Pipeline System Design:

Pipeline Network
Mike Yoon, Ph.D.

Key Topics
System Approach to Design
Pipeline Components
Pipeline Configuration

2010 Yoon Consulting

System Approach to Design

There are four aspects of design that are interrelated in
the system approach to design:

Hydraulic design
Mechanical design
Geo-technical design
Operations and maintenance design

Decisions in one area of design directly affect or limit

the options in another area.

2010 Yoon Consulting

Hydraulic Design
The hydraulic design is the process of evaluating:
The physical characteristics and quantities of the fluid to be
transported,
The number and location of pump stations,
The pipeline route and topology,
The range of pressure and temperatures,
The environmental conditions along the route

Several hydraulic designs can be viable for any given

design basis and route, but the best design should
satisfy early use requirements and future capacity
plans for the system.
2010 Yoon Consulting

Mechanical Design
For a hydraulic design, a number of mechanical designs
can be developed to meet the criteria of the design basis.
The mechanical design is governed by the codes and
standards, focusing on selection of pipe material and the
specification of pipe properties, type, size, and power
required of pumps and other equipment or ancillary
facilities such as heaters, and the support or burial
requirements for the pipeline.
The pipe diameter is selected based on the design flow,
with little mechanical design required. However, internal
and external pressure, allowable stress, and other
considerations affect the final design of the wall thickness
for the selected diameter.
2010 Yoon Consulting

Geo-Technical Design
The pipeline company is responsible to protect the
environment in the vicinity of the pipeline and its
business interest from potentially adverse
environmental conditions.
Geo-technical design can affect the cost and safety
significantly, if the pipeline route lies in challenging
environments.
Geo-technical design issues to be addressed are:

River crossings
Horizontal directional drilling
Buoyancy control
Geohazard management
2010 Yoon Consulting

Operation and Maintenance Design

The operation and maintenance design takes into
consideration the day-to-day tasks of operating and
maintaining the functional integrity of the system.
These include the necessary control systems to
operate the system within its design parameters
safely and continuously.

2010 Yoon Consulting

Key Topics
System Approach to Design
Pipeline Components
Line pipe and design pressure
Valves
Joints and Fittings

Pipeline Configuration

2010 Yoon Consulting

Line Pipe
Specifications for line pipe are given in the
following standards:
API 5L, 5LX: Specifications for Line Pipe
ANSI/ASME B36.10M: Welded and Seamless Steel Pipe

Line pipe is manufactured by several methods, the

most common being seamless (SMLS), electric
resistance welded (ERW), and submerged arc
welded (SAW) in the form of longitudinal and
spiral welds.

2010 Yoon Consulting

SMYS
The SMYS of the pipe material means the specified
minimum yield strength for steel pipe manufactured in
accordance with a listed specification. This is a
common term used in the oil and gas industry for steel
pipe.
API 5L specifies various strength grades, ranging from
Grade B, rated at 35,000 psi (241 MPa) to Grade
X120, rated at 120,000 psi (827 MPa), where the
Grade X120 refers to the SMYS in 1000 psi.

2010 Yoon Consulting

10

SMYS vs. Pressure

The pipe yield strength
varies with the pipe
grade. Shown in the plot
is a pipe stress vs.
pressure for a given pipe
grade.
SMYS is the maximum
stress, beyond which the
pipe is deformed with
additional applied
pressure.
2010 Yoon Consulting

11

Pipe Specification and Category

API 5L: This is the umbrella specification for API
5LX, 5LS, etc. It covers Seamless, Electric resistance
welded, Electric flash welded, Submerged arc welded,
Furnace lap welded, and Furnace butt welded.
API 5LX: Seamless, Electric resistance welded,
Electric flash welded, Submerged arc welded
API 5LS: Electric resistance welded, Submerged arc
welded

2010 Yoon Consulting

12

Examples of Allowable Stresses

Weld Joint

Specs

Grade

SMYS
PSI(MPA)

Joint
Factor

Seamless

API 5LX

X70 70,000(482)

1.00

Furnace butt

API 5L

A25 25,000(172)

0.60

Furnace lap

API 5L

Cls 1 25,000(172)

0.80

Furnace lap

API 5L

Cls 2 28,000(193)

