to the tooth
jtn = backlash in the direction
normal to
the tooth surface in
the cross section
perpendicular to the
axis
jtt = backlash in the circular
direction perpendicular
to the axis

Fig. 14-5 Backlash of Helical Gear Mesh

These backlashes have relations as follows:

In the plane normal to the tooth:
jnn = jnt cos n

(14-8)

On the pitch surface:

jnt = jtt cos

(14-9)

In the plane perpendicular to the axis:

jtn = jtt cos t
j tt
jr =
2 tan t

14.2.3 Backlash Of Straight Bevel Gear Mesh

Figure 14-6 expresses backlash for a straight bevel gear mesh.

(14-10)

Fig. 14-6 Backlash of Straight Bevel Gear Mesh

In the cross section perpendicular to the tooth of a straight bevel gear, circular backlash at pitch
line jt, normal backlash jn and radial backlash jr' have the following relationships:
jn = jt cos
jt
jr ' =
2 tan

(14-11)

The radial backlash in the plane of axes can be broken down into the components in the direction
of bevel pinion center axis, jr1, and in the direction of bevel gear center axis, jr2.

jt
2 tan sin 1
jt
=
2 tan cos 1

jr1 =
jr2

14.2.4 Backlash Of A Spiral Bevel Gear

Mesh
Figure 14-7 delineates backlash for
a spiral bevel gear mesh.

(14-12)

Fig. 14-7 Backlash of Spiral Bevel Gear Mesh

In the tooth space cross section normal to the tooth:
jnn = jnt cos n

(14-13)

On the pitch surface:

jnt = jtt cos m

(14-14)

In the plane perpendicular to the generatrix of the pitch cone:

jtn = jtt cos t
j tt
jr ' =
2 tan t

(14-15)

The radial backlash in the plane of axes can be broken down into the components in the direction
of bevel pinion center axis, jr1, and in the direction of bevel gear center axis, jr2.

jr1 =
jr 2

j tt

2 tan t sin 1
j tt
=
2 tan t cos 1

(14-16)

14.2.5 Backlash Of Worm Gear Mesh

Figure 14-8 expresses backlash for a worm gear mesh.
On the pitch surface of a worm:
jnt = jtt1 sin
jnt = jtt2 cos

(14-17)

j
tan = tt 2
j tt1
In the cross section of a worm perpendicular to its axis:
jtn1 = jtt1 cos t
j tt1
jr =
2 tan t

(14-18)

In the plane perpendicular to the axis of the worm gear:

jtn2 = jtt2 cos x
j tt 2
jr =
2 tan t

(14-19)

Fig. 14-8 Backlash of Worm

Gear Mesh

14.3 Tooth Thickness And Backlash

There are two ways to produce backlash. One is to enlarge the center distance. The other is to
reduce the tooth thickness. The latter is much more popular than the former. We are going to discuss
more about the way of reducing the tooth thickness. In SECTION 10, we have discussed the standard
tooth thickness s. In the meshing of a pair of gears, if the tooth thickness of pinion and gear were reduced
by s1 and s2, they would generate a backlash of s1 + s2 in the direction of the pitch circle.
Let the magnitude of s1, s2 be 0.1. We know that = 20, then:
jt = s1 + s2 = 0.1 + 0.1 = 0.2
We can convert it into the backlash on normal direction:
jn = jt cos = 0.2 cos 20 = 0.1879
Let the backlash on the center distance direction be jr, then:

jr =

jt
0 .2
=
= 0.2747
2 tan 2 tan 20

They express the relationship among several kinds of backlashes. In application, one should
consult the JIS standard.
There are two JIS standards for backlash one is JIS B 1703-76 for spur gears and helical gears,
and the other is JIS B 1705-73 for bevel gears. All these standards regulate the standard backlashes in
the direction of the pitch circle jt or jtt. These standards can be applied directly, but the backlash beyond
the standards may also be used for special purposes. When writing tooth thicknesses on a drawing, it is
necessary to specify, in addition, the tolerances on the thicknesses as well as the backlash. For example:
050
Circular tooth thickness 3.14100..100

Backlash

0.100 ... 0.200

14.4 Gear Train And Backlash

The discussions so far involved a
single pair of gears. Now, we are going to
discuss two stage gear trains and their
backlash. In a two stage gear train, as
Figure 14-9 shows, j1 and j4 represent the
backlashes of first stage gear train and
second stage gear train respectively.
If number one gear were fixed, then
the accumulated backlash on number four
gear jtT4 would be as follows:

j tT 4 = j1

d3
+ j4
d4

(14-

20)

Fig. 14-9 Overall Accumulated Backlash of

Two Stage Gear Train

This accumulated backlash can be converted into rotation in degrees:

j = j tT 4

360
(deg rees )
d 4

(14-21)

The reverse case is to fix number four gear and to examine the accumulated backlash on number
one gear jtT1.

j tT 1 = j 4

d2
+ j1
d3

(14-22)

This accumulated backlash can be converted into rotation in degrees:

j = j tT 1

360
(deg rees )
d1

(14-23)

14.5 Methods Of Controlling Backlash

In order to meet special needs, precision gears are used more frequently than ever before.
Reducing backlash becomes an important issue. There are two methods of reducing or eliminating
backlash one a static, and the other a dynamic method. The static method concerns means of
assembling gears and then making proper adjustments to achieve the desired low backlash. The dynamic
method introduces an external force which continually eliminates all backlash regardless of rotational
position.
14.5.1 Static Method
This involves adjustment of either the
gear's effective tooth thickness or the mesh
center distance. These two independent
adjustments can be used to produce four
possible combinations as shown in Table 14-2.

Table 14-2
Center Distance

Gear
Size

Fixed

Fixed

Adjustable

III

Adjustable
II
IV
Case I
By design, center distance and tooth thickness are such that they yield the proper amount of
desired minimum backlash. Center distance and tooth thickness size are fixed at correct values and
require precision manufacturing.
Case II
With gears mounted on fixed centers, adjustment is made to the effective tooth thickness by axial
movement or other means. Three main methods are:
1. Two identical gears are mounted so that one can be rotated relative to the other and fixed. See
Figure 14-10a. In this way, the effective tooth thickness can be adjusted to yield the desired low
backlash.
2. A gear with a helix angle such as a helical gear is made in two half thicknesses. One is shifted
axially such that each makes contact with the mating gear on the opposite sides of the tooth. See
Figure 14-10b.
3. The backlash of cone shaped gears, such as bevel and tapered tooth spur gears, can be
adjusted with axial positioning. A duplex lead worm can be adjusted similarly. See Figure 14-10c.

Fig. 14-10 Ways of Reducing Backlash in Case II

Case III
Center distance adjustment of backlash can be accomplished in two ways:
1. Linear Movement Figure 14-11a shows adjustment along the line-of-centers in a straight or
parallel axes manner. After setting to the desired value of backlash, the centers are locked in
place.
2. Rotary Movement Figure 14-11b shows an alternate way of achieving center distance
adjustment by rotation of one of the gear centers by means of a swing arm on an eccentric
bushing. Again, once the desired backlash setting is found, the positioning arm is locked

Fig. 14-11 Ways of Decreasing Backlash in Case III

Case IV
Adjustment of both center distance and tooth thickness is theoretically valid, but is not the usual
practice. This would call for needless fabrication expense.
14.5.2 Dynamic Methods
Dynamic methods relate to the static techniques. However, they involve a forced adjustment of
either the effective tooth thickness or the center distance.
1. Backlash Removal by Forced Tooth Contact
This is derived from static Case II. Referring to Figure 14-10a , a forcing spring rotates the two
gear halves apart. This results in an effective tooth thickness that continually fills the entire tooth space in
all mesh positions.

2. Backlash Removal by Forced Center Distance Closing

This is derived from static Case III. A spring force is applied to close the center distance; in one
case as a linear force along the line-of-centers, and in the other case as a torque applied to the swing
arm.
In all of these dynamic methods, the applied external force should be known and properly
specified. The theoretical relationship of the forces involved is as follows:
F > F1 + F2

(14-24)

where:
F1 = Transmission Load on Tooth Surface
F2 = Friction Force on Tooth Surface
If F < F1 + F2, then it would be impossible to remove backlash. But if F is excessively greater than
a proper level, the tooth surfaces would be needlessly loaded and could lead to premature wear and
shortened life. Thus, in designing such gears, consideration must be given to not only the needed
transmission load, but also the forces acting upon the tooth surfaces caused by the spring load. It is
important to appreciate that the spring loading must be set to accommodate the largest expected
transmission force, F1, and this maximum spring force is applied to the tooth surfaces continually and
irrespective of the load being driven.
3. Duplex Lead Worm
A duplex lead worm mesh is a special design in which backlash can be adjusted by shifting the
worm axially. It is useful for worm drives in high precision turntables and hobbing machines. Figure 14-12
presents the basic concept of a duplex lead worm.

Fig. 14-12 Basic Concepts of Duplex Lead Worm

The lead or pitch, pL and pR, on the two sides of the worm thread are not identical. The example
in Figure 14-12 shows the case when pR > pL.To produce such a worm requires a special dual lead hob.
The intent of Figure 14-12 is to indicate that the worm tooth thickness is progressively bigger
towards the right end. Thus, it is convenient to adjust backlash by simply moving the duplex worm in the
axial direction.

SECTION 15 GEAR ACCURACY

Gears are one of the basic elements used to transmit power and position. As designers, we
desire them to meet various demands:
1. Minimum size.
2. Maximum power capability.
3. Minimum noise (silent operation).
4. Accurate rotation/position.
To meet various levels of these demands requires appropriate degrees of gear accuracy. This
involves several gear features.
15.1 Accuracy Of Spur And Helical Gears
This discussion of spur and helical gear accuracy is based upon JIS B 1702 standard. This
specification describes 9 grades of gear accuracy grouped from 0 through 8 and four types of pitch
errors:
Single pitch error.
Pitch variation error.
Accumulated pitch error.
Normal pitch error.
Single pitch error, pitch variation and accumulated pitch errors are closely related with each other.
15.1.1 Pitch Errors of Gear Teeth
1. Single Pitch Error (fpt)
The deviation between actual measured pitch value between any adjacent tooth surface and
theoretical circular pitch.
2. Pitch Variation Error (fpu)
Actual pitch variation between any two adjacent teeth. In the ideal case, the pitch variation error
will be zero.
3. Accumulated Pitch Error (Fp)
Difference between theoretical summation over any number of teeth interval, and summation
ofactual pitch measurement over the same interval.
4. Normal Pitch Error (fpb)
It is the difference between theoretical normal pitch and its actual measured value.
The major element to influence the pitch errors is the runout of gear flank groove.

Table 15-1 contains the ranges of allowable pitch errors of spur gears and helical gears for each
precision grade, as specified in JIS B 1702-1976.

Table 15-1 The Allowable Single Pitch Error, Accumulated Pitch Error and
Normal Pitch Error, m
Grade
JIS 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Single Pitsh Error

0.5W + 1.4
0.71W + 2.0
1.0W + 2.8
1.4W + 4.0
2.0W + 5.6
2.8W + 8.0
4.0W + 11.2
8.0W + 22.4
16.0W + 45.0

Accumulated Pitch Error

Fp
2.0W + 5.6
2.8W + 8.0
4.0W + 11.2
5.6W + 16.0
8.0W + 22.4
11.2W + 31.5
16.0W + 45.0
32.0W + 90.0
64.0W + 180.0

Normal Pitch Error

fpb
0.9W' + 1.4
1.25W' + 2.0
1.8W' + 2.8
2.5W' + 4.0
4.0W' + 6.3
6.3W' + 10.0
10.0W' + 16.0
20.0W' + 32.0
40.0W' + 64.0

In the above table, W and W' are the tolerance units defined as:

W = 3 d + 0.65 m( m )

(15-1)

W' = 0.56W + 0.25m (m)

(15-2)

The value of allowable pitch variation error is k times the single pitch error. Table 15-2 expresses
the formula of the allowable pitch variation error.
Table 15-2 The Allowable Pitch Variation Error, m
Single Pitch Error, fpt
less than 5
5 or more, but less than 10
10 or more, but less than 20
20 or more, but less than 30
30 or more, but less than 50
50 or more, but less than 70
70 or more, but less than 100
100 or more, but less than 150
more than 150

Pitch Variation Error, fpu

1.00fpt
1.06 fpt
1.12fpt
1.18fpt
1.25fpt
1.32fpt
1.40fpt
1.50fpt
1.60fpt

Figure 15-1 is an example of pitch errors derived from data measurements made with a dial
indicator on a 15 tooth gear. Pitch differences were measured between adjacent teeth and are plotted in
the figure. From that plot, single pitch, pitch variation and accumulated pitch errors are extracted and
plotted.

Fig. 15-1 Examples of Pitch Errors for a 15 Tooth Gear

15.1.2 Tooth Profile Error, ff
Tooth profile error is the summation of deviation between actual tooth profile and correct involute
curve which passes through the pitch point measured perpendicular to the actual profile. The measured
band is the actual effective working surface of the gear. However, the tooth modification area is not
considered as part of profile error.
15.1.3 Runout Error Of Gear Teeth, Fr
This error defines the runout of the pitch circle. It is the error in radial position of the teeth. Most
often it is measured by indicating the position of a pin or ball inserted in each tooth space around the gear
and taking the largest difference. Alternately, particularly for fine pitch gears, the gear is rolled with a
master gear on a variable center distance fixture, which records the change in the center distance as the
measure of teeth or pitch circle runout. Runout causes a number of problems, one of which is noise. The
source of this error is most often insufficient accuracy and ruggedness of the cutting arbor and tooling
system.
15.1.4 Lead Error, f
Lead error is the deviation of the actual advance of the tooth profile from the ideal value or
position. Lead error results in poor tooth contact, particularly concentrating contact to the tip area.
Modifications, such as tooth crowning and relieving can alleviate this error to some degree.
Shown in Figure 15-2 (on the following page) is an example of a chart measuring tooth profile
error and lead error using a Zeiss UMC 550 tester.

Fig. 15-2 A Sample Chart of Profile and Lead Error Measurement

Table 15-3 The Value of Allowable Tooth Profile Error, Runout Error and Lead Error, m
Grade

Single Pitsh Error

JIS 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

0.71m + 2.24
1.0m + 3.15
1.4m + 4.5
2.0m + 6.3
2.8m + 9.0
4.0m + 12.5
5.6m + 18.0
8.0m + 25.0
11.2m + 35.5

Accumulated Pitch Error

Fp
1.4W + 4.0
2.0W + 5.6
2.8W + 8.0
4.0W + 11.2
5.6W + 16.0
8.0W + 22.4
11.2W + 31.5
22.4W + 63.0
45.0W + 125.0

where: W = Tolerance unit = 3 d + 0.65 m( m )

b = Tooth width (mm)
m = Module (mm)

Normal Pitch Error

fpb
0.63 (0.1b + 10)
0.71 (0.1b + 10)
0.80 (0.1b + 10)
1.00 (0.1b + 10)
1.25 (0.1b + 10)
1.60 (0.1b + 10)
2.00 (0.1b + 10)
2.50 (0.1b + 10)
3.15 (0.1b + 10)

15.1.5. Outside Diameter Runout and Lateral Runout

To produce a high precision gear requires starting with

an accurate gear blank. Two criteria are very important:
1. Outside diameter (OD) runout.
2. Lateral (side face) runout.
The lateral runout has a large impact on the gear tooth
accuracy. Generally, the permissible runout error is related to
the gear size. Table 15-4 presents equations for allowable
values of OD runout and lateral runout.
15.2 Accuracy Of Bevel Gears
JIS B 1704 regulates the specification of a bevel gear's
accuracy. It also groups bevel gears into 9 grades, from 0 to 8.
There are 4 types of allowable errors:
1. Single Pitch Error.
2. Pitch Variation Error.
3. Accumulated Pitch Error.
4. Runout Error of Teeth (pitch circle).

Table 15-4 The Value of Allowable

OD and Lateral Runout, m
OD
Lateral
Grade
Runout
Runout
JIS 0
0.5j
0.71q
1

0.71j

1.0q

2
3
4

1.0j
1.4j
2.0j

1.4q
2.0q
2.8q

2.8j

4.0q

4.0j

5.6q

8.0j

11.2q

16.0j

22.4q

where: j = 1.13 d a + 5.5

da = Outside diameter (mm)
6d
q=
+3
b + 50
d = Pitch diameter (mm)
b = Tooth width (mm)

These are similar to the spur gear errors.

1. Single Pitch Error, (fpt )
The deviation between actual measured pitch value between any adjacent teeth and the
theoretical circular pitch at the central cone distance.
2. Pitch Variation Error, (fpu)
Absolute pitch variation between any two adjacent teeth at the central cone distance.
3. Accumulated Pitch Error, (Fp)
Difference between theoretical pitch sum of any teeth interval, and the summation of actual
measured pitches for the same teeth interval at the central cone distance.
4. Runout Error of Teeth, (Fr)
This is the maximum amount of tooth runout in the radial direction, measured by indicating a pin
or ball placed between two teeth at the central cone distance. It is the pitch cone runout.
Table 15-5 presents equations for allowable values of these various errors.

Table 15-5 Equations for Allowable Single Pitch Error, Accumulated Pitch
Error and Pitch Cone Runout Error, m
Grade
JIS 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Single Pitsh Error fpf

0.4W + 2.65
0.63W + 5.0
1.0W + 9.5
1.6W + 18.0
2.5W + 33.5
4.0W + 63.0
6.3W + 118.0

Accumulated Pitch Error

Fp
1.6W + 10.6
2.5W + 20.0
4.0W + 38.0
6.4W + 72.0
10.0W + 134.0

Normal Pitch Error

Fr
2.36d
3.6d
5.3d
8.0d
12.0d
18.0d
27.0d
60.0d
130.0d

where: W = Tolerance unit = 3 d + 0.65 m( m )

d = Pitch diameter (mm)

The equations of allowable pitch variations are in Table 15-6.

Table 15-6 The Formula of Allowable Pitch Variation Error (m)

Single Pitsh Error fpt

Pitch Variation Error, fpu

Less than 70

1.3 fpt

70 or more, but less than 100

104 fpt

100 or more, but less than 150

1.5 fpt

More than 150

1.6 fpt

The equations of allowable pitch variations are in Table 15-6.

Besides the above errors, there are seven specifications for bevel gear blank dimensions and
angles, plus an eighth that concerns the cut gear set:
1. The tolerance of the blank outside diameter and the crown to back surface distance.
2. The tolerance of the outer cone angle of the gear blank.
3. The tolerance of the cone surface runout of the gear blank.
4. The tolerance of the side surface runout of the gear blank.
5. The feeler gauge size to check the flatness of blank back surface.
6. The tolerance of the shaft runout of the gear blank.
7. The tolerance of the shaft bore dimension deviation of the gear blank.
8. The contact band of the tooth mesh.
Item 8 relates to cutting of the two mating gears' teeth. The meshing tooth contact area must be
full and even across the profiles. This is an important criterion that supersedes all other blank
requirements.

15.3 Running (Dynamic) Gear Testing

An alternate simple means of testing the general accuracy of a gear is to rotate it with a mate,
preferably of known high quality, and measure characteristics during rotation. This kind of tester can be
either single contact (fixed center distance method) or dual (variable center distance method). This refers
to action on one side or simultaneously on both sides of the tooth. This is also commonly referred to as
single and double flank testing. Because of simplicity, dual contact testing is more popular than single
contact. JGMA has a specification on accuracy of running tests.
1. Dual Contact (Double Flank) Testing
In this technique, the gear is forced meshed with a master gear such that there is intimate tooth
contact on both sides and, therefore, no backlash. The contact is forced by a loading spring. As the gears
rotate, there is variation of center distance due to various errors, most notably runout. This variation is
measured and is a criterion of gear quality. A full rotation presents the total gear error, while rotation
through one pitch is a tooth-to-tooth error. Figure 15-3 presents a typical plot for such a test.

Fig. 15-3 Example of Dual Contact Running Testing Report

For American engineers, this measurement test is identical to what AGMA designates as Total
Composite Tolerance (or error) and Tooth-to-Tooth Composite Tolerance. Both of these parameters are
also referred to in American publications as "errors", which they truly are. Tolerance is a design value
which is an inaccurate description of the parameter, since it is an error.
Allowable errors per JGMA 116-01 are presented on the next page, in Table 15-7.
2. Single Contact Testing
In this test, the gear is mated with a master gear on a fixed center distance and set in such a way
that only one tooth side makes contact. The gears are rotated through this single flank contact action, and
the angular transmission error of the driven gear is measured. This is a tedious testing method and is
seldom used except for inspection of the very highest precision gears.

