ore-graDe control

Sub-level caving:
engineered
to perform
Simon Steffen of Elexon Mining discusses methods for optimising
production at modern sublevel caves, while maximising ore grades
and recovery

ub-level caving is a highly efficient,

top-down, underground bulk mining method. Recent developments
in sub-level cave mining have advanced
the understanding of the technique and
its production performance, which allow it
to now be considered as a highly viable
alternative to open stoping and, in some
cases, even to block caving.
In addition to a low unit cost, sub-level
caving offers the following advantages
over open stoping and block caving:
Less up-front capital expenditure;
Earlier access to the ore means revenue
is generated early in the project;
It can target bulk orebodies more
precisely;
It is more flexible to adapt to metal
value, production and scheduling
requirements; and
It presents opportunities for improvements in local geotechnical conditions.

Smart Markers recovered at

drawpoint. Inset: Smart Marker
being installed
quences of not optimising sub-level
caving include loss of resource recovery,
early shutdown of draw due to high waste
ingress and high production-grade
variability. These have major detrimental
effects on the success and viability of
mining operations.
Today, the degree of control over
sub-level caves has considerably
improved; three main factors have
influenced this development:
A better understanding of ore flow and
recovery gained through numerous
full-scale marker programmes
performed at multiple mine sites;
The development of recovery
modelling systems calibrated to
reconciled performance and marker
programmes; and

Historically, mining companies have

been deterred from using sub-level caving
because it involved significant
uncertainties around cave
propagation and ore flow.
Sub-level caving was
associated with a lack
of control over
production; the
conse-

What is sublevel caving?

Sub-level caving is an advanced bulk mining method that is
highly amenable to automation. It can be applied to
large-scale competent orebodies and on a smaller scale
where there is a reasonable vertical extent.
Sub-level caving is typically used where the orebody has a
smaller footprint and/or more competent rock mass that
prevents the continuous caving required for a block cave and
is sometimes used where large open-pit mining operations
transfer to underground extraction methods.
Once the orebody is developed, it is drilled and blasted on
progressively lower levels until it is depleted. The waste rock
above the orebody caves gradually upwards as the ore is
extracted, filling the void created by mining which makes this
a very safe method. Blasting of the entire orebody is required
to produce a production ore flow.
As sub-level caving uses a top-down approach, it requires
less upfront capital than a block-cave operation and much
less time to reach full production. This could be also
advantageous where high-grade ore is located near the top
of the orebody.
It also allows for more selective extraction of the orebody
than is attainable through block or panel caving.
Production rates achieved in sub-level caving operations
are typically lower than for block caves but higher than for
stoping methods.

The availability of the Smart Markers

System, which enables mines to

perform high-resolution ore recovery
monitoring with minimum production
disruption.

As with any mining method, it is

imperative to engineer sub-level cave
mining operations to reduce variability in
mined grade and production. Drill and
blast design and practice has the greatest
impact on the performance of sub-level
caving and its ability to become a reliable,
low-cost ore-factory.

Historically, mining companies have

been deterred from using sublevel
caving because it involved significant
uncertainties around cave propagation
and ore flow

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September 2013

67

68

ore-grade control

Right: reader
installation in an
underground
drive

In the past, the understanding of

sub-level cave mining systems was
constrained by the inability to directly
view and measure the effect of mining
because the blasted void was confined by
caved material. This resulted in limited
confidence in the results from recovery
modelling systems.
To quantify the effect and success of
engineering on ore recovery, instruments
to measure recovery performance were
required.
Traditionally, physical markers were
installed into orebodies. These were
either marked tubes or mine objects that
were identified and sorted by hand or by
tramp magnets on conveyor systems.
Recovering these markers was highly
labour-intensive and inflicted significant
production process interference. The

introduction of the Smart Marker System

was a game changer in the ability to
monitor ore recovery in production
environments.

