Chapter 1

1.1. Various configurations of Landing Gear:

Some values are taken from ADP-I

Over all weight of aircraft =23805.56Kg

1
Optimum VELOCITY 180m/s

Optimum RANGE 1500Km

Optimum ALTITUDE 8500

Optimum WEIGHT 20000Kg

Optimum ASPECT RATIO 7

Optimum W/S WING LOADING 300Kg/m2

Optimum T/W THRUST 0.2

LOADING
L/D max 3.5

2
1.2.Tyre Sizing:

Where WW –Weight of the wheel

Rr –Rolling radius

D –Diameter

W –Width

Nearly 90% of aircraft load is carried by the main landing gear and
only 10% of the aircraft weight is carried by nose wheel, but it experiences high
dynamic load. Nose type size can be 60-100% of the main tire size, but in the
bicycle and quadricycle, the tire size can be same.

3
 Operating tire at a lower internal pressure will greatly improve the tyre
weight and largest tire causing drag weight and space occupation.

WW = P× Ap

 d 
Ap = 2.3× w × d  − Rr 
2 

KEbraking=1/2 V2stall ×Wlanding/g

KEbraking=1/2 V2vertical × Wlanding/g

KE absorbed =ηL ST

1.3. Gear retraction Geometry:

1.4. Loads on Landing Gear:

1. Vertical load factor

2. Spin up

3. Spring back

4. Braking

5. One wheel arrested

4
6. Turning loads

7. Taxing loads

When aircraft touches the ground, the wheels are not rotating. Then after
a fraction of second it will spin up. It is called as spin up loads. Nearly 50% of the
actual load acting on the landing gear. Once it starts to rotate, the rearward force is
released and the gear strut springs back forward. This spring back load is greater
than or equal to spin up loads. Braking load can be estimated by braking co-
efficient (normally 0.8). The aircraft is subjected to drop lost to find out the
vertical load factors (from 23 to 48cm) .

1.5. Three Stages of Landing Gear Design:

1. Preliminary landing gear design

2. Primary landing gear design

3. Detailed landing gear design

1. Preliminary landing gear design:

Entire layout, shock absorbers, steering system, skit control, retraction

mechanism, cockpit requirement and strength. Shock absorber design is based on
types of configuration and stroke length.

2. Primary landing gear design:

Selection of tires, construction methods, temperature effects and tyre

friction. Kinetic analysis of the brakes, skit controls and wheels are performed in
this.

3. Detailed landing gear design:

Material selection locks, bushing seals and lubrication.

Tyre sizing:

5
Main wheel diameter or width = AWwB

For transport aircraft A = 5.3

B = 0.315

D = 5.3 ×10712.412 0.315

= 98.8576 cm

Ww = weight on wheel

10% = nose wheel

90% = main landing gear

Width A = 0.39 B = 0.480

Diameter = 0.39 ×10712.412 0.480 = 33.528 cm

Maximum pressure = 120 Psi = 828 KPa

Size Speed Max Max Max Rolling Wheel No of

Knots or load width diameter Radius diameter plies
mph Lb In In In In
12.5-16 590 12800 12.75 38.4 15.6 16 12

1.6.Static Margin:

It is the distance between CG and neutral point. When static margin is

minimum, the lateral stability of aircraft is poor and when it is maximum, more
power is required to maneuver. Hence optimization of static margin in airplane is
required.

w c rew = 2 k4g0
wpayload = 7500kg

w fuel = 1278.34kg

6
wempty = FI + HT + VT + FW + WW + W engine

Flight equipment weight :

w = 0.03 × w

wempty = 0.03 + 0.025 + 0.025 + 0.1+ 0.1

x2
FA = w0 ×
x3

x1
FB = w0 ×
x3

Length of the fuselage

L f = 21.37m

7
1.7.Calculation:

Loads on landing gear = 0.9 W0 = 0.9 23805.36 =21424.824 Kg

Loads on nose wheel landing gear = 0.1 23805.36 = 2380.536 Kg

Weight of the wheel Ww =

= 10712.412 Kg

= 23616.824 lb

But in the bicycle and quadricycle configuration the tire is same

η -shock absorber efficiency

ηT
-tire efficiency

8
N gear
gear load factor
1
ST = × d − Rr
2

We = W0 (0.03 + 0.025 + 0.025+ 0.1+ 0.1)+ W engine

We = 23805.36(0.28) + 601.009

We = 7266.5098Kg

FA = 0.1× W0 = 2380.536kg

FA = 0.9 × 23805.36 = 21424.829 Kg

1.8.Moment about C.G

Σ c. g = 0
9
240 × 7.7 + 21× 24.82 × x1 = 2380.536 × 7.804 + 2690.26 × 9.43

21424.32x = 42098.85

x = 1.965m

Distance between nose L.G and main LG=7.804+1.96

=9.764m

No of nose wheels in single strut = 2380.53/5805.99

=1

No of main wheels in single strut = 10712.412/5805.99 =2

For horizontal:

10
 1× 23805.36 × 592
= MJ
2 × 9.81

For vertical:

1× 23805.36 × 982
= MJ
2 × 9.81

1
ST = × d − Rr
2

1
ST = × 3804 − 15.6
2

= 9.144cm

982 0.48
S= − × 9.14 ×10−2
2 × 9.81× 0.8 × 2.9 0.8

S=210.93cm

11
 23805.36 ×10.9 × 9.81
= = 116.39 KN
21.87

23805.36 ×17.59
= = 187.828 KN
21.87

23805.36 ×10.9 × 9.81

= = 116.39 KN
21.87

12
 To find H

H = wheel dia +strut length+fuselage cross-section radius

=0.97+1+1.195= 3511.8Kg

Area of foot print

Ww 5805.982 × 9.81
AP = = = 0.1101m2
p 517.106 × 10 2

13
 Chapter2

Structural design study –theoretical approach

Lift load on each wing = w/2

Root chord = 3.37m

Tip chord = 1.348m

Semi span = b/2 = 11.784m

Wetted area of wing, S = 4.419m2

Equation of chord distribution
y − y1 x − x1
over length of wing = =
y2 − y1 x2 − x1

Here, x1 = 0; x2 = semi span

Y1 = root chord

Y2 = tip chord
y − 3.37 x−0
=
−2.2022 11.784
y = 3.37 − 0.1714 x

Effective chord length

4s
y− sin θ
along wing C' = π ab
2
C' = 1.685-0.0857x

2.1. Weight distribution:

Weight of fuel = 8350Kg

Weight of fuel in one wing =4175kg

Let the volume of the fuel distributed in the wing is direct proportion with the
chord length of wing
14
Assumption

Only 75% of wing length is accounting for using fuel weight =8.838

2.2. WING DESIGN:

Schrunk’s curve:

Lift load on each wing = w/2

w
× y0
Load at root = 2
area of schments curve

y w
× × y0
y0 2
Load at root y =
area of schments curve
15
 π × AB
plan form area =
4
π × 11.82 × 3.2
=
4
= 29.706m 2

Acosθ, Bsinθ are co-ordinates of ellipse whose area is same as plan form area

θ acosθ bsinθ
0 11.82 0
6 11.7552 0.322
12 11.5611.241 0.642
18 10.798 0.954
24 10.236 1.25
30 9.56 1.54
36 8.78 1.81
42 7.909 2.066
48 6.947 2.294
54 5.91 2.49
60 5.91 2.674
66 4.807 2.821
72 3.65 2.93
78 2.45 3.02
84 1.235 3.07
90 0 3.088

16
 Ws
× y0
Air load = 2
area of shrunks curve

Resultant load = 2 airload - kCx2

2nd value + 1st value of

air load column
Load at mid pt. = ( ) ×(2nd value − 1st value of column x)
2

2.3. Effective chord distribution:

Effective chord C' (m) Distance from wing root x (m)

3.37 0
3.2015 0.9820
3.033 1.9640
2.8645 2.946
2.696 3.928
2.5275 4.910
2.359 5.8922
2.1905 6.874
2.022 7.853
1.8535 8.838
1.685 9.818
1.5165 10.802
1.348 11.9845

17
 Equivalent load distribution is made from the above plot by splitting the
graph into the number of segment and plotting the load distribution curve by
method of direct proportions.

V×w
q=
s× Vx

s = 27.3m2

Area of the element that is considered in wing effective chord distribution graph
is Δθ.
18
 Δx → width of element considered

w → gross weight (23805.56Kg)

s → wetted surface area/2 = (4.416/2)=4.419m2

2.4. WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF FUEL:

19
2.5. WING STRUCTURAL WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION:

The structural weight is assumed to be square of the chord i.e. Ws = KC x 2

Where, k = constant

Cx = chord at any distance i.e. from root, since the chord variation is linear along
span.

So,

Cx = a+bx

At x =0, Cx = Cr = a

At x = max. Cx = Ct = value

If we need the “b” value at x = max then substitute in eqn.