Table 15-7 Allowable Values of Running Errors, m

Grade
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Tooth-to-Tooth Composite Error

1.12m + 3.55
1.6m + 5.0
2.24m + 7.1
3.15m + 10.0

Total Composite Error

(1.4W + 4.0) + 0.5 (1.12m + 3.55)
(2.0W + 5.6) + 0.5 (1.6m + 5.0)
(2.8W + 8.0) + 0.5 (2.24m + 7.1)
(4.0W + 11.2) + 0.5 (3.15m + 10.0)

4.5m + 14.0
6.3m + 20.0
9.0m + 28.0
12.5m + 40.0
18.0m + 56.0

(5.6W + 16.0) + 0.5 (4.5m + 14.0)

(8.0W + 22.4) + 0.5 (6.3m + 20.0)
(11.2W + 31.5) + 0.5 (9.0m + 28.0)
(22.4W + 63.0) + 0.5 (12.5m + 40.0)
(45.0W + 125.0) + 0.5 (18.0m + 56.0)

where: W = Tolerance unit = 3 d + 0.65 m( m )

b = Pitch width (mm)
m = Module (mm)
SECTION 16 GEAR FORCES
In designing a gear, it is important to analyze the magnitude and direction of the forces acting
upon the gear teeth, shaft, bearings, etc. In analyzing these forces, an idealized assumption is made that
the tooth forces are acting upon the central part of the tooth flank.
Table 16-1 Forces Acting Upon a Gear
Types of Gears

Tangential Force, Fu

Spur Gear
Helical Gear

Fu =

2000T
d

Straight Bevel
Gear

Axial Force, Fa
-----

Radial Force, Fr
Fu tan
tan n
cos

Fu tan

Fu

Fu tan sin

Fu tan cos

When convex surface is working:

Spiral Bevel
Gear

2000T
Fu =
dm
dm is the central pitch
diameter
dm = d b sin

Fu
Fu
(tan n cos + sin m sin )
(tan n sin sin m cos )
cos m
cos m
When convex surface is working:
Fu
(tan n sin sin m cos )
cos m

Worm
Drive

Screw
Gear
( =
90
=45)

Worm
(Driver)

Fu =

Wheel
(Driven)

Fu

Driver
Gear
Driver
Gear

2000T1
d1

cos n cos sin

cos n cos + cos

Fu =

2000T1
d1

cos n sin cos

Fu
cos n cos + sin

Fu

Fu
(tan n cos + sin m sin )
cos m

cos n cos sin

cos n cos + cos
Fu

sin n
cos n sin + cos

Fu

sin n
cos n cos + sin

Fu

Fu

Fu

cos n sin cos

cos n cos + sin

16.1 Forces In A Spur Gear Mesh

The spur gear's transmission force Fn,
which is normal to the tooth surface, as in Figure
16-1, can be resolved into a tangential component,
Fu, and a radial component, Fr. Refer to Equation
(16-1).
The direction of the forces acting on the
gears are shown in Figure 16-2. The tangential
component of the drive gear, Fu1, is equal to the
driven gear's tangential component, Fu2, but the
directions are opposite. Similarly, the same is true
of the radial components.
Fig. 16-1 Forces Acting on a Spur Gear Mesh
Fu = Fn cos b
(16-1)

Fr = Fn sin b
16.2 Forces In A Helical Gear Mesh

The helical gear's transmission force, Fn, which is normal to the tooth surface, can be resolved
into a tangential component, F1, and a radial component, Fr.
F1 = Fn cos n
(16-2)

Fr = Fn sin n

The tangential component, F1, can be further resolved into circular subcomponent, Fu, and axial
thrust subcomponent, Fa.
Fu = F1 cos
(16-3)

Fa = F1 sin
Substituting and manipulating the above equations result in:
Fa = Fu tan

Fr = Fu

tan n
cos

Fig. 16-2 Directions of Forces Acting

on a Spur Gear Mesh

(16-4)

Fig. 16-3 Forces Acting on a

Helical Gear Mesh

The directions of forces acting on a helical gear mesh are shown in Figure 16-4. The axial thrust
sub-component from drive gear, Fa1, equals the driven gear's, Fa2, but their directions are opposite. Again,
this case is the same as tangential components Fu1, Fu2 and radial components Fr1, Fr2.

Fig. 16-4 Directions of Forces Acting on a Helical Gear Mesh

16.3 Forces On A Straight Bevel Gear Mesh
The forces acting on a straight bevel gear are shown in Figure 16-5. The force which is normal to
the central part of the tooth face, Fn, can be split into tangential component, Fu, and radial component, F1,
in the normal plane of the tooth.
Fu = Fn cos
(16-5)

F1 = Fn sin

Again, the radial component, F1, can be divided into an axial force, Fa, and a radial force, Fr ,
perpendicular to the axis.
Fa = F1 sin
(16-6)

Fr = F1 cos
And the following can be derived:
Fa = Fu tan n sin

(16-7)

Fr = Fu tan n cos

Fig. 16-5 Forces Acting on a

Straight Bevel Gear Mesh

Let a pair of straight bevel gears with a shaft angle = 90, a pressure angle n = 20 and
tangential force, Fu, to the central part of tooth face be 100. Axial force, Fa, and radial force, Fr, will be as
presented in Table 16-2.
Table 16-2 Values of Axial Force, Fa, and Radial Force, Fr
(1) Pinion
Ratio of Numbers of Teeth

Forces on the
Gear Tooth

Axial Force
Radial Force

z2
z1

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

4.0

5.0

25.7
25.7

20.2
30.3

16.3
32.6

13.5
33.8

11.5
34.5

8 .8
35.3

7 .1
35.7

(2) Gear
Ratio of Numbers of Teeth

Forces on the
Gear Tooth

Axial Force
Radial Force

z2
z1

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

4.0

5.0

25.7
25.7

30.3
20.2

32.6
16.3

33.8
13.5

34.5
11.5

35.3
8 .8

35.7
7 .1

Figure 16-6 contains the directions of forces acting on a straight bevel gear mesh. In the meshing
of a pair of straight bevel gears with shaft angle = 90, all the forces have relations as per Equations
(16-8).
Fu1 = Fu2
Fr1 = Fa2

(16-8)

Fa1 = Fr2

Fig. 16-6 Directions of Forces Acting on a Straight Bevel Gear Mesh

16.4 Forces In A Spiral Bevel Gear Mesh

Spiral gear teeth have convex and concave sides. Depending on which surface the force is acting
on, the direction and magnitude changes. They differ depending upon which is the driver and which is the
driven. Figure 16-7 presents the profile orientations of rightand left-hand spiral teeth. If the profile of the
driving gear is convex, then the profile of the driven gear must be concave. Table 16-3 presents the
concave/convex relationships.

Fig. 16-7 Convex Surface and Concave Surface of a Spiral Bevel Gear
Table 16-3 Concave and Convex Sides of a Spiral Bevel Gear Mesh
Right-Hand Gear as Drive Gear
Meshing Tooth Face

Rotational Direction
of Drive Gear

Right-Hand Drive Gear

Left-Hand Driven Gear

Clockwise

Convex

Concave

Counterclockwise

Concave

Convex

Left-Hand Gear as Drive Gear

Meshing Tooth Face

Rotational Direction
of Drive Gear

Left-Hand Driven Gear

Right-Hand Drive Gear

Clockwise

Concave

Convex

Counterclockwise

Convex

Concave

NOTE: The rotational direction of a bevel gear is defined as the direction one sees
viewed along the axis from the back cone to the apex.
16.4.1 Tooth Forces On A Convex Side Profile
The transmission force, Fn, can be resolved
into components F1 and Ft as:
F1 = Fn cos n
Ft = Fn sin n

(16-9)

Then F1 can be resolved into components

Fu and Fs :
Fu = F1 cos m
Fs = F1 sin m

(16-10)

Fig. 16-8 When Meshing on the

Convex Side of Tooth Face

On the axial surface, Ft and Fs can be resolved into axial and radial subcomponents.
Fa = Ft sin Fs cos
(16-11)

Fr = Ft cos + Fs sin
By substitution and manipulation, we obtain:

Fa =

Fu
(tan n sin sin m cos )
cos m
(16-12)

Fu
Fr =
(tan n cos + sin m sin )
cos m

16.4.2 Tooth Forces On A Concave Side Profile

On the surface which is normal to the tooth profile at the central portion of the tooth, the
transmission force, Fn, can be split into F1 and Ft as (see Figure 16-9):
F1 = Fn cos n
Ft = Fn sin n

(16-13)

And F1 can be separated into components Fu

and Fs on the pitch surface:
Fu = F1 cos m
Fs = F1 sin m

(16-14)

So far, the equations are identical to

the convex case. However, differences exist in
the signs for equation terms. On the axial
surface, Ft and Fs can be resolved into axial
and radial subcomponents. Note the sign
differences.
Fa = Ft sin + Fs cos
Fr = Ft cos Fs sin

Fig. 16-9 When Meshing on the Concave

Side of Tooth Face
(16-15)

The above can be manipulated to yield:

Fa =

Fu
(tan n sin + sin m cos )
cos m
(16-16)

Fu
Fa =
(tan n cos sin m sin )
cos m

Let a pair of spiral bevel gears have a shaft angle = 90, a pressure angle n = 20,and a spiral
angle m = 35. If the tangential force, Fu, to the central portion of the tooth face is 100, the axial thrust
force, Fa, and radial force, Fr , have the relationship shown in Table 16-4.
Table 16-4 Values of Axial Thrust Force, Fa, and Radial Force, Fr
(1) Pinion
Ratio of Numbers of Teeth

Meshing Tooth
Face

z2
z1

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

4.0

5.0

Concave Side
of Tooth

80.9
18.1

82.9
1 .9

82.5
8 .4

81.5
15.2

80.5
20.0

78.8
26.1

77.4
29.8

Convex Side
of Tooth

18.1
80.9

33.6
75.8

42.8
71.1

48.5
67.3

52.4
64.3

57.2
60.1

59.9
57.3

(2) Gear
Ratio of Numbers of Teeth

Meshing Tooth
Face

z2
z1

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

4.0

5.0

Concave Side
of Tooth

80.9
18.1

75.8
33.6

71.1
42.8

67.3
48.5

64.3
52.4

60.1
57.2

57.3
59.9

Convex Side
of Tooth

18.1
80.9

1 .9
82.9

8 .4
82.5

15.2
81.5

20.5
80.5

26.1
78.7

29.8
77.4

The value of axial force, Fa, of a spiral bevel gear, from Table 16-4, could become negative. At
that point, there are forces tending to push the two gears together. If there is any axial play in the bearing,
it may lead to the undesirable condition of the mesh having no backlash. Therefore, it is important to pay
particular attention to axial plays. From Table 16-4(2), we understand that axial thrust force, Fa, changes
from positive to negative in the range of teeth ratio from 1.5 to 2.0 when a gear carries force on the
convex side. The precise turning point of axial thrust force, Fa, is at the teeth ratio z1 / z2 = 1.57357.

Figure 16-10 describes the forces for a pair of spiral bevel gears with shaft angle = 90,
pressure angle n = 20, spiral angle m = 35 and the teeth ratio, u, ranging from 1 to 1.57357.
= 90, n = 20, m = 35, u < 1.57357.

Fig. 16-10 The Direction of Forces Carried by Spiral Bevel Gears (1)

Figure 16-11 expresses the forces of another pair of spiral bevel gears taken with the teeth ratio
equal to or larger than 1.57357.

 = 90, n = 20, m = 35, u 1.57357

Fig. 16-11 The Direction of Forces Carried by Spiral Bevel Gears (2)

16.5 Forces In A Worm Gear Mesh

16.5.1 Worm as the Driver
For the case of a worm as the driver, Figure 16-12, the
transmission force, Fn , which is normal to the tooth surface at the
pitch circle can be resolved into components F1 and Fr1.
F1 = Fn cos n
Fr1 = Fn sin n

(16-17)

Fig. 16-12 Forces Acting on the Tooth

Surface of a Worm

At the pitch surface of the worm, there is, in addition to the tangential component, F1 , a friction
sliding force on the tooth surface, Fn. These two forces can be resolved into the circular and axial
directions as:
Fu1 = F1 sin + Fn cos
Fa1 = F1 cos Fn sin

(16-18)

and by substitution, the result is:

Fu1 = Fn (cos n sin + cos )
Fa1 = Fn (cos n cos sin )

(16-19)

Fr1 = Fn sin n
Figure 16-13 presents the direction of forces in a worm gear mesh with a shaft angle = 90.
These forces relate as follows:
Fa1 = Fu2
Fu1 = Fa2

(16-20)

Fr1 = Fr2

Figure 16-13 Direction of Forces in a Worm Gear Mesh

The coefficient of friction has a great effect on the transmission of a worm gear. Equation (16-21)
presents the efficiency when the worm is the driver.

R =

F
T2
cos n cos sin
= u 2 tan =
tan
T1 i Fu1
cos n sin + cos

(16-21)

16.5.2 Worm Gear as the Driver

For the case of a worm gear as the driver, the forces are as in Figure 16-14 and per Equations
(16-22).
Fu2 = Fn (cos n cos + sin )
Fa2 = Fn (cos n sin cos )

(16-22)

Fr2 = Fn sin n
When the worm and worm gear are at 90 shaft angle, Equations (16-20) apply. Then, when the
worm gear is the driver, the transmission efficiency I is expressed as per Equation (16-23).

I =

Fu1
T1 i
cos n sin cos 1
=
=
T2 Fu 2 tan cos n cos + sin tan

(16-23)

The equations concerning worm and worm gear

forces contain the coefficient . This indicates the coefficient
of friction is very important in the transmission of power.
16.6 Forces In A Screw Gear Mesh
The forces in a screw gear mesh are similar to those
in a worm gear mesh. For screw gears that have a shaft angle
= 90, merely replace the worm's lead angle , in Equation
(16-22), with the screw gear's helix angle 1.

Fig. 16-14 Forces in a Worm

Gear Mesh

In the general case when the shaft angle is not 90, as in Figure
16-15, the driver screw gear has the same forces as for a
worm mesh. These are expressed in Equations (16-24).
Fu1 = Fn (cos n cos 1 + sin 1)
Fa1 = Fn(cos n sin 1 cos 1)

(16-24)

Fr1 = Fn sin n
Forces acting on the driven gear can be calculated
per Equations (16-25).
Fu2 = Fa1 sin + Fu1 cos
Fa2 = Fu1 sin Fa1 cos

(16-25)

Fr2 = Fr1
If the term in Equation (16-25) is 90, it becomes
identical to Equation (16-20). Figure 16-16 presents the
direction of forces in a screw gear mesh when the shaft
angle = 90 and 1 = 2 = 45.
Fig. 16-15 The Forces in a
Screw Gear Mesh

Fig. 16-16 Directions of Forces in a Screw Gear Mesh

SECTION 17 STRENGTH AND DURABILITY OF GEARS

The strength of gears is generally expressed in terms of bending strength and surface durability.
These are independent criteria which can have differing criticalness, although usually both are important.
Discussions in this section are based upon equations published in the literature of the Japanese Gear
Manufacturer Association (JGMA). Reference is made to the following JGMA specifications:
Specifications of JGMA:
JGMA 401-01
JGMA 402-01
JGMA 403-01
JGMA 404-01
JGMA 405-01

Bending Strength Formula of Spur Gears and Helical Gears

Surface Durability Formula of Spur Gears and Helical Gears
Bending Strength Formula of Bevel Gears
Surface Durability Formula of Bevel Gears
The Strength Formula of Worm Gears

Generally, bending strength and durability specifications are applied to spur and helical gears
(including double helical and internal gears) used in industrial machines in the following range:
Module:
Pitch Diameter:
Tangential Speed:
Rotating Speed:

m 1.5 to 25 mm
d 25 to 3200 mm
v less than 25 m/sec
n less than 3600 rpm

Conversion Formulas: Power, Torque and Force

Gear strength and durability relate to the power and forces to be transmitted. Thus, the equations
that relate tangential force at the pitch circle, Ft (kgf), power, P (kw), and torque, T (kgf m) are basic to
the calculations. The relations are as follows:

Ft =

102 P 1.95 10 6 P 2000T

=
=
v
dw n
dw

(17-1)

P=

Ft v 10 6
=
Ft d w n
102 1.95

(17-2)

T =

Ft d w
974 P
=
2000
n

(17-3)

where: v

: Tangential Speed of Working Pitch Circle (m/sec)

d n
v = w
19100
dw : Working Pitch Diameter (mm)
n : Rotating Speed (rpm)

17.1 Bending Strength Of Spur And Helical Gears

In order to confirm an acceptable safe bending strength, it is necessary to analyze the applied
tangential force at the working pitch circle, Ft , vs. allowable force, Ft lim. This is stated as:
Ft Ft lim

(17-4)

It should be noted that the greatest bending stress is at the root of the flank or base of the
dedendum. Thus, it can be stated:
F = actual stress on dedendum at root
F lim = allowable stress
Then Equation (17-4) becomes Equation (17-5)
F F lim

(17-5)

Equation (17-6) presents the calculation of Ft lim:

Ft lim = F lim

m n b K L K FX 1
(
)
( kgf )
YF Y Y K v K 0 S F

(17-6)

Equation (17-6) can be converted into stress by Equation (17-7):

F = Ftl

YFYY
mn b

Kv K 0
)SF ( kgf / mm2 )
K LK FX

(17-7)

17.1.1 Determination of Factors in the Bending Strength Equation

If the gears in a pair have different blank widths, let the wider one be bw and the narrower one be
bs .
And if:
bw bs mn,
bw bs > mn,

bw and bs can be put directly into Equation (17-6).

the wider one would be changed to bs + mn and the narrower one, bs , would be
unchanged.

17.1.2 Tooth Profile Factor, YF

The factor YF is obtainable from Figure 17-1 based on the equivalent number of teeth, zv , and
coefficient of profile shift, x, if the gear has a standard tooth profile with 20 pressure angle, per JIS B
1701. The theoretical limit of undercut is shown. Also, for profile shifted gears the limit of too narrow
(sharp) a tooth top land is given. For internal gears, obtain the factor by considering the equivalent racks.
17.1.3 Load Distribution Factor, Y
Load distribution factor is the reciprocal of radial contact ratio.

Y =

Table 17-1 shows the radial contact ratio of a standard spur gear.

(17-8)

Fig. 17-1 Chart of Tooth Profile Factor, YF

Table 17-1 Radial Contact Ratio of Standard Spur Gears, ( = 20)

12

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

85

90

95

100

110

120

12

1.420

15

1.451 1.481

20

1.489 1.519 1.557

25

1.516 1.547 1.584 1.612

30

1.537 1.567 1.605 1.633 1.654

35

1.553 1.584 1.622 1.649 1.670 1.687

40

1.567 1.597 1.635 1.663 1.684 1.700 1.714

45

1.578 1.609 1.646 1.674 1.695 1.711 1.725 1.736

50

1.588 1.618 1.656 1.683 1.704 1.721 1.734 1.745 1.755

55

1.596 1.626 1.664 1.691 1.712 1.729 1.742 1.753 1.763 1.771

50

1.603 1.633 1.671 1.698 1.719 1.736 1.749 1.760 1.770 1.778 1.785

05

1.509 1.639 1.677 1.704 1.725 1.742 1.755 1.766 1.776 1.784 1.791 1.797

70

1.614 1.645 1.682 1.710 1.731 1.747 1.761 1.772 1.781 1.789 1.796 1.802 1.808

75

1.619 1.649 1.687 1.714 1.735 1.752 1.765 1.777 1.786 1.794 1.801 1.807 1.812 1.817

80

1.623 1.654 1.691 1.719 1.740 1.756 1.770 1.781 1.790 1.798 1.805 1.811 1.817 1.821 1.826

85

1.627 1.657 1.695 1.723 1.743 1.760 1.773 1.785 1.794 1.802 1.809 1.815 1.821 1.825 1.830 1.833

90

1.630 1.661 1.699 1.726 1.747 1.764 1.777 1.788 1.798 1.806 1.813 1.819 1.824 1.829 1.833 1.837 1.840

95

1.634 1.664 1.702 1.729 1.750 1.767 1.780 1.791 1.801 1.809 1.816 1.822 1.827 1.832 1.836 1.840 1.844 1.847

100

1.636 1.667 1.705 1.732 1.753 1.770 1.783 1.794 1.804 1.912 1.819 1.825 1.830 1.835 1.839 1.843 1.846 1.850 1.853

110

1.642 1.672 1.710 1.737 1.758 1.775 1.788 1.799 1.809 1.917 1.824 1.830 1.835 1.840 1.844 1.848 1.852 1.855 1.858 1.863

120

1.646 1.676 1.714 1.742 1.762 1.779 1.792 1.804 1.813 1.921 1.828 1.834 1.840 1.844 1.849 1.852 1.856 1.859 1.862 1.867 1.871

RACK 1.701 1.731 1.769 1.797 1.817 1.834 1.847 1.859 1.868 1.876 1.883 1.889 1.894 1.899 1.903 1.907 1.911 1.914 1.917 1.992 1.926

17.1.4 Helix Angle Factor, Y

Helix angle factor can be obtained from Equation (17-9).
When 0 30, then y = 1
When > 30, then Y = 0.75

120
(17-9)

17.1.5 Life Factor, KL

We can choose the proper life factor, KL, from Table 17-2. The number of cyclic repetitions
means the total loaded meshings during its lifetime.
Table 17-2 Life Factor, KL
Number of Cyclic
Repetitions

Hardness (1)
HB 120 220

Hardness (2)
Over HB 220

Gears with Carburizing

Gears with Nitriding

Under 10000

1.4

1.5

1.5

Approx. 105

1.2

1.4

1.5

1.1

1.1

1.1

Approx. 107

1.0

1.0

1.0

Approx. 10

NOTES:

(1)
(2)

Cast iron gears apply to this column.

For induction hardened gears, use the core hardness.

17.1.6 Dimension Factor of Root Stress, KFX

Generally, this factor is unity.
KFX = 1.00

(17-10)

17.1.7 Dynamic Load Factor, KV

Dynamic load factor can be obtained from Table 17-3 based on the precision of the gear and
its pitch line linear speed.
Table 17-3 Dynamic Load Factor, KV
Precision Grade of
Gears
from JIS B 1702
Tooth Profile
Unmodified

Modified

1
2
3
4
5
6

1
2
3
4
----

Tangential Speed at Pitch Line (m/s)

Under 1

1 to less
than 3

3 to less
than 5

5 to less
than 8

8 to less
than 12

--1.0
1.0
1.0
1.1
1..2

-1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5

1.0
1.05
1.15
1.3
1.4
1.5

1.0
1.1
1.2
1.4
1.5

1.1
1.2
1.3
1.5

12 to
less
than 18
1.2
1.3
1.5

18 to
less
than 25
1.3
1.5

17.1.8 Overload Factor, KO

Overload factor, KO, is the quotient of actual tangential force divided by nominal tangential
force, Ft. If tangential force is unknown, Table 17-4 provides guiding values.