Smart Marker System

The Smart Marker System is an automated

solution for monitoring ore flow and
recovery in underground mines. Smart
Markers are blast-resistant radio
transmitters which are installed in known
locations within the orebody.
Smart Markers travel together with
their surrounding material to drawpoints
where they are extracted with the
run-of-mine ore.
On the way to the dump point, Smart
Marker Readers, which are installed at
strategic points along passageways,
detect, identify and log the presence of
markers with an accurate timestamp. This
automated detection process does not
Smart monitoring with markers
interfere with production. It has a minimal
impact on the production process and
The Smart Marker System automatically detects, logs and
does not require personnel in the
time-stamps Smart Markers as they are extracted with ore at
production zones.
the production level. It collates installation and extraction
Ore flow and recovery knowledge is
data in real time.
gained by analysing visually and
The movement of rock in an underground orebody can be
statistically:
analysed, revealing flow over time, based on the knowledge
of the original installation position of each Smart Marker,
w here Markers were installed;
along withWorld
the time1.2
and pg
location
of its22/5/12
extraction. 15:21 Page 1
w
 hen and where they were extracted;
Mining
2012
the sequence of extraction and drawn

tonnage at recovery point; and

w hich Markers are not extracted.

To date, the Smart Markers System is

the only automated ore-flow monitoring
system available worldwide that provides
insight into how caves perform. It has
been used by large and small sub-level
caving operations, and also in block caves
to investigate draw-bell design, and
monitor ore flow/recovery and cave
propagation.
The investigation and understanding of
ore recovery and flow under local
conditions is central to the success of
sub-level caving. Smart Markers provide
the highest-resolution, fastest and safest

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ore-grade control

method to monitor ore recovery and flow,

with minimal production interference. This
enables operations to improve mine
design and practice, and achieve
optimised ore recovery leading to
reliability and less variance of the mine
production to the plan.

Targeting multiple level

recovery
To achieve a competitive resource
recovery, sub-level caving must be
considered as a multi-level system. It
follows that the mechanisms and
interaction of flow with draw rates over
multiple levels must be monitored to
successfully engineer a well-performing
operation.
Marker data and reconciliation studies
from various sub-level caving operations
show that, at draw rates of 100-120% of
the fired volume, around 45-55% of the
blasted material is recovered directly on
the primary sub-level. The remaining ore
is available and continues to be recovered
from the following levels.
Marker programmes at numerous sites
have identified zones within the blasted
ring that are principal targets for
recovering and optimising fragmentation
(see figure 2). Understanding the local
conditions contributing to recovery from
these zones leads to maximising early
recovery, and minimising vertical
extending flow channels that result from
flow deviating from these targets.
The central core zone of the sub-level

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69

Benefits of ore recovery engineering

Sub-level caving performance
depends on optimised ore recovery,
especially as drawn tonnage increases.
This is principally driven by drill
and blast design and practice, and
the application of draw control
systems. When properly engineered
this leads to:
Improved production throughput;
Improved grade, and reduced
variance to planned grade;
O
 ptimised unit costs;
Increased predictability; and
U nderstood and reduced
production risk.
These benefits can be summarised
under the following headline areas:
Recovery
O
 ptimised multi-level recovery;
R educed dilution and ore loss;
Improved primary recovery (depth,
width and consistency of draw); and
D raw rates targeting value
optimised resource recovery.
Productivity
A chieving optimum fragmentation;
M
 inimising oversize and hang-ups;
cave ring is recovered preferentially and
governed by the concentration of
explosive energy in the centre of the ring.
This high-energy core is often influenced
by pre-conditioning of the front of the
ring by the previous blast. This, in turn,
depends highly on the optimisation of the
blast ring spacing (burden) and blast ring
design for local ground conditions.
The fragmentation and flow of the apex
zone is critical to primary recovery and
optimum multi-level recovery. If the apex
is not properly broken, ore flow will likely
connect laterally at an early stage to the
depleted drive floor of the previous level,
or longitudinally, moving forward into the
cave (see figure 3). A flow channel may
form that draws uneconomic material into
the draw column, replacing the ore and
diluting subsequent recovery on lower
levels. In addition, the poorly fragmented
apex may result in ore loss.
Marker programmes have shown that,
even under ideal production rate regimes
and controlled extraction, the shoulder
zones have a very low probability of
recovery on the primary level. However,
the shoulder is recovered at an early stage
of draw on the level below (secondary
recovery) if the apex zone is fragmented
enough. It follows that an understanding
of the local conditions and design
optimisation are critical for maximising
recovery of the shoulder zone.