0.80

Electric resistance

API 5LX,
API 5LS

X70 70,000(482)

1.00

Electric flash welded

API 5LX

X70 70,000(482)

1.00

Submerged arc welded

API 5LX,
API 5LS

X70 70,000(482)

1.00

2010 Yoon Consulting

13

Usage for Types of Line Pipe

Seamless

ERW

SAW

Min. Diameter

<=2.375

<=2.375

NPS 16

Max. Diameter

NPS 26

NPS 26

NPS 64

Grades

B to X80

B to X70

B to X80

Service

All services

Not offshore

All services

Relative cost

More expensive

Less expensive

Less expensive

than ERW

than seamless

than seamless,
more than ERW

2010 Yoon Consulting

14

Design Pressure Calculation

Use Barlows formula and safety factors to
determine the design pressure for a given pipe grade
and pipe wall thickness.
Pdesign = (2S*t/Do) * F*J*T
where
S = specified minimum yield strength of pipe, psig
t = pipe wall thickness, inches
Do= outside pipe diameter, inches
F = design factor
J = joint factor
T = temperature derating factor (applicable only to gas
pipelines)
2010 Yoon Consulting

15

Design Factor

2010 Yoon Consulting

16

Location Classification
Class

Z662

B31.4

Dwelling units <= 10

Not applicable

10 < dwelling units < 46,

Not applicable

Building or area occupied by more

than 20 people,
Industrial installation susceptible to
environmentally hazardous
conditions
3

Dwelling units >= 46, Institute that

are difficult to evacuate

Not applicable

Dwelling >= 4 stories

Not applicable

2010 Yoon Consulting

17

Comparison of Design Factors

Application

Class 1

High vapor pressure liquid

- Roads
- Railways
- Stations
Low vapor pressure liquid

0.80

Class 2
0.64
0.64
0.50
0.64
0.80

B31.4 *
0.72
0.72
0.72
0.72
0.72

* ASME B31.4 does not define a design factor, but opts

to factor the specified minimum yield strength by 0.72.
2010 Yoon Consulting

18

Temperature Factor
Section 401.3.1 of B31.4 states that it is not necessary
to vary allowable design stress for metal temperature
between -30oC and 120oC.
For application where ground or air temperature is
expected to be extremely low, seasonally or locally,
the properties of pipe component materials at low
temperature should be considered to verify that the
design will be adequate.
Below -30oC, steel toughness should be taken into
consideration, but not strength.

2010 Yoon Consulting

19

Temperature Derating Factor

Temperature

Z662

B31.4

<120oC

1.00

<150oC

0.97

<180oC

0.93

<200oC

0.91

>-30oC

1.00

<120oC

1.00
2010 Yoon Consulting

20

Comparison of Joint Factors

Class

Z662

B31.4

Seamless

1.00

Electric welded

1.00

1.00

- Resistance welded

1.00

- Induction/flash welded

1.00

- Fusion arc welded

0.80

Submerged are welded

1.00

1.00

Furnace butt welded

0.60

0.60

2010 Yoon Consulting

21

Hydrotest Pressure
B31.4 Codes specifies that the magnitude of hydrotest
pressure is 125% of the maximum operating pressure.
Therefore, by hydrotesting the pipe at 1.25 times the
MAOP, the pipe is stressed to 90% (72% * 1.25) of
the SMYS.
For example, a pipeline designed to operate
continuously at 1,000 psig will be hydrotested to a
minimum pressure of 1,250 psig.

2010 Yoon Consulting

22

Example: Design Pressure

Pipe: 16 OD x 0.250wall thickness API 5L grade
X56 Electric resistance welded
Location: Class 1, so F = 0.72
Joint factor: E = 1.0
Pmax = (2 * 56,000 * 0.250/16) * 0.72 * 1.0
= 1,260 psig
This pressure is called maximum allowable operating
pressure (MAOP), and the internal pressure that will
cause the hoop stress to reach the yield stress of 56,000
psig is 1,260/0.72 = 1750.
Hydrotest pressure = 1.25 * 1,260 = 1,575 psig
2010 Yoon Consulting

23

Wall Thickness Calculation

Minimum wall thickness, t, is a function of internal pressure,
Pi, pipe outside diameter, D, and the allowable stress, S.
t = Pi * D/(2*S)