K0 =

Actual tangential force

Nominal tangential force, Ft

Impact from Prime

Mover
Uniform Load
(Motor, Turbine,
Hydraulic Motor)
Light Impact Load
(Multicylinder Engine)
Medium Impact Load
(Single Cylinder Engine)

(17-11)

Table 17-4 Overload Factor, KO

Impact from Load Side of Machine
Medium Impact
Heavy Impact
Uniform Load
Load
Load
1.0

1.25

1.75

1.25

1.5

2.0

1.5

1.75

2.25

17.1.9 Safety Factor for Bending Failure, SF

Safety factor, SF, is too complicated to be decided precisely. Usually, it is set to at least 1.2.
17.1.10 Allowable Bending Stress At Root, F lim
For the unidirectionally loaded gear, the allowable bending stresses at the root are shown in
Tables 17-5 to 17-8. In these tables, the value of F lim is the quotient of the tensile fatigue limit divided
by the stress concentration factor 1.4. If the load is bidirectional, and both sides of the tooth are equally
loaded, the value of allowable bending stress should be taken as 2/3 of the given value in the table. The
core hardness means hardness at the center region of the root.
See Table 17-5 for F lim of gears without case hardening. Table 17-6 gives F lim of gears
that are induction hardened; and Tables 17-7 and 17-8 give the values for carburized and nitrided gears,
respectively. In Tables 17-8A and 17-8B, examples of calculations are given.

Table 17-5 Gears Without Case Hardening

HV

Tensile Strength
Lower Limit
kgf/mm2
(Reference)

H lim
kgf/mm2

126
136
147
157
167
178
189
200
210
221
231
242
253
263
167
178
189
200
210
221
231
242
252
263
273
284
295
305
231
242
252
263
273
284
295
305
316
327
337
347
358
369
380

37
42
46
49
55
60
39
42
45
48
51
55
58
61
64
68
71
74
77
81
51
55
58
61
64
68
71
74
77
81
84
87
90
93
71
74
77
81
84
87
90
93
97
100
103
106
110
113
117

34
35
36
37
39
40
41.5
42.5
44
45
46.5
47.5
49
50
51.5
52.5
54
55
56.5
57.5
51
52.5
54
55.5
57
58.5
60
61
62.5
64
65.5
67
68.5
70
25
26
27.5
28.5
29.5
31
32
33
34
35
36.5
37.5
39
40
41

Hardness
Material

Arrows indicate the ranges

HB
SC37
SC42
SC46
SC49
SCC3

Cast
Steel
Gear

S25C
Normalized
Carbon
Steel
Gear

S35C
S43C

S53C
S48C
S58C

Quenched
and
Tempered
Carbon
Steel
Gear

S35C

S48C0
S43C

S53C
S58C

Quenched
and
Tempered
Alloy
Steel
Gear

SMn443
SNC836
SCM435

SCM440
SNCM439

120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
360

Table 17-6 Induction Hardened Gears

Material

Structural
Carbon
Steel
Hardened
Throughout

Structural
Alloy
Steel
Hardened
Throughout

Arrows indicate the ranges

S48C

S43C

S48C

S43C

SCM440
SMn443

SNCM439
SNC836
SCM435

Hardened
Except
Root Area

Heat
Treatment
Before
Induction
Hardening
Normalized

Quenched
and
Tempered

Quenched
and
Tempered

Core
Hardness
HB

HV

Surface
Hardness
HV

160
180
220
240
200
210
220
230
240
250
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320

167
189
231
252
210
221
231
242
252
263
242
252
263
273
284
295
305
316
327
337

More than 550

More than 550

More than 550

F lim
kgf/mm2
21
21
21.5
22
23
23.5
24
24.5
25
25
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36.5
75%
of the
above

NOTES: 1. If a gear is not quenched completely, or not evenly, or has quenching cracks, the F lim will
drop dramatically.
2. If the hardness after quenching is relatively low, the value of F lim should be that given in
Table 17-5.

Table 17-7 Carburized Gears

Material

Arrows indicate the ranges

Structural
Carbon
Steel

S15C
S15CK

Structural
Alloy
Steel

SCM415

Core Hardness
HB
HV
140
147
150
157
160
167
170
178
180
189
190
200
220
231
230
242
240
252
250
263
260
273
270
284
280
295
290
305
300
316
310
327
320
337
330
347
340
358
350
369
360
380
370
390

SCM415

SCM420
SNCM420

SNC815

Table 17-8 Nitrided Gears

Material

Surface
Hardness
(Reference)

Alloy Steel
except
Nitriding Steel

More than HV
650

Nitriding Steel
SACM645

More than HV
650

NOTE:

Core Hardness
HB

HV

F lim
kgf/mm2

220
240
260
280
300
320
340
360
220
240
260
280
300

231
252
273
295
316
337
358
380
231
252
273
295
316

30
33
36
38
40
42
44
46
32
35
38
41
44

The above two tables apply only to those gears which have
adequate depth of surface hardness. Otherwise, the gears
should be rated according to Table 17-5.

F lim
kgf/mm2
18.2
19.6
21
22
23
24
34
36
38
39
41
42.5
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
51.5
52

17.1.11 Example of Bending Strength Calculation

Table 17-8A Spur Gear Design Details

No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21

Item
Normal Module
Normal Pressure Angle
Helix Angle
Number of Teeth
Center Distance
Coefficient of Profile Shift
Pitch Circle Diameter
Working Pitch Circle Diameter
Tooth Width
Precision Grade
Manufacturing Method
Surface Roughness
Revolutions per Minute
Linear Speed
Direction of Load
Duty Cycle
Material
Heat Treatment
Surface Hardness
Core Hardness
Effective Carburized Depth

Symbol
mn
n

z
ax
x
d
dw
b

Unit
mm

Pinion

Gear
2
20
0

degree
20
mm

mm

40
60

+0.15
40.000
40.000
20
JIS 5

-0.15
80.000
80.000
20
JIS 5
Hobbing
12.5m

n
v

rpm
m/s
cycles

mm

1500

750
3.142
Unidirectional
Over 107 cycles
SCM 415
Carburizing
HV 600 ... 640
NB 260 ... 280
0.3 ... 0.5

Table 17-8B Bending Strength Factors

No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Item
Allowable Bending Stress at Root
Normal Module
Tooth Width
Tooth Profile Factor
Load Distribution Factor
Helix Angle Factor
Life Factor
Dimension Factor of Root Stress
Dynamic Load Factor
Overload Factor
Safety Factor
Allowable Tangential Force on
Working Pitch Circle

Symbol
F lim
mn
b
YF
Y
Y
KL
KFX
KV
KO
SF

Unit
kgf/mm2

Ft lim

kgf

Pinion

Gear
42.5
2
20

mm
2.568

2.535
0.619
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.4
1.0
1.2

636.5

644.8

17.2 Surface Strength Of Spur And Helical Gears

The following equations can be applied to both spur and helical gears, including double helical
and internal gears, used in power transmission. The general range of application is:
Module:
Pitch Circle:
Linear Speed:
Rotating Speed:

m 1.5 to 25 mm
d 25 to 3200 mm
v less than 25 m/sec
n less than 3600 rpm

17.2.1 Conversion Formulas

To rate gears, the required transmitted power and torques must be converted to tooth forces.
The same conversion formulas, Equations (17-1), (17-2) and (17-3), of SECTION 17 (page T-150) are
applicable to surface strength calculations.
17.2.2 Surface Strength Equations
As stated in SECTION 17.1, the tangential force, Ft , is not to exceed the allowable tangential
force, Ft lim . The same is true for the allowable Hertz surface stress, H lim . The Hertz stress H is
calculated from the tangential force, Ft. For an acceptable design, it must be less than the allowable Hertz
stress H lim . That is:
H H lim

(17-12)

The tangential force, Ft lim, in kgf, at the standard pitch circle, can be calculated from Equation
(17-13).

Ft lim = H lim

u K HL z L Z R ZV Z w K HX
d 1 bH
u 1
ZH ZM Z Z

1
1

K K K S 2
H
V
0
H

(17-13)

The Hertz stress H (kgf/mm2) is calculated from Equation (17-14), where u is the ratio of numbers of
teeth in the gear pair.

H =

ZH ZM Z Z
Ft u 1
d1 bH u K HL z L Z R ZV Z w K HX

K H K V K 0 S H

(17-4)

The "+" symbol in Equations (17-13) and (17-14) applies to two external gears in mesh,
whereas the "" symbol is used for an internal gear and an external gear mesh. For the case of a rack
and gear, the quantity u/(u 1) becomes 1.
17.2.3 Determination Of Factors In The Surface Strength Equations
17.2.3.A Effective Tooth Width, bH (mm)
The narrower face width of the meshed gear pair is assumed to be the effective width for
surface strength. However, if there are tooth modifications, such as chamfer, tip relief or crowning, an
appropriate amount should be subtracted to obtain the effective tooth width.
17.2.3.B Zone Factor, ZH
The zone factor is defined as:
2 cos b cos wt
1
ZH =
=
cos t
cos 2 t sin wt

2 cos b
tan wt

(17-15)

where:

b = tan1 (tan cos t)

The zone factors are presented in Figure 17-2 for tooth profiles per JIS B 1701, specified in
terms of profile shift coefficients x1 and x2 , numbers of teeth z1 and z2 and helix angle .
The "+" symbol in Figure 17-2 applies to external gear meshes, whereas the "" is used for
internal gear and external gear meshes.

Fig. 17-2 Zone Factor ZH

17.2.3.C Material Factor, ZM

ZM =

where:

(17-16)

1 1
1 2
+
(
)
E1
E2
2

= Poisson's Ratio, and E = Young's Modulus

Table 17-9 contains several combinations of material and their material factor.

Symbol

Structural
Steel

Cast
Steel

E
Young's
Modulus
2
kgf/mm

21000

SC

20500

Ductile
Cast Iron

FCD

Gray
Cast Iron

FC

0.3

17600
12000

Poisson's
Ratio

Material

Meshing Gear
Poisson's
Ratio

Gear

Material
Factor
ZM
2 0.5
(kgf/mm )

Material

Symbol

E
Young's
Modulus
2
kgf/mm

Structural Steel

21000

60.6

Cast Steel
Ductile Cast
Iron
Gray Cast Iron

SC

20500

60.2

FCD

17600

57.9

FC

12000

51.7

SC

20500

59.9

FCD

17600

FC

12000

51.5

FCD

17600

55.5

FC

12000

50.0

FC

12000

45.8

Cast Steel
Ductile Cast
Iron
Gray Cast Iron
Ductile Cast
Iron
Gray Cast Iron
Gray Cast Iron

0.3

57.6

*NOTE: Structural steels are SC, SNC, SNCM, SCr, SCM, etc.
17.2.4 Contact Ratio Factor, Z
This factor is fixed at 1.0 for spur gears.
For helical gear meshes, Z is calculated as follows:
Helical gear:
When 1,

Z = 1 +

When >1

Z =

where: = Radial contact ratio

= Overlap ratio

(17-17)

17.2.5 Helix Angle Factor, Z

Table 17-10 Life Factor, KHL

Duty Cycles

This is a difficult parameter to

evaluate. Therefore, it is assumed to be
1.0 unless better information is available.
Z = 1.0

less than 10

(17-18)

Life Factor
1.5

approx. 10

1.3

approx. 10

1.15

approx. 10

1.0

17.2.6 Life Factor, KHL

This factor reflects the number
of repetitious stress cycles. Generally, it is
taken as 1.0. Also, when the number of
cycles is unknown, it is assumed to be
1.0.
When the number of stress
cycles is below 10 million, the values of
Table 17-10 can be applied.

NOTES: 1.The duty cycle is the meshing cycles during

a lifetime.
2. Although an idler has two meshing points in
one cycle, it is still regarded as one repetition.
3. For bidirectional gear drives, the larger
loaded direction is taken as the number
of cyclic loads.

17.2.7 Lubricant Factor, ZL

The lubricant factor is based upon the lubricant's kinematic viscosity at 50C. See Figure 17-3.

Fig. 17-3 Lubricant Factor, ZL

17.2.8 Surface Roughness Factor, ZR
This factor is obtained from Figure 17-4 on the basis of the average roughness Rmaxm (m). The
average roughness is calculated by Equation (17-19) using the surface roughness values of the pinion
and gear, Rmax1 and Rmax2 , and the center distance, a, in mm.

R max m =

R max 1 + R max 2
2

100
( m )
a

Fig. 17-4 Surface Roughness Factor, ZR

(17-19)

17.2.9 Sliding Speed Factor, ZV

This factor relates to the linear speed of the pitch line. See Figure 17-5.

Fig. 17-5 Sliding Speed Factor, ZV

17.2.10 Hardness Ratio Factor, ZW
The hardness ratio factor applies only to the gear that is in mesh with a pinion which is
quenched and ground. The ratio is calculated by Equation (17-20).

Z W = 1 .2

HB2 130
1700

(17-20)

where: HB2 = Brinell hardness of gear range: 130 HB2 470

If a gear is out of this range, the ZW is assumed to be 1.0.
17.2.11 Dimension Factor, KHX
Because the conditions affecting this parameter are often unknown, the factor is usually set at
1.0.
KHX = 1.0

(17-21)

17.2.12 Tooth Flank Load Distribution Factor, KH

(a) When tooth contact under load is not predictable: This case relates the ratio of the gear
face width to the pitch diameter, the shaft bearing mounting positions, and the shaft sturdiness. See
Table 17-11. This attempts to take into account the case where the tooth contact under load is not good
or known.

Table 17-11 Tooth Flank Load Distribution Factor for Surface Strength, KH
Method of Gear Shaft Support

b
d1
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0

Bearings on Both Ends

Gear
Gear Close to
Equidistant
One End
from Bearings
(Rugged Shaft)
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.1
1.05
1.2
1.1
1.3
1.2
1.45
1.3
1.6
1.4
1.8
1.5
2.05
1.8
-2.1
--

Gear Close
to One End
(Weak Shaft)
1.1
1.3
1.5
1.7
1.85
2.0
2.1
2.2
---

Bearing
on One End
1.2
1.45
1.65
1.85
2.0
2.15
-----

NOTES: 1. The b means effective face width of spur & helical gears. For double helical gears, b is face
width including central groove.
2. Tooth contact must be good under no load.
3. The values in this table are not applicable to gears with two or more mesh points, such as an
idler.
(b) When tooth contact under load is good: In this case, the shafts are rugged and the
bearings are in good close proximity to the gears, resulting in good contact over the full width and working
depth of the tooth flanks. Then the factor is in a narrow range, as specified below:
KH = 1.0 1.2

(17-22)

17.2.13 Dynamic Load Factor, KV

Dynamic load factor is obtainable from Table 17-3 according to the gear's precision grade and
pitch line linear speed.
17.2.14 Overload Factor, Ko
The overload factor is obtained from either Equation (17-11) or from Table 17-4.
17.2.15 Safety Factor For Pitting, SH
The causes of pitting involves many environmental factors and usually is difficult to precisely
define. Therefore, it is advised that a factor of at least 1.15 be used.
17.2.16 Allowable Hertz Stress, H lim
The values of allowable Hertz stress for various gear materials are listed in Tables 17-12
through 17-16. Values for hardness not listed can be estimated by interpolation. Surface hardness is
defined as hardness in the pitch circle region.

Material

Table 17-12 Gears without Case Hardening Allowable Hertz Stress

Surface
Lower Limit of
Hardness
Tensile Strength
Arrows indicate the ranges
kgf/mm2
HB
HV
(Reference)
SC37
SC42
SC46
SC49
SCC3

Cast
Steel

S25C

Normalized
Structural
Steel

S35C
S43C

S53C
S48C
S58C

S35C

Quenched
and
Tempered
Structural
Steel

S43C

S48C0
S53C
S58C

120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320
330
340
350

126
136
147
157
167
178
189
200
210
221
231
242
253
263
167
178
189
200
210
221
231
242
252
263
273
284
295
305
316
327
337
347
358
369

37
42
46
49
55
60
39
42
45
48
51
55
58
61
64
68
71
74
77
81
51
55
58
61
64
68
71
74
77
81
84
87
90
93
97
100
103
106
110
113

H lim
kgf/mm2

34
35
36
37
39
40
41.5
42.5
44
45
46.5
47.5
49
50
51.5
52.5
54
55
56.5
57.5
51
52.5
54
55.5
57
58.5
60
61
62.5
64
65.5
67
68.5
70
71
72.5
74
75.5
77
78.5
Continued on the next page

Table 17-12 Gears without Case Hardening Allowable Hertz Stress (continued)
Material

Arrows indicate the ranges

SMn443
Quenched
and
Tempered
Alloy
Steel

SNC836
SCM435

SCM440

SNCM439

Surface
Hardness
HB
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
370
380
390
400

HV
231
242
252
263
273
284
295
305
316
327
337
347
358
369
380
391
402
413
424

Lower Limit of
Tensile Strength
2
kgf/mm
(Reference)
71
74
77
81
84
87
90
93
97
100
103
106
110
113
117
121
126
130
135

H lim
2
kgf/mm

70
71.5
73
74.5
76
77.5
79
81
82.5
84
85.5
87
88.5
90
92
93.5
95
96.5
98

Continued from the previous page

Table 17-13 Gears with Induction Hardening Allowable Hertz Stress
Heat Treatment before
Induction Hardening

Material

Normalized

Structural
Carbon
Steel

S43C
S48C
Quenched
and
Tempered

Structural
Alloy
Steel

SMn443
SCM435
SCM440
SNC836
SNCM439

Quenched
and
Tempered

Surface Hardness
HV (Quenched)
420
440
460
480
500
520
540
560
580
600 and above
500
520
540
560
580
600
620
640
660
680 and above
500
520
540
560
580
600
620
640
660
680 and above

H lim
2
kgf/mm
77
80
82
85
87
90
92
93.5
95
96
96
99
101
103
105
106.5
107.5
108.5
109
109.5
109
112
115
117
119
121
123
124
125
126

Table 17-14 Carburized Gears Allowable Hertz Stress

Effective
Carburized Depth

Material

Structural
Carbon
Steel

Structural
Alloy
Steel

S15C
S15CK

SCM415
SCM420
SNC420
SNC815
SNCM420

Relatively
Shallow
(See
Table 17-14A,
row A)

Relatively
Shallow
(See
Table 17-14A,
row A)

Relatively
Thick
(See
Table 17-14A,
row B)

Surface
Hardness
HV (Quenched)
580
600
620
640
660
680
700
720
740
760
780
800
580
600
620
640
660
680
700
720
740
760
780
800
580
600
620
640
660
680
700
720
740
760
780
800

H lim
kgf/mm2
115
117
118
119
120
120
120
119
118
117
115
113
131
134
137
138
138
138
138
137
136
134
132
130
156
160
164
166
166
166
164
161
158
154
150
146

NOTES: 1. Gears with thin effective carburized depth have "A" row values in the Table 17-14A. For
thicker depths, use "B" values. The effective carburized depth is defined as the depth which
has the hardness greater than HV 513 or HRC50.
2. The effective carburizing depth of ground gears is defined as the residual layer depth after
grinding to final dimensions.

Table 17-14A
Module
A
B

Depth, mm
NOTE:

1.5
0.2
0.3

2
0.2
0.3

3
0.3
0.5

4
0.4
0.7

5
0.5
0.8

6
0.6
0.9

8
0.7
1.1

10
0.9
1.4

15
1.2
2.0

20
1.5
2.5

25
1.8
3.4

For two gears with large numbers of teeth in mesh, the maximum shear stress point occurs in
the inner part of the tooth beyond the carburized depth. In such a case, a larger safety factor,
SH , should be used.

Table 17-15 Gears with Nitriding Allowable Hertz Stress

Surface Hardness
(Reference)

Material
Nitriding
Steel
NOTE:

SACM 645
etc.

Over HV 650

H lim kgf/mm2
Standard Processing Time

120

Extra Long Processing Time

130 ... 140

In order to ensure the proper strength, this table applies only to those gears which have
adequate depth of nitriding. Gears with insufficient nitriding or where the maximum shear
stress point occurs much deeper than the nitriding depth should have a larger safety factor, SH.

Table 17-16 Gears with Soft Nitriding(1) Allowable Hertz Stress

H lim kgf/mm

Material

Structural Steel
or
Alloy Steel

NOTES:

(1)
(2)

Nitriding
Time
Hours)

Relative Radius of Curvature mm(2)

less than 10

10 to 20

more than 20

100

90

80

110

100

90

120

110

100

Applicable to salt bath soft nitriding and gas soft nitriding gears.
Relative radius of curvature is obtained from Figure 17-6.