Cx = a+bx

Some value = a + b (max. value)

Therefore, for long range large aircraft

B = C r 2 − Ct 2
= 3.37 2 − 1.3482
= 3.088m

20
At x = 0, Cx = Cr = 3.37m

At x = 11.82, Cx = Ct = 1.348m

Therefore, 1.348 = 3.37 + b(11.82)

b = -0.1710m

a/2 Chor K Resultan Load at

3
S.No (m) yo d (Kg/m ) .1xwoxyo/2 Airload t load midpoint
1 0 3.2 3.37 _ 3808.9 128.21 128.21 149.17
2 1.182 3.1 3.3 94.205 3689.86 124.2 -901.7 143.26
2.9
3 2.364 5 2.9 50.103 3051.8 118.12 -303.2 136.16
4 4.728 2.8 2.52 28.44 3332.77 112.19 -68.41 125.52
5 5.91 2.5 2.38 24.289 2975.69 100.17 437.41 113.68
6 7.092 2.3 2.1 21.627 2737.64 92.155 53.22 102.05
2.0
7 8.274 1 1.98 19.825 2392.46 80.53 2.808 89.02
1.7
8 9.456 5 1.7 18.567 2082.98 70.11 16.457 74.58
10.63
9 8 1.4 1.5 17.67 1666.39 56.09 21.45 33.149
10 11.82 0 1.348 17.047 0 0 0

The general eqn. Cx = 3.37 -0.1710x

Ww 11.82
Wkt, Ws = = k ∫ C x2 dx
2 0

Where,
WW = 0.1× 23805.56 = 588.5 kg

11.82 0.1× 23805.568

k∫ C x 2 dx =
0 2

21
k = 77.047kg/m2

π ab π × 11.82 × 3.2
Area of shrunk curve = =
4 4

= 29.706m2

Distance from fuselage Intensity of load (Kg/m)

0 0
1.182 2740
2.364 2522
4.728 2164
5.91 2020
7.092 1876
8.274 1587
9.456 1443.16
10.638 1298.16
11.82 1154.308

22
 3000

2500
indensity of load (Kg/m)

2000

1500

1000

500

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

distance from fuselage

Station Wing Net

from free structural Fuel weight Engine resultant
end of wing q∆x (-) weight (Kg) (Kg) weight (Kg) weight (Kg)
0 566.76 0 _ _ -566.76
1.182 650.4 70.34 _ _ -580.06
2.364 748.59 281.38 5122.3 _ 2655.09
4.728 960.15 1125.525 3679.3 _ 3844.675
5.91 991.84 1758.63 2498.8 601 3866.59
7.092 1095.6 2532.43 924.7 _ 4061.1
8.274 1140.53 3446.9 531.17 _ 4203.58
9.456 1260.2 4502.107 400 _ 4500.68
10.638 1310 5667.34 _ _ 5347.34
11.82 0 7034.5 _ _ 7034.5

23
The total weight =2380.56Kg

Weight on each wing =1190.270Kg

The Wing may be consider as a cantilever beam and the structural weight as an
uniformly varying load

Total weight W= 1190.278Kg

It acts as a UVL

For an uniform varying load equivalent weight at any point ‘x’ from the tip is
wx 2
given by S .F =
2l

24
where l = total length

x- at a point on the wing

calculation:

when x = 0

f=0

when x= 1.182

wx 2 1190.278 ×1.1822 140.69

S .F = = = kg
2l 2 ×11.82 2

X=l

wx 2 1190.278 ×11.822
L= 11.82 F = = = 70.4.5Kg
2l 2 ×11.82

Fuel weight distribution:

The fuel weight distribution inside the wing can shown

schematically as

The fuel is stored between the stations 2.364m to 9.456m

Total area =Area of the ABCD+Area of DCE

= 11.3472+5.319

=16.6662m2

Fuel weight carried by ABCD

25
 area of ABCD
= × fuel / wing
Total area
11.3472
= × 4175
16.662
= 2843.26kg

The fuel weight in the part ABCD can be considered as an UDL

The fuel in element is element DCE can be considered as an UVL

Fuel weight carried by DCE = 4175 – 2843.27

= 1331.73kg

Force at
x = 7.092
wx 2 1331.73 × 7.0922
F= = = 4722.31kg
2l 2 × 7.092

Station (m) Shear force (Kg) Bending moment (Kgm)

0 _ 0
1.182 580.06 685.6309
2.364 2655.09 6276.633
4.728 3844.675 18177.62
26
 5.91 3866.59 22851.55
7.092 4061.1 28801.32
8.274 4203.58 34780.42
9.456 4500.68 42558.43
10.638 5347.34 56885
11.82 7034.5 83147.79

27
28
29
30
 Chapter 3

Wing and fuselage design

3.1. Aerofoil consideration:

upper surface Lower surface

station ordinate station ordinate

0 0 0 0
0.435 0.819 0.565 -0.719
0.678 0.999 0.822 -0.859
1.169 1.273 1.331 -1.059
2.408 1.757 2.592 -1.385
4.898 2.491 5.102 -1.859
7.394 3.06 7.606 -2.221
9.894 3.55 10.106 -2.521
14.899 4.33 15.101 -2.992
19.909 4.9 20.001 -3.435
24.921 5.397 25.079 -3.607
29.936 5.732 30.064 -3.788
34.951 5.954 35.049 -3.894
39.968 6.067 40.032 -3.925
44.984 6.058 45.016 -3.865
50 5.915 50 -3.709
55.014 5.625 54.986 -3.435
60.027 5.217 59.973 -3.075
65.036 4.712 64.964 -2.652
70.043 4.128 69.957 -2.184
75.045 3.479 74.955 -1.659
80.044 2.783 79.956 -1.191
85.038 2.057 84.962 -0.711
90.028 1.327 89.972 -0.293
95.014 0.622 94.986 0.01
100 0 100 0

31
Chord = 3.37m

Station Station dis. Upper surface Lower surface

along x-axis From L.E
along x-axis Ordinate % Ordinate(m) Ordinate % Ordinate(m)
0 0 0 0 0 0
5 0.1685 2.5 0.084 -1.8 -0.0606
10 0.337 3.5 0.1179 -2.5 -0.084
15 0.5055 4.4 0.1482 -2.9 -0.0977
20 0.674 5 0.1685 -3.2 -0.107
25 0.842 5.4 0.18198 -3.6 -0.121
30 1.011 5.6 0.188 -3.8 -0.128
35 1.1795 5.9 0.198 -3.9 -0.13
40 1.348 6.01 0.202 -3.92 -0.132
45 1.5165 6.03 0.203 -3.8 -0.128
50 1.685 6 0.2022 -3.6 -0.121
55 1.8535 5.6 0.188 -3.4 -0.114
60 2.022 5.2 0.175 -3.1 -0.1044
65 2.1905 4.7 0.58 -2.6 -0.087
70 2.359 4.2 0.141 -2.1 -0.0707
75 2.527 3.4 0.114 -1.6 -0.05392
80 2.69 2.8 0.094 -1.3 -0.043
85 2.68 2.1 0.0704 -0.8 -0.02
90 3.033 1.3 0.04 -0.5 -0.016
95 3.2015 0.7 0.023 -0.3 -0.01
100 3.37 0 0 0 0

3.2. Aerofoil thickness distribution:

Let us consider a box beam structural configuration with spars one nearer to L.E
and 15% of chord from L.E another at the rear edge which is located at 70% chord
from leading edge.

From the graph

Max. bending moment = 83147.79 Kg-m =815.67 103Nm

Let us take a flat rectangular spar as a member for resulting against bending
moment with the two angle section riveted at top and bottom edge of rectangular
section as shown in the figure.

Max. failing stress = 69.008KN

Total depth of the front spar = (0.18198+0.121)m =0.30248 m

32
Total depth of the rear spar = 0.3232 m

Let us consider 40% of the total B.M is carried by front par.

2 ×10−3 × 0.302783
B.M taken by front spar, Ix1 = = = 4.635 ×10−6 m4
12

Let the radius be, r =

Area corresponding boom at 0.15149

4.635 × 10−6
A= = 2
= 2.019 ×10 −4 m2
0.1515

MY
WKT I =
σ

MY
( A1 + A2 ) y 2 =
σ

815.67 × 103
A1 + A2 = = 0.78
69.009 × 104 × 0.15149

A1 = 0.779m 2

Let us divide the above into five divisions because we have to distribute this area
to area each section

= =0.1558 m2

Since the area to with stand the moments is large we take 5 booms of each sections
having 150 cm2 to resist against B.M without exceeding failure stress.

Now the dimensions of L-section be

t=2mm, b=375cm, h=375cm.

Appropriate cross-sectional area

375 0.2+375 0.2= 150 cm2

33
Remaining area = 0.1558-0.015=0.1408m2 =1408cm2

Let us consider a boom whose area = =93.8667cm2

Similarly for another L-section there will be 15 booms

Totally there will be 5 15=75 booms. Top side the booms are stringers with each
having area of 93.8667 cm2 the approximate arrangement of stringer and spar is
given below

Since the stress analysis and shear flow calculations are difficult when we consider
thickness of spin. Let us neglect its calculations are difficult when we consider
thickness of spin, let us neglect its calculations for time being equivalent boom
considerations for above wing.