Nominal wall thickness, tn, includes an allowance for

manufacturing tolerance.
tn = t + allowance

The actual wall thickness will be equal to or greater than the

nominal value.
Wall thickness for calculation of the MAOP excludes
additional thickness for corrosion allowance, imposed
stresses such as concentrated loads at supports, thermal
expansion or contraction, and bending.
2010 Yoon Consulting

24

Wall Thickness Selection

Specific sections of the system may have different wall
thickness requirements as determined by the internal
pressure and other imposed stresses, and making use of
the hydraulic gradient.
For economic benefits, thinner wall may be installed at
some distance downstream of pumping stations as the
operating pressure there declines.
However, there are other considerations such as
complications in construction of a system with frequent
variations in wall thickness.
Changes in wall thickness should be limited with
anticipated growth or expansion of the system capacity.
2010 Yoon Consulting

25

Buried Pipe
Pipelines are generally buried, because:
Surface use of pipeline corridor
Protection from intentional or accidental damage
Protection against expansion and contraction from ambient
temperature changes
Minimize variations of ambient temperature and resultant
effects on fluid viscosity
Provide restraint longitudinally along pipeline length

2010 Yoon Consulting

26

Aboveground Pipe
Pipelines may be partially or wholly installed
aboveground for reasons of economy of construction,
maintenance, requiring insulation, or heat tracing.
Longitudinal restraints are required at certain locations
such that expansion or contraction due to temperature or
pressure changes is absorbed by axial or longitudinal
stress in addition to radial expansion.

2010 Yoon Consulting

27

Key Topics
System Approach to Design
Pipeline Components
Line pipe and design pressure
Valves
Joints and Fittings

Pipeline Configuration

2010 Yoon Consulting

28

Valve Functions
Mainline isolation valves have three functions:
Sectionalize the pipeline into smaller segments that can be
isolated in order to minimize in the event of a line rupture,
Change flow direction to an interconnected pipeline or to a
delivery facility such as tanks,
Isolate process equipment such as plant for safety,
maintenance, or operating purposes.

Mainline valves must allow passage of pigs.

2010 Yoon Consulting

29

Valve Types
Block valves
Mainline valve
Side valve to isolate a lateral from the mainline

Pressure relief valves

Pressure regulating or control valves
Surge tanks

2010 Yoon Consulting

30

Valve Selection
Valve selection takes into account the following:

Function
Operating characteristics
Location and terrain
Fluid service
Cost
Materials
Space availability
Maintenance
Repair capability
2010 Yoon Consulting

31

Valve Location
In general, valves are installed at locations where safety
is of primary concern and to be enhanced.
Valves are installed at the origin and terminal points of
a pipeline, branch points to isolate a section and to
facilitate hydrostatic testing, i.e., anywhere that the test
pressure is differentiated such as sections of higher
operating pressure or a change in wall thickness.
Sectionalizing block valves should be located in easily
accessible positions, e.g., aboveground on a buried
pipeline.

2010 Yoon Consulting

32

Block Valve
Block valves are used to isolate sections of mainline
or laterals in the vent of a line break or during
maintenance.
Code requirements for maximum valve spacing are:

Class
1
2
3
4

Z662
HVP
NR
15 Km
15 Km
15 Km

Z662
LVP
NR
NR
NR
NR
2010 Yoon Consulting

B31.4
12 Km
12 Km
12 Km
12 Km
33

Standards for Valves and Fittings

ANSI B16.5, B16.9, B16.10, B16.11, B16.25,
B16.28: Flanges, Fittings, Valves
API 6D Pipeline Valves, Gate, Plug, Ball, and
Check Valves
API 600, 602, 603: Valves

2010 Yoon Consulting

34

Control Valve
A basic control valve system would normally consist
of the following components:

Control valves
Actuators
Controllers
Sensors

Control valves adjust processes by alterning flow rate

and/or differential pressure which is defined as the
difference between the pressure at the valve inlet and
the pressure at the valve outlet.
In general, the greater the differential pressure the
greater the flowrate for any given valve orifice size.
2010 Yoon Consulting

