University of Nairobi

Department of Civil and Construction Engineering

FCE 311
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 1
LECTURE NOTES

DR. NYAMBANE OSANO

[email protected]
2012

FCE 311 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING I

OSN - Lecture Notes

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1

OVERVIEW ......................................................................................... 1
1.1

COURSE DESCRIPTION

1.2

PREREQUISITE

1.3

STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOME

1.4

TEACHING METHODOLOGY AND TECHNIQUES

1.5

REQUIRED TEXT BOOKS

INTRODUCTION TO SOIL MECHANICS .............................................. 2

2.1

DEFINITION OF SOIL

2.2

SOIL MECHANICS AND GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

SOIL FORMATION .............................................................................. 4

3.1

DEFINITION

3.2
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.2.3

WEATHERING
INTRODUCTION
PHYSICAL WEATHERING
CHEMICAL WEATHERING

4
4
4
4

3.3
3.3.1
3.3.2

RESIDUAL AND ALLUVIAL SOILS

RESIDUAL SOILS
ALLUVIAL SOILS

5
5
5

CLAY MINERALOGY............................................................................ 6
4.1

INTRODUCTION

4.2
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.2.3
4.2.4
4.2.5

ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR BONDS

INTRODUCTION
IONIC BOND
COVALENT BOND
HYDROGEN BOND
VAN DER WAALS BONDS

6
6
6
7
7
8

4.3
4.3.1
4.3.2
4.3.3

BASIC STRUCTURAL UNITS OF CLAY MINERALS

INTRODUCTION
SILICA UNIT
ALUMINIUM (OR MAGNESIUM) OCTAHEDRAL UNIT

9
9
9
10

4.4
4.4.1
4.4.2

TYPES OF CLAY MINERALS

INTRODUCTION
KAOLINITE

11
11
11

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4.4.3
4.4.4

MONTMORILLONITE
ILLITE

12
12

4.5
4.5.1
4.5.2

SOIL STRUCTURES
INTRODUCTION
TYPES OF SOIL STRUCTURES

13
13
13

BASIC PROPERTIES ......................................................................... 17

5.1

SOME USEFUL TERMS AND ASSOCIATED SYMBOLS

17

5.2
5.2.1
5.2.2
5.2.3
5.2.4
5.2.5
5.2.6
5.2.7
5.2.8
5.2.9
5.2.10
5.2.11
5.2.12
5.2.13
5.2.14

PHASE RELATIONSHIP
PHASE DIAGRAM
VOID RATIO (E)
MOISTURE CONTENT (WATER CONTENT) (W)
POROSITY (N)
SPECIFIC VOLUME (V)
RELATIVE DENSITY (SPECIFIC GRAVITY) (GS)
DEGREE OF SATURATION (SR)
AIR CONTENT (A)
DENSITY OF SOLIDS (S)
BULK DENSITY ()
SATURATED DENSITY (SAT)
DRY DENSITY (D)
DRY UNIT WEIGHT (DRY)
SUBMERGED UNIT WEIGHT (SUB)

18
18
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
21
21
22
22
23
23

CONSISTENCY AND PLASTICITY OF SOILS ..................................... 24

6.1

STATE OF CONSISTENCY

24

DETERMINATION OF SOIL PROPERTIES BY LABORATORY TESTING

......................................................................................................... 27
7.1
7.1.1
7.1.2