Fig. 17-6 Relative Radius of Curvature

17.2.17 Example Of Surface Strength Calculation
Table 17-16A Spur Gear Design Details
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21

Item
Normal Module
Normal Pressure Angle
Helix Angle
Number of Teeth
Center Distance
Coefficient of Profile Shift
Pitch Circle Diameter
Working Pitch Circle Diameter
Tooth Width
Precision Grade
Manufacturing Method
Surface Roughness
Revolutions per Minute
Linear Speed
Direction of Load
Duty Cycle
Material
Heat Treatment
Surface Hardness
Core Hardness
Effective Carburized Depth

Symbol
mn
n

z
ax
x
d
dw
b

Unit
mm

Pinion

Gear
2
20
0

degree
20
mm

mm

40
60

+0.15
40.000
40.000
20
JIS 5

-0.15
80.000
80.000
20
JIS 5
Hobbing
12.5m

n
v

rpm
m/s
cycles

mm

1500

750
3.142
Unidirectional
Over 107 cycles
SCM 415
Carburizing
HV 600 ... 640
NB 260 ... 280
0.3 ... 0.5

Table 17-16B Surface Strength Factors Calculation

No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19

Item
Allowable Hertz Stress
Pitch Diameter of Pinion
Effective Tooth Width
Teeth Ratio
(z2 /z1)
Zone Factor
Material Factor
Contact Ratio Factor
Helix Angle Factor
Life Factor
Lubricant Factor
Surface Roughness Factor
Sliding Speed Factor
Hardness Ratio Factor
Dimension Factor of Root Stress
Load Distribution Factor
Dynamic Load Factor
Overload Factor
Safety Factor for Pitting
Allowable Tangential Force on Standard
Pitch Circle

Symbol
H lim
d1
bH
u
ZH
ZM
Z
Z
KHL
ZL
ZR
ZV
ZW
KHX
KH
KV
KO
SH
Ft lim

Unit
kgf/mm2

(kgf/mm2)0.5

kgf

Pinion

Gear
164
40
20
2
2.495
60.6
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.90
0.97
1.0
1.0
1.025
1.4
1.0
1.15
251.9

17.3 Bending Strength Of Bevel Gears

This information is valid for bevel gears which are used in power transmission in general
industrial machines. The applicable ranges are:
Module:
Pitch Diameter:
Linear Speed:
Rotating Speed:

m 1.5 to 25 mm
d less than 1600 mm for straight bevel gears
less than 1000 mm for spiral bevel gears
v less than 25 m/sec
n less than 3600 rpm

17.3.1 Conversion Formulas

In calculating strength, tangential force at the pitch circle, Ftm, in kgf; power, P, in kW, and
torque, T , in kgf m, are the design criteria. Their basic relationships are xpressed in Equations (17-23)
through (17-25).

120 P 1.95 10 6 P 2000T

=
=
Vm
dmn
dm
F v
P = tm m = 5.13 10 7 Ftm d m n
102
Ftm d m 974 P
T =
2000 n
Ftm =

(17-23)
(17-24)
(17-25)

17.3.2 Bending Strength Equations

The tangential force, Ftm , acting at the central pitch circle should be equal to or less than the
allowable tangential force, Ftm lim, which is based upon the allowable bending stress F lim. That is:
Ftm Ftm lim (17-26)
The bending stress at the root, F , which is derived from Ftm should be equal to or less than the
allowable bending stress F lim.
F F lim (17-27)
The tangential force at the central pitch circle, Ftm lim (kgf), is obtained from Equation (17-28).

Ft lim = 0.85 cos m F lim mb

where:

Ra 0.5 b
1
Ra
YFYYYC

K LK FX 1

K M KV K 0 K R

(17-28)

m : Central spiral angle (degrees)

m : Radial module (mm)
Ra : Cone distance (mm)

Fl = Ft lim =

K M KV K 0
Ra

K R
0.85 cos m mb Ra 0.5 b K LK FX
YFYYYC

(17-29)

17.3.3 Determination of Factors in Bending Strength Equations

17.3.3.A Tooth Width, b (mm)

The term b is defined as the tooth width on the pitch cone, analogous to face width of spur or
helical gears. For the meshed pair, the narrower one is used for strength calculations.
17.3.3.B Tooth Profile Factor, YF
The tooth profile factor is a function of profile shift, in both the radial and axial directions. Using
the equivalent (virtual) spur gear tooth number, the first step is to determine the radial tooth profile factor,
YFO, from Figure 17-8 for straight bevel gears and Figure 17-9 for spiral bevel gears. Next, determine the
axial shift factor, K, with Equation (17-33) from which the axial shift correction factor, C, can be obtained
using Figure 17-7. Finally, calculate YF by Equation (17-30).
YF = CYFO

(17-30)

Fig. 17-7 Correction Factor for Axial Shift, C

Should the bevel gear pair not have any axial shift, then the coefficient C is 1, as per Figure
17-7. The tooth profile factor, YF , per Equation (17-31) is simply the YFO. This value is from Figure 17-8
or 17-9, depending upon whether it is a straight or spiral bevel gear pair. The graph entry parameter
values are per Equation (17-32).

YF =Y F 0
z
cos cos 3 m

zV =

h ha0
x= a
m
where:

(17-31)

(17-32)

ha = Addendum at outer end (mm)

ha0 = Addendum of standard form (mm)
m = Radial module (mm)

The axial shift factor, K, is computed from the formula:

K =

2( ha ha0 ) tan n
1
s 0.5m

m
cos m

(17-33)

17.3.3.C Load Distribution Factor, Y

Load distribution factor is the reciprocal of radial contact ratio.

Y =

(17-34)

The radial contact ratio for a straight bevel gear mesh is:

( RVa1 RVb1 ) + ( RVa 2 RVb 2 ) ( R v1 + R v 2 ) sin

2

m cos

And the radial contact ratio for spiral bevel gear is:

( RVa1 RVb1 ) + ( RVa 2 RVb 2 ) ( Rv1 + Rv 2 ) sin t

m cos t
2

Fig. 17-8 Radial Tooth Profile Factor for Straight Bevel Gear

(17-35)

Fig. 17-9 Radial Tooth Profile Factor for Spiral Bevel Gear

See Tables 17-17 through 17-19 for some calculating examples of radial contact ratio for
various bevel gear pairs.
Table 17-17 The Radial Contact Ratio for Gleason's Straight Bevel Gear,
z1
z2
12
15
16
18
20
25
30
36
40
45
60

12

15

16

1.514
1.529
1.529
1.528
1.525
1.518
1.512
1.508
1.506
1.503
1.500

1.572
1.578
1.584
1.584
1.577
1.570
1.563
1.559
1.556
1.549

1.588
1.597
1.599
1.595
1.587
1.579
1.575
1.571
1.564

18

1.616
1.624
1.625
1.618
1.609
1.605
1.600
1.591

20

1.640
1.650
1.645
1.637
1.632
1.626
1.615

25

1.689
1.697
1.692
1.688
1.681
1.668

30

1.725
1.732
1.730
1.725
1.710

36

40

=900,

=200

1.758
1.763
1.763
1.751

1.775
1.781
1.773

45

60

1.794
1.796

1.833

45

60

1.794
1.796

1.833

Table 17-18 The Radial Contact Ratio for Standard Bevel Gear,
z1
z2
12
15
16
18
20
25
30
36
40
45
60

12

15

16

1.514
1.545
1.554
1.571
1.585
1.614
1.634
1.651
1.659
1.666
1.680

1.572
1.580
1.595
1.608
1.636
1.656
1.674
1.683
1.691
1.707

1.588
1.602
1.615
1.643
1.663
1.681
1.689
1.698
1.714

18

1.616
1.628
1.655
1.675
1.692
1.702
1.711
1.728

20

1.640
1.666
1.685
1.703
1.712
1.721
1.739

25

1.689
1.707
1.725
1.734
1.743
1.762

30

1.725
1.742
1.751
1.760
1.780

36

40

=900,

=200

1.758
1.767
1.776
1.796

1.775
1.781
1.773

Table 17-19 The Radial Contact Ratio for Gleason's Spiral Bevel Gear,
z1
z2
12
15
16
18
20
25
30
36
40
45
60

12

15

16

1.221
1.228
1.227
1.225
1.221
1.214
1.209
1.204
1.202
1.201
1.197

1.254
1.258
1.260
1.259
1.253
1.246
1.240
1.238
1.235
1.230

1.264
1.269
1.269
1.263
1.257
1.251
1.248
1.245
1.239

18

1.280
1.284
1.282
1.276
1.270
1.266
1.263
1.256

20

1.293
1.297
1.293
1.286
1.283
1.279
1.271

25

1.319
1.323
1.319
1.316
1.312
1.303

30

1.338
1.341
1.340
1.336
1.327

36

40

=900,

=200

1.355
1.358
1.357
1.349

1.364
1.366
1.361

45

60

1.373
1.373

1.392

17.3.3.D Spiral Angle Factor, Y

The spiral angle factor is a function of the spiral angle. The value is arbitrarily set by the following
conditions:
When 0 m 30,

Y = 1

m
120
(17-36)

When m 30, Y = 0.75

17.3.3.E Cutter Diameter Effect Factor, YC

This factor of cutter diameter, YC, can be obtained from Table 17-20 by the value of tooth flank
length, b / cos m (mm), over cutter diameter. If cutter diameter is not known, assume YC = 1.00.
Table 17-20 Cutter Diameter Effect Factor, YC
Relative Size of Cutter Diameter
Types of Bevel Gears

Straight Bevel Gears

Spiral and Zerol Bevel Gears

6 Times
Tooth
Width

5 Times
Tooth
Width

4 Times
Tooth
Width

1.15

---

---

---

---

1.00

0.95

0.90

17.3.3.F Life Factor, KL

We can choose a proper life factor, KL, from Table 17-2 similarly to calculating the bending
strength of spur and helical gears.
17.3.3.G Dimension Factor Of Root Bending Stress, KFX
This is a size factor that is a function of the radial module, m. Refer to Table 17-21 for values.
Table 17-21 Dimension Factor for Bending Strength, KFX
Radial Module at
Gears Without
Gears With
Outside Diameter, m
Hardened Surface
Hardened Surface
1.5 to 5
1.0
1.0
above 5 to 7
0.99
0.98
above 7 to 9
0.98
0.96
above 9 to 11
0.97
0.94
above 11 to 13
0.96
0.92
above 13 to 15
0.94
0.90
above 15 to 17
0.93
0.88
above 17 to 19
0.92
0.86
above 19 to 22
0.90
0.83
above 22 to 25
0.88
0.80

17.3.3. H Tooth Flank Load Distribution Factor, KM

Tooth flank load distribution factor, KM, is obtained from Table 17-22 or Table 17-23.
Table 17-22 Tooth Flank Load Distribution, KM , for Spiral Bevel Gears,
Zerol Bevel Gears and Straight Bevel Gears with Crowning

Very Stiff

Both Gears
Supported
on Two Sides
1.2

One Gear
Supported
on One End
1.35

Both Gears
Supported
on One End
1.5

Average

1.4

1.6

1.8

Somewhat Weak

1.55

1.75

2.0

Stiffness of Shaft,
Gear Box, etc.

Table 17-23 Tooth Flank Load Distribution Factor, KM , for

Straight Bevel Gears without Crowning

Very Stiff

Both Gears
Supported
on Two Sides
1.05

One Gear
Supported
on One End
1.15

Both Gears
Supported
on One End
1.35

Average

16

1.8

2.1

Somewhat Weak

2.2

2.5

2.8

Stiffness of Shaft,
Gear Box, etc.

17.3.3.I Dynamic Load Factor, KV

Dynamic load factor, KV, is a function of the precision grade of the gear and the tangential speed
at the outer pitch circle, as shown in Table 17-24.
Precision
Grade
of Gears
from
JIS B 1702
1
2
3
4
5
6

Tangential Speed at Outer Pitch Circle (m/s)

Up to 1

Above 1
to 3

Above 3
to 5

Above 5
to 8

Above 8
to 12

Above 12
to 18

Above 18
to 25

1.0
1.0
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.4

1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.7

1.15
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.7

1.2
1.4
1.5
1.7

1.3
1.5
1.7

1.5
1.7

1.7

17.3.3.K Reliability Factor, KR

The reliability factor should be assumed to be as follows:
1. General case: KR = 1.2
2. When all other factors can be determined accurately:
KR = 1.0
3. When all or some of the factors cannot be known with certainty:
KR = 1.4
17.3.3.L Allowable Bending Stress at Root, F lim
The allowable stress at root F
case of spur and helical gears.

lim

can be obtained from Tables 17-5 through 17-8, similar to the

17.3.4 Examples of Bevel Gear Bending Strength Calculations

No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22

Item
Shaft Angle
Module
Pressure Angle
Central Spiral Angle
Number of Teeth
Pitch Circle Diameter
Pitch Cone Angle
Cone Distance
Tooth Width
Central Pitch Circle Diameter
Precision Grade
Manufacturing Method
Surface Roughness
Revolutions per Minute
Linear Speed
Direction of Load
Duty Cycle
Material
Heat Treatment
Surface Hardness
Core Hardness
Effective Carburized Depth

Symbol

m
n
m
z
d

Re
b
dm

Unit
degree
mm

n
v

rpm
m/s

degree
mm
degree
mm

cycles

mm

Pinion

Gear
90
2
20
0

20
40
40.000
80.000
26.56505
63.43495
44.721
15
33.292
66.584
JIS 3
JIS 3
Gleason No. 104
12.5m
12.5m
1500
750
3.142
Unidirectional
Over 107 cycles
SCM 415
Carburizing
HV 600 ... 640
NB 260 ... 280
0.3 ... 0.5

Table 17-24B Bending Strength Factors for Gleason Straight Bevel Gear
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

Item
Central Spiral Angle
Allowable Bending Stress at Root
Module
Tooth Width
Cone Distance
Tooth Profile Factor
Load Distribution Factor
Spiral Angle Factor
Cutter Diameter Effect Factor
Life Factor
Dimension Factor
Tooth Flank Load Distribution Factor
Dynamic Load Factor
Overload Factor
Reliability Factor
Allowable Tangential Force at Central
Pitch Circle

Symbol
m
F lim
m
b
Re
YF
Y
Y
YC
KL
KFX
KM
KV
K0
KR

Unit
degree
kgf/mm2

Ft lim

kgf

mm

Pinion

Gear

164
40
20
2
2.495
60.6
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.90
0.97
1.0
1.0
1.025

17.4 Surface Strength Of Bevel Gears

This information is valid for bevel gears which are used in power transmission in general
industrial machines. The applicable ranges are:
Radial Module:
Pitch Diameter:
Linear Speed:
Rotating Speed:

m 1.5 to 25 mm
d Straight bevel gear under 1600 mm
Spiral bevel gear under 1000 mm
v less than 25 m/sec
n less than 3600 rpm

17.4.1 Basic Conversion Formulas

The same formulas of SECTION 17.3 apply. (See page T-171).
17.4.2 Surface Strength Equations
In order to obtain a proper surface strength, the tangential force at the central pitch circle, Ftm,
must remain below the allowable tangential force at the central pitch circle, Ftm lim, based on the allowable
Hertz stress H lim.
Ftm Ftm lim

(17-37)

Alternately, the Hertz stress H, which is derived from the tangential force at the central pitch
circle must be smaller than the allowable Hertz stress H lim.
H H lim

(17-38)

The allowable tangential force at the central pitch circle, Ftm

Equation (17-39).

lim,

in kgf can be calculated from

d 1 R e 0 .5 b
u 2 K HL Z L Z R Z v Z w K HX 2
1
1
Ftm lim = ( H lim ) 2
b 2
)

(
cos 1
Re
ZH Z Z
K H K V K 0 C R 2
u + 1
Zm

(17-39)

2
The Hertz stress, H (kgf/mm ) is calculated from Equation (17-40).

H =

ZH ZM Z Z

cos 1 Ftm u 2 + 1
Re

2
d1 b
R e 0.5 b K HL Z L Z R Z v Z w K HX
u

K H K V K 0 C R

(17-40)

17.4.3 Determination of Factors In Surface Strength Equations

17.4.3.A Tooth Width, b (mm)
This term is defined as the tooth width on the pitch cone. For a meshed pair, the narrower gear's
"b " is used for strength calculations.
17.4.3.B Zone Factor, ZH
The zone factor is defined as:

ZH =
where:

2 cos b
sin t cos t

m = Central spiral angle

n = Normal pressure angle
t = Central radial pressure angle = tan 1 (

(17-41)

tan n
)
cos m

b = tan1 ( tan m cos t )

If the normal pressure angle n is 20, 22.5 or 25, the zone factor can be obtained from Figure
17-10.

Fig. 17-10 Zone Factor, ZH

17.4.3.C Material Factor, ZM

The material factor, ZM , is obtainable from Table 17-9.
17.4.3.D Contact Ratio Factor, Z
The contact ratio factor is calculated from the equations below.
Straight bevel gear: Z = 1.0
Spiral bevel gear:

when 1, Z = 1 +

(17-42)

when > 1, Z =

where: = Radial Contact Ratio

= Overlap Ratio
17.4.3.E Spiral Angle Factor, Z
Little is known about these factors, so usually it is assumed to be unity.
Z = 1.0

(17-43)

17.4.3.F Life Factor, KHL

The life factor for surface strength is obtainable from Table 17-10.
17.4.3.G Lubricant Factor, ZL
The lubricant factor, ZL , is found in Figure 17-3.
17.4.3.H Surface Roughness Factor, ZR
The surface roughness factor is obtainable from Figure 17-11 on the basis of average
roughness, Rmaxm, in m. The average surface roughness is calculated by Equation (17- 44) from the
surface roughnesses of the pinion and gear (Rmax1 and Rmax 2), and the center distance, a, in mm.

R max m =

R max m1 + R max m 2
2

100
( m )
a

where: a = Rm (sin 1 + cos 1)

Rm = Re

b
2

Fig. 17-11 Surface Roughness Factor, ZR

(17-44)

17.4.3.I Sliding Speed Factor, ZV

The sliding speed factor is obtained from Figure 17-5 based on the pitch circle linear speed.
17.4.3.J Hardness Ratio Factor, ZW
The hardness ratio factor applies only to the gear that is in mesh with a pinion which is quenched
and ground. The ratio is calculated by Equation (17-45).

Z W = 1 .2

HB2 130
1700

(17-45)

where Brinell hardness of the gear is: 130 HB2 470

If the gear's hardness is outside of this range, ZW is assumed to be unity.
ZW = 1.0 (17-46)
17.4.3.K Dimension Factor, KHX
Since, often, little is known about this factor, it is assumed to be unity.
KHX = 1.0 (17-47)
17.4.3.L Tooth Flank Load Distribution Factor, KH
Factors are listed in Tables 17-25 and 17-26. If the gear and pinion are unhardened, the factors
are to be reduced to 90% of the values in the table.
Table 17-25 Tooth Flank Load Distribution Factor for Spiral Bevel Gears, Zerol
Bevel Gears and Straight Bevel Gears with Crowning, KH
Both Gears
One Gear
Both Gears
Stiffness of Shaft,
Supported
Supported
Supported
Gear Box, etc.
on Two Sides
on One End
on One End
Very Stiff
1.3
1.5
1.7
Average

1.6

1.85

2.1

Somewhat Weak

1.75

2.1

2.5

Table 17-26 Tooth Flank Load Distribution Factor for Straight Bevel
Gear without Crowning, KH
Both Gears
One Gear
Both Gears
Stiffness of Shaft,
Supported
Supported
Supported
Gear Box, etc.
on Two Sides
on One End
on One End
Very Stiff
1.3
1.5
1.7
Average

1.85

2.1

2.6

Somewhat Weak

2.8

3.3

3.8

17.4.3.M Dynamic Load Factor, KV

The dynamic load factor can be obtained from Table 17-24.
17.4.3.N Overload Factor, KO
The overload factor can be computed by Equation 17-11 or found in Table 17-4.
17.4.3.O Reliability Factor, CR
The general practice is to assume CR to be at least 1.15.
17.4.3.P Allowable Hertz Stress, H lim
The values of allowable Hertz stress are given in Tables 17-12 through 17-16.
17.4.4 Examples Of Bevel Gear Surface Strength Calculation

Table 17-26A Gleason Straight Bevel Gear Design Details

No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22

Item
Shaft Angle
Module
Pressure Angle
Central Spiral Angle
Number of Teeth
Pitch Circle Diameter
Pitch Cone Angle
Cone Distance
Tooth Width
Central Pitch Circle Diameter
Precision Grade
Manufacturing Method
Surface Roughness
Revolutions per Minute
Linear Speed
Direction of Load
Duty Cycle
Material
Heat Treatment
Surface Hardness
Core Hardness
Effective Carburized Depth

Symbol

m
n
m
z
d

Re
b
dm

Unit
degree
mm

n
v

rpm
m/s

degree
mm
degree
mm

cycles

mm

Pinion

Gear
90
2
20
0

20
40
40.000
80.000
26.56505
63.43495
44.721
15
33.292
66.584
JIS 3
JIS 3
Gleason No. 104
12.5m
12.5m
1500
750
3.142
Unidirectional
Over 107 cycles
SCM 415
Carburizing
HV 600 ... 640
NB 260 ... 280
0.3 ... 0.5

Table 17-26B Surface Strength Factors of Gleason Straight Bevel Gear

No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21

Item
Allowable Hertz Stress
Pinion's Pitch Diameter
Pinion's Pitch Cone Angle
Cone Distance
Tooth Width
Numbers of Teeth Ratio z2 / z1
Zone Factor
Material Factor
Contact Ratio Factor
Spiral Angle Factor
Life Factor
Lubricant Factor
Surface Roughness Factor
Sliding Speed Factor
Hardness Ratio Factor
Dimension Factor of Root Stress
Load Distribution Factor
Dynamic Load Factor
Overload Factor
Reliability Factor
Allowable Tangential Force on
Central Pitch Circle

Symbol
H lim
d1
1
Re
b
u
ZH
ZM
Z
Z
KHL
ZL
ZR
ZV
ZW
KHX
KH
KV
KO
CR
Ft lim

Unit
kg/mm2
mm
degree
mm

(kg/mm2 )0.5

kgf

Pinion

Gear
164
40.000
26.56505
44.721
15
2
2.495
60.6
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.90
0.97
1.0
1.0
2.1
1.4
1.0
1.15

103.0

103.0

17.5 Strength Of Worm Gearing

This information is applicable for worm gear drives that are used to transmit power in general
industrial machines with the following parameters:
Axial Module:
Pitch Diameter of Worm Gear:
Sliding Speed:
Rotating Speed, Worm Gear:

mx 1 to 25 mm
d2 less than 900 mm
vs less than 30 m/sec
n2 less than 600 rpm

17.5.1 Basic Formulas:

Sliding Speed, vs (m/s)

vs =

d1 n1
19100 cos

(17-48)

17.5.2 Torque, Tangential Force and Efficiency

(1) Worm as Driver Gear (Speed Reducing)

T2 =

Ft d 2
2000

T1 =

Ft d 2
T2
=
u R 2000u R

(17-49)

)
cos n

tan +
cos n

tan (1 tan

R =

where: T2 = Nominal torque of worm gear (kg m)

T1 = Nominal torque of worm (kgf m)
Ft = Nominal tangential force on worm gear's pitch circle (kgf)
d2 = Pitch diameter of worm gear (mm)
u = Teeth number ratio = z2 /zw
R = Transmission efficiency, worm driving (not including bearing loss, lubricant agitation loss,
etc.)
= Friction coefficient
(2) Worm Gear as Driver Gear (Speed Increasing)

Ft d 2
2000
T2l
Fd
= t 2 l
T1 =
u
2000u
T2 =

tan

l =

(17-50)

cos n

tan (1 + tan

cos n

where: I = Transmission efficiency, worm gear driving (not including bearing loss, lubricant agitation loss,
etc.)
17.5.3 Friction Coefficient,
The friction factor varies as sliding speed changes. The combination of materials is important. For
the case of a worm that is carburized and ground, and mated with a phosphorous bronze worm gear, see
Figure 17-12. For some other materials, see Table 17-27.
For lack of data, friction coefficient of materials not listed in Table 17-27 are very difficult to
obtain. H.E. Merritt has offered some further information on this topic. See Reference 9.