35

Actuator
The operation of a control valve involves positioning
its movable part relative to the stationary seat of the
valve. The purpose of the valve actuator is to
accurately locate the valve plug in a position dictated
by the control signal.
The actuator accepts a signal from the control system
and, in response, moves the valve to a fully-open or
fully-closed position, or a more open or a more closed
position (depending on whether 'on / off' or
'continuous' control action is used).
Two popular ways of providing this actuation are
pneumatic and electric types.
2010 Yoon Consulting

36

Pressure Regulating Valve

Pressure regulating valve

Flow
Pipe segment to be protected
2010 Yoon Consulting

37

Key Topics
System Approach to Design
Pipeline Components
Line pipe and design pressure
Valves
Joints and Fittings

Pipeline Configuration

2010 Yoon Consulting

38

Joints and Fittings

Pressure losses occur through joints and fittings due
to energy losses resulting from changes in the
magnitude or direction of liquid velocity in the
pipeline.
Pipe joints include welds and flanges, while fittings
pipe enlargements and contractions, pipe bends and
elbows, and restrictions such as valves.
In addition to joints and fittings, the following
contributes minor pressure losses:
Valves
Orifice meter

2010 Yoon Consulting

39

Minor Pressure Losses

In most long-distance pipelines, pressure losses due to
valves and bends are comparatively small, so such
pressure losses are called minor pressure losses.
In long transmission lines, the minor losses are so small
that they can be ignored without significant errors.
In short pipelines such as plant piping, the pressure loss
due to the above can be substantial.

2010 Yoon Consulting

40

Calculation of Pressure Losses

The minor pressure losses can be expressed by a
kinetic energy term:
P = Kv2/2
where K = pressure loss coefficient (dimensionless).
P = Minor pressure loss
v = velocity of liquid through valve, joint or fitting

The value of K is determined mainly by the flow

geometry or the shape of the device. K values are
almost constant at high Reynolds number and
compiled in hydraulic data handbooks.

2010 Yoon Consulting

41

K Values of Valves
Valves

8-10

12-16

18-24

Gate

0.12

0.12

0.10

0.10

Globe

5.1

5.1

4.4

4.1

Ball

0.05

0.05

0.04

0.04

Butterfly

0.77

0.68

0.35

0.30

Plug

0.31

0.27

0.23

0.22

2010 Yoon Consulting

42

Pressure Loss Coefficients

2010 Yoon Consulting

43

Example: Minor Pressure Losses

A tank open to the
atmosphere is filled with
40oAPI oil to a height of 10m
from the bottom. A tap at the
bottom of the tank is opened,
and oil flows out from the
outlet.
Determine the outlet pressure.
Assume that the flow is
steady and incompressible.

1
10m

2010 Yoon Consulting

Oil
200m

16 OD

44

Applicable Equations
From the momentum conservation in steady state, we
have
(P1 + v12/2 + gz1) - (P2 + v22/2 + gz2) = fv2/2*L + Kv22/2

where f is the Darcy friction factor and L the pipe length,

and K = Kentrance + Kexit are the pressure loss coefficients
for pipe entrance and exit, respectively.
P1 is atmospheric pressures, v1 = 0, v2 = v, z1 = 10m, and
z2 = 0. Therefore, the equation becomes
P2 = gz1 - v2/2 - fv2/2*L (Kentrance + Kexit)v22/2

where Kentrance = 0.5 and Kexit = 1.0.

2010 Yoon Consulting

45

Example Data and Friction Factor

Data:

Pipe = 16 OD x 0.25 wt: inside diameter = 0.394m

Pipe roughness = 0.0018 = 0.0457mm
Crude viscosity = 3 cSt of 40 oAPI crude
Density = 825 kg/m3
Flow rate = 1,000 m3/hour or velocity = 2.28 m/sec

Friction factor calculation:

Re = 2.28*0.394/0.000003 = 299,000: partially turbulent
Relative roughness = 0.0000457m/0.394m = 0.000116
f = 0.0156
2010 Yoon Consulting