DETERMINATION OF LIQUID LIMIT

CASAGRANDE APPARATUS
CONE PENETROMETER APPRATUS

27
27
29

7.2

DETERMINATION OF PLASTIC LIMIT

30

7.3

DETERMINATION OF SHRINKAGE LIMIT

31

7.4
7.4.1
7.4.2
7.4.3
7.4.4
7.4.5

ATTERBERG INDICES
PLASTICITY INDEX
FLOW INDEX, IF
TOUGHNESS INDEX
CONSISTENCY INDEX
LIQUIDITY INDEX

32
32
33
33
33
34

7.5

USE OF CONSISTENCY LIMITS

34

7.6
7.6.1

WATER CONTENT
OVEN-DRYING METHOD

35
35

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7.6.2
7.6.3

SAND BATH METHOD

OTHER METHODS

35
36

7.7

SPECIFIC GRAVITY

36

7.8
7.8.1
7.8.2

DETERMINATION OF FIELD DENSITY

CORE CUTTER METHOD
SAND REPLACEMENT METHOD

38
38
40

7.9
7.9.1
7.9.2
7.9.3
7.9.4
7.9.5

PARTICLE-SIZE DISTRIBUTION
SIEVE ANALYSIS
PARTICLE-SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVES
SIEVE ANALYSIS TEST RESULT
EXAMPLE PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVES
LIMITATIONS OF SIEVE ANALYSIS

40
41
42
43
44
46

SOIL DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION .................................... 47

8.1

INTRODUCTION

47

8.2

SOIL DESCRIPTION

47

8.1
8.1.1
8.1.2

SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

PURPOSE OF SOIL CLASSIFICATION
SHORTCOMINGS OF THE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

49
49
54

SOIL COMPACTION .......................................................................... 55

9.1

INTRODUTION

55

9.2
9.2.1
9.2.2

THEORY OF COMPACTION
GENERAL
VARIATION IN COMPACTION CURVE

55
55
57

9.3

LABORATORY COMPACTION TESTS

58

9.4
9.4.1
9.4.2
9.4.3

FIELD COMPACTION
COMPACTION
FIELD CONTROL OF COMPACTION
SPECIFICATION OF THE FIELD COMPACTED DENSITY

59
59
60
61

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OSN - Lecture Notes

OVERVIEW

1.1

COURSE DESCRIPTION

This course is an introductory part of Soil Mechanics, which focuses on soil

formation, soil structures, physical properties of soils, soil classifications, soil
compaction and permeability.

1.2

PREREQUISITE

None

1.3

STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOME

Upon successful completion of this course, the students should acquire the following
knowledge:
a) Developed competence in the principles of soil mechanics and application
in engineering practice.
b) Ability to list the relevant engineering properties of soils and their characteristics and
describe the factors which control these properties.
c) Apply laboratory methods of determining the properties of soils.
d) Ability to identify common situations when the soil becomes a factor in an
engineering or environmental problem.
e) Ability to apply basic analytical procedures to obtain the engineering
quantity desired and understand their limitations.

1.4

TEACHING METHODOLOGY AND TECHNIQUES

This course relies on lectures and Power Point presentation by the lecturer. Worked
examples will be offered. Students will then be required to contribute to discussions
based on the explanations and will need to read the corresponding section in the
assigned textbook.

1.5

REQUIRED TEXT BOOKS

a) Modern Geotechnical Engineering, CBS Publishers & Distributors, New Dheli
b) Geotechnical Engineering (Basics of Soil Mechanics), S. Chand & Company Ltd,
New Dheli
c) Foundation Engineering Handbook, CBS Publishers & Distributors, New Dheli.

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2
2.1

OSN - Lecture Notes

INTRODUCTION TO SOIL MECHANICS

DEFINITION OF SOIL
Soil is the relatively loose mass of mineral and organic materials and sediments
found above the bedrock, which can be relatively easily broken down into its
constituent mineral or organic particles.

Fig. 2-1: Soil layers

Soil consists of layers of minerals constituents of variable thickness, which differ from
the parent materials in the morphological, physical, chemical and mineralogical
characteristics, as shown in Fig. 2-1. It is thus a natural product of weathering of
rocks and decomposition of organic matter. It is an accumulation of individual
particles that are bonded together by mechanical or attractive means, the strength of
the bonds being a small fraction of the mineral particles. The particles may range
from colloidal size to small boulders.
Soil can also be referred to as regolith, or loose rock material.