34
Station yn 102 cm An cm 2 An yn 102 cm 3 y01 10 2 cm An1 cm 2 A1n y1n
no. 102 cm3
1 0.18198 100 18.198 0.14491 100 14.491
2 0.1833 94 17.2302 0.1462 94 13.7428
3 0.1846 94 17.3524 0.1476 94 13.8744
4 0.186 94 17.484 0.148 94 13.912
5 0.1873 94 17.6062 0.15 94 14.1
6 0.1887 94 17.7378 0.1516 94 14.2504
7 0.19 94 17.86 0.15299 94 14.38106
8 0.1914 94 17.9916 0.1543 94 14.5042
9 0.1927 94 18.1138 0.155694 94 14.63524
10 0.194112 94 18.24653 0.15704 94 14.76176
11 0.19546 94 18.37324 0.15839 94 14.88866
12 0.1968 94 18.4992 0.1597 94 15.0118
13 0.1981 94 18.6214 0.161 94 15.134
14 0.1999 94 18.7906 0.162 94 15.228
15 0.20082 94 18.87708 0.1637 94 15.3878
16 0.1987 94 18.6778 0.162 94 15.228
17 0.1981 94 18.6214 0.161 94 15.134
18 0.1964 94 18.4616 0.1596 94 15.0024
19 0.1953 94 18.3582 0.1582 94 14.8708
20 0.1943 94 18.2642 0.1569 94 14.7486
21 0.1932 94 18.1608 0.1546 94 14.5324
22 0.1912 94 17.9728 0.1542 94 14.4948
23 0.1908 94 17.9352 0.15208 94 14.29552
24 0.1892 94 17.7848 0.1509 94 14.1846
25 0.1872 94 17.5968 0.15 94 14.1
26 0.1862 94 17.5028 0.148 94 13.912
27 0.1852 94 17.4088 0.1476 94 13.8744
28 0.1833 94 17.2302 0.146 94 13.724
29 0.1812 94 17.0328 0.1462 94 13.7428
30 0.1802 100 18.02 0.1449 100 14.49

ΣAY ΣAnYn + ΣAn Yn

1 1

y= = X 1 = 0.8425m X 2 = 1.9546m
ΣA ΣA + ΣAn1

y=
( 534 − 426 ) 10 2 = 1.906cm
28320 + 2832

X1 + X 2
X=
2

35
 1.9546 + 0.8425
X= = 1.39822m
2

Station yn 102 cm An cm 2 An yn 102 cm 3 y10 102 cm An1 cm 2 A1n y1n xn m

no. 102 cm3
1 0.15502 100 15.502 0.153 100 15.3 -0.5897
2 0.1563 94 14.6922 0.1538 94 14.4572 -0.55
3 0.1577 94 14.8238 0.1542 94 14.4948 -0.511
4 0.159 94 14.946 0.1552 94 14.5888 -0.4718
5 0.1604 94 15.0776 0.1563 94 14.6922 -0.4324
6 0.16176 94 15.20544 0.1577 94 14.8238 -0.3931
7 0.1631 94 15.3314 0.159 94 14.946 -0.3538
8 0.16445 94 15.4583 0.1604 94 15.0776 -0.3145
9 0.1658 94 15.5852 0.1617 94 15.1998 -0.275
10 0.16715 94 15.7121 0.1631 94 15.3314 -0.2359
11 0.1685 94 15.839 0.1644 94 15.4536 -0.1968

12 0.1698 94 15.9612 0.1658 94 15.5852 -0.15726

13 0.171196 94 16.09242 0.1675 94 15.745 -0.11795

14 0.1725 94 16.215 0.1685 94 15.839 -0.0786
15 0.1738 94 16.3372 0.1698 94 15.9612 -0.062
16 0.17254 94 16.21876 0.1685 94 15.839 0.1179
17 0.17119 94 16.09186 0.16255 94 15.2797 0.15726
18 0.1688 94 15.8672 0.1644 94 15.4536 0.1968
19 0.1684 94 15.8296 0.1631 94 15.3314 0.235
20 0.1671 94 15.7074 0.1617 94 15.1998 0.275
21 0.1658 94 15.5852 0.1604 94 15.0776 0.314
22 0.1643 94 15.4442 0.159 94 14.946 0.352
23 0.1628 94 15.3032 0.1577 94 14.8238 0.393
24 0.1612 94 15.1528 0.1563 94 14.6922 0.4324
25 0.1602 94 15.0588 0.1552 94 14.5888 0.474
26 0.158 94 14.852 0.1542 94 14.4948 0.5116
27 0.1572 94 14.7768 0.1538 94 14.4572 0.55
28 0.1563 94 14.6922 0.1531 94 14.3914 0.589
29 0.155 94 14.57 0.1539 94 14.4666 0.59
30 0.1542 100 15.42 0.15 100 15 0.598

36
An yn 210 −4 m 4 An xn yn10 −4 m 4 x1n m A1n xn1 y1n 10 −4 m4 An xn 210−4 m 4 An1 x1n 2 10 −4 m4
2
A1n y1n 10 −4 m4
-
0.589
2.40312 -9.14153 7 -9.02241 2.3409 34.703 34.703
2.296391 -8.08071 -0.55 -7.95146 2.223517 28.435 28.435
2.337713 -7.57496 -0.511 -7.40684 2.235098 24.545 24.545
-
0.471
2.376414 -7.05152 8 -6.883 2.264182 20.9239 20.9239
-
0.432
2.418447 -6.51955 4 -6.35291 2.296391 17.575 17.575
-
0.393
2.459632 -5.97726 1 -5.82724 2.337713 14.76 14.76
-
0.353
2.500551 -5.42425 8 -5.28789 2.376414 11.76 11.76
-
0.314
2.542117 -4.86164 5 -4.74191 2.418447 9.29 9.29
2.584026 -4.28593 -0.275 -4.17995 2.457808 7.1087 7.1087
-
0.235
2.626278 -3.70648 9 -3.61668 2.500551 3.629 3.629
-
0.196
2.668872 -3.11712 8 -3.04127 2.540572 2.1 2.1
-
0.157
2.710212 -2.51006 26 -2.45093 2.584026 1.307 1.307
-
0.117
2.754959 -1.8981 95 -1.85712 2.637288 1.182 1.182
-
0.078
2.797088 -1.2745 6 -1.24495 2.668872 1.012 1.012
2.839405 -1.01291 -0.062 -0.98959 2.710212 1.01 1.01
0.117
2.798385 1.912192 9 1.867418 2.668872 1.01 1.01
0.157
2.754766 2.530606 26 2.402886 2.483715 1.012 1.012
0.196
2.678383 3.122665 8 3.041268 2.540572 1.182 1.182
2.665705 3.719956 0.235 3.602879 2.500551 1.307 1.307
37
 2.624707 4.319535 0.275 4.179945 2.457808 2.1 2.1
2.584026 4.893753 0.314 4.734366 2.418447 3.629 3.629
2.537482 5.436358 0.352 5.260992 2.376414 7.1085 7.1085
2.491361 6.014158 0.393 5.825753 2.337713 9.29 9.29
0.432
2.442631 6.552071 4 6.352907 2.296391 11.76 11.76
2.41242 7.137871 0.474 6.915091 2.264182 14.525 14.525
0.511
2.346616 7.598283 6 7.41554 2.235098 17.525 17.525
2.322913 8.12724 0.55 7.95146 2.223517 20.9239 20.9239
2.296391 8.653706 0.589 8.476535 2.203323 24.545 24.545
2.25835 8.5963 0.59 8.535294 2.22641 28.435 28.435
2.377764 9.22116 0.598 8.97 2.25 34.703 34.703

2
I y = ΣAn X n2 + Σ An' X n'

I y = ( 178.203 + 178.203) ×10−4 m4

I y = 712.812 ×10−4 m4

I x = ( 82.525 + 81.569) ×10−4

2
I x = ΣAnYn2 + ΣAn' Yn'

I x = 166.1× 10 −4m 4

I xy = ΣAn xn y n + Σ A 'n x 'n y ' n

I xy = ( 0.526 + 0.478) ×10−4

38
I xy = 1.304 ×10−4 m4

I xy
k1 = = 0.1101369
I x I y − I xy2

Iy
k2 = = 60.205
I x I y − I xy2

Ix
k3 = = 14.029
I x I y − I xy2

Now, σ = − ( k3M y − k1M x ) x− ( k2 M x − k1 M y ) y

σ = 89716 x − 49.1×106 y

Assuming the second section at a distance 3m from chord and is given as C=2.948
m
8.4 x
=
11.78 3

⇒ x = 2.1392 m

ΣAy
y= = 1.18cm
ΣA

x1 + x2
x= = 1.238m
2

σ(comp. σ(tensil P(tensil

Station y ) x106 P(comp. y' m e) x106 e) x103
no xm m N/m2 ) x103 N x'n m (-) (-) N/m2 N
1 -0.5897 0.15502 7.66 76.643 0.5897 0.15502 7.64 7.662
2 -0.55 0.1563 7.72 72.602 0.55 0.1563 7.71 7.7
3 -0.511 0.1577 7.78 73.215 0.511 0.1577 7.76 7.76
4 -0.4718 0.159 7.84 73.782 0.4718 0.159 7.81 7.82
5 -0.4324 0.1604 7.91 74.395 0.4324 0.1604 7.9 7.9
6 -0.3931 0.16176 7.97 74.962 0.3931 0.16176 7.96 7.96
7 -0.3538 0.1631 8.03 75.575 0.3538 0.1631 8.02 8
8 -0.3145 0.1644 8.1 76.142 0.3145 0.1644 8.1 8.12
9 -0.275 0.1658 8.16 76.155 0.275 0.1658 8.16 8.18
10 -0.2359 0.1698 8.22 76.276 0.2359 0.1698 8.22 8.2
11 -0.1968 0.17119 8.29 77.935 0.1968 0.17119 8.29 8.29
-
12 0.15726 0.17254 8.35 78.5 0.15726 0.17254 8.35 8.35
39
 -
13 0.11795 0.1738 8.41 79.11 0.11795 0.1738 8.41 8.41
14 -0.0786 0.1742 8.47 79.7 0.0786 0.1742 8.47 8.47
15 -0.062 0.1756 8.523 80.11 0.062 0.1756 8.521 8.523
16 0.1179 0.1756 8.457 79.501 0.1179 0.1756 8.452 8.451
17 0.15726 0.1742 8.38 78.845 0.15726 0.1742 8.36 8.38
18 0.1968 0.1738 8.31 78.171 0.1968 0.1738 8.3 8.31
19 0.235 0.17254 8.24 77.53 0.235 0.17254 8.21 8.24
20 0.275 0.17119 8.17 76.81 0.275 0.17119 8.17 8.17
21 0.314 0.1698 8.1 76.22 0.314 0.1698 8.12 8.1
22 0.352 0.1658 8.03 75.54 0.352 0.1658 8.01 8.03
23 0.393 0.1644 7.96 74.912 0.393 0.1644 7.94 7.96
24 0.4324 0.1631 7.89 74.233 0.4324 0.1631 7.89 7.89
25 0.474 0.16176 7.82 73.6 0.474 0.16176 7.82 7.82
26 0.5116 0.1604 7.75 72.9 0.5116 0.1604 7.75 7.75
27 0.55 0.159 7.69 72.3 0.55 0.159 7.69 7.69
28 0.589 0.1577 7.625 71.16 0.589 0.1577 7.625 7.625
29 0.59 0.1563 7.557 73.4 0.59 0.1563 7.557 7.557
30 0.598 0.15502 7.52 75.75 0.598 0.15502 7.61 7.6