46

Example: Friction Pressure Loss

Pf/L= 0.0156*825kg/m3 * (2.28 m/sec)2/(2*0.394m)
= 84.9kg/(m2 sec2) = 84.9 Pa/m = 0.0849 kPa/m
Total pressure drop for 200m long pipe = 0.0849 * 200
= 17.0kPa
Pressure at the tank outlet = gz1 = 825*9.8*10/1000 =
80.9kPa
The velocity pressure, v2/2 = 825 * (2.28)2/2 =
2,144pa = 2.14kPa
The pressure losses due to entrance and exit are
(Kentrance + Kexit)v22/2 = 1.5*2.14 = 3.21

Pressure at the pipe discharge point = 80.9 2.14 -17.0

3.21 = 58.6kPa
2010 Yoon Consulting

47

Example Discussion
The pressure losses due to pipe entrance and exit can
be relatively significant for low pressure system,
whereas they are negligibly small for large pressure
system such as transmission pipeline.

2010 Yoon Consulting

48

Enlargement
Consider liquid flowing through a pipe of diameter
D1. If the diameter enlarges to D2, the pressure loss
can be calculated as follows:
P = K(v1 v2)2/2 = K(A2/A1 1)2 v22/2
where v1 and v2 are the velocity of the liquid in D1
and D2 pipes and A1 and A2 the areas.
The value of K depends on the diameter ratio and the
different angle due to the enlargement.

2010 Yoon Consulting

49

Gradual Enlarger - Reducer

D2

D1

D2

Gradual Pipe Enlargement and Reduction

2010 Yoon Consulting

50

Enlarger Pressure Loss Coefficient

2010 Yoon Consulting

51

Enlargement Example
Calculate the pressure loss due to a gradual
enlargement in a pipe that flows 1,800m3/hr of diesel
from a 8 diameter to a 12 with an angle of 60o. Both
sizes are internal diameters.
Solution: The liquid velocity in the 12 pipe size is v2
= 1.714m/sec, and diameter ratio = 12/8 = 1.5
From the diagram, the value of K is 1.2 for area ratio
= 2.25 and angle = 60o.
Therefore, pressure loss due to gradual enlargement is
P = 1.2 * 850 * (2.25 1)2 * 6.8562/2
= 37,456 Pa = 37.5 kPa
2010 Yoon Consulting

52

Contraction
For flow through an abrupt contraction, the flow from
the larger pipe to a smaller pipe results in the
formation of a vena contracta, just after the diameter
change.
At the vena contracta, the flow area reduces to Ac with
increased velocity of vc, and subsequently to v2.
The pressure loss for sudden contraction is:
P = (1/Cc 1)2 v22/2
Where Cc is the contraction coefficient

2010 Yoon Consulting

53

Contraction Coefficients
A2/A1

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

Cc

0.624

0.632

0.643

0.659

0.681

A2/A1

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

Cc

0.712

0.755

0.813

0.892

1.0

2010 Yoon Consulting

54

Equivalent Lengths
Valves
Gate
Globe
Ball
Plug
Swing check

L/D

Elbow
8
340
3
18
100

L/D

Standard (90o)

30

Standard (45o)

16

Long-radius
elbow (90o)

16

The minor pressure losses can be accounted for by means of

an equivalent length method. K is analogous to the term fL/D
for a straight length in the Darcy equation.
It is better to use K, because K is less dependent on the
Reynolds number and relative roughness.
2010 Yoon Consulting

55

Equivalent Length Example

A piping system of a pump station is 140m of NPS 24 pipe that has
two 24 gate valves, three 24 ball valves, on swing check valve,
and two 90o standard elbows. Using the equivalent length concept,
calculate the total pipe length of the station.
Convert all valves and fittings in terms of 24 pipe as follows:

Two 24 gate valves = 2* 24* 8 * 0.0254 = 9.75m

Three 24 ball valves = 3* 24 * 3 * 0.0254 = 5.49m
One 24 swing check valve = 1* 24 * 100 * 0.0254 = 60.96m
Two 90o elbows = 2* 24 * 30 * 0.0254 = 36.58m
Total equivalent length of straight pipe and all fittings = 140m + 112.78m =
252.78m
The pressure drop due to friction is calculated based on 252.78m of pipe.