2.2

SOIL MECHANICS AND GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

Soil mechanics is a branch of engineering mechanics that describes the behaviour of
soils. Soil mechanics provide the theoretical basis for analysis in geotechnical
engineering.

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OSN - Lecture Notes

Geotechnical Engineering is the branch of civil engineering concerned with the

engineering behaviour of earth materials. It uses principles of soil mechanics, rock
mechanics and engineering geology to investigate subsurface conditions and
materials, determine the relevant physical/mechanical and chemical properties of the
materials, evaluate stability of natural slopes and man-made soil deposits, access
risks posed by site conditions, design earthworks and structure foundations and
monitor site conditions, earthwork and foundation construction.
A typical geotechnical engineering project begins with a review of project needs to
define the required material properties. Then follows a site investigation of soil,
rock, fault distribution and bedrock properties on and below an area of interest to
determine their engineering properties.
Site investigations are needed to gain an understanding of the area in or on which
the engineering will take place. Investigations can include the assessment of the risk
to humans, property and the environment from natural hazards such as earthquakes,
landslides, soil liquefaction, debris flows and rock falls.
A geotechnical engineer then determines and designs the type of foundations,
earthworks and pavement subgrades required for the intended man-made structures
to be built. Foundations are designed and constructed for structures of various sizes
such as high-rise buildings, bridges, medium to large commercial buildings, and
smaller structures where the soil conditions do not allow code-based design.
Foundations built for above-ground structures include shallow and deep foundations.
Retaining structures include earth-filled dams and retaining walls. Earthworks
include embankments, tunnels and sanitary landfills.
Geotechnical engineering is also related to coastal and ocean engineering. Coastal
engineering can involve the design and construction of wharves (structures on the
shore of harbour where ships may dock to load and unload cargo or passengers) and
jetties (structures that projects into a body of water to influence the current or tide
or to protect a harbour or shoreline from storms or erosion).

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OSN - Lecture Notes

SOIL FORMATION

3.1

DEFINITION
Soil formation is the process by which soil is created. The formation of soil happens
over a very long period of time. Soil is formed from the weathering of rocks and
minerals.

3.2

WEATHERING

3.2.1

Introduction
Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks. Weathering occurs in situ or
with no movement, and thus should not be confused with erosion, which
involves the movement of rocks and minerals by agents such as water, ice,
wind, and gravity.
Two important classifications of weathering processes exist Physical and
Chemical Weathering

3.2.2

Physical weathering
Involves the breakdown of rocks and soils through direct contact with
atmospheric conditions, such as heat, water, ice and pressure, without any
change in chemical condition. The soil formed due to physical weathering will
be cohesionless (sand and gravel).
In summary, the physical agencies causing mechanical weathering of rocks are;
(i) Daily and seasonal temperature changes.
(ii) Flowing water, glaciers and wind, which produce impact and abrasive
action on rock.
(iii) Splitting action of ice.
(iv) Growth of roots of plants in rock fissures and to a minor degree burrowing
activities of small animals like earthworms.

3.2.3

Chemical weathering
Chemical weathering changes the composition of rocks by decomposing the
parent minerals, transforming them into new compounds such as clay silica
particles, carbonates and iron oxides.
The
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

decomposition of rock is the result of the following reactions;

Oxidation
Carbonation
Hydration
Leaching

i)

Oxidation

Within the weathering environment, oxidation of a variety of metals occurs. The

most commonly observed is the oxidation of Fe2+ (iron) and combination with
oxygen and water to form Fe3+ hydroxides and oxides such as goethite, limonite
and hematite. This gives the affected rocks a reddish-brown coloration on the

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FCE 311 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING I

surface which crumbles easily and weakens the rock.

known as rusting.