September 2013

R educing production activity

rework;

Increasing unit productivity; and

F lexibility.
Predictability
B etter calibration of recovery
models, and
Improved confidence in production
forecast and the mine plan
Safety
Improved brow conditions;
R educed need to work around the
brows (to rehabilitate, re-drill,
release hang-ups or recover lost
holes); and
R educed misfiring.
Reduced production cost
O
 ptimised drilling efforts;
U nderstanding of local drill and
blast conditions leading to
application of innovative drill
pattern design;
O
 ptimised burden spacing;
L ess re-drilling and reconditioning;
L ess secondary breakage; and
M
 ore uniform fragmentation.
Significant damage to the brow zone or
regression during draw causes a narrow
and shallow draw and low primary
recovery. Though the ring material left
behind on the primary level may be
recovered over subsequent levels, it can
result in a lower total ring recovery and
compromise firing of the following ring.
The understanding of fragmentation in
local conditions and its effect on sub-level
cave performance is critical to the mines
success.
Excessively fine fragmentation may:

The invest
igation
and under
standing of
ore recovery
and flow
under local
conditions
is central to
the success
of sub-level
caving

Figure 1 (left):
Smart Marker
sub-level cave
data visualized in
Rockview
Figure 2 (below):
Target zones for
sub-level cave
ring recovery

70

ore-grade control

Figure 3:
Deviating flow
due to apex
fragmentation
failure

create very narrow flow channels that

will result in preferential recovery of

non-targeted material across multiple
levels;
p
 revent establishment of an efficient
depth of draw by avoiding episodic
flow mechanisms.

While, too coarse fragmentation may:

create large hang-ups, causing unsafe
production conditions;
cause significant production interference;
p romote irregular flow patterns; and
p romote migration of fines from above
through the ore.

Figure 4:
sub-level cave
draw column
optimisation

It is crucial to understand how blasting

in local conditions and the resulting
fragmentation variation affect draw
columns (see figure 4). This understanding
allows the optimisation of multi-level draw
strategies that are crucial for maximising
recovery of the targeted reserve. In
addition, this creates more confidence in
the assumptions used for reserve
estimation and reduces variance in
production performance.
Historically, sub-level cave rings have
been drawn at 90-120% of the blasted
volume in the understanding that this will
limit dilution of the ore from material
outside the blasted ring. Full-scale marker

programmes over the past 10 years have

generated practical evidence that the
relationship between recovery and drawn
tonnage rates over multiple levels has a
complex but understandable progression.
Following practical confirmation that
the sub-level cave ring is adequately
fragmented over its full extent, the rate of
draw over multiple subsequent levels can
be optimised based on the estimated
recovered ore value. Current practice has
increased multiple-level draw rates, based
on financial analysis, to over 300% where
conditions permit.

Reserve estimation
calibration
Reducing production forecast variance is a
major issue to both short- and mediumterm planning. Calibrating reserve
estimation models is challenging. In the
long term, a poorly calibrated model may
result in significant ore shortages and
production-grade over-estimation.
While the direct comparison of marker
recovery to actual drawn tonnage has
shown that markers will underestimate
primary-level recovery, the mechanism for

this is understood. By diligently collecting

production records and draw performance
data, marker programme results can be
interpreted and used to improve grade
reconciliation and calibrate reserve
recovery models.
The marker data can also be used to
understand the boundaries of flow and
flow-vector trends that are particularly
useful for calibrating sub-level cave
reserve estimation systems.

Outlook
It is expected that the newest-generation
sub-level caves will continue to improve in
performance. Innovative drill-and-blast
approaches are undergoing trials and,
with further understanding of flow, Elexon
Mining believes there are also opportunities to improve layout design optimised to
local mine conditions.
With the systematic use of Smart
Markers to engineer and improve mining,
Elexon Mining is looking forward to
seeing further performance gains and
increased confidence in production
planning, making sub-level caving more
attractive for new projects, small or large.

This article has been written together with Nigel Clark. Nigel has been involved in the management, planning and optimisation of sub-level caving for
over 10 years. His experience includes management and analysis of full scale marker programmes and the development of recovery optimisation systems.
For more information on Elexon Minings Smart Marker System, see www.elexonmining.com