2010 Yoon Consulting

56

Key Topics
System Approach to Design
Mechanical Design
Pipeline Configuration

2010 Yoon Consulting

57

Injections and Deliveries

Liquid may be delivered off the pipeline (stripping) at
intermediate locations, reducing the main line flow rate and the
remainder continues to the pipeline terminal. Since the
downstream flow is lower, the frictional pressure drop is lower.
If the stripping rate is high, then the pipe size of the
downstream section can be reduced.
Liquid may enter the main pipeline at intermediate locations
(side-stream injection), adding flow rate to the main line flow
and the remainder continues to the pipeline terminal. Since the
downstream flow is higher, the frictional pressure drop is
higher. If the side stream injection rate is high, then the pipe
size of the downstream section should be increased.
A pump is installed to increase the injection pressure on the
injection side, while a control valve is installed to control the
delivery pressure.
2010 Yoon Consulting

58

Pipe Branches
Liquid may be delivered out of the main pipeline into
branch lines or injected from branch lines into the
main pipeline at intermediate locations.
The pressure at the flow lifting point should be so
high that the pressure at the injection point is higher
than the main line pressure. A pump is normally
installed at the flow lifting point.
The main line pressure should be high enough to meet
the delivery pressure requirement. To regulate the
delivery pressure, a control valve is installed on the
branch line or the main line pressure at the junction is
locked.
2010 Yoon Consulting

59

Elements of Pipeline System - 1

Injection station, also known as receipt or inlet station, is
where the product is injected into the line. Storage
facilities, such as tank terminals, as well as other devices
to push the product through the line, like booster pumps
are usually located at these locations.
Delivery station, also known as terminal, is where the
product will be distributed to the final consumer. It could
be a tank terminal or a connection to other pipelines.
An intermediate station can be side stream injection or
delivery station. These stations allow the pipeline operator
to inject or deliver part of the product being transported.

2010 Yoon Consulting

60

Elements of Pipeline System - 2

Pump stations are located along the line to move the liquid
through the pipeline.
Block Valve Stations are the first line of protection for
pipelines. With these valves the operator can isolated any
segment of the line to perform some specific maintenance
work or isolate a rupture or leak. Block valve stations are
usually located every 20 to 30 miles, depending on the
type of pipeline.
Regulating station is a special type of valve station, where
either pressure or flow is controlled. Pressure regulators
are usually located at the downhill side of a peak, while
flow regulators at delivery stations.
2010 Yoon Consulting

61

Pipeline Network
The following pipe arrangements are made to build a
complex pipeline network:
Pipes in series refer to the connection of pipes of different
diameters in series.
Parallel or looped pipes increase flow rates and reduce
pressure drop.
Branch or lateral lines connect to/from other pipelines or
facilities from/to the main line.

A junction is required at the point where more than

two pipes join together. Normally, valves are installed
at a junction to control the flow or pressure.
2010 Yoon Consulting

62

Pipes in Series - 1
The same flow rate goes through the pipes connected in
series.
The larger the pipe diameter, the slower the velocity,
the smaller the friction factor, and the lower the friction
pressure loss.
Q = v1A1 = v2A2 = v3A3 and Ptotal = (Pi)
The total pressure loss is obtained by adding the
pressure losses of all the pipe segments, which may
have different pipe diameters.

2010 Yoon Consulting

63

Pipes in Series - 2
Equivalent length is based on the same pressure drop in
the equivalent pipe as the original pipe diameter.
Le = L2 (D1/D2)5 * (f2/f1)
If D1and D2 are similar, the ratio f2/f1 is almost 1.
A pipe is connected in series where there is a large flow
increase or decrease due to side-stream injection or
delivery.
A pipe in series is not practical for petroleum liquid
pipelines, because it doesnt allow easy pigging
operations unless a pig trap and launch facility is
installed.
2010 Yoon Consulting

64

Series Piping - 1
L1

D1

L2

L3

D2

2010 Yoon Consulting

D3

65

Series Piping - 2
P1

P2
D1
K1
Qb

P3
D2
K2
Qb

P4

D3
K3 Qb

A system of pipeline with different lengths and diameters

connected in series. Note the flow resistance changes with
diameter.
2010 Yoon Consulting