OSN - Lecture Notes

This process is better

ii) Carbonation
Carbonation of rock material is caused by carbon dioxide in the presence of
water. Limestones are very much affected by carbonation.

iii) Hydration
Mineral hydration is a form of chemical weathering that involves the rigid
attachment of H+ and OH- ions to the atoms and molecules of a mineral. When
rock minerals take up water, the increased volume creates physical stresses
within the rock. For example iron oxides are converted to iron hydroxides and
the hydration of anhydrite forms gypsum. Another example of hydration is the
chemical decomposition of mineral fieldspar in granite to form kaolite.
iv) Leaching
Leaching is the process in which percolating water washes out water-soluble
salts from the soil.
Soil produced by chemical weathering of rocks will be cohesive (silt and clay).

3.3

RESIDUAL AND ALLUVIAL SOILS

3.3.1

Residual soils
Residual soils are those which have remained over the parent rock from which
they have been formed. They are relatively shallow in depth. They are
characterized by a gradual transition from soil through partially weathered rocks,
fractured and fissured rock, to bedrock.

3.3.2

Alluvial soils
Alluvial soils are the soils which have been transported and subsequently
deposited by flowing water. An alluvial fan is formed when the velocity of a soilladen stream suddenly deceases due to abrupt decrease in gradient. Floodplains are formed on the sides of a stream due to overflowing of flood water. A
delta is formed just before a stream reaches the standing water of the sea.
Alluvial soil deposits are usually stratified because of fluctuations in velocity of
flowing water. The average particle size of alluvial deposits decreases with
increasing distance from the source of stream. The delta soils are soil deposits
farthest from the source of a stream and usually consist of silt and clay.
Marine deposits are formed when fine-grained soils are carried beyond deltas
into the sea. Lacustrine soils are soils deposited at the bed of lakes.

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OSN - Lecture Notes

CLAY MINERALOGY

4.1

INTRODUCTION
A mineral is an inorganic chemical compound formed in nature. As a solid, it may
occur in an amorphous state or in a crystalline state. A crystal is a homogenous
body bounded by smooth plane surfaces. Soil particles are largely composed of
mineral crystals. Molecules of minerals are composed of atoms of chemical elements.
The atoms in a crystal are arranged in a definite orderly manner to form a three
dimensional net-work, called a lattice. An atom consists of a small nucleus having
a positive electromagnetic charge around which a definite number of negatively
charged electrons rotate. The electrons rotate in orbits of different radii forming the
so-called electron shells.
Many compounds lose their identity, in solution, by separating into ions. The ions
consist of only one element of the compound or of two or more elements which are
not electrically balanced. Atoms get transformed into ions by the gain or loss of
electrons. The positively charged ions are called cations and the negatively
charged ions are called anions. On removal from solution the cations and anions
write to form the original solid compound. Many elements do not form ions, yet they
unite to form compounds. Solutions of non-ion forming elements or compounds in
water are poor conductors of electric current.

4.2

ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR BONDS

4.2.1

Introduction
Forces which bind atoms and molecules to build up the structure of substances
are primarily of electrical nature. They may be broadly classified into primary
bonds and secondary bonds. Primary bonds combine the atoms into
molecules. Secondary bonds link atoms in one molecular to atoms in another.
They are much weaker than the primary bonds. Primary bonds are the ionic
bond and the covalent bond. Secondary bonds are the hydrogen bond and the
Van der Waals bond.

4.2.2

Ionic bond
The ionic bond is the simplest and strongest of the bonds which hold atoms
together. This bond is formed between oppositely charged ions by the
exchange of electrons. Atoms held together by ionic bonds form ionic
compounds, e.g. common salt (sodium chloride), and a majority of clay
mineral crystals fall into this group.
Ionic bonding causes a separation between centres of positive and negative
charge in a molecule, which tends the molecule to orient in an electric field
forming a dipole. Dipole is the arrangement of two equal electro-static
charges of opposite sign. A dipolar molecule (Fig. 4-1) is one which is neutral
but in which the centres of positive and negative charges are separated such
that the molecule behaves like a short bar magnet with positive and negative
poles.