Anyn x102 y'n x102 A'ny'n x102

Station no 2
yn x10 cm An cm 2
cm3 cm A'n cm 2
cm3
1 0.15316 100 15.316 0.15 100 15
2 0.1544 94 14.55 0.1513 94 14.2222
3 0.155 94 14.64 0.1526 94 14.3444
4 0.157 94 14.766 0.1539 94 14.4666
5 0.158 94 14.8966 0.1553 94 14.5982
6 0.159 94 15.01 0.1565 94 14.711

40
 7 0.1611 94 15.147 0.1579 94 14.8426
8 0.162 94 15.268 0.159 94 14.946
9 0.163 94 15.398 0.1605 94 15.087
10 0.1649 94 15.5006 0.1616 94 15.1904
11 0.1664 94 15.6416 0.1631 94 15.3314
12 0.1677 94 15.7638 0.1644 94 15.4536
13 0.169 94 15.886 0.1657 94 15.5758
14 0.1704 94 16.0176 0.167 94 15.698
15 0.1717 94 16.1398 0.162 94 15.228
16 0.1717 94 16.1398 0.162 94 15.228
17 0.1704 94 16.0176 0.167 94 15.698
18 0.169 94 15.886 0.1657 94 15.5758
19 0.1677 94 15.7638 0.1644 94 15.4536
20 0.1664 94 15.6416 0.1631 94 15.3314
21 0.1649 94 15.5006 0.1616 94 15.1904
22 0.163 94 15.322 0.1605 94 15.087
23 0.162 94 15.228 0.159 94 14.946
24 0.1611 94 15.1434 0.1579 94 14.8426
25 0.159 94 14.946 0.1565 94 14.711
26 0.158 94 14.852 0.1553 94 14.5982
27 0.157 94 14.758 0.1539 94 14.4666
28 0.155 94 14.57 0.1526 94 14.3444
29 0.1544 94 14.5136 0.1513 94 14.2222
30 0.15316 100 15.316 0.15 100 15

41
 yn =y+ȳ Any2n x10-4 y'n =y-ȳn A'ny'n x10-4
Station no x102 cm 2
An cm m4 A'n cm 2
x102 cm m4
1 0.1482 100 2.1636 100 0.1453 2.112
2 0.1493 94 2.0675 94 0.1465 2.018
3 0.1502 94 2.1047 94 0.1478 2.054
4 0.1508 94 2.139 94 0.149 2.088
5 0.1512 94 2.177 94 0.1503 2.125
6 0.1517 94 2.212 94 0.1515 2.16
7 0.1532 94 2.251 94 0.1529 2.197
8 0.1566 94 2.287 94 0.1541 2.232
9 0.1582 94 2.326 94 0.1554 2.271
10 0.1594 94 2.36 94 0.1565 2.304
11 0.1601 94 2.402 94 0.1579 2.345
12 0.1612 94 2.44 94 0.1591 2.381
13 0.1642 94 2.48 94 0.1604 2.421
14 0.1651 94 2.519 94 0.1617 2.459
15 0.166 94 2.55 94 0.1629 2.421
16 0.166 94 2.55 94 0.1629 2.421
17 0.1651 94 2.519 94 0.1617 2.459
18 0.1642 94 2.48 94 0.1604 2.421
19 0.1613 94 2.44 94 0.1591 2.381
20 0.1601 94 2.402 94 0.1579 2.345
21 0.1594 94 2.36 94 0.1565 2.304
22 0.1582 94 2.326 94 0.1554 2.271
23 0.1566 94 2.287 94 0.1541 2.232
24 0.1532 94 2.251 94 0.1529 2.197
25 0.1517 94 2.212 94 0.1515 2.16
26 0.1512 94 2.177 94 0.1503 2.125
27 0.1508 94 2.139 94 0.149 2.088
28 0.1502 94 2.1047 94 0.1478 2.054
29 0.1493 94 2.0675 94 0.1465 2.018
30 0.1482 100 2.1636 100 0.1453 2.112

42
 A'nx'2n x10-4 Anxnyn x10-4 A'nx'ny'n x10-4
xn m Anx 2
n
-4
x10 m 2
x'n m m4 m4 m4
0.589 34.77 0.5897 34.322 -8.57 8.46
0.54 28.43 0.55 28.065 -7.57 7.48
0.512 24.54 0.511 24.22 -7.101 7.01
0.4716 20.92 0.4718 20.65 -6.61 6.52
0.4317 17.575 0.4324 17.34 -6.21 6.03
0.393 14.52 0.3931 14.3 -6.112 5.53
0.3436 11.766 0.3538 11.613 -5.6 5.022
0.3145 9.29 0.3145 9.176 -5.08 4.5
0.275 7.108 0.275 7.016 -4.55 3.968
0.2359 5.2309 0.2359 5.162 -4.01 3.428
0.15726 3.629 0.15726 3.582 -3.47 2.88
0.11726 2.324 0.11795 2.29 -2.91 2.32
0.11795 2.1 0.0786 1.29 -2.35 1.75
0.0782 1.875 0.0765 0.875 -1.77 1.18
0.075 1.65 0.0756 0.573 -1.19 1.12
0.075 1.725 0.0756 0.573 1.805 1.36
0.0782 2.324 0.0765 0.875 2.39 1.783
0.11795 3.632 0.0786 1.29 2.965 2.361
0.11726 5.191 0.11795 2.29 3.516 2.928
0.15726 7.108 0.15726 3.582 4.08 3.472
0.2359 9.29 0.2359 5.162 4.62 4.03
0.275 11.766 0.275 7.016 5.169 4.591
0.3145 14.52 0.3145 9.176 5.695 5.105
0.3436 11.575 0.3538 11.613 6.214 5.624
0.393 20.92 0.3931 14.3 6.722 6.138
0.4317 24.54 0.4324 17.34 7.223 6.639
0.4716 28.44 0.4718 20.65 7.7064 7.1333
0.512 28.228 0.511 24.22 7.6448 7.6111
0.54 34.77 0.55 28.065 7.548 7.55
0.589 35.6 0.5897 34.322 8.5689 7.454

2
I y = ΣAn X n2 + Σ An' X n' =834.7534×10-4m4

2
I x = ΣAnY n2 + Σ An' Yn' =131.26×10-4m4
43
I xy = ΣAn xn y n + Σ A 'n x 'n y ' n =0.98×10-4m4

I xy
k1 = = 0.089441
I x I y − I xy2

Iy
k2 = = 76.2634
I x I y − I xy2

Ix
k3 = = 11.9919
I x I y − I xy2

σ = − ( k3 M y − k1M x ) x− ( k2 M x − k1 M y ) y

σ = 72.948 ×103 x − 62.19 ×106 y

44
 σ(comp. σ(tensil
Station y ) x106 P(comp. e) x106 P(tensil
no xm m N/m2 )N x' y' N/m2 e) N
1 -0.5897 0.1382 6.65 66.5 -0.5897 0.1382 6.65 64.5
2 -0.55 0.1393 6.72 63.1 -0.55 0.1393 6.62 63.1
3 -0.511 0.1402 6.78 63.02 -0.511 0.1402 6.68 63.02
4 -0.4718 0.1408 6.84 62.98 -0.4718 0.1408 6.74 61.98
5 -0.4324 0.1412 6.91 62.87 -0.4324 0.1412 6.81 61.87
6 -0.3931 0.1417 6.97 62.74 -0.3931 0.1417 6.87 61.74
7 -0.3538 0.1432 7.03 62.63 -0.3538 0.1432 6.93 61.63
8 -0.3145 0.1466 7.1 62.54 -0.3145 0.1466 7.9 61.54
9 -0.275 0.1482 7.16 62.43 -0.275 0.1501 7.06 60.43
10 -0.2359 0.1494 7.22 66.43 -0.2359 0.1508 7.02 59.43
11 -0.1968 0.1501 7.29 66.83 -0.1965 0.1512 7.09 60.42
-
12 0.15726 0.1508 7.35 69.11 -0.1572 0.1542 7.15 67.11
-
13 0.11795 0.1512 7.41 69.7 -0.1179 0.1551 7.43 63.12
14 -0.0786 0.1542 7.47 70.11 -0.0786 0.1568 7.37 70.11
15 -0.062 0.1551 7.5 69.501 -0.065 0.1501 7.42 69.11
16 0.1179 0.1542 7.4 68.84 0.065 0.1494 7.3 69.77
17 0.15726 0.1512 7.38 68.171 0.0786 0.1482 7.08 69.7
18 0.1968 0.1508 7.31 67.53 0.1179 0.1466 7.01 70.11
19 0.235 0.1501 7.24 66.811 0.1572 0.1432 7.03 69.501
20 0.275 0.1494 7.17 66.22 0.1965 0.1417 7.04 68.84
21 0.314 0.1482 7.1 65.4 0.2359 0.1412 7.07 68.171
22 0.352 0.1466 7.03 64.41 0.275 0.1408 7.09 67.53
23 0.393 0.1432 6.96 64.23 0.3145 0.1383 7.01 66.811
24 0.4324 0.1417 6.89 63.6 0.3538 0.1391 6.94 66.22
25 0.474 0.1412 6.75 62.9 0.3931 0.1382 6.79 65.54
26 0.5116 0.1408 6.69 62.3 0.4324 0.136 6.25 64.92
27 0.55 0.1402 6.625 61.16 0.4718 0.14 6.4 64.23
28 0.589 0.1383 6.557 65.75 0.511 0.145 6.323 63.26
29 0.59 0.1391 6.58 66.1 0.55 0.148 6.12 62.9
30 0.598 0.138 6.59 66.3 0.559 0.149 6.08 62.3