Fig. 17-12 Friction Coefficient,

Table 17-27 Combinations of Materials and Their Coefficients of Friction,

Combination of Materials

in Figure 17-12 times 1.15

in Figure 17-12 times 1.33
in Figure 17-12 times 1.33
in Figure 17-12 times 2.00

Cast Iron and Phosphor Bronze

Cast Iron and Cast Iron
Quenched Steel and Aluminum Alloy
Steel and Steel
17.5.4 Surface Strength of Worm Gearing Mesh

(1) Calculation of Basic Load

Provided dimensions and materials of the worm pair are known, the allowable load is as follows:
Ft lim = Allowable tangential force (kgf)

= 3.82 K V K n S c lim Zd 2

0.8

mx

ZL ZM ZR
KC

(17-51)

T2 lim = Allowable worm gear torque (kgf m)

= 0.00191K V K n S c lim Zd 2 m x
1.8

ZL ZM ZR
KC

(17-52)

(2) Calculation of Equivalent Load

The basic load Equations (17-51) and (17-52) are applicable under the conditions of no impact and
the pair can operate for 26000 hours minimum. The condition of "no impact" is defined as the starting
torque which must be less than 200% of the rated torque; and the frequency of starting should be less
than twice per hour.

An equivalent load is needed to compare with the basic load in order to determine an actual
design load, when the conditions deviate from the above.
Equivalent load is then converted to an equivalent tangential force, Fte, in kgf:
Fte = Ft Kh Ks (17-53)
and equivalent worm gear torque, T2e, in kgf m:
T2e = T2 Kh Ks (17-54)
(3) Determination of Load
Under no impact condition, to have life expectancy of 26000 hours, the following relationships
must be satisfied:
Ft Ft lim or T2 T2 lim (17-55)
For all other conditions:
Fte Ft lim or T2e T2 lim (17-56)
NOTE: If load is variable, the maximum load should be used as the criterion.
17.5.5 Determination of Factors in Worm Gear Surface Strength Equations
17.5.5.A Tooth Width of Worm Gear, b2 (mm)
Tooth width of worm gear is defined as in Figure 17-13.
17.5.5.B Zone Factor, Z
If b2 < 2.3 m x Q + 1 , then:

Z = ( Basic zone factor)

b2
2m x Q + 1

If b2 2.3 mx Q + 1 , then:
Z = (Basic zone factor) x 1.15
where: Basic Zone Factor is obtained from Table 17-28
Q : Diameter factor =

d1
mx

zw : number of worm threads

Fig. 17-13 Tooth Width of Worm Gear

(17-57)

Table 17-28 Basic Zone Factors

Q
zw

7.5

8.5

9.5

10

11

12

13

14

17

20

1.052

1.065

1.084

1.107

1.128

1.137

1.143

1.160

1.202

1.260

1.318

1.402

1.508

1.055

1.099

1.144

1.183

1.214

1.223

1.231

1.250

1.280

1.320

1.360

1.447

1.575

0.989

1.109

1.209

1.260

1.305

1.333

1.350

1.365

1.393

1.422

1.442

1.532

1.674

0.981

1.098

1.204

1.301

1.380

1.428

1.460

1.490

1.515

1.545

1.570

1.666

1.798

17.5.5.C Sliding Speed Factor, Kv

The sliding speed factor is obtainable from Figure 17-14, where the abscissa is the pitch line linear
velocity.

Fig. 17-14 Sliding Speed Factor, Kv

17.5.5.D Rotating Speed Factor, Kn
The rotating speed factor is presented in Figure 17-15 as a function of the worm gear's rotating
speed, n2.
17.5.5.E Lubricant Factor, ZL
Let ZL = 1.0 if the lubricant is of proper viscosity and has antiscoring additives. Some bearings in
worm gear boxes may need a low viscosity lubricant. Then ZL is to be less than 1.0. The recommended
kinetic viscosity of lubricant is given in Table 17-29.

Fig. 17-15 Rotating Speed Factor, Kn

Table 17-29 Recommended Kinematic Viscosity of Lubricant
Operating Lubricant Temperature
Highest
Operating
Temperature
0C to less than 10C
10C to less than 30C
30C to less than 55C
55C to less than 80C
80C to less than 100C

Lubricant
Temperature
at Start of Operation
10C 0C
more than 0C
more than 0C
more than 0C
more than 0C
more than 0C

Unit: cSt/37.8C
Sliding Speed (m/s)

Less than 2.5

2.5 to 5

More than 5

110 130
110 150
200 245
350 510
510 780
900 1100

110 130
110 150
150 200
245 350
350 510
510 780

110 130
110 150
150 200
200 245
245 350
350 510

17.5.5.F Lubrication Factor, ZM

The lubrication factor, ZM, is obtained from Table 17-30.
Table 17-30 Lubrication Factor, ZM
Sliding Speed (m/s)

Less than 10

10 to 14

More than 14

Oil Bath Lubrication

1.0

0.85

--

Forced Circulation Lubrication

1.0

1.0

1.0

17.5.5.G Surface Roughness Factor, ZR

This factor is concerned with resistance to pitting of the working surfaces of the teeth. Since there
is insufficient knowledge about this phenomenon, the factor is assumed to be 1.0.
ZR = 1.0

(17-58)

It should be noted that for Equation (17-58) to be applicable, surfaces roughness of the worm
and worm gear must be less than 3 m and 12 m respectively. If either is rougher, the factor is to be
adjusted to a smaller value.
17.5.5.H Contact Factor, Kc
Quality of tooth contact will affect load capacity dramatically. Generally, it is difficult to define
precisely, but JIS B 1741 offers guidelines depending on the class of tooth contact.
Class A Kc = 1.0
(17-59)
Class B, C Kc > 1.0
Table 17-31 gives the general values of Kc depending on the JIS tooth contact class.
Table 17-31 Classes of Tooth Contact and General Values of Contact Factor, Kc
Class
A
B
C

Proportion of Tooth Contact

Tooth Width Direction
More than 50% of
Effective Width of Tooth
More than 35% of
Effective Width of Tooth
More than 20% of
Effective Width of Tooth

Tooth Height Direction

More than 40% of
Effective Height of Tooth
More than 30% of
Effective Height of Tooth
More than 20% of
Effective Height of Tooth

Kc
1.0
1.3 ... 1.4
1.5 ... 1.7

17.5.5.I Starting Factor, Ks

This factor depends upon the magnitude of starting torque and the frequency of starts. When
starting torque is less than 200% of rated torque, Ks factor is per Table 17- 32.

Table 17-33 Time Factor, Kh

Kh
Impact from Load
Uniform Load
Medium Impact
Strong Impact
1500 Hours
0.80
0.90
1.0
Uniform Load
5000 Hours
0.90
1.0
1.25
(Motor, Turbine,
26000 Hours*
1.0
1.25
1.50
Hydraulic Motor)
6 0000 Hours
1.25
1.50
1.75
1500 Hours
0.90
1.0
1.25
Light Impact
5000 Hours
1.0
1.25
1.50
(Multicylinder
26000 Hours*
1.25
1.50
1.75
engine)
60000 Hours
1.50
1.75
2.0
1500 Hours
1.0
1.25
1.50
Medium Impact
5000 Hours
1.25
1.50
1.75
(Single cylinder
26000 Hours*
1.50
1.70
2.0
engine)
60000 Hours
1.75
2.0
2.25
*NOTE: For a machine that operates 10 hours a day, 260 days a year; this number corresponds to ten
years of operating life.
Impact from
Prime Mover

Expected
Life

17.5.5.K Allowable Stress Factor, Sc lim

Table 17-34 presents the allowable stress factors for various material combinations. Note that the
table also specifies governing limits of sliding speed, which must be adhered to if scoring is to be avoided.
Table 17-34 Allowable Stress Factor for Surface Strength, Sc lim
Material of
Worm Gear
Phosphor Bronze
Centrifugal Casting
Phosphor Bronze
Chilled Casting
Phosphor Bronze Sand
Molding or Forging
Aluminum Bronze
Brass
Ductile Cast Iron

Cast Iron (Perlitic)

Material of Worm
Alloy Steel Carburized & Quenched
Alloy Steel HB 400
Alloy Steel HB 250
Alloy Steel Carburized & Quenched
Alloy Steel HB 400
Alloy Steel HB 250
Alloy Steel Carburized & Quenched
Alloy Steel HB 400
Alloy Steel HB 250
Alloy Steel Carburized & Quenched
Alloy Steel HB 400
Alloy Steel HB 250
Alloy Steel HB 400
Alloy Steel HB 250
Ductile Cast Iron but with a higher
hardness than the worm gear
Phosphor Bronze Casting and
Forging
Cast Iron but with a higher
hardness than the worm gear

1.55
1.34
1.12
1.27
1.05
0.88
1.05
0.84
0.70
0.84
0.67
0.56
0.49
0.42

Sliding Speed Limit

before Scoring
(m/s) *
30
20
10
30
20
10
30
20
10
20
15
10
8
5

0.70

Sc lim

0.63
0.42

2.5
2.5

*NOTE: The value indicates the maximum sliding speed within the limit of the allowable stress factor, Sc
lim. Even when the allowable load is below the allowable stress level, if the sliding speed exceeds the
indicated limit, there is danger of scoring gear surfaces.

17.5.6 Examples Of Worm Mesh Strength Calculation

Table 17-35A Worm and Worm Gear Design Details
No.

Item

Symbol

Unit

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

Axial Module
Normal Pressure Angle
No. of Threads, No. of Teeth
Pitch Diameter
Lead Angle
Diameter Factor
Tooth Width
Manufacturing Method
Surface Roughness
Revolutions per Minute
Sliding Speed
Material
Heat Treatment
Surface Hardness

mx
n
zw , z2
d

Q
b

mm
degree

n
vs

rpm
m/s

No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

mm
degree
mm

Worm

Worm Gear
2
20

1
28

40
80
4.08562

14
()
Grinding
3.2 m
1500
2.205
S45C
Induction Hardening
HS 63 68

--20
Hobbing
12.5 m
37.5
Al BC2
-----

Table 17-35B Surface Strength Factors and Allowable Force

Item
Symbol
Unit
Worm Gear
Axial Module
mx
mm
2
Worm Gear Pitch Diameter
d2
80
Zone Factor
Z
1.5157
Sliding Speed Factor
Kv
0.49
Rotating Speed Factor
Kn
0.66
Lubricant Factor
ZL
1.0
Lubrication Factor
ZM
1.0
Surface Roughness Factor
ZR
1.0
Contact Factor
KC
1.0
Allowable Stress Factor
SC lim
0.67
Allowable Tangential Force
Ft lim
kgf
83.5

SECTION 18 DESIGN OF PLASTIC GEARS

18.1 General Considerations Of Plastic Gearing
Plastic gears are continuing to displace metal gears in a widening arena of applications. Their
unique characteristics are also being enhanced with new developments, both in materials and
processing. In this regard, plastics contrast somewhat dramatically with metals, in that the latter materials
and processes are essentially fully developed and, therefore, are in a relatively static state of
development.
Plastic gears can be produced by hobbing or shaping, similarly to metal gears or alternatively by
molding. The molding process lends itself to considerably more economical means of production;
therefore, a more in-depth treatment of this process will be presented in this section.
Among the characteristics responsible for the large increase in plastic gear usage, the following
are probably the most significant:
1. Cost effectiveness of the injection-molding process.
2. Elimination of machining operations; capability of fabrication with inserts and integral designs.
3. Low density: lightweight, low inertia.
4. Uniformity of parts.
5. Capability to absorb shock and vibration as a result of elastic compliance.
6. Ability to operate with minimum or no lubrication, due to inherent lubricity.
7. Relatively low coefficient of friction.
8. Corrosion-resistance; elimination of plating, or protective coatings.
9. Quietness of operation.
10. Tolerances often less critical than for metal gears, due in part to their greater resilience.
11. Consistency with trend to greater use of plastic housings and other components.
12. One step production; no preliminary or secondary operations.
At the same time, the design engineer should be familiar with the limitations of plastic gears
relative to metal gears. The most significant of these are the following:
1. Less load-carrying capacity, due to lower maximum allowable stress; the greater compliance of
plastic gears may also produce stress concentrations.
2. Plastic gears cannot generally be molded to the same accuracy as highprecision machined metal
gears.
3. Plastic gears are subject to greater dimensional instabilities, due to their larger coefficient of
thermal expansion and moisture absorption.
4. Reduced ability to operate at elevated temperatures; as an approximate figure, operation is limited
to less than 120C. Also, limited cold temperature operations.
5. Initial high mold cost in developing correct tooth form and dimensions.
6. Can be negatively affected by certain chemicals and even some lubricants.
7. Improper molding tools and process can produce residual internal stresses at the tooth roots,
resulting in over stressing and/or distortion with aging.
8. Costs of plastics track petrochemical pricing, and thus are more volatile and subject to increases in
comparison to metals.

18.2 Properties Of Plastic Gear Materials

Popular
materials
for
plastic
gears
are
acetal
resins
such
as
DELRIN
, Duracon M90; nylon resins such as ZYTEL*, NYLATRON**, MC901 and acetal copolymers such as
CELCON***. The physical and mechanical properties of these materials vary with regard to strength,
rigidity, dimensional stability, lubrication requirements, moisture absorption, etc. Standardized tabular
data is available from various manufacturers' catalogs. Manufacturers in the U.S.A. provide this
information in units customarily used in the U.S.A. In general, the data is less simplified and fixed than for
the metals. This is because plastics are subject to wider formulation variations and are often regarded as
proprietary compounds and mixtures. Tables 18-1 through 18-9 are representative listings of physical
and mechanical properties of gear plastics taken from a variety of sources. All reprinted tables are in their
original units of measure.
It is common practice to use plastics in combination with different metals and materials other than
plastics. Such is the case when gears have metal hubs, inserts, rims, spokes, etc. In these cases, one
must be cognizant of the fact that plastics have an order of magnitude different coefficients of thermal
expansion as well as density and modulus of elasticity. For this reason, Table 18-10 is presented.
Other properties and features that enter into consideration for gearing are given in Table 18-11
(Wear) and Table 18-12 (Poisson's Ratio).
Moisture has a significant impact on plastic properties as can be seen in Tables 18-1 thru 18-5.
Ranking of plastics is given in Table 18-13. In this table, rate refers to expansion from dry to full moist
condition. Thus, a 0.20% rating means a dimensional increase of 0.002 mm/mm. Note that this is only a
rough guide, as exact values depend upon factors of composition and processing, both the raw material
and gear molding. For example, it can be seen that the various types and grades of nylon can range from
0.07% to 2.0%.
*

Table 18-14 lists safe stress values for a few basic plastics and the effect of glass fiber reinforcement.
Table 18-1 Physical Properties of Plastics Used in Gears
Tensile
Strength
(psi x 103)

Flexural
Strength
(psi x 103)

Compressive
Modulus
(psi x 103)

Heat
Distortion
Temperature
(F @ 264 psi)

Water
Absorption
(% in 24 hrs)

Acetal

8.8 1.0

13 14

410

230 255

0.25

M94
R120

ABS

4.5 8.5

5 13.5

120 200

180 245

0.2 0.5

R80 120

11.2 13.1
7 8.5

14.6
10.5

400
400

200
145

1.3
0.4

Polycarbonate

8 9.5

11 13

350

265 290

0.15

R118 123
R111
M70
R112

High Impact
Polystyrene

1.9 4

5.5 12.5

300 500

160 205

0.05 0.10

Polyurethane
Polyvinyl
Chloride

4.5 8

7.1

85

160 205

0.60 0.80

69

8 15

300 400

140 175

0.07 0.40

Polysulfone
MoS2 Filled
Nylon

10.2

15.4

370

345

10.2

10

350

140

Material

Nylon 6/6
Nylon 6/10

Rockwell
Hardness

Mold
Shrinkage
(in./in.)

M25 69
M29
R90

0.022
0.003
0.007
0.007
0.015
0.015
0.005
0.007
0.003
0.005
0.009
0.002
0.004

0.22

R100 120
M69
R120

0.0076

0.4

D785

0.012

Reprinted with the permission of Plastic Design and Processing Magazine; see Reference 8.
* Registered trademark, E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Co., Wilmington, Delaware, 19898.
** Registered trademark, The Polymer Corporation, P.O. Box 422, Reading, Pennsylvania, 19603.
*** Registered trademark, Celanese Corporation, 26 Main St., Chatham, N.J. 07928.

Table 18-2 Property Chart for Basic Polymers for Gearing

Water
Absorp.
24hrs.

Mold
Shrinkage

Tensile
Strength
* Yield
Break

Flexural
Modulus

Units

in. / in.

psi

psi

ASTM

D570

D955

D638

1.5

.015/.030

*11,200

1. Nylon 6/6

Izod
Impact
Strength
Notched

Deflect.
Temp.
@ 264
psi

Coeff.
of
Linear
Thermal
Expan.

105 F

D790

lb.ft./
in.2
D256

D648

175,000

2.1

220

D696
4.5
varies
4.6
5.8

Specific
Gravity

D792
1.13/1.15

2. Nylon 6
1.6
.013/.025 *11,800
395,000
1.1
150
3. Acetal
0.2
.016/.030 *10,000
410,000
1.4/2.3
255
4.Polycarbonate
*17,500 1,200,000
30% G/F,
0.06
.0035
2
290
1.50
15% PTFE
*8,000
5.Polyester
0.08
.020
340,000
1.2
130
5.3
(thermoplastic)
12,000
6.Polyphenylene
sulfide
*19,000 1,300,000
0.03
.002
1.10
500
1.50
30% G/F
15% PTFE
*3,780
7.Polyester
0.3
.012

122
10.00
elastomer
5,500
8. Phenolic
0.45
.007
7,000
340,000
.29
270
3.75
(molded)
*These are average values for comparison purpose only.
Source: Clifford E. Adams, Plastic Gearing, Marcel Dekker Inc., N.Y. 1986. Reference 1.

1.13
1.42
1.55
1.3

1.69

1.25
1.42

Table 18-3 Physical Properties of DELRIN Acetal Resin and ZYTEL Nylon Resin
Properties Units
Yield Strength, psi
Shear Strength, psi
Impact Strength (Izod)
Elongation at Yield, %
Modulus of Elasticity, psi
Hardness, Rockwell
Coefficient of Linear Thermal
Expansion, in./in.F
Water Absorption
24 hrs. %
Saturation, %
Specific Gravity

ASTM

DELRIN
500 100

ZYTEL 101
.2% Moisture

2.5% Moisture

410,000
M 94, R 120

11,800
9,600
0.9
5
410,000
M79 R118

8,500

2.0
25
175,000
M 94, R 120, etc.

D696

4.5 x 105

4.5 x 105

D570

0.25
0.9

1.5
8.0

D570

1.425

1.14

1.14

D638*
D732*
D256*
D638*
D790*
D785*

10,000
9,510
1.4
15

2.3
75

*Test conducted at 73F

Reprinted with the permission of E.I. DuPont de Nemours and Co.; see Reference 5.

T able 18-4 Properties of Nylatron GSM Nylon

Property

Units

ASTM
No.

Specific Gravity

D 792

Tensile Strength,
73F

psi

D 638

Elongation, 73F

Modulus of
Elasticity, 73F

psi

Compressive
Strength
@ 0.1% Offset
@ 1.0% Offset

psi

Shear Strength,
73F

psi

Tensile Impact,
73F

lb.ft./in.

Deformation
Under Load
122F, 2000psi

Value

Units

ASTM
No.