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OSN - Lecture Notes

Fig. 4-1: Soil layers

4.2.3

Covalent bond
The covalent bond (Fig. 4-2) is formed when one or more bonding electrons are
shared by two atoms so that they serve to complete the outer shell for each
atom.

Fig. 4-2: Covalent bonding

4.2.4

Hydrogen bond
A hydrogen bond is the attractive interaction of a hydrogen atom with an
electronegative atom, such as nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine, that comes from
another molecule.
Thus when water molecules are close together, their positive and negative
regions are attracted to the oppositely-charged regions of nearby molecules.
The force of attraction, shown in Fig. 4-3 below here as dotted line, is called a
hydrogen bond. Each water molecule is hydrogen bonded to four others.

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OSN - Lecture Notes

Fig. 4-3: Covalent bonding

Hydrogen bond can link the oxygen from a water molecule to the oxygen on the
clay particles surface. Hydrogen bonding between two oxygen atoms is
responsible for some of the weaker bonds between crystal layers for holding
water at the clay surface and for bonding organic molecules to the clay surface.
4.2.5

Van der Waals bonds

It is the sum of the attractive or repulsive forces between molecules (or
between parts of the same molecule) other than those due to covalent bonds or
ionic bond.
The covalent bonds within the molecules are very strong and rupture only under
extreme conditions. The bonds between the molecules that allow siding and
rupture to occur are called Van der Waals forces.
When ionic and covalent bonds are present, there is some imbalance in the
electrical charge of the molecule. The angle hydrogen atoms are bonded to
oxygen atom in water produces a positive polarity at the hydrogen-rich end of
the molecule and a negative polarity at the other end. As a result of this charge
imbalance the water molecules are attracted to each other. This is the force that
holds the molecules together in a drop of water, shown in Fig. 4-4.

Fig. 4-4: Van der Waals Bonding

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OSN - Lecture Notes

Heat can be used to break the Van der Waal forces between the molecules and
change the form of the material from solid to liquid gas.

4.3

BASIC STRUCTURAL UNITS OF CLAY MINERALS

4.3.1

Introduction
The clay minerals are a group of complex alumino-silicates, i.e., oxides of
aluminium and silicon with smaller amounts of metal ions substituted within the
crystal. The atomic structures of clay minerals are built up of two basic units;
a) Silica tetrahedral units, and
b) Aluminium (or magnesium) octahedral unit.
These units are held together by ionic bonds.

4.3.2

Silica Unit
The silica unit (Fig. 4-5 and 4.6) consists of a silicon ion surrounded by four
oxygen ions arranged in the form of a tetrahedron. The basic units combine in
such a manner as to form a sheet.

Fig. 4-5: Silicon Tetrahedral

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OSN - Lecture Notes

In the silica sheet, the bases of the tetrahedrals are all in the same plane and the
tips all point in the same direction. Each of the three oxygens at the base is
shared by two silicons of adjacent units.

Fig. 4-6: Silicon Tetrahedral Sheet

For simplicity, the silica tetrahedral sheet is represented by the symbol below in
Fig. 4.5(c).

4.3.3

Aluminium (or Magnesium) Octahedral Unit

The octahedral unit (Fig. 4-7) has an aluminium ion or a magnesium ion
endorsed by six hydroxyl radicals or oxygens arranged in the form of an
octahedron. In some cases, other cations (e.g. Fe) are present in place of Al and
Mg.

Fig. 4-7: Aluminium or Magnesium Octahedral

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OSN - Lecture Notes

Combination of octahedral units forms an Octahedral sheet, which is called a

gibbsite sheet if the central action of the unit is aluminum or a brucite
sheet if the central cation is magnesium.