45
b2
= 0.9857 , d=3m
b1

q'1 q q'2 q
Root =∆P/d =b2q'1/b Root =∆P/d =b2q'2/b
Station load P1 x103 1 x10
3
load P'1 x103 1 x10
3

no x103N(-) P2 N (-) N/m N/m P'2 N x103N N/m N/m

1 76.643 6.65 25.525 25.16 5.55 76.243 23.2 23.125
2 72.601 6.72 25.723 25.355 5.72 71.54 23.425 23.623
3 73.215 6.78 25.9 25.569 5.78 71.215 23.723 23.74
4 73.782 6.84 26.1 25.67 5.84 71.012 23.9 23.9
5 74.39 6.91 26.3 25.981 5.91 70.982 24.1 24.1
6 74.96 6.97 26.5 26.179 5.97 70.876 24.3 24.3
7 75.57 7.03 26.7 26.393 5.96 70.643 24.5 24.6
8 76.142 7.1 26.9 26.591 6.03 70.432 24.7 24.8
9 76.755 7.16 27.1 26.805 6.1 70.216 24.9 24.9
10 76.276 7.22 27.3 26.987 6.16 70.012 25.1 25.1
11 76.755 7.29 27.6 27.215 6.22 68.567 25.3 25.3
12 76.935 7.35 27.8 27.413 6.29 68.043 25.6 25.6
13 78.5 7.41 28 27.624 6.35 67.863 25.8 25.8
14 79.11 7.47 28.2 27.838 6.41 66.662 26 26
15 79.9 7.5 28.386 27.98 6.47 65.432 26.2 26.2
16 80.11 7.4 27.932 27.762 6.5 66.662 26.386 26.3
17 79.501 7.38 27.996 27.533 6.4 67.863 26.932 26.93
46
18 78.845 7.31 27.471 27.3 6.38 68.043 26.996 26.2
19 78.171 7.24 27.214 27.078 6.31 68.567 26.471 26.3
20 77.53 7.17 27.004 26.825 6.24 70.012 26.214 26.1
21 76.22 7.1 26.766 26.658 6.17 70.216 26.004 26
22 75.54 7.03 26.541 26.383 6.1 70.432 25.766 24.98
23 74.912 6.96 26.3 26.161 6.03 70.643 25.541 24.43
24 74.233 6.89 26.074 25.91 5.96 70.826 25.3 24.3
25 73.6 6.75 25.833 25.7 5.89 71.12 25.074 24.07
26 72.9 6.69 25.619 25.464 5.75 70.863 24.833 23.83
27 72.87 6.635 25.39 25.254 5.69 71.014 24.619 23.619
28 72.99 6.638 25.165 25.027 5.625 71.215 24.39 23.99
29 72.93 6.89 25.12 25.01 5.638 76.243 24.165 23.102
30 75.75 6.557 25.03 25.002 5.89 76.44 24.39 24.19

47
Station no Station no
15 27.996 -27.996 30 23.115 -23.115
14 27 -54.996 29 23.613 -46.728
13 26.532 -81.528 28 23.74 -70.468
12 26.112 -107.64 27 23.9 -94.368
11 25.8 -133.44 26 24.1 -118.468
10 25.8 -159.24 25 24.3 -142.768
9 25.30 -184.54 24 24.6 -167.368
8 25.30 -209.84 23 24.8 -192.168
7 25.12 -234.96 22 24.9 -217.068
6 25.0057 -259.966 21 25.1 -242.168
5 24.814 -284.78 20 25.3 -267.468
4 24.623 -309.403 19 25.6 -293.068
3 24.453 -333.856 18 25.8 -318.868
2 24.12 -357.976 17 26.6 -345.468
1 24.15 -382.126 16 26.2 -371.668
1' 24.16 -406.286 16' 26.386 -398.054
2' 24.45 -430.736 17' 26.004 -424.058
3' 24.62 -455.356 18' 25.766 -449.824
4' 24.8 -480.156 19' 25.541 -475.365
5' 25.814 -505.97 20' 25.3 -500.665
6' 25 -530.97 21' 25.074 -525.739
7' 25.12 -556.09 22' 24.833 -550.572
8' 25.3 -581.39 23' 24.619 -575.191
9' 25.8 -607.19 24' 24.39 -599.581
10' 26 -633.19 25' 24.115 -623.696
11' 26.12 -659.31 26' 24.34 -648.036
12' 26.5 -685.81 27' 24.833 -672.869
13' 26.5 -712.31 28' 25.074 -697.943
14' 27 -739.31 29' 25.541 -723.484
15' 27.9 -767.21 30' 26.942 -750.426

48
 q1 x103N/m Shear stress q2 x103N/m Shear stress
Station no (-) τ x103N/m2 Station no (-) τ x103N/m2
15 783.69 17.4417 30 762.68 16.44
14 757.79 16.862 29 737.47 15.8
13 728.79 16.217 28 708.79 15.217
12 702.29 15.638 27 602.29 15.037
11 685.17 15.037 26 655.17 14.48
10 650.17 14.481 25 604.32 14.037
9 624.32 13.902 24 578.32 13.481
8 598.32 13.323 23 552.67 12.902
7 572.57 12.745 22 528.22 12.323
6 548.22 12.211 21 403.77 10.218
5 423.77 10.563 20 377.65 9.563
4 399.65 8.423 19 331.34 7.423
3 375.5 6.83 18 328.21 5.83
2 351.34 4.32 17 325.4 3.32
1 328.21 2.5 16 324.2 2.32
1' 328.21 2.5 16' 324.2 2.32
2' 351.34 4.32 17' 325.4 3.32
3' 375.5 6.83 18' 328.21 5.83

49
 4' 399.65 8.423 19' 331.34 7.423
5' 423.77 10.563 20' 377.65 9.563
6' 548.22 12.211 21' 403.77 10.218
7' 572.57 12.745 22' 528.22 12.323
8' 598.32 13.323 23' 552.67 12.902
9' 624.32 13.902 24' 578.32 13.48
10' 650.17 14.481 25' 604.32 14.037
11' 685.17 15.037 26' 655.17 14.48
12' 702.29 15.638 27' 602.29 15.037
13' 728.79 16.217 28' 708.79 15.217
14' 757.79 16.86 29' 737.74 15.817
15' 783.69 17.44 30' 762.68 16.44

T
qo = = 7.378
× 10 3

2A

3.3. Shear force distribution over the fuselage:

l fc
= 9.15
d fc

⇒ d fc 2.39
= m

Load acting on fuselage=0.1wo=0.1×23.568×9.81=23.353×103N

Assume area of each stringers be3cm2

I yo = ( 2.49 ×3 10
×− 4 ) 2×( +
2.119 × 4 ) ×− ( 2
3 10 + 3 )104 ( × 2×−
×2.069 +) ( 104×
2 ×1.426 214 ×− 10 ×)2
2 0.71 + 4
×

I yo = 4.319 ×10−3 m4

T 385.32× 103
Torsional shear flow, q1= 2 A = = 10.736 ×103 N /m
2 × π × 2.39
2

Flexur
Area al
at At At shear Actual
station station station ∆P.M/16 ∆P.K/16 flow shear
Stringe ×10-4 At 0 At 16 zero σb σb .5 .5 x103N/ flow
r no m2 Zm Zm ×109 ×109 ×106m ×103N m N/m
1 1.5 2.49 2.27 3.33 3.0349 18.18 16.58 16.58 6.43
2 3 2.119 1.956 2.85 2.615 14.24 12.989 29.479 18.749
3 3 2.069 1.487 2.786 1.988 47.27 43.119 72.598 62.48
4 3 1.4269 1.23 1.909 1.644 16.06 14.649 87.247 77.247
89.364
5 3 0.7114 0.6827 0.951 0.9127 2.321 2.1172 2 79.682
50
 6 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
89.364
7 3 0.7144 0.6827 0.951 0.9127 2.321 2.1172 2 79.682
8 3 1.4269 1.23 1.909 1.644 16.06 14.649 87.247 77.247
9 3 2.069 1.487 2.786 1.988 47.27 43.119 72.598 62.48
10 3 2.119 1.956 2.85 2.615 14.24 12.989 29.479 18.749
11 1.5 2.49 2.27 3.33 3.0349 18.18 16.58 16.58 6.43