66

Telescoping Pipe Wall Thickness

Under steady state conditions, the pipe pressure decreases from
pump station to the terminal in the direction of flow. The pipeline
segment immediately downstream of a pump station will be
subject to higher pressures while the tail end of that segment will
be subject to lower pressures.
If we use the same wall thickness throughout thee pipeline, the
downstream portion of the pipeline will be underutilized.
A more efficient approach would be to reduce the pipe wall
thickness as we move away from a pump station toward the
suction side of the next pump station or the delivery terminal.
Wall thickness reductions must be able to handle the higher
pressures that result from shut-down of intermediate station and
surge pressure caused by pump trip.
2010 Yoon Consulting

67

Pipe Grade Tapering

Like telescoping pipe wall thickness to compensate for lower
pressures, the pipe grade may be changed.
The higher pressure sections are constructed of higher grade pipe
material, whereas the lower pressure sections are constructed of
somewhat lower grade steel.
Sometimes a combination of telescoping and grade tapering is
used to minimize pipe cost.
Wall thickness reductions must be able to handle the higher
pressures that result from shut-down of intermediate stations and
surge pressure caused by pump trip.

2010 Yoon Consulting

68

Series Piping Example

Two pipes are connected in series with a pipe
reducer and gate valves as follows:
One 24 gate valve at the beginning of 24 pipeline
24 pipeline, 0.394 wall thickness, 10,000m long
One 24 to 20 sudden reducer
20 pipeline, 0.306 wall thickness, 25,400m long
One 20 gate valve at the end of 20 pipeline

Determine the total equivalent length on 20

diameter pipeline.
2010 Yoon Consulting

69

Solution: Series Piping Example

The total equivalent length on 24 pipe is the sum of the
following:
One gate valve = 8 * (24 2*0.394) * 25.4/1,000 = 4.7m
Pipe length = 10,000m
Total equivalent length on 24 = 10,004.7m

The equivalent length of the 24 pipe = 10,004.7 *

(23.212/19.388)5 = 24,609m
The total equivalent length on 20 pipe is the sum of the
following:
One gate valve = 8 * (20 2*0.306) * 25.4/1,000 = 3.9m
Pipe length = 25,400m
Total equivalent length on 24 = 25,404m

The total equivalent length on 20 diameter pipe is 50,013m. The

pressure losses due to the gate valves and reducer are insignificant.
2010 Yoon Consulting

70

Parallel or Looped Pipes - 1

For parallel pipes, the flow through each pipe is
different, whereas the pressure drops across the
parallel pipes are the same.
A pipeline is looped to increase throughput or flow
rate. Since the frictional pressure drop is lower with a
looped pipe, so is pumping requirement.
Continuity equation yields the total flow as follows:
Q = (Qi) and
v1 = Q1/A1, v2 = Q2/A2, v3 = Q3/A3, and
P1 = P2 = P3
2010 Yoon Consulting

71

Parallel or Looped Pipes - 2

Assuming the pipe length is the same, the flow through
each branch in terms of the inlet flow Q is as follows:
Q1 = Q/[1 + (f1/f2)0.5 (D2/D1)2.5]
Q2 = (f1/f2)0.5 (D2/D1)2.5 *Q/[1 + (f1/f2)0.5 (D2/D1)2.5]
If the diameter difference is small, the ratio of the
friction factor is almost 1.
The equivalent diameter of these two pipes is
De = D1 (Q/Q1)0.4
If the two diameters are equal, then Q1 = Q2 = Q/2 and
De = 1.3195*D1
2010 Yoon Consulting

72

Pressure Drop Can be Alleviated By Looping

Qb1
Qb

K1
D1

P1

P2

Qb

D2
Qb2

K2

A system of pipelines connected in parallel (Looped)

2010 Yoon Consulting

73

Partial Sections of a Line may be Looped

to Achieve Required Pressure Drop
D2, K2, X

L-X
K1

P1
Q1

K1

P2
X

L, D1

Pipeline Segmental Looping

2010 Yoon Consulting

74

Pipeline Network Analysis

A pipeline network can be analyzed using the
following network theorem:
The algebraic sum of the pressure drops around each loop in
the network is zero.
Continuity equation must be satisfied at each junction or
node. This means that all flows going into a junction must
equal to flows leaving the junction.

Use the total pressure loss equations in terms of the

flow rate, including the static pressure due to elevation
changes.
A set of non-linear equations is arranged in a sparse
matrix to take advantage of many zero vales in offdiagonal elements.
2010 Yoon Consulting

75