4.4

TYPES OF CLAY MINERALS

4.4.1

Introduction
The variation in the stacking of the two basic sheet structures and nature of
bonding has given rise to over dozen clay minerals which have been identified.
From an engineering point of view, three clay minerals of interest are kaolinite,
montmorillonite and illite.

4.4.2

Kaolinite
This is the most common of the Kaolin group. Each structural unit of Kaolinite is
a combination of two layers with apeces of a silica layer joined to one of a
gibbsite layer. The structural unit is represented by the symbol as shown in Fig.
4-8.

Fig. 4-8: Kaolinite symbol

Successive layers of structural units are held together to form kaolite particles
which occur as platelets as shown in Fig. 4-9.
CEP 701

Kaolinite
Al
Typically
70-100
layers
joined by strong H-bond
no easy separation

Si
Al
Si

0.72 nm

Al
Si
Al
Si

joined by oxygen
sharing

Kaolinite is used for making paper, paint and in pharmaceutical

industry.
A nanometer is 10-9 metres.
Fig. 4-9: Kaolinite particles

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4.4.3

OSN - Lecture Notes

Montmorillonite
The montmorillonite mineral is a stacking of basic sheet like structural units, with
each unit made up of gibbsite sheet sandwiched between two silica sheets and is
represented by the symbol in Fig. 4-10 and the particles in Fig. 4-11.

Fig. 4-10: Montmorillonite symbol

CEP 701

Montmorillonite

also called smectite; expands on contact with water
Si
Al
Si
Si
Al
easily separated
by water

0.96 nm

Si

joined by weak
van der Waals bond

Si
Al
Si

15

Fig. 4-11: Montmorillonite particles

Because of the fact that bonding by Van der Waals forces between silica sheet of
adjacent structural units is weak and there is a net negative charge deficiency in
octahedral sheet, water and exchangeable cations can enter and separate the
layers. Thus soil containing montmoriillonite mineral exhibits high swelling and
shrinkage characteristics.

4.4.4

Illite
The basic structural unit of illite (Fig. 4-12) is the same as that of montmorillonite
except for the fact that there is some substitution of aluminium for silicon in the
silica sheet and the resultant charge deficiency is balanced by potassium ions,

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OSN - Lecture Notes

which bond the layers in the stack. The bond with the non-exchangeable K+ ions
are weaker than the hydrogen bond in the Kaolite but is stronger than the water
bond of montmorillonite. The illite crystal does not swell so much in the presence
of water as does in montmorillonite particles.

CEP 701

Illite
Si
Al
Si

joined by K+ ions

Si
fit into the hexagonal
holes in Si-sheet

Al
Si

0.96 nm

Si
Al
Si
17

Fig. 4-12: Illite particles

4.5

SOIL STRUCTURES

4.5.1

Introduction
The term soil structure in general, refers to the arrangement or state of
aggregation of particles in a soil mass. The engineering behaviour of soils is
influenced by soil structure to varying degrees.

4.5.2

Types of Soil Structures

Following are the
soil deposits;
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

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types of soil structures which have been recognized in various

Single grained structure.
Honeycomb structure.
Flocculated structure and dispersed structure in the case of
clay deposits.
Course-grained skeleton structure and matrix structure in the
case of composite soils.

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FCE 311 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING I

(i)

OSN - Lecture Notes

Single grained structure

This type of structure (Fig. 4-13) will be found in the case of coarse-grained
soil deposits. When such soils settle out of suspension in water, the
particles settle independently of each other. The major force causing their
deposition is gravitational and the surface forces are too small to produce
any effect. There will be particle-to-particle contact in the deposit. The void
ratio attained depends on the relative size of grains.

Fig. 4-13: Single grained structure

(ii) Honeycomb structure
This type of structure (Fig. 4-14) is associated with silt deposits. When silt
particles settle out of suspension, in additional to gravitational forces, the
surface forces also play a significant role. When particles approach the
lower region of suspension they will be attracted by particles already
deposited as well as the neighbouring particles leading to formation of
arches. The combination of a number of arches leads to the honey comb
structure.
As the deposit has high void ratio, when disturbed, there will be large
reduction in volume due to breakdown of structure.