M σ
=
I y

385.32× 103 × 16.5

⇒ σ bo = −3
= 109 Pa×
1.558
4.08× 10

385.32× 103 × 15
And σ b = −3
=
1.337 109×Pa
4.319× 10

I y at distance x=16.5m

I yo = ( 2.27 ×3 ×10−4 ×2) ( +1.956 × 4− ) 2×(

3× 10 +
1.487 10×4 )− 2( × 1.23
+ 104)× −( 2 × 0.6827
+ 0 3 12)×4 × −
×

I yo = 4.0832 ×10−3 m
4

51
1- 2.49m

2- 2.119m

3- 2.06m

4- 1.4269m

5- 0.77114m

6- 0

52
1-2.27m

2-1.956m

53
3-1.487m

4-1.23m

5-0.6827m

6-0

Chapter 4

V- n diagram for the design study

4.1. Aspect ratio correction:

54
 57.3Cl 57.3 × −0.9
αi = = = − 2.345
Π × AR Π× 7

w
2
VS ( + ) = s = 48.413m / s
ρ sea × CLmax

w
2
VS ( − ) = s = 55.902m / s
ρ sea × 0.75CLmax
5
Vdrive = Vcruise + 250 = 304.4m / s
18

Vcruise = 235m / s

Angle of attack ( ) Induced angle of

attack
-14 -0.9 -2.345 -16.345
-12 -0.05 -0.1302 -12.1302
-10 -0.3 -0.7816 -10.7816
-8 -0.55 -1.433 -9.433
-6 -0.8 -2.084 -8.084
-4 -1 -2.6055 -6.6055
-2 -1.2 -3.1267 -5.1267
0 1.4 3.647 3.647
2 1.6 4.1689 6.1689
4 1.8 4.690 8.69
6 2 5.2118 11.2118
7 2.05 5.314 12.3414

4.2. Velocity and load factor:

V m/s Positive load factor V m/s Negative load

factor
9.6826 0.04 11.1804 0.04
19.3652 0.16 22.3608 0.16
55
29.0478 0.36 33.5412 0.36
38.7304 0.64 44.7216 0.64
48.413 1 55.902 1
58.75 1.4726 58.75 1.10439
235 23.56 235 17.6718
304.4 39.533 304.4 29.6506

velocity V m/s U m/s ∆n ∆n + 1 ∆n −1

Stall 58.75 8 0.00687 1.00683 0.993
Cruise 235 8 0.0272 1.02 0.93
dive 304.4 8 0.0353 1.0303 0.965

Gust alteration factor

Change in load factor:

ak ρUV
∆n = dcl 1.8 − 1.4
w a AR = = = 0.0793
2 dα AR 8.690 − 3.647
s

µ= =2470.59

0.88µ
K=
5.3 + µ

4.3. V-n diagram:

56
57
58
 Chapter 5

Critical loading performance

5.1. Fittings and connections:

Bolts and rivets:

The connection involves primary and secondary connection such as

fittings, bolts, rivets, welding etc. no tough that main or primary fitting involves
move weight and costs than any other aerospace structure.

Secondary in fitting design:

In a wing structure fitting involving in main load carrying structure is move

costly to design as well as to manufacture for economy at fabrication the structural
designed should have a fabrication the structural designed should have a good
knowledge of shop processes and operations .

General rules:

Usage of bolts

Bolts thread should not be placed in or shear the length of the bolts should be
such that not more than one thread external fitting surface which can be done by
washer.

Bolts less than 3/8’’ inch dia should not be used in major fittings and for steel bolts
3/10 inch should be small size to be used.

Bolts connecting parts having relative motion or stress reversal should have closed
tolerance to decrease shock loads.

i) Protruding head level of rivet.

59
 ii) The flush type rivet.

For many years round head rivet was, all sections but wind tunnel experiment it
was that these produce more drag so rivet head are changed to flush type which
produce lesser drag.

Joggled members:

A joggle is an offset formed in a member it usually involves one or more flanges of

a member of open cross section type joggles are quite common in typical airplane
structured they are used most often when it is desired to fasten to gather two
intersecting members without using an extra part at joint there will be slight loss in
stiffness of joggled member.

Protruding head flush head

60
Shear clips:

There are hundreds of these in a typical military airplane they are used for
joining together both primary and secondary structural components such as
equipments mounting brackets etc. the function of shear clip is to transfer shear
load from one part to another .it is not intended to transfer axial load or bending or
twist.

Fillers are used to fill up a void when they become a part of the structural path that
they held particular attention quite common in complicated metal structure.

Aircraft nuts:

Four standard steel nuts shown in figure nut material is more ductile than bolt
material, thus when the nut is tightened the threads will deflect to seat on the bold
thread. The nut is probably the most common aircraft nut. It develops the full rated

61
strength of bolts.

The shear nut is one half as thick the cast head nut and has threads only enough to
develop one half bolds tensile stress.

Failure by interrivet buckling:

The effective sheet area is considered to act monolithically with stiffness however
if the rivets are spot welded that fasten the rivet to the stiffener are spaced to far
apart sheet will buckle before the crippling stress of the stringers is placed. In order
to prevent this sort of buckling rivet spacing has to be selected on the upper surface
of the wing. Rivet spacing is closer than on the lower surface because the
compressive loads act on the top of the wing.

Rivet wrinkling:

The rivet spacing is relatively large the sheet will start buckling belt rivets this
buckling belt rivets this buckling does not deform in flange to which the sheet is
attached. The rivet spacing is such that prevent the inter-rivet buckling then the
failure of the sheets occurs by wrinkling. It is also known as forced wrinkling it is

62
5.2. Shock absorber analysis:

Static load = 0.45×W0

= 0.45×23805.568

= 9783 Kg

= 21567.82 lb.

Main wheel diameter = AwwB

A = 5.3

B =0.315

= 5.3 ×97830.315

=95.775 cm

Area =

= 7238.22 cm2

Load to extended = 0.25×Ps= 2445.75 Kg

Load to compress = 0.3×Ps = 2934.9 Kg

Load (Kg) Stroke (cm)

2445.75 0

10272.15 40.344

12717.9 49.95

Assuming static pressure in strut = 10342.13 KPa (1500 psi)

Piston area = 15.09 inch2

63
V3 = 10% displacement
49.95
= 0.1× × 15.09
2.5

= 30 inch2

Maximum static pressure = 1500 psi

Total cylinder volume

= 2.182 49.95

= 198.30 inch3

= stroke piston area

= 300 inch3

Calculation of static volume:

It is confirmed that the piston and cylinder volume are enough for the static load.

Oleo sizing:

For oleo- pneumatic metered orifice

η = 0.8

4loleo
The size of oleo strut (D) ; 1.3
Pπ

L = load on oleo

4 × 95971.23
D = 1.3
10342.13 × π × 1000

D = 0.1413

64
5.3. Fuselage bending stress analysis:

Balance Diagram:

Fuel weight=40.956KN

Payload =88.29KN

Empty weight of an aircraft=75.348KN

Wing weight=23.352KN

Tail structure weight=5.838KN

RA+RB =233.784KN

RB=210.42KN

RA=23.356KN

65
 Shear force and bending moment values:

Point Shear force KN Bending moment KNm

A 23.356 0
B 80.678 -181.32
C 0 0
D -64.934 119.089
E -129.742 -4.2697
F 5.83 -58.3309
G 0 0

5.4. Shear force diagram:

66
5.5. Bending moment diagram:

5.6. Airworthiness requirements:

Airworthiness of an aircraft is concerned with the standards of safety incorporated

in all aspects of its construction. These range from structural strength to the
provision of certain guards in the event of crash landing and include design
requirements related to aerodynamics, performance and electrical hydraulic
systems. The selection of minimum standards of safety is largely the concern of air
worthiness authorities who prepare handbooks of official requirements. In UK the
relevant publications are AVP970 for military aircraft and British civil air
worthiness requirements of civil aircraft. The handbooks include operation
requirements, minimum safety requirements recommended practices and design
data.

67
Clearly airworthiness implies a certain level of safety like saying that the ship is
sea worthy and it takes little fore thought to release that there must be some
yardstick against which air worthiness can be assessed. We might start with a
general, all embracing design requirements. An airplane shall be designed and built
to fly safely. Unfortunately we cannot then dust our hands and get on with the job,
believing that in one swipe we have got rid of government and other official
interference and struck below for freedom.

To be awarded a certificate of air worthiness an aircraft must be

demonstrated to be air worthy. Air worthiness can be defined as the contribution
made by the aircraft itself to he safety of the flight when the pilot has been
removed from the man machine loop. It is concerned with those aspects of design,
construction maintenance and the provision of all related limitations and essential
information which together determine fitness for flight, thus a c of A is awarded to
an aircraft and its equipment, although under certain circumstances the award may
also be conditional upon the aircraft being operated under the control of certain
named persons or perhaps just one individual.

68
 Chapter 6

Balancing and Maneuverability of aileron, elevator and rudder

6.1. Mission profile:

6.2. Gliding:

In the up powered flight the aircraft begins to glide , this is the same case for
the gliders or sailplane technology

The gliding angle,

For max. glide distance we need max. ratio

Since the glide angle only depending on ratio, its has move aerodynamic
characteristics the max. Range that the aircraft can glide is

The max. Range covered by the aircraft by the air if it begins to glide at an altitude
an altitude of 12Km and at an optimum glide at an optimum glide angle of 15094’
is 42.01 Km.

Equilibrium glides velocity:

69
Turn performance

The motion of aircraft during a turn is curved in contrast to the

rectilinear motion. By definition, A level turn is one is which the curved flight path
is in a horizontal plane parallel to the plane of ground.