Value

1.15 - 1.17
11,000 14,000

Hardness
(Rockwell), 73F

D-785

R112 - 120

.15 - .35

D 638

10 - 60

D 638

350,000 450,000

Coefficient of
Friction
(Dry vs Steel)
Dynamic
Heat Distortion
Temp.
66 psi
264psi

F
F

D-648
D-648

400 - 425
200 - 425

Melting Point

D-789

430 10

Flammability

D-635

Selfextinguishing

Coefficient of
Linear
Thermal
Expansion

in./in.F

D-696

5.0 x 10-5

Water Absorption
24 Hours
Saturation

%
%

D-570
D-570

.6 - 1.2
5.5 - 6.5

D 695

Property

9,000
12,000

D 732

10,500 11,500

80 - 130

D 621

0.5 - 1.0

Resistant to: Common Solvents, Hydrocarbons, Esters, Ketones, Alkalis, Diluted Acids
Not Resistant to: Phenol, Formic Acid, Concentrated Mineral Acid
Reprinted with the permission of The Polymer Corp.; see Reference 14.
Table 18-5 Typical Thermal Properties of CELCON Acetal Copolymer
Property
Flow, Softening and Use Temperature
Flow Temperature
Melting Point
Vicat Softening Point
1
Unmolding Temperature
Thermal Deflection and Deformation
Deflection Temperature
@264 psi
@66 psi
Deformation under Load (2000 psi @122F
Miscellaneous
Thermal Conductivity
Specific Heat
Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion
(Range: -30C to + 30C)
Flow direction
Traverse direction
Flammability
2
Average Mold Shrinkage
Flow direction
Transverse direction

ASTM
Test Method

Units

M Series

GC-25A

D 569

D 1525

F
F
F
F

345
329
324
320

331
324

230
316
1.0

322

D621

F
F
%

D 696

BTU / hr. / ft /F / in.

BTU / lb. /F
n./in.F

1.6
0.35

D 648

0.6

-5

D 635

in. /min.
in. / in.

-5

4.7 x 10
-5
4.7 x 10
1.1

2.2 x 10
-5
4.7 x 10

0.022
0.018

0.004
0.018

Unmolding temperature is the temperature at which a plastic part loses its structural integrity (under its
own weight ) after a half-hour exposure.
2
Data Bulletin C3A, "Injection Molding Celcon," gives information of factors which influence mold
shrinkage.
Reprinted with the permission of Celanese Plastics and Specialties Co.; see Reference 3.
Table 18-6 Typical Physical / Mechanical Properties of CELCON Acetal Copolymer
Property
English Units (Metric
Units)

ASTM
Test
Method

Specific Gravity

Nominal
Specimen
Size

Temp.

D 792

Density
lbs/in (g/cm )
Specific Volume
in3/lbs (cm 3/g)
Tensile Strength at Yield
2
2
lbs/in (kgf/cm )

D 368
Speed B

Type l
1/8"

Elongation at Break

D 368
Speed B

Type l
1/8" Thick

-40 F
73 F
160 F
- 40 F

73 F
160 F

Tensile Modulus lbs/in

(kgf/cm2)

D 638
2

Flexural Modulus lbs/in

(kgf/cm2)

Type l
1/8" Thick

D 790

5" x 1/2" x
1/8" Thick

D 790

5" x 1/2" x
1/8" Thick

D 695

1" x 1/2" x
1/2"

Izod Impact Strength

(Notched)
lb.ft. /in. notch (kgf
cm/cm notch)

D 256

2-1/2" x
1/2" x 1/8"
machined
notch

Tensile Impact Strength

lb.ft. /in.2 (kgf cm/cm2)

D 1822

L
Specimen
1/8" Thick

Rockwell Hardness
M Scale

D 785

2" x 1/8"
Disc

Shear Strength
lbs/in2 (kgf/cm2)

D 732

2" x 1/8"
Disc

D 570

2" x 1/8"
Disc

Flexural Stress
at 5% Deformation
lbs/in2 (kgf/cm2)
Compressive Stress
at 1% Deflection
lbs/in2 (kgf/cm2)
at 10% Deflection
lbs/in2 (kgf/cm2)

Water Absorption
24 hr. Immersion
%
Equilibrium, 50% R.H. %
Equilibrium, Immersion
Taper Abrasion 1000 g
Load
CS17 Wheel
Coefficient of Dynamic
Friction
against steel, brass and
aluminum
against Celcon

D 1044

4" x 4"

D 1894

3" x 4"

73 F
160 F
220 F

M-Series
Values

GC-25A
Values

1,41

1.59

0,0507

0.057

19,7

17.54

13,700
8,800
5,000
M25/30
M90/20
M270/15
M25/75
M90/60
M270/40
250

16,000
(at
break)

410,000

1.2 x 106

375,000
180,000
100,000

1.05x106
0.7x106
0.5x106

Temp.

73 F

73 F
120 F
160 F

1.41

1.59

0.63

965
620
350
M25/30
M90/20
M270/15
M25/75
M90/60
M270/40
250

1120
(at
break)

70 C

28,800

84,500

23 C
70 C
105 C

26,400
12,700
7,000

74,000
50,000
35,000

-40 C
2-3
23 C

2-3

915

4,500
16,000

M25/1.2
M90/1.0
M270/0.8
M25/1.5
M90/1.3
M270/1.0
M25/90
M90/70
M270/60

GC-25A
Values

0.71
-40 C
23 C
70 C

13,000

- 40 F

M-Series
Values

320
1,100

-40 C
1.1

23 C

50

80

8,300

7,700
6,700
0,700

0.29

23 C
50 C
70 C

M25/6.5
M90/5.5
M270/4.4
M25/8.0
M90/7.0
M270/5.5
M25/190
M90/150
M270/130

6.0

110

80
540
470
400

584

0.22

0.22

0.29

0.16

0.16

0.80
14mg per
1000
cycles

0.80
14mg per
1000
cycles

0.15
0.35

0.15
0.35

Many of the properties of thermoplastics are dependent upon processing conditions, and the test results
presented are typical values only. These test results were obtained under standardized test conditions,
and with the exception of specific gravity, should not be used as a basis for engineering design. Values
were obtained from specimens injection molded in unpigmented material.
In common with other thermoplastics, incorporation into Celcon of color pigments or additional U.V.
stabilizers may affect some test results. Celcon GC25A test results are obtained from material predried
for 3 hours at 240 F (116 C) before molding. All values generated at 50% r.h. & 73 F (23 C) unless
indicated otherwise. Reprinted with the permission of Celanese Plastics and Specialties Co.; see
Reference 3.
Table 18-7 Mechanical Properties of Nylon MC901 and Duracon M90
Testing
Nylon
Duracon
Properties
Method
Unit
MC901
M90
ASTM
2
Tensile Strength
D 638
kgf/cm
800 980
620
Elongation
D 638
%
10 50
60
Modules of Elasticity (Tensile)
D 638
kgf/cm2
30 35
28.8
Yield Point (Compression)
D 695
kgf/cm2
940 1050

5% Deformation Point
D 695
kgf/cm2
940 970

Modules of Elasticity
D 695
kgf/cm2
33 36

(Compress)
Shearing Strength
D 732
kgf/cm2
735 805
540
Rockwell Hardness
D 785
R scale
115 120
980
Bending Strength
D 790
kgf/cm2
980 1120
980
Density (23C)
D 792
g/cm2
1.15 1.17
1.41
Poisson's Ratio

0.40
0.35
Table 18-8 Thermal Properties of Nylon MC901 and Duracon M90
Testing
Nylon
Properties
Method
Unit
MC901
ASTM
Thermal Conductivity
C 177
101 kcal/mhrC
2
Coeff. of Linear Thermal
5
D 696
10 cm/cm/C
9
Expansion
Specifical Heat (20C)
D 648
cal/Cgrf
0.4
Thermal Deformation
D 648
C
160 200
Temperature (18.5 kgf/cm2)
Thermal Deformation
D 621
C
200 215
Temperature (4.6 kgf/cm2)
Antithermal Temperature
C
120 150
(Long Term)
Deformation Rate Under Load
%
0.65
(140 kgf/cm2, 50C)
Melting Point
C
220 223

Duracon
M90
2
9 13
0.35
110
158

165

Table 18-9 Water and Moisture Absorption Property of Nylon MC901 and Duracon M90
Testing
Nylon
Duracon
Conditions
Method
Unit
MC901
M90
ASTM
Rate of Water Absorption
(at room temp. in water, 24
%
0.5 1.0
0.22
hrs.)
Saturation Absorption Value
D 570
%
5.5 7.0
0.80
(in water)
Saturation Absorption Value
%
2.5 3.5
0.16
(in air, room temp.)

Table 18-10 Modulus of Elasticity, Coefficients of Thermal Expansion and Density of Materials
Material
Ferrous Metals
Cast Irons:
Malleable
Gray cast
Ductile
Steels:
Cast Steel
Plain carbon
Low alloy, cast and
wrought
High alloy
Nitriding, wrought
AISI 4140
Stainless:
AISI 300 series
AISI 400 series
Nonferrous Metals:
Aluminum alloys,
wrought
Aluminum, sandcast
Aluminum, diecast
Beryllium copper
Brasses Bronzes
Copper, wrought
Magnesium alloys,
wrought
Magnesium, die-cast
Monel Nickel and alloys
Nickel, low-expansion
alloys
Titanium, unalloyed
Titanium alloys, wrought
Zinc, die-cast
Powder Metals:
Iron (unalloyed)
Ironcarbon
Ironcoppercarbon
AISI 4630
Stainless steels:
AISI 300 series
AISI 400 series
Brass
Bronze
Nonmetallics:
Acrylic
Delrin (acetal resin)
Fluorocarbon resin (TFE)
Nylon 1
Phenolic laminate:
Paper base
Cotton base
Linen base
Polystyrene (general
purpose)

Modulus of
Elasticity
2
(flexural) (ib/in. )

Coeficient od
Thermal Expansion
0
(per F)

Temperatire
Range of
0
Coefficient ( F)

Density
3
(lb/in. )

68 to 750
32 to 12
68 to 750

.265
.260
.259

68 to 1000
68 to 1000
0 to 1000
68 to 1000
32 to 900
32 to 212

.283
.286
.280
.284
.286
.284

32 to 212
32 to 212

.287
.280

68 to 212
68 to 212
68 to 212 .
68 to 212
68 to 572
68 to 572
68 to 750
68 to 212
68 to 212
32 to 212
68 to 212
200 to 400
68 to 1650
68 to 572
68 to 212

.098
.097
.096
.297
.306
.317
.323
.065
.065
.319
.302
.292
.163
.166
.24

.21 to .27
.22
.22
.25

6.6 x 10
6
6.0 x 10
6
8.2 x 10

8.2 x 10
6
8.3 x 10
6
8.0 x 10
6
8 to 9 x 10
6
6.5 x 10
6
6.2 x 10

25 to 28 x 10
6
9 to 23 x 10
6
23 to 25 x 10
29 to 30 x 10
6
29 to 30 x 10
6
30 x 10
6
30 x 10
6
29 to 30 x 10
6
29 x 10
6

28 x 10
6
29 x 10

9.6 x 10
6
5.6 x 10
6

12.6 x 10
6
11.9 to 12.7 x 10
6
11.4 to 12.2 x 10
6
9.3 x 10
6
11.2 x 10
6
9.8 x 10
6
9.8 x 10
6
14.5 x 10
6
14 x 10
6
7.8 x 10
6
7.6 x 10
6
1.2 to 5 x 10
6
5.8 x 10
6
5.0 to 7 x 10
6
5.2 x 10

10 to 10.6 x 10
6
10.5 x 10
6
10.3 x 10
6
18 x 10
6
16 to 17 x 10
6
17 to 18 x 10
6
17 x 10
6
6.5 x 10
6
6.5 x 10
6
26 x 10
6
19 to 30 x 10
6
24 x 10
6
15 to 16 x 10
6
13 to 17.5 x 10
6
2 to 5 x 10
6

12 to 25 x 10
6
13 x 10
6
13 to 15 x 10
6
18 to 23 x 10

68 to 750
68 to 750

15 to 20 x 10
6
14 to 20 x 10
6
10 x 10
6
8 to 13 x 10

7 x 10
6
7 x 10

10 x 10

3.5 to 4.5 x 10
5
4.1 x 10
4
4.0 to 6.5 x 10
5
1.6 to 4.5 x 10

3.0 to 4 x 10
5
5.5 x 10
5
5.5 x 10
5
4.5 to 5.5 x 10

0 to 100
85 to 220
-22 to 86
-22 to 86

.043
.051
.078
.041

0.9 to 1.4 x 10
5
0.7 to 1.5 x 10
5
0.8 to 1.4 x 10
5
3.3 to 4.4 x 10

-22 to 86
-22 to 86
-22 to 86
-22 to 86

.048
.048
.049
.038

1.1 to 1.8 x 10
5
0.8 to 1.3 x 10
5
0.8 to 1.1 x 10
5
4.0 to 5 x 10

68 to 750

.24
.23
.26
.28

Source: Michalec, G.W., Precision Gearing, Wiley 1966

G
G
F
G

F
P
F

F
F

Acetal

G
G
F
G
G

ABS

G
G
G
E
E
E

Polystyrene

F
G
F
F
F
F
G

Nylon 6/6

G
G
F
E
E
E
G
G

Nylon 6/10

P
P
P
F
F
G
F
F
P

MoS2-Filled
Nylon

F
P
P
E
E
E
G
E
G
F

Polycarbonate

Brass

Acetal
ABS
Polystyrene
Nylon 6-6
Nylon 6-10
MoS2-Filled Nylon
Polycarbonate
Polyurethane
Brass
Steel

Polyurethane

Material

Steel

Table 18-11 Wear Characteristics of Plastics

Key
E - Excellent
G - Good
F - Fair
P - Poor

Reprinted with the permission of Plastic Design and Processing Magazine; see Reference 8.
Table 18-12 Poisson's Ratio for Unfilled Thermoplastics
Polymer

Acetal
0.35
Nylon 6/6
0.39
Modified PPO
0.38
Polycarbonate
0.36
Polystyrene
0.33
PVC
0.38
TFE (Tetrafluorethylene)
0.46
FEP (Fluorinated Ethylene Propylene)
0.48
Source: Clifford E. Adams, Plastic Gearing,
Marcel Dekker Inc., New York 1986. Reference 1.

Table 18-13 Material Ranking by Water Absorption Rate

Material
Rate of change %
Polytetrafluoroethylene
Polyethylene: medium density
high density
high molecular weight
low density
Polyphenylene sulfides (40% glass filled)
Polyester: thermosetting and alkyds
low shrink
glass preformed chopping roving
Polyester: linear aromatic
Polyphenylene sulfide: unfilled
Polyester: thermoplastic (18% glass)
Polyurethane: cast liquid methane
Polyester synthetic: fiber filled alkyd
glass filled alkyd
mineral filled alkyd
glasswoven cloth
glasspremix, chopped
Nylon 12 (30% glass)
Polycarbonate (1040% glass)
Styreneacrylonitrile copolymer (2033% glass filled)
Polyester thermoplastic:
thermoplastic PTMT (20% asbestos)
glass sheet molding
Polycarbonate <10%glass
Phenolic cast: mineral filled
Polyester alkyd: asbestos filled
Polycarbonate: unfilled
Polyester cast: rigid
Acetal: TFE
Nylon 6/12 (3035% glass)
6/10 (3035% glass)
Polyester alkyd vinyl ester thermoset
Styreneacrylonitrile copolymer: unfilled
Polycarbonate ABS alloy
Phenolic cast: unfilled
Acetal copolymer
homopolymer
Nylon 12 (unmodified)
Acetal (20% glass)
Poly (ancideimide)
Acetal (25% glass)
Nylon 11 (unmodified)
Polyester elastomer
Polyamide
Nylon: 6/12 (unmodified)
6/10 (unmodified)
Polyester-thermosetting and alkyds (cast flexible)
Nylon 6 (cast)
Polyurethane elastomer thermoplastic
Nylon 6/6: MoS2
30 35% glass
unmodified
nucleated
Nylon 6 (30 35% glass)
unmodified
nucleated
Nylon 6/6 6 (copolymer)

0.0
< 0.01
< 0.01
< 0.01
< 0.015
0.01
0.01 0.25
0.01 1.0
0.02
0.02
0.02 0.07
0.02 1.5
0.05 0.20
0.05 0.25
0.05 0.50
0.05 0.50
0.06 0.28
0.07
0.07 0.20
0.08 0.22
0.09
0.10
0.10 0.15
0.12
0.12 0.36
0.14
0.15 0.18
0.15 0.60
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20 0.30
0.20 0.35
0.20 0.40
0.22
0.25
0.25
0.25 0.29
0.28
0.29
0.30
0.30 0.60
0.32
0.40
0.40
0.50 2.50
0.60 1.20
0.70 0.90
0.80 1.10
0.90
1.10 1.50
1.10 1.50
1.30
1.30 1.90
1.30 1.90
1.50 1.20

Plastic
ABS Resins
Acetal
Nylon
Polycarbonate
Polyester
Polyurethane

Table 18-14 Safe Stress

Safe stress, psi
Unfilled
Glass-reinforced
3000
6000
5000
7000
6000
12000
6000
9000
3500
8000
2500

Source: Clifford E. Adams, Plastic Gearing,

Marcel Dekker Inc.,New York 1986. Reference 1.

It is important to stress the resistance to chemical corrosion of some plastic materials. These
properties of some of materials used in the products presented in this catalog are further explored.

Nylon MC901
Nylon MC901 has almost the same level of antichemical corrosion property as Nylon resins. In
general, it has a better antiorganic solvent property, but has a weaker antiacid property. The properties
are as follows:
- For many nonorganic acids, even at low concentration at normal temperature, it should not be used
without further tests.
- For nonorganic alkali at room temperature, it can be used to a certain level of concentration.
- For the solutions of nonorganic salts, we may apply them to a fairly high level of temperature and
concentration.
- MC901 has better antiacid ability and stability in organic acids than in nonorganic acids, except for
formic acid.
- MC901 is stable at room temperature in organic compounds of ester series and ketone series.
- It is also stable in mineral oil, vegetable oil and animal oil, at room temperature.

Duracon M90
This plastic has outstanding antiorganic properties. However, it has the disadvantage of having
limited suitable adhesives. Its main properties are:
- Good resistance against nonorganic chemicals, but will be corroded by strong acids such as
nitric, sulfuric and chloric acids.
- Household chemicals, such as synthetic detergents, have almost no effect on M90.
- M90 does not deteriorate even under long term operation in high temperature lubricating oil,
except for some additives in high grade lubricants.
- With grease, M90 behaves the same as with oil lubricants.
Gear designers interested in using this material should be aware of properties regarding
individual chemicals. Plastic manufacturers' technical information manuals should be consulted prior to
making gear design decisions.

18.3 Choice Of Pressure Angles And Modules

Pressure angles of 14.5, 20 and 25 are used in plastic gears. The 20 pressure angle is
usually preferred due to its stronger tooth shape and reduced undercutting compared to the 14.5
pressure angle system. The 25 pressure angle has the highest load-carrying ability, but is more sensitive
to center distance variation and hence runs less quietly. The choice is dependent on the application.
The determination of the appropriate module or diametral pitch is a compromise between a
number of different design requirements. A larger module is associated with larger and stronger teeth. For
a given pitch diameter, however, this also means a smaller number of teeth with a correspondingly
greater likelihood of undercut at very low number of teeth. Larger teeth are generally associated with
more sliding than smaller teeth.
On the other hand, smaller modules, which are associated with smaller teeth, tend to provide
greater load sharing due to the compliance of plastic gears. However, a limiting condition would
eventually be reached when mechanical interference occurs as a result of too much compliance. Smaller
teeth are also more sensitive to tooth errors and may be more highly stressed.
A good procedure is probably to size the pinion first, since it is the more highly loaded member. It
should be proportioned to support the required loads, but should not be over designed.

18.4 Strength Of Plastic Spur Gears

In the following text, main consideration will be given to Nylon MC901 and Duracon M90.
However, the basic equations used are applicable to all other plastic materials if the appropriate values
for the factors are applied.

18.4.1 Bending Strength of Spur Gears

Nylon MC901
The allowable tangential force F (kgf) at the pitch circle of a Nylon MC901 spur gear can be
obtained from the Lewis formula.
F = myb b (kgf)

(18-1)

where:
m = Module (mm)
y = Form factor at pitch point
(see Table 18-15)
b = Teeth width (mm)
b = Allowable bending stress
2
(kgf/mm ) (see Figure 18-1)
Duracon M90
The allowable tangential force F (kgf) at pitch
circle of a Duracon M90 spur gear can also be
obtained from the Lewis formula.
F = myb b (kgf)

(18-2)
Fig. 18-1 Allowable Bending Stress, b (kgf/mm2)
Table 18-15 Form Factor, y

where:
Form Factor

m = Module (mm)
y = Form factor at pitch point
(see Table 18-15)
b = Teeth width (mm)
b = Allowable bending stress
(kgf/mm2)

Number
of Teeth

The allowable bending stress can be calculated

by Equation (18-3):

b =
where:

K v KT K L K M
CS

(18-3)

b' = Maximum allowable bending

stress under ideal condition (kgf/mm2)
(see Figure 18-2)
CS = Working factor
(see Table 18-17)
KV = Speed factor
(see Figure 18-3)
KT = Temperature factor
(see Figure 18-4)
KL = Lubrication factor
(see Table 18-18)
KM = Material factor
(see Table 18-19)

12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
34
38
40
50
60
75
100
150
300
Rack

14.5

20 Standard
Tooth

20 Stub
Tooth

0.355
0.399
0.430
0.458
0.480
0.496
0.509
0.522
0.535
0.540
0.553
0.565
0.569
0.588
0.604
0.613
0.622
0.635
0.650
0.660

0.415
0.468
0.503
0.522
0.544
0.559
0.572
0.588
0.597
0.606
0.628
0.651
0.657
0.694
0.713
0.735
0.757
0.779
0.801
0.823

0.496
0.540
0.578
0.603
0.628
0.648
0.664
0.678
0.688
0.698
0.714
0.729
0.733
0.757
0.774
0.792
0.808
0.830
0.855
0.881

Table 18-16 Speed Factor, KV

Tangential Speed
Lubrication
(m/sec)
Under 12
Lubricated
Over 12
Under 5
Unlubricated
Over 5

Factor KV
1.0
0.85
1.0
0.7

Fig. 18-2 Maximum Allowable Bending Stress under Ideal Condition, b' (kgf/mm2)
Table 18-17 Working Factor, CS
Daily Operating Hours

Types of Load
Uniform Load
Light Impact
Medium impact
Heavy Impact

24 hrs. / day
1.25
1.50
1.75
2.00

8-10 hrs. / day

1.00
1.25
1.50
1.75

3 hrs. / day
0.80
1.00
1.25
1.50

Fig. 18-3 Speed Factor, KV

0.5 hrs. / day

0.50
0.80
1.00
1.25

Fig. 18-4 Temperature Factor, KT

Table 18-18 Lubrication Factor, KL
Lubrication

KL

Initial Grease Lubrication

Continuous Oil Lubrication

1
1.5 3.0

Table 18-19 Material Factor, KM

Lubrication
Duracon vs. Metal
Duracon vs. Duracon

KM
1
0.75

Application Notes
In designing plastic gears, the effects of heat and moisture must be given careful consideration.
The related problems are:
1. Backlash
Plastic gears have larger coefficients of thermal expansion. Also, they have an affinity to absorb
moisture and swell. Good design requires allowance for a greater amount of backlash than for metal
gears.
2. Lubrication
Most plastic gears do not require lubrication. However, temperature rise due to meshing may be
controlled by the cooling effect of a lubricant as well as by reduction of friction. Often, in the case of highspeed rotational speeds, lubrication is critical.
3. Plastic gear with metal mate
If one of the gears of a mated pair is metal, there will be a heat sink that combats a high
temperature rise. The effectiveness depends upon the particular metal, amount of metal mass, and
rotational speed.