Fig. 4-14: Honeycomb structure

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OSN - Lecture Notes

(iii) Flocculated structure and Dispersed structure

These are the two types of structures found in clay deposits. In the case of
flocculated structure, there will be edge-to-edge and edge-to-face contact
between particles. This type of formation is due to the net electrical forces
between the adjacent particles at the time of disposition being attractive in
nature. The concentration of dissolved minerals in water leads to formation
of flocculated structure with very high void ratio as in the case of marine
deposits as shown in Fig. 4-15.

Fig. 4-15: Flocculated structure

In the case of dispersed or oriented structure, the particles will have face to
face contact as shown in Fig. 4-16. This type for formation is due to net
electrical forces between adjacent soil particles at the time of deposition
being repulsive in nature. This type of structure is common in fresh water
deposits. Clays with flocculated structure will have relatively high void
ratio. Remoulding of such soils or application of pressure as in compaction
leads to slippage of particles resulting in dispersed structure with decrease
in void ratio. Consolidation also tends to reorient the particles to form
dispersed structure with decrease in volume.

Fig. 4-16: Dispersed structure

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OSN - Lecture Notes

(iv) Course-grained skeleton and Cohesive matrix structure

(composite soil)
The course-grained skeleton structure can be found in the case of
composite soils in which the course-grained fraction is greater in proportion
compared to fine-grained fraction as shown in Fig. 4-17. The coursegrained particles form the skeleton with particle to particle contact and the
voids between these particles will be occupied by the fine-grained particles.

Fig. 4-17: Course-grained skeleton structure

The cohesive matrix structure (Fig. 4-18) can be found in composite soils in
which the fine-grained fraction is more in proportion compared to course
grained fraction. In this case the course-grained particles will be embedded
in fine-grained fraction and will be prevented from having particle-toparticle contact. This type of structure is relatively more compressible
compared to the more stable course grained structure.

Fig. 4-18: Cohesive matrix structure structure

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5
5.1

OSN - Lecture Notes

BASIC PROPERTIES
SOME USEFUL TERMS AND ASSOCIATED SYMBOLS
Table 5-1 is a list of some useful terms and associated symbols for phase relationships.
Table 5-1: List of useful terms
SYMBOL

DEFINITION

DIMENSION

Void Ratio

LL or WL

Liquid Limit

Ms

Mass of Solids

Mw

Mass of Water

Porosity

PI or IP

Plasticity Index

PL or WP

Plastic Limit

Sr

Degree Of Saturation

SL or WS

Shrinkage Limit

Va

Volume of Air

L3

Vs

Volume of Solids

L3

Vv

Volume of Voids

L3

Water Content

Dry Density

M/L3

Density of Solids

M L3

sat

Saturated Density

M/L3

Density of Water

M/L3

Bulk Density

M/L3

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5.2

PHASE RELATIONSHIP

5.2.1

Phase diagram

OSN - Lecture Notes

Soils are generally composed of three distinct phases. These are solids, water and
air. The space occupied by water and air is defined as the void of the soil. The void
may be partially or wholly filled by water or air. A completely dry or completely
saturated soil will have only two phases. The components parts may be illustrated as
in Fig. 5-1 and Fig. 5-2 by a phase diagram.

Fig. 5-1: Three Typical Phase Diagrams of Soil

Fig. 5-2: Phase diagram of soil mass

The relationships shown derived here in Section 5.2 are commonly used in
geotechnical engineering. They are derived with reference to Fig. 4-16.