For superior maneuvering the aircraft should have min. turn radius the
max.load factor.

Considering the max. lift a load distribution as an uniformly varying

6.3. Maneuvering

Rolling moment co-efficient is

1
tan θ min =
( L / D)
=1/3.5

θ min = 15.94

h
tan θ =
R

12
⇒R= =42.01Km
tan15.94

1 1
k= = = 0.0568
π eAR π × 0.8 × 7

 2 0.0568 
V( L / D ) =  × × 300× 9.81
 0.78 0.05634 
max

V( L / D ) = 87.04m / s
max

2 cos3 θ .w
Vv =
 CL 3 
ρ∞  2  s
 CD 

70
 2 cos3 15.94 × 300 × 9.81
Vv =
 0.83 
0.78  2 
 0.05634 

Vv = 6.64m / s

mV∞ 2
= L sin φ
R

ρ∞V∞ 2CL max

nmax =
2w / s

1.225 × 2352 × 2.05

nmax =
2 × 300

nmax = 23.56

Turn angle deg Turn radius m Turn rate deg/s

Velocity m/s (V) Load factor (n) (ф) (R) (ω)
25 0.266 _ _ _
58.75 1.472 47.2 325.72 0.18
83.92 3 70.52 253.81 0.33
109.107 5.07 78.62 244.14 0.447
134.285 7.693 82.53 240.98 0.557
159.46 10.84 84.7 240.138 0.664
184.64 14.54 86.05 239.57 0.77
209.82 18.78 86.94 239.3 0.87
235 23.56 87.567 239.15 0.982

71
 90

80
turn angle

70

60

50

40
240 260 280 300 320

turn radius

72
73
 V∞ 2
Turn radius, R =
g n2 − 1

2352
R=
9.81 23.56 2 − 1

R = 239.15 m

g n2 − 1
Turn rate, ω =
V∞

9.81 23.562 − 1
ω=
235

ω = 0.982 deg/ s

74
Rate of climb performance:

T 1
The max climb angle, sin θ max = −
W ( L / D ) max

1
sin θ max = 0.4 −
10.5

θ max = 17.74

0.5
2  k  W
Vθmax =   cos θ max
ρ∞  CDo  S

0.5
2  0.05756 
Vθmax = ×  × 300 ×9.81 ×cos17.74
1.225  0.0195 

Vθmax = 88.67m / s

Max rate of climb occurs at

( W / S ) z   z 
0.5 1.5
T  3
( R / C ) max =  ×   × 1− − 2 
 3ρ∞CDo   6 2 ( T / W ) ( L / D ) z 
2
W 

3 3
z = 1+ 1+ =1 + 1 + =2.08169
( T / W ) ( L / D) ( 10.5 ) ( 0.4 )
2 2 2 2
max

 300 × 9.81× 2.08 

0.5
 2.08 3 
( ) max  ( )
1.5
R / C = × 0.4 ×  1 − −  =45.28m/s
 3 ×1.225 × 0.0195  2 ( 0.4 ) ( 10.5 ) 2.08 
2 2
 6

Velocity at which max rate of climb occurs

0.5
 T /W ) ( W / S )  
V( R / C ) = ( 1 + 1 +
3

 3ρ∞ CDo  ( L / D ) max ( T / W ) 
max 2 2
  

75
 0.5
 0.4 × 300 × 9.81  3 
V( R / C ) = 1 + 1 + 
 3 × 1.225 × 0.0195  ( 10.5) max ( 0.4) 
max
2 2
  

=184.921m/s

When θ=3.4

Velocity (m/s) Rate of climb (m/s)

0 0
30 1.78
60 3.598
90 5.337
120 7.116
150 8.89
180 10.675
210 12.45
240 14.233
When Θ=6.8

Velocity (m/s) Rate of climb (m/s)

0 0
30 3.55
60 7.104
90 10.65
120 14.208
150 17.76
180 21.31
210 24.86
240 28.417
When θ=10.2

Velocity (m/s) Rate of climb (m/s)

0 0
30 5.312
60 10.625
90 15.93
120 21.25
150 26.56
180 31.87
210 37.18

76
When θ=13.6

Rate of climb
Velocity (m/s) (m/s)
0 0
30 7.05
60 14.108
90 21.16
120 28.21
150 35.27
180 42.32
210 49.38
When Θ=17.74

Rate of climb
Velocity (m/s) (m/s)
0 0
30 9.1409
60 18.28
90 27.4
120 36.56
150 45.704
180 54.84
210 63.986
240 73.127

When velocity=50m/s

θ deg Rate of climb (m/s)

0 0
3 2.616
6 5.226
9 7.821
12 10.39
15 12.94
18 15.45

When velocity=100m/s

θ deg Rate of climb (m/s)

0 0
3 5.233
6 10.45
9 15.64
12 20.79
15 25.88
18 30.9

77
When velocity=150m/s

θ deg Rate of climb (m/s)

0 0
3 7.85
6 15.68
9 23.48
12 31.18
15 38.822
18 46.35

When velocity=200m/s

θ deg Rate of climb (m/s)

0 0
3 10.467
6 20.9
9 31.28
12 41.58
15 51.76
18 61.8

When velocity=250m/s

θ deg Rate of climb (m/s)

0 0
3 13.08
6 26.132
9 39.108
12 51.9
15 64.704
18 77.25

78
Velocity (m/s) Lift (KN)
30 879.667
60 3518.668
90 7917.004
120 14074.68
150 21991.68
180 31668.02
210 43103.69
240 56298.7

Span Lift (KN)

0 0
1.182 13.8017
2.364 55.206
4.728 220.827
5.91 345.04
7.092 496.862
8.274 676.285
9.456 883.311
10.638 1096.605
11.82 1380.174

θ deg Lift (KN)

0 233.532
3 233.217
6 232.253
9 230.657
12 228.429
15 225.57
18 222.102

When V=235m/s

θ deg Rate of climb (m/s) Vh (m/s)

0 0 235
3 12.29 234.68
6 24.56 233.71
9 36.762 232.1
12 48.89 229.86
15 60.82 226.99
18 72.61 223.49
20 80.37 220
25 99.31 212.98
30 117.5 203.55
40 151 180.02
79
 50 180.02 151.05
60 203.02 117.5
70 220.82 80.37
80 231.42 40.807

 dC 
at =   = 0.1
 dα t

St lt
V= .
S C

d ε 11.48
= aw
dα πA

k f ω 2 f L f Lc
Cm C g =
S wCaw

Total CmC g = CmCgw + Cm Cgt + Cm Cgf + Cma Cac

Airplane pitching moment coefficient about CG:

−at  dε 
Cm C gt = V nt 1 − CL
aw  dα 

−0.1
= ×15.16 × 0.9812 × 0.35
0.1

=0.45

6.4. Wing contribution stability:

Assumptions:

• α is small

• z is very small, z=0

• CL»CD

80
Cm Cg = Cmac + CL ( hc − hac )

6.5. Elevator effectiveness:

CmCg = −at αtVH

6.6. Moment at zero lift:

Cm ,o = Cmac + Cmf + VH at F ( ε o +it )

Where F=0.7-0.8(free elevator factor)

Cm ,o = −0.009 + 0.3 +1.436 × 0.1 × 0.7( 0.018 + 0.15)

Cm ,o = 0.307

CL CmCg CmCg CmCg

0 0 0 0
0.35 0.277 0.2 0.1727
0.7 0.555 0.3811 0.345
1.05 0.833 0.5717 0.518
1.4 1.11 0.7623 0.6908
1.75 1.39 0.9528 0.8635
2.1 1.667 1.143 1.036

CL CmCg (-) CmCg (-) CmCg (-)

0 0 0 0
0.35 0.4239 0.44 0.457
0.7 0.8478 0.88 0.91
1.05 1.27 1.33 1.37
1.4 1.69 1.77 1.82
1.75 2.12 2.218 2.28
2.1 2.54 2.66 2.742

CL CmCgf CmCgf CmCgf

0 0 0 0
0.35 0.3 0.34 0.37

81
 0.7 0.6 0.67 0.7
1.05 0.97 0.989 1.1
1.4 1.12 1.16 1.2
1.75 1.53 1.58 1.63
2.1 1.61 1.69 1.72

CL Cmact (-) Cmact (-) Cmact (-)

0 0.03 0.035 0.04
0.35 0.009 0.001 0.046
0.7 0.018 0.0018 0.049
1.05 0.026 0.03 0.053
1.4 0.032 0.04 0.059
1.75 0.043 0.05 0.057
2.1 0.045 0.056 0.061

CL CmCg CmCg CmCg

0 -0.03 -0.035 -0.04
0.35 0.0631 0.099 -0.0303
0.7 0.2892 0.2693 0.008
1.05 0.507 0.306 -0.153
1.4 0.481 0.203 0.0138
1.75 0.757 0.3098 0.0156
2.1 0.772 0.117 -0.045

CL CmCgt Lift (KN)

0 0 0
0.35 0.45 65.012
0.7 0.9 130.024
1.05 1.37 195.03
1.4 1.82 260.04
1.75 2.28 325.06
2.1 2.742 390.07

Span Lift (KN)

0 0
1.182 23.04
2.364 91.88
4.728 368.78

82
 5.91 576.22
7.092 829.29
8.274 1120.13
9.456 1473.26
10.638 1826.2
11.82 2304.9

2500

2000

1500
Lift (KN)

1000

500

0
10 8 6 4 2 0

From tip span station point (m)

CL CmCg (-) CmCg (-) CmCg (-)

0 0.03 0.035 0.04
0.35 0.699 0.64125 0.536
0.7 1.391 0.687 1.115
1.05 2.082 0.896 1.69
1.4 2.774 0.729 2.26
1.75 3.468 0.76 2.85
2.1 4.155 0.706 3.724

α CmCg (-)
2 0.287
3 0.4309
4 0.5745
83
5 0.718
6 0.8618
7 1.005

84
 250

245

240
Lift (KN)

235

230

225

220
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Climb angle (deg)

85
86
87
88
89
 Chapter 7

Cabin design

7.1. Description:

For an aircraft of 60 + capacity, conventional seating(mixed class ) would be

five abreast for passenger long range transport it should provide higher comfort
level typically maximum first class seat is wide providing generous aisle would
make the fuselage diameter to adding 0.2 m for the pressure cabin structure makes.