18.4.2 Surface Strength of Plastic Spur Gears

Duracon M90
Duracon gears have less friction and wear when in an oil lubrication condition. However, the
calculation of strength must take into consideration a no-lubrication condition. The surface strength using
Hertz contact stress, Sc, is calculated by Equation (18-4).

Sc =

F u +1

bd1 u

1 .4
( kgf / mm 2 )
1
1
+
(
) sin 2
E1 E 2

(18-4)

where:
F = Tangential force on surface (kgf)
b = Tooth width (mm)
d1 = Pitch diameter of pinion (mm)
u = Gear ratio = z2 /z1
E = Modulus of elasticity of material (kgf/mm2)
(see Figure 18-5)
= Pressure angle
If the value of Hertz contact stress, Sc, is calculated by Equation (18-4) and the value falls below
the curve of Figure 18-6, then it is directly applicable as a safe design. If the calculated value falls above
the curve, the Duracon gear is unsafe.
Figure 18-6 is based upon data for a pair of Duracon gears: m = 2, v = 12 m/s, and operating at
room temperature. For working conditions that are similar or better, the values in the figure can be used.
18.4.3 Bending Strength Of Plastic Bevel Gears
Nylon MC901
The allowable tangential force at the pitch circle is calculated by Equation (18-5).

Ra b
yb b ( kgf )
Ra
z
zv =
cos

F =m

(18-5)
(18-6)

where:
m = module (mm)
Ra = Outer cone distance (mm)
b = Tooth width (mm)
y = Form factor at pitch point, which is obtained from Table 18-15 by computing the number of
teeth of equivalent spur gear via Equation (18-6).
b = Allowable bending stress
zV = Number of teeth of equivalent spur gear
_= Pitch cone angle (degree)
Other variables may be calculated the same way as for spur gears.
Duracon M90
The allowable tangential force F (kgf) on pitch circle of Duracon M90 bevel gears can be obtained
from Equation (18-7).

F =m

Ra b
yb b ( kgf )
Ra

(18-7)

and y = Form factor at pitch point, which is obtained from Table 18-15 by first computing the number of
teeth of equivalent spur gear using Equation (18-6).
Other variables may be calculated the same way as for spur gears.

18.4.4 Bending Strength Of Plastic Worm Gears

Nylon MC901
Generally, the worm is much stronger than the worm gear. Therefore, it is necessary to calculate
the strength of only the worm gear.
The allowable tangential force F (kgf) at the pitch circle of the worm gear is obtained from
Equation (18-8).
F = mnyb b (kgf)

(18-8)

z
zv =
cos 3

(18-9)

where: mn = Normal module (mm)

y = Form factor at pitch point, which is obtained from Table 18-15 by first computing the number
of teeth of equivalent spur gear using Equation (18-9).
zV = Number of teeth of equivalent spur gear
= Lead angle
Worm meshes have relatively high sliding velocities, which induces a high temperature rise. This
causes a sharp decrease in strength and abnormal friction wear. This is particularly true of an all plastic
mesh. Therefore, sliding speeds must be contained within recommendations of Table 18-20.

Fig. 18-5 Modulus of Elasticity in Bending

of Duracon

Fig. 18-6 Maximum Allowable Surface Stress

(Spur Gears)

Table 18-20 Material Combinations and Limits of Sliding Speed

Material of Worm
Material of Worm Gear Lubrication Condition
Sliding Speed
MC Nylon
Steel
Steel
Steel

MC Nylon
MC Nylon
MC Nylon
MC Nylon

No Lubrication
No Lubrication
Initial Lubrication
Continuous Lubrication

Under 0.125 m/s

Under 1 m/s
Under 1.5 m/s
Under 2.5 m/s

Sliding speed v s =

d1 n1
60000 cos

(m / s)

Lubrication of plastic worms is vital, particularly under high load and continuous operation.
18.4.5 Strength Of Plastic Keyway
Fastening of a plastic gear to the shaft is often done by means of a key and keyway. Then, the
critical thing is the stress level imposed upon the keyway sides. This is calculated by Equation (18-10).

200T
( kgf / cm 2 )
dlh

(18-10)

where: = Pressure on the keyway sides (kgf/cm2)

T = Transmitted torque (kgf m)
d = Diameter of shaft (cm)
l = Effective length of keyway (cm)
h = Depth of keyway (cm)
The maximum allowable surface pressure for MC901 is 200 kgf/cm2, and this must not be
exceeded. Also, the keyway's corner must have a suitable radius to avoid stress concentration. The
distance from the root of the gear to the bottom of the keyway should be at least twice the tooth whole
depth, h.
Keyways are not to be used when the following conditions exist:
- Excessive keyway stress
- High ambient temperature
- High impact
- Large outside diameter gears
When above conditions prevail, it is expedient to use a metallic hub in the gear. Then, a keyway
may be cut in the metal hub.
A metallic hub can be fixed in the plastic gear by several methods:
- Press the metallic hub into the plastic gear, ensuring fastening with a knurl or screw.
- Screw fasten metal discs on each side of the plastic gear.
- Thermofuse the metal hub to the gear.
18.5 Effect Of Part Shrinkage On Plastic Gear Design
The nature of the part and the molding operation have a significant effect on the molded gear.
From the design point of view, the most important effect is the shrinkage of the gear relative to the size of
the mold cavity.
Gear shrinkage depends upon mold proportions, gear geometry, material, ambient temperature
and time. Shrinkage is usually expressed in millimeters per millimeter. For example, if a plastic gear with
a shrinkage rate of 0.022 mm/mm has a pitch diameter of 50 mm while in the mold, the pitch diameter
after molding will be reduced by (50)(0.022) or 1.1 mm, and becomes 48.9 mm after it leaves the mold.
Depending upon the material and the molding process, shrinkage rates ranging from about 0.001
mm/mm to 0.030 mm/mm occur in plastic gears (see Table 18-1 and Figure 18-7). Sometimes shrinkage
rates are expressed as a percentage. For example, a shrinkage rate of 0.0025 mm/mm can be stated as
a 0.25% shrinkage rate.

The effect of shrinkage must be

anticipated in the design of the mold and
requires expert knowledge. Accurate and
specific treatment of this phenomenon is
a result of years of experience in building
molds for gears; hence, details go
beyond the scope of this presentation.
In general, the final size of a
molded gear is a result of the following
factors:
1. Plastic material being molded.
2. Injection pressure.
3. Injection temperature.
4. Injection hold time.
5. Mold cure time and mold
temperature.
6.
Configuration
of
part
(presence of web, insert, spokes, ribs,
etc.).
7. Location, number and size of gates.
8. Treatment of part after molding.

Fig. 18-7 Shrinkage for Delrin in Air

Reprinted with the permission of E.I. DuPont de
Nemours and Co.; see Ref. 8

From the above, it becomes obvious that with the same mold by changing molding parameters
parts of different sizes can be produced.
The form of the gear tooth itself changes as a result of shrinkage, irrespective of it shrinking away
from the mold, as shown in Figure 18-8. The resulting gear will be too thin at the top and too thick at the
base. The pressure angle will have increased, resulting in the possibility of binding, as well as greater
wear.

Fig. 18-8 Change of Tooth Profile

In order to obtain an idea of the effect of part shrinkage subsequent to molding, the following equations
are presented where the primes refer to quantities after the shrinkage occurred:

cos ' =

cos
1 + sx

(18-11)

m = (1- sx) m

(18-12)

d = zm

(18-13)

p' = m' (18-14)

where: s * = shrinkage rate (mm/mm)
m = module
= pressure angle
d = pitch diameter (mm)
p' = circular pitch (mm)
z = number of teeth
It follows that a hob generating the electrode for a cavity which will produce a post shrinkage
standard gear would need to be of a nonstandard configuration.
Let us assume that an electrode is cut for a 20 pressure angle, module 1, 64 tooth gear which
will be made of acetal (s * = 0.022) and will have 64 mm pitch diameter after molding.
cos = cos (1 + s *) = 0.93969262 (1 + 0.022) = 0.96036
therefore, = 1611' pressure angle

m=

m'
1
=
= 1.0225

1 0.22
1s

The pitch diameter of the electrode, therefore, will be:

d = zm = 64 x 1.0225 = 65.44 mm
For the sake of simplicity, we are ignoring the correction which has to be made to compensate for
the electrode gap which results in the cavity being larger than the electrode.
The shrinking process can give rise to residual stresses within the gear, especially if it has
sections of different thicknesses. For this reason, a hubless gear is less likely to be warped than a gear
with a hub.
If necessary, a gear can be annealed after molding in order to relieve residual stresses. However,
since this adds another operation in the manufacturing of the gear, annealing should be considered only
under the following circumstances:
1. If maximum dimensional stability is essential.
2. If the stresses in the gear would otherwise exceed the design limit.
3. If close tolerances and high-temperature operation makes annealing necessary.
Annealing adds a small amount of lubricant within the gear surface region. If the prior gear
lubrication is marginal, this can be helpful.
18.6 Proper Use Of Plastic Gears
18.6.1 Backlash
Due to the thermal expansion of plastic gears, which is significantly greater than that of metal
gears, and the effects of tolerances, one should make sure that meshing gears do not bind in the course
of service. Several means are available for introducing backlash into the system. Perhaps the simplest is
to enlarge center distance. Care must be taken, however, to ensure that the contact ratio remains
adequate.
It is possible also to thin out the tooth profile during manufacturing, but this adds to the
manufacturing cost and requires careful consideration of the tooth geometry.

To some extent, the flexibility of the bearings and clearances can compensate for thermal
expansion. If a small change in center distance is necessary and feasible, it probably represents the best
and least expensive compromise.
18.6.2 Environment and Tolerances
In any discussion of tolerances for plastic gears, it is necessary to distinguish between
manufacturing tolerances and dimensional changes due to environmental conditions.
As far as manufacturing is concerned, plastic gears can be made to high accuracy, if desired. For
injection molded gears, Total Composite Error can readily be held within a range of roughly 0.075 0.125
mm, with a corresponding Tooth-to-Tooth Composite Error of about 0.025 0.050 mm. Higher accuracies
can be obtained if the more expensive filled materials, mold design, tooling and quality control are used.
In addition to thermal expansion changes, there are permanent dimensional changes as the
result of moisture absorption. Also, there are dimensional changes due to compliance under load. The
coefficient of thermal expansion of plastics is on the order of four to ten times those of metals (see Tables
18-3 and 18-10). In addition, most plastics are hygroscopic (i.e., absorb moisture) and dimensional
changes on the order of 0.1% or more can develop in the course of time, if the humidity is sufficient. As a
result, one should attempt to make sure that a tolerance which is specified is not smaller than the
inevitable dimensional changes which arise as a result of environmental conditions. At the same time, the
greater compliance of plastic gears, as compared to metal gears, suggests that the necessity for close
tolerances need not always be as high as those required for metal gears.
18.6.3 Avoiding Stress Concentration
In order to minimize stress concentration and maximize the life of a plastic gear, the root fillet
radius should be as large as possible, consistent with conjugate gear action. Sudden changes in cross
section and sharp corners should be avoided, especially in view of the possibility of additional residual
stresses which may have occurred in the course of the molding operation.
18.6.4 Metal Inserts
Injection molded metal inserts are used in plastic gears for a variety of reasons:
1. To avoid an extra finishing operation.
2. To achieve greater dimensional stability, because the metal will shrink less and is not sensitive
to moisture; it is, also, a better heat sink.
3. To provide greater load-carrying capacity.
4. To provide increased rigidity.
5. To permit repeated assembly and disassembly.
6. To provide a more precise bore to shaft fit.
Inserts can be molded into the part or subsequently assembled. In the case of subsequent
insertion of inserts, stress concentrations may be present which may lead to cracking of the parts. The
interference limits for press fits must be obeyed depending on the material used; also, proper minimum
wall thicknesses around the inserts must be left. The insertion of inserts may be accomplished by
ultrasonically driving in the insert. In this case, the material actually melts into the knurling at the insert
periphery.

Inserts are usually produced by screw machines and made of aluminum or brass. It is
advantageous to attempt to match the coefficient of thermal expansion of the plastic to the materials used
for inserts. This will reduce the residual stresses in the plastic part of the gear during contraction while
cooling after molding.
When metal inserts are used, generous radii and fillets in the plastic gear are recommended to
avoid stress concentration. It is also possible to use other types of metal inserts, such as self-threading,
self-tapping screws, press fits and knurled inserts. One advantage of the first two of these is that they
permit repeated assembly and disassembly without part failure or fatigue.
18.6.5 Attachment Of Plastic Gears to Shafts
Several methods of attaching gears to shafts are in common use. These include splines, keys,
integral shafts, set screws, and plain and knurled press fits. Table 18-21 lists some of the basic
characteristics of each of these fastening methods.
Table 18-21 Characteristics of Various Shaft Attachment Methods
Nature of
Gear-Shaft
Connection

Torque
Capacity

Cost

Disassembly

Set Screw

Limited

Low

Not good unless

threaded metal
insert is used

Press fit

Limited

Low

Not possible

Knurled Shaft
Connection

Fair

Low

Not possible

Spline

Good

High

Good

Suited for close tolerance

Key

Good

Reasonably
Low

Good

Requires good fits

Integral Shaft

Good

Low

Not possible

Comments
Questionable reliability,
particularly under vibration
or reversing drive
Residual stresses need
to be considered
A permanent assembly

Bending load on shaft

needs to be watched

18.6.6 Lubrication
Depending on the application, plastic gears can operate with continuous lubrication, initial
lubrication, or no lubrication. According to L.D. Martin (Injection Molded Plastic Gears, Plastic Design
and Processing, 1968; Part 1, August, pp 38-45; Part 2, September, pp. 33-35):
1. All gears function more effectively with lubrication and will have a longer service life.
2. A light spindle oil (SAE 10) is generally recommended as are the usual lubricants; these
include silicone and hydrocarbon oils, and in some cases cold water is acceptable as well.

3. Under certain conditions, dry lubricants such as molybdenum disulfide, can be used to reduce
tooth friction.
Ample experience and evidence exist substantiating that plastic gears can operate with a metal
mate without the need of a lubricant, as long as the stress levels are not exceeded. It is also true that in
the case of a moderate stress level, relative to the materials rating, plastic gears can be meshed together
without a lubricant. However, as the stress level is increased, there is a tendency for a localized plastic-toplastic welding to occur, which increases friction and wear. The level of this problem varies with the
particular type of plastic.
A key advantage of plastic gearing is that, for many applications, running dry is adequate. When
a situation of stress and shock level is uncertain, using the proper lubricant will provide a safety margin
and certainly will cause no harm. The chief consideration should be in choosing a lubricant's chemical
compatibility with the particular plastic. Least likely to encounter problems with typical gear oils and
greases are: nylons, Delrins (acetals), phenolics, polyethylene and polypropylene. Materials requiring
caution are: polystyrene, polycarbonates, polyvinyl chloride and ABS resins.
An alternate to external lubrication is to use plastics fortified with a solid state lubricant.
Molybdenum disulfide in nylon and acetal are commonly used. Also, graphite, colloidal carbon and
silicone are used as fillers.
In no event should there be need of an elaborate sophisticated lubrication system such as for
metal gearing. If such a system is contemplated, then the choice of plastic gearing is in question.
Simplicity is the plastic gear's inherent feature.

18.6.7 Molded vs. Cut Plastic Gears

Although not nearly as common as the injection molding process, both thermosetting and
thermoplastic plastic gears can be readily machined. The machining of plastic gears can be considered
for high precision parts with close tolerances and for the development of prototypes for which the
investment in a mold may not be justified.
Standard stock gears of reasonable precision are produced by using blanks molded with brass
inserts, which are subsequently hobbed to close tolerances.
When to use molded gears vs. cut plastic gears is usually determined on the basis of production
quantity, body features that may favor molding, quality level and unit cost. Often, the initial prototype
quantity will be machine cut, and investment in molding tools is deferred until the product and market is
assured. However, with some plastics this approach can encounter problems.
The performance of molded vs. cut plastic gears is not always identical. Differences occur due to
subtle causes. Bar stock and molding stock may not be precisely the same. Molding temperature can
have an effect. Also, surface finishes will be different for cut vs. molded gears. And finally, there is the
impact of shrinkage with molding which may not have been adequately compensated.

18.6.8 Elimination of Gear Noise

Incomplete conjugate action and/or excessive backlash are usually the source of noise. Plastic
molded gears are generally less accurate than their metal counterparts. Furthermore, due to the presence
of a larger Total Composite Error, there is more backlash built into the gear train.
To avoid noise, more resilient material, such as urethane, can be used. Figure 18-9 shows
several gears made of urethane which, in mesh with Delrin gears, produce a practically noiseless gear
train. The face width of the urethane gears must be increased correspondingly to compensate for lower
load carrying ability of this material.

Fig. 18-9 Gears Made of Urethane

18.7 Mold Construction
Depending on the quantity of gears to be produced, a decision has to be made to make one
single cavity or a multiplicity of identical cavities. If more than one cavity is involved, these are used as
family molds inserted in mold bases which can accommodate a number of cavities for identical or
different parts. Since special terminology will be used, we shall first describe the elements shown in
Figure 18-10.
1. Locating Ring is the element which
assures the proper location of the mold on
the platen with respect to the nozzle which
injects the molten plastic.
2. Sprue Bushing is the element which
mates with the nozzle. It has a spherical or
flat receptacle which accurately mates with
the surface of the nozzle.
3. Sprue is the channel in the sprue bushing
through which the molten plastic is injected.
4. Runner is the channel which distributes
material to different cavities within the same
mold base.
5. Core Pin is the element which, by its
presence, restricts the flow of plastic; hence,
a hole or void will be created in the molded
part.
6. Ejector Sleeves are operated by the
molding machine. These have a relative
motion with respect to the cavity in the
direction which will cause ejection of the
part from the mold.
7. Front Side is considered the side on
which the sprue bushing and the nozzle are
located.
8. Gate is the orifice through which the
molten plastic enters the cavity.
9. Vent (not visible due to its small size) is a
minuscule opening through which the air
can be evacuated from the cavity as the
molten plastic fills it. The vent is configured
to let air escape, but does not fill up with
plastic.
Fig. 18-10 Mold Nomenclature

The location of the gate on the gear is extremely important. If a side gate is used, as shown in
Figure 18-11, the material is injected in one spot and from there it flows to fill out the cavity. This creates
a weld line opposite to the gate. Since the plastic material is less fluid at that point in time, it will be of
limited strength where the weld is located.
Furthermore, the shrinkage of the material in the direction of the flow will be different from that
perpendicular to the flow. As a result, a side-gated gear or rotating part will be somewhat elliptical rather
than round.
In order to eliminate this problem, diaphragm gating can be used, which will cause the injection
of material in all directions at the same time (Figure 18-12). The disadvantage of this method is the
presence of a burr at the hub and no means of support of the core pin because of the presence of the
sprue.
The best, but most elaborate, way is multiple pin gating (Figure 18-13). In this case, the plastic
is injected at several places symmetrically located. This will assure reasonable viscosity of plastic when
the material welds, as well as create uniform shrinkage in all directions. The problem is the elaborate
nature of the mold arrangement so called 3-plate molds, in Figure 18-14 accompanied by high costs.
If precision is a requirement, this way of molding is a must, particularly if the gears are of a larger
diameter.
To compare the complexity of a 3-plate mold with a 2-plate mold, which is used for edge gating,
Figure 18-15 can serve as an illustration.