Fuselage cross-section must be also consider in relation to the cargo pallet sizes to
be accommodated below cabin floor

Cass Seat abreast Seat width

Executive 4 0.7m
Tourist 5 .56m
charter 6 0.47m

The length of the cabin is determined by the seat pitch this various as the class

Executive = 1 to 1.1 m

Tourist = 0.8 to 0.9

Charter =0.7 to 0.8

90
The longest charter pitch with six abreast seating requires cabin length of 16m.

It is desirable to split the cabin in to at least two separate sectors this makes the in-
flight servicing easier and allow more options for the airline to segregate different
classes for the charter layout this division, will allow a quieter environment with
cabin.

7.2. Cabin layout:

A service module is positional at this location external service doors and hatches
are positional here and these contact as emergency exists.

This service module will account for some 2.5 meters.

91
 Rear cabin Centre cabin Front cabin Total seat
charter 9 42 9 60

92
7.3. Calculation:

We have seat pitch for economy class 0.6 to 0.7 m

Let us take pitch = 0.65 m

Total cabin length = 16.5

Service module accouter = 3.5 m

Available space to arrange seats =13m

The rear cabin with = 1.95m

Centre cabin width = 9.1 m

Rear cabin width =1.95m

7.4. Seat dimensions:

93
Volume =1 =0.33m3

7.5.FARs Related to seating:

Maximum number of seats abreast.

On airplanes having only one passenger aisle, no more than three seats abreast may
be placed on each side of the aisle in any one row.
Doors.
(a) Each cabin must have at least one easily accessible external door.
(b) There must be a means to lock and safeguard each external door against
opening in flight (either inadvertently by persons or as a result of mechanical
failure or failure of a single structural element either during or after closure). Each
external door must be open able from both the inside and the outside, even
though persons may be crowded against the door on the inside of the airplane.
Inward opening doors may be used if there are means to prevent occupants from
crowding against the door to an extent that would interfere with the opening of the
door. The means of opening must be simple and obvious and must be arranged and
marked so that it can be readily located and operated, even in darkness. Auxiliary
locking devices may be used.
(c) Each external door must be reasonably free from jamming as a result of
fuselage deformation in a minor crash.
(d) Each external door must be located where persons using them will not be
endangered by the propellers when appropriate operating procedures are used.
(e) There must be a provision for direct visual inspection of the locking mechanism
to determine if external doors, for which the initial opening movement is not
inward (including passenger, crew, service, and cargo doors), are fully closed and

94
locked. The provision must be discernible under operational lighting conditions by
appropriate crewmembers using a flashlight or equivalent lighting source. In
addition, there must be a visual warning means to signal the appropriate flight
crewmembers if any external door is not fully closed and locked. The means must
be designed such that any failure or combination of failures that would result in an
erroneous closed and locked indication is improbable for doors for which the initial
opening movement is not inward.
(f) External doors must have provisions to prevent the initiation of pressurization
of the airplane to an unsafe level if the door is not fully closed and locked. In
addition, it must be shown by safety analysis that inadvertent opening is extremely
improbable.
(g) Cargo and service doors not suitable for use as emergency exits need only meet
paragraphs (e) and (f) of this section and be safeguarded against opening in flight
as a result of mechanical failure or failure of a single structural element.
(h) Each passenger entry door in the side of the fuselage must qualify as a Type A,
Type I, or Type II passenger emergency exit and must meet the requirements of
that apply to that type of passenger emergency exit.
(i) If an integral stair is installed in a passenger entry door that is qualified as a
passenger emergency exit, the stair must be designed so that under the following
conditions the effectiveness of passenger emergency egress will not be impaired:
(1) The door, integral stair, and operating mechanism have been subjected to the
inertia forces specified in acting separately relative to the surrounding structure.
(2) The airplane is in the normal ground attitude and in each of the attitudes
corresponding to collapse of one or more legs of the landing gear.
(j) All lavatory doors must be designed to preclude anyone from becoming trapped
inside the lavatory, and if a locking mechanism is installed, it be capable of being
unlocked from the outside without the aid of special tools.
95
Seats, berths, safety belts, and harnesses.
(a) A seat (or berth for a nonambulant person) must be provided for each occupant
who has reached his or her second birthday.
(b) Each seat, berth, safety belt, harness, and adjacent part of the airplane at each
station designated as occupiable during takeoff and landing must be designed so
that a person making proper use of these facilities will not suffer serious injury in
an emergency landing as a result of the inertia forces specified in (c) Each seat or
berth must be approved.
(d) Each occupant of a seat that makes more than an 18-degree angle with the
vertical plane containing the airplane centerline must be protected from head injury
by a safety belt and an energy absorbing rest that will support the arms, shoulders,
head, and spine, or by a safety belt and shoulder harness that will prevent the head
from contacting any injurious object. Each occupant of any other seat must be
protected from head injury by a safety belt and, as appropriate to the type, location,
and angle of facing of each seat, by one or more of the following:
(1) A shoulder harness that will prevent the head from contacting any injurious
object.
(2) The elimination of any injurious object within striking radius of the head.
(3) An energy absorbing rest that will support the arms, shoulders, head, and spine.
(e) Each berth must be designed so that the forward part has a padded end board,
canvas diaphragm, or equivalent means, that can withstand the static load reaction
of the occupant when subjected to the forward inertia force specified in Berths
must be free from corners and protuberances likely to cause injury to a person
occupying the berth during emergency conditions.
(f) Each seat or berth, and its supporting structure, and each safety belt or harness
and its anchorage must be designed for an occupant weight of 170 pounds,
considering the maximum load factors, inertia forces, and reactions among the
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occupant, seat, safety belt, and harness for each relevant flight and ground load
condition (including the emergency landing conditions prescribed in (1) The
structural analysis and testing of the seats, berths, and their supporting structures
may be determined by assuming that the critical load in the forward, sideward,
downward, upward, and rearward
directions (as determined from the prescribed flight, ground, and emergency
landing conditions) acts separately or using selected combinations of loads if the
required strength in each specified direction is substantiated. The forward load
factor need not be applied to safety belts for berths.
(2) Each pilot seat must be designed for the reactions resulting from the application
of the pilot forces prescribed in
(3) The inertia forces specified in must be multiplied by a factor of 1.33 in
determining the strength of the attachment of each seat to the structure and each
belt or harness to the seat or structure.
(g) Each seat at a flight deck station must have a restraint system consisting of a
combined safety belt and shoulder harness with a single-point release that permits
the flight deck occupant, when seated with the restraint system fastened, to
perform all of the occupant's necessary flight deck functions. There must be a
means to secure each combined restraint system when not in use to prevent
interference with the operation of the airplane and with rapid egress in an
emergency.
(h) Each seat located in the passenger compartment and designated for use during
takeoff and landing by a flight attendant required by the operating rules of this
chapter must be:
(1) Near a required floor level emergency exit, except that another location is
acceptable if the emergency egress of passengers would be enhanced with that
location. A flight attendant seat must be located adjacent to each Type A
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emergency exit. Other flight attendant seats must be evenly distributed among the
required floor level emergency exits to the extent feasible.
(2) To the extent possible, without compromising proximity to a required floor
level emergency exit, located to provide a direct view of the cabin area for which
the flight attendant is responsible.
(3) Positioned so that the seat will not interfere with the use of a passageway or
exit when the seat is not in use.
(4) Located to minimize the probability that occupants would suffer injury by
being struck by items dislodged from service areas, stowage compartments, or
service equipment.
(5) Either forward or rearward facing with an energy absorbing rest that is
designed to support the arms, shoulders, head, and spine.
(6) Equipped with a restraint system consisting of a combined safety belt and
shoulder harness unit with a single point release. There must be means to secure
each restraint system when not in use to prevent interference with rapid egress in
an emergency.
(i) Each safety belt must be equipped with a metal to metal latching device.
(j) If the seat backs do not provide a firm handhold, there must be a handgrip or
rail along each aisle to enable persons to steady themselves while using the aisles
in moderately rough air.
(k) Each projecting object that would injure persons seated or moving about the
airplane in normal flight must be padded.
(l) Each forward observer's seat required by the operating rules must be shown to
be suitable for use in conducting the necessary enroute inspection.

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 Chapter 8

Three views of an aircraft

8.1. Side view:

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8.2. Front view:

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8.3. Top view:

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 CONCLUSION

Sixty seater passenger aircraft has been designed necessary comfort to the
passenger. Design, Analysis of Various Components and Determination of
Airplane Operational Characteristics. Using various methods and calculations
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every step has been designed with optimum performance and aerodynamic
characteristics. Thus each trail aims at a closer approach to the final goal and is
based on a more profound study of various problem involved. Structural designs,
center of gravity, loading performance, maneuvering performance are done
successfully.

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