Fig. 18-11 Side Gating

Fig. 18-12 Diaphragm Gating

Fig. 18-13 Multiple Pin Gating

Fig. 18-14 Three-Plate Mold

Continued on the following page

Fig. 18-14 (Cont.) Three-Plate Mold

Fig. 18-15 Two-Plate Mold

SECTION 19 FEATURES OF TOOTH SURFACE CONTACT

Tooth surface contact is critical to noise, vibration, efficiency, strength, wear and life. To obtain
good contact, the designer must give proper consideration to the following features:
- Modifying the Tooth Shape
Improve tooth contact by crowning or relieving.
- Using Higher Precision Gear
Specify higher accuracy by design. Also, specify that the manufacturing process is to include
grinding or lapping.
- Controlling the Accuracy of the Gear Assembly
Specify adequate shaft parallelism and perpendicularity of the gear housing (box or structure).
Surface contact quality of spur and helical gears can be reasonably controlled and verified
through piece part inspection. However, for the most part, bevel and worm gears cannot be equally well
inspected. Consequently, final inspection of bevel and worm mesh tooth contact in assembly provides a
quality criterion for control. Then, as required, gears can be axially adjusted to achieve desired contact.
JIS B 1741 classifies surface contact into three levels, as presented in Table 19-1.
The percentage in Table 19-1considers only the effective width and height of teeth.

Level
A

Table 19-1 Levels of Gear Surface Contact

Levels of Surface Contact
Types of Gear
Tooth Width Direction
Tooth Height Direction
Cylindrical Gears
More than 70%
Bevel Gears
More than 40%
More than 50%
Worm Gears
Cylindrical Gears
More than 50%
Bevel Gears
More than 30%
More than 35%
Worm Gears
Cylindrical Gears
More than 35%
Bevel Gears
More than 25%
More than 20%
Worm Gears
More than 20%

19.1 Surface Contact Of Spur And Helical Meshes

A check of contact is, typically, only done to verify the accuracy of the installation, rather than the
individual gears. The usual method is to blue dye the gear teeth and operate for a short time. This reveals
the contact area for inspection and evaluation.
19.2 Surface Contact Of A Bevel Gear
It is important to check the surface contact of a
bevel gear both during manufacturing and again in final
assembly. The method is to apply a colored dye and
observe the contact area after running. Usually some
load is applied, either the actual or applied braking, to
realize a realistic contact condition. Ideal contact favors
the toe end under no or light load, as shown in Figure
19-1; and, as load is increased to full load, contact
shifts to the central part of the tooth width.
Fig. 19-1 The Contact Trace on
Central Front End

Even when a gear is ideally manufactured, it may reveal poor surface contact due to lack of
precision in housing or improper mounting position, or both. Usual major faults are:
1. Shafts are not intersecting, but are skew (offset error).
2. Shaft angle error of gear box.
3. Mounting distance error.
Errors 1 and 2 can be corrected only by reprocessing the housing/mounting. Error 3 can be
corrected by adjusting the gears in an axial direction. All three errors may be the cause of improper
backlash.
19.2.1 The Offset Error of Shaft Alignment
If a gear box has an offset error,
then it will produce crossed end contact, as
shown in Figure 19-2. This error often
appears as if error is in the gear tooth
orientation.
19.2.2 The Shaft Angle Error of Gear Box
As Figure 19-3 shows, the contact
trace will move toward the toe end if the
shaft angle error is positive; the contact
trace will move toward the heel end if the
shaft angle error is negative.
Fig. 19-2 Poor Contact Due to Offset Error of Shafts

19.2.3 Mounting Distance Error

When the mounting distance of the pinion is a positive error, the contact of the pinion will move
towards the tooth root, while the contact of the mating gear will move toward the top of the tooth. This is
the same situation as if the pressure
angle of the pinion is smaller than that
of the gear. On the other hand, if the
mounting distance of the pinion has a
negative error, the contact of the
pinion will move toward the top and
that of the gear will move toward the
root. This is similar to the pressure
angle of the pinion being larger than
that of the gear. These errors may be
diminished by axia adjustment with a
backing shim. The various contact
patterns due to mounting distance
errors are shown in Figure 19-4.

Fig. 19-3 Poor Contact Due to Shaft Angle Error

Mounting distance error will cause a change of backlash; positive error will increase backlash;
and negative, decrease. Since the mounting distance error of the pinion affects the surface contact
greatly, it is customary to adjust the gear rather than the pinion in its axial direction.
19.3 Surface Contact Of Worm And Worm Gear
There is no specific Japanese standard concerning worm gearing, except for some specifications
regarding surface contact in JIS B 1741. Therefore, it is the general practice to test the tooth contact and
backlash with a tester. Figure 19-5
shows the ideal contact for a worm
gear mesh. From Figure 19-5, we
realize that the ideal portion of contact
inclines to the receding side. The
approaching side has a smaller
contact trace than the receding side.
Because the clearance in the
approaching side is larger than in the
receding side, the oil film is
established much easier in the
approaching side. However, an
excellent worm gear in conjunction
with a defective gear box will
decrease the level of tooth contact
and the performance.
Fig. 19-4 Poor Contact Due to Error in Mounting Distance
There are three major factors, besides the gear itself, which may influence the surface contact:
1. Shaft Angle Error.
2. Center Distance Error.
3. Mounting Distance Error of Worm Gear.
Errors number 1 and number 2 can only be corrected by remaking the housing. Error number 3
may be decreased by adjusting the worm gear along the axial direction. These three errors introduce
varying degrees of backlash.

19.3.1. Shaft Angle Error

If the gear box has a shaft angle error,
then it will produce crossed contact as shown in
Figure 19-6.
A helix angle error will also produce a
similar crossed contact.

Fig. 19-5 Ideal Surface Contact of Worm Gear

Fig. 19-6 Poor Contact Due to Shaft Angle Error

19.3.2 Center Distance Error

Even
when
exaggerated
center
distance errors exist, as shown in Figure 19-7,
the results are crossed end contacts. Such
errors not only cause bad contact but also
greatly influence backlash. A positive center
distance error causes increased backlash. A
negative error will decrease backlash and may
result in a tight mesh, or even make it
impossible to assemble.

Fig. 19-7 Poor Contact Due to Center Distance Error

19.3.3 Mounting Distance Error

Figure 19-8 shows the resulting poor
contact from mounting distance error of the
worm gear. From the figure, we can see the
contact shifts toward the worm gear tooth's
edge. The direction of shift in the contact area
matches the direction of worm gear mounting
error. This error affects backlash, which tends
to decrease as the error increases. The error
can be diminished by microadjustment of the
worm gear in the axial direction.

Fig. 19-8 Poor Contact Due to Mounting Distance Error

SECTION 20 LUBRICATION OF GEARS

The purpose of lubricating gears is as follows:
1. Promote sliding between teeth to reduce the coefficient of friction ().
2. Limit the temperature rise caused by rolling and sliding friction.
To avoid difficulties such as tooth wear and premature failure, the correct lubricant must be
chosen.
20.1 Methods Of Lubrication
There are three gear lubrication methods in general use:
1. Grease lubrication.
2. Splash lubrication (oil bath method).
3. Forced oil circulation lubrication.
There is no single best lubricant and method. Choice depends upon tangential speed (m/s) and
rotating speed (rpm). At low speed, grease lubrication is a good choice. For medium and high speeds,
splash lubrication and forced circulation lubrication are more appropriate, but there are exceptions.
Sometimes, for maintenance reasons, a grease lubricant is used even with high speed. Table 20-1
presents lubricants, methods and their applicable ranges of speed.

Table 20-1(A) Ranges of Tangential Speed (m/s) for Spur and Bevel Gears
Range of Tangential Speed (m/s)
Lubrication
0
5
10
15
20
25
I
I
I
I
I
I
Grease Lubrication

Splash Lubrication

Forced Circulation Lubrication

No.

Table 20-1(B) Ranges of Sliding Speed (m/s) for Worm Gears

Range of Tangential Speed (m/s)
Lubrication
0
5
10
15
20
25
I
I
I
I
I
I
Grease Lubrication

Splash Lubrication

Forced Circulation Lubrication

No.

The following is a brief discussion of the three lubrication methods.

20.1.1 Grease Lubrication
Grease lubrication is suitable for any gear system that is open or enclosed, so long as it runs at
low speed. There are three major points regarding grease:
1. Choosing a lubricant with suitable viscosity. A lubricant with good fluidity is especially effective
in an enclosed system.
2. Not suitable for use under high load and continuous operation. The cooling effect of grease is
not as good as lubricating oil. So it may become a problem with temperature rise under high load and
continuous operating conditions.
3. Proper quantity of grease. There must be sufficient grease to do the job. However, too much
grease can be harmful, particularly in an enclosed system. Excess grease will cause agitation, viscous
drag and result in power loss.

20.1.2 Splash Lubrication

Splash lubrication is used with an enclosed system. The rotating gears splash lubricant onto the
gear system and bearings. It needs at least 3 m/s tangential speed to be effective. However, splash
lubrication has several problems, two of them being oil level and temperature limitation.
1. Oil level:
There will be excessive agitation loss if the oil level is too high. On the other hand, there will not
be effective lubrication or ability to cool the gears if the level is too low. Table 20-2 shows guide lines for
proper oil level. Also, the oil level during operation must be monitored, as contrasted with the static level,
in that the oil level will drop when the gears are in motion. This problem may be countered by raising the
static level of lubricant or installing an oil pan.
2. Temperature limitation:
The temperature of a gear system may rise because of friction loss due to gears, bearings and
lubricant agitation. Rising temperature may cause one or more of the following problems:
- Lower viscosity of lubricant.
- Accelerated degradation of lubricant.
- Deformation of housing, gears and shafts.
- Decreased backlash.
New high-performance lubricants can withstand up to 80 to 90C. This temperature can be
regarded as the limit. If the lubricant's temperature is expected to exceed this limit, cooling fins should be
added to the gear box, or a cooling fan incorporated into the system.
Table 20-2 Adequate Oil Level
Types of Gears
Gear Orientation

Spur Gears and Helical Gears

Horizontal Shaft

Vertical Shaft

Oil level

Level 0

Types of Gears

Bevel Gears

Gear Orientation

Horizontal Shaft

Worm Gears
Worm Above

Oil level

Level 0

h = Full depth, b = Tooth width

d2 = Pitch diameter of worm gear, dw = Pitch diameter of worm

Worm Below

20.1.3 Forced-Circulation Lubrication

Forced-circulation lubrication applies lubricant to the contact portion of the teeth by means of an
oil pump. There are drop, spray and oil mist methods of application.
1. Drop method:
An oil pump is used to suck-up the lubricant and then directly drop it on the contact portion of the
gears via a delivery pipe.
2. Spray method:
An oil pump is used to spray the lubricant directly on the contact area of the gears.
3. Oil mist method:
Lubricant is mixed with compressed air to form an oil mist that is sprayed against the contact
region of the gears. It is especially suitable for highspeed gearing.
Oil tank, pump, filter, piping and other devices are needed in the forcedlubrication system.
Therefore, it is used only for special high-speed or large gear box applications. By filtering and cooling the
circulating lubricant, the right viscosity and cleanliness can be maintained. This is considered to be the
best way to lubricate gears.

20.2 Gear Lubricants

An oil film must be formed at the contact surface of the teeth to minimize friction and to prevent
dry metal-to-metal contact. The lubricant should have the properties listed in Table 20-3.

Table 20-3 The Properties that Lubricant Should Possess

No.
1
2
3
4
5
6

Properties
Correct and
Proper Viscosity
Antiscoring
Property
Oxidization and
Heat Stability
Water Antiaffinity
Property
Antifoam
Property
Anticorrosion
Property

Description
Lubricant should maintain a proper viscosity to form a stable
oil film at the specified temperature and speed of operation.
Lubricant should have the property to prevent the scoring
failure of tooth surface while under high load.
A good lubricant should not oxidize easily and must perform in
moist and high-temperature environment for long duration.
Moisture tends to condense due to temperature change, when
the gears are stopped. The lubricant should have the property
of isolating moisture and water from lubricant.
If the lubricant foams under agitation, it will not provide a good
oil film. Antifoam property is a vital requirement.
Lubrication should be neutral and stable to prevent corrosion
from rust that may mix into the oil.

20.2.1 Viscosity of Lubricant

The correct viscosity is the most important consideration in choosing a proper lubricant. The
viscosity grade of industrial lubricant is regulated in JIS K 2001. Table 20-4 expresses ISO viscosity
grade of industrial lubricants.

Table 20-4 ISO Viscosity Grade of Industrial Lubricant (JIS K 2001)

Kinematic
Kinematic Viscosity
Viscosity
Range
ISO
Center Value
Viscosity Grade
106 m2/s (cSt)
6
2
10 m /s (cSt)
(40C)
(40C)
ISO VG 2
2.2
More than 1.98 and less than 2.42
ISO VG 3
3.2
More than 2.88 and less than 3.52
ISO VG 5
4.6
More than 4.14 and less than 5.06
ISO VG 7
6.8
More than 6.12 and less than 7.48
ISO VG 10
10
More than 9.00 and less than 11.0
ISO VG 15
15
More than 13.5 and less than 16.5
ISO VG 22
22
More than 19.8 and less than 24.2
ISO VG 32
32
More than 28.8 and less than 35.2
ISO VG 46
46
More than 41.4 and less than 50.6
ISO VG 68
68
More than 61.2 and less than 74.8
ISO VG 100
100
More than 90.0 and less than 110
ISO VG 150
150
More than 135 and less than 165
ISO VG 220
220
More than 198 and less than 242
ISO VG 320
320
More than 288 and less than 352
ISO VG 460
460
More than 414 and less than 506
ISO VG 680
680
More than 612 and less than 748
ISO VG 1000
1000
More than 900 and less than 1100
ISO VG 1500
1500
More than 1350 and less than 1650

JIS K 2219 regulates the gear oil for industrial and automobile use. Table 20-5 shows the classes
and viscosities for industrial gear oils.
Table 20-5 Industrial Gear Oil
Types of Industrial Gear Oil

Types of Industrial Gear Oil

Class
One

ISO VG 32
ISO VG 46
ISO VG 68
ISO VG 100
ISO VG 150
ISO VG 220
ISO VG 320
ISO VG 460

Mainly used in a general

and lightly loaded enclosed
gear system

Class
Two

ISO VG 68
ISO VG 100
ISO VG 150
ISO VG 220
ISO VG 320
ISO VG 460
ISO VG 680

Mainly used in a general

medium to heavily loaded
enclosed gear system

JIS K 2220 regulates the specification of grease which is based on NLGI viscosity ranges. These
are shown in Table 20-6.
Table 20-6 NLGI Viscosity Grades

No. 000

ASTM Worked
Penetration at
25C
445 475

Semiliquid

No. 00

400 430

Semiliquid

No. 0

335 385

Very soft paste

No. 1

310 340

Soft paste

No. 2

265 295

Medium firm paste

No. 3

220 250

Semihard paste

No. 4

175 205

Hard paste

No. 5

130 165

Very hard paste

No. 6

85 115

Very hard paste

NLGI
No.

State

Application

For Central Lubrication System

For Automobile Chassis

For Ball & Roller Bearing, General Use

For Automobile Wheel Bearing

For Sleeve Bearing (Pillow Block)

Besides JIS viscosity classifications, Table 20-7 contains AGMA viscosity grades and their
equivalent ISO viscosity grades.
Table 20-7 AGMA Viscosity Grades
AGMA No. of Gear Oil
R & O Type
1
2
3
4
5
6
7 7 comp
8 8 comp
8A comp
9

EP Type
2 EP
3 EP
4 EP
5 EP
6 EP
7 EP
8 EP
9 EP

ISO Viscosity
Grades
VG 46
VG 68
VG 100
VG 150
VG 220
VG 320
VG 460
VG 680
VG 1000
VG 1500

20.2.2 Selection Of Lubricant

It is practical to select a lubricant by following the catalog or technical manual of the
manufacturer. Table 20-8 is the application guide from AGMA 250.03 "Lubrication of Industrial Enclosed
Gear Drives".
Table 20-9 is the application guide chart for worm gears from AGMA 250.03.
Table 20-10 expresses the reference value of viscosity of lubricant used in the equations for the
strength of worm gears in JGMA 405-01.

Table 20-8 Recommended Lubricants by AGMA

Ambient temperature C
Gear Type

Size of Gear Equipment (mm)

10 16

10 52

AGMA No.
Less than 200
200 500
More than 500
Less than 200
200 500
More than 500
Less than 200
200 500
More than 500

2 to 3
2 to 3
3 to 4
2 to 3
3 to 4
3 to 4
2 to 3
3 to 4
4 to 5

3 to 4
4 to 5
4 to 5
3 to 4
4 to 5
4 to 5
3 to 4
4 to 5
5 to 6

Less than 400

More than 400

2 to 3
3 to 4

3 to 4
4 to 5

Less than 300

More than 300

2 to 3
3 to 4

4 to 5
5 to 6

Gearmotor

2 to 3

4 to 5

High-speed Gear Equipment

Single Stage
Reduction
Parallel
Shaft
System

Double Stage
Reduction

Center
Distance
(Output Side)

Triple Stage
Reduction
Outside
Diameter of
Gear Casing
Cone
Distance

Planetary Gear
System
Straight and Spiral
Bevel Gearing

Types
of
Worm

Table 20-9 Recommended Lubricants for Worm Gears by AGMA

Ambient
Rotating
Rotating
Ambient
Center
Temperature,
C
Speed of
Speed of
Temperature,
C
Distance
1016 1052
Worm
Worm
mm
rpm
rpm
1016
1052
1016
1052

Cylindrical
Type

150
150300
300460
460600
600 <

700
450
300
250
200

Throated
Type

150
150300
300460
460600
600 <

700
450
300
250
200

7 Comp

8 Comp

7 Comp

700 <
450 <
300 <
250 <
200 <

8A Comp

700 <
450 <
300 <
250 <
200 <

Table 20-10 Reference Values of Viscosity Unit: cSt / 37.8C

Operating Temperature
Sliding Speed m/s
Maximum
Starting
Less than 2.5
2.5 5
Running
Temperature
0C 10C
10C 0C
110 130
110 130
0C 10C
More than 0C
110 150
110 150
10C 30C
More than 0C
200 245
150 200
30C 55C
More than 0C
350 510
245 350
55C 80C
More than 0C
510 780
350 510
80C 100C
More than 0C
900 1100
510 780

8 Comp

7 Comp

8 Comp

More than 5
110 130
110 150
150 200
200 245
245 350
350 510

SECTION 21 GEAR NOISE

There are several causes of noise. The noise and vibration in rotating gears, especially at high
loads and high speeds, need to be addressed. Following are ways to reduce the noise. These points
should be considered in the design stage of gear systems.
1. Use High-Precision Gears
- Reduce the pitch error, tooth profile error, runout error and lead error.
- Grind teeth to improve the accuracy as well as the surface finish.
2. Use Better Surface Finish on Gears
- Grinding, lapping and honing the tooth surface, or running in gears in oil for a period of time can
also improve the smoothness of tooth surface and reduce the noise.
3. Ensure a Correct Tooth Contact
- Crowning and relieving can prevent end contact.
- Proper tooth profile modification is also effective.
- Eliminate impact on tooth surface.
4. Have A Proper Amount of Backlash
- A smaller backlash will help reduce pulsating transmission.
- A bigger backlash, in general, causes less problems.
5. Increase the Contact Ratio
- Bigger contact ratio lowers the noise. Decreasing pressure angle and/or increasing tooth depth
can produce a larger contact ratio.
- Enlarging overlap ratio will reduce the noise. Because of this relationship, a helical gear is
quieter than the spur gear and a spiral bevel gear is quieter than the straight bevel gear.
6. Use Small Gears
- Adopt smaller module gears and smaller outside diameter gears.
7. Use High-Rigidity Gears
- Increasing face width can give a higher rigidity that will help in reducing noise.
- Reinforce housing and shafts to increase rigidity.
8. Use High-Vibration-Damping Material
- Plastic gears will be quiet in light load, low speed operation.
- Cast iron gears have lower noise than steel gears.
9. Apply Suitable Lubrication
- Lubricate gears sufficiently.
- High-viscosity lubricant will have the tendency to reduce the noise.
10. Lower Load and Speed
- Lowering rpm and load as far as possible will reduce gear noise.

REFERENCES AND LITERATURE OF GENERAL INTEREST

1. Adams, Clifford E., Plastic Gearing, Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York, 1986.
2. Buckingham, Earle, Manual of Gear Design, 3 Vols., Industrial Press, New York, 1935.
3. Celanese Plastics and Specialties Co., Design and Production of Gears in CELCON Acetal
Copolymer, Chatham, New Jersey, 1979.
4. Chironis, N.P. (ed.), Gear Design and Application, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1967.
5. E. I. DuPont de Nemours and Co., Gears of 'DELRIN' and 'ZYTEL', Wilmington, Delaware.
6. E. I. DuPont de Nemours and Co., DELRIN Design Handbook, Wilmington, Delaware, 1967.
7. Kverneland, Knut O., (ed.), World Metric Standards for Engineering, Industrial Press, New York,
1978.
8. Martin, L. D., Injection Molded Plastic Gears, Plastic Design and Processing Magazine, Part 1,
pp. 38-45, August 1968.
9. Merritt, H. E., Gears, Pittman & Sons, London, 1955.
10. Michalec, G. W., Precision Gearing: Theory and Practice, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1966.
11. Shigley, J. E., Mechanical Engineering Design, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1963.
12. Steeds, W., Involute Gears, Longmans, Green and Co., London, 1948.
13. Technomix Publishing, Handbook of Practical Gear Design, Lancaster, Pa; reprinted 1994.
14. The Polymer Corp., Nylatron Nylon Gear Design Manual, Reading, Pa.
15. Townsend, Dennis P., (ed.), Dudley's Gear Handbook ; 2nd edition, McGraw-Hill, New York,
1991.
16. Woodbury, R. W., History of Gear Cutting Machines, M.I.T. Technology Press, Cambridge,
Massachusetts.