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5.2.2

OSN - Lecture Notes

Void ratio (e)

This is the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of the solids;

e=

5.2.3

Vv
Vs

Moisture content (Water content) (w)

Is the ratio of mass of water to mass of solids;

w=

5.2.4

Mw
Ms

Porosity (n)
This is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume;

n=

5.2.5

Vv
Vv
e
=
=
V Vv + Vs 1 + e

Specific Volume (v)

Is the total volume of the soil which contains a unit volume of solid particles. Fig.
5.3 shows a soil model with unit volume of solids.

Fig. 5-3: Soil model with unit volume of solids

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FCE 311 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING I

5.2.6

OSN - Lecture Notes

Relative Density (Specific Gravity) (Gs)

The relative density (specific gravity) of soil particles is the ratio of the density of
solids to the density of water. It is a measure of heaviness of material.

Gs =

5.2.7

s
w

Degree of Saturation (Sr)

Is the ratio of the volume of water to the volume of voids usually expressed as a
percentage.

Vw
Vv

Sr =

The voids may be filled with air or water or both. If only air is present, then the
soil is dry and the degree of saturation is zero. If on the other hand the voids are
filled with water the degree of saturation is 100%.
The degree of saturation can be expressed in terms of Gs and e and derived
below;

Vw M s M w Vs

Vv M s M w Vs

Sr =

Where;

e=

Vv
Vs

Gs =
w=

s M s Vw
=

w Vs M w

Mw
Ms

Sr =
5.2.8

w Gs wGs
=
e
e

Air Content (A)

Is the ratio of the volume of air to the total volume of the soil

A=

Va
V

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FCE 311 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING I

OSN - Lecture Notes

The air content can be expressed in terms of e, w and Gs as derived below;

A=

Va Vv Vw (Vv Vw ) / Vs
=
=
V Vv + Vs (Vv + Vs ) / Vs

Vv Vw

Vs Vs
=
Vv Vs
+
Vs Vs

Where,

And,

M s Vw

Vs M w

Vw
=e
Vs

A=

5.2.9

Gs =

e wGs e Sr e
e
(1 Sr ) = n(1 Sr )
=
=
1+ e
1+ e
1+ e

Density of Solids (s)

Is the ratio of the mass of the solids to the volume of the solids.

s =

Ms
Vs

5.2.10 Bulk Density ()

Is the ratio of the total mass of soil to the total volume of the soil.

M
V

It is noted that the weight considered is the weight of the solids and that of
water while the volume is the volume of the solids and that of the voids. This can
be expressed in terms of W, Gs, e and Sr.

M Ms + Mw
=
V
Vs + Vv

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FCE 311 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING I

But,

Gs =

OSN - Lecture Notes

s
s = Gs w
w

Ms
= Gs w M s = GsVs w
Vs
Substituting,

Now,

(Gs .Vs . w + M w ) / Vs
(Vs + Vv ) / Vs
M w w .Vw Vv
=
. = w .Sr .e
Vs
Vs Vv

(Gs .Vs . w + Vv . w .Sr ) / Vs

(Vs + Vv ) / Vs

w (Gs + eSr )
1+ e

5.2.11 Saturated Density (sat)

The saturated density sat is the bult density of a soil mass when fully saturated.
For saturated soil, Sr = 1,

sat =

w (Gs + er )
1+ e

5.2.12 Dry Density (d)

Is the mass of soil solids per unit of total volume of a dry soil mass. For
completely dry soil, Sr = 0,

sat =

w .Gs
1+ e

The above bulk density expressions can be converted into force units where the
unit weight of soil is the total weight in force units to the total volume of water.

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FCE 311 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING I

The unit weight,

OSN - Lecture Notes

W M .g
=
V
V

, where g is acceleration due to gravity (9.8

kN/m3).

W w (Gs + e.Sr )
=
V
1+ e

Where the in situ soil is fully saturated, the solid particles are subjected to a
thrust by the water, which acts in all directions.
5.2.13 Dry Unit Weight (dry)
Is defined as the weight of solids per unit weight of the solids. This is the same
as the bulk unit of a dry soil with force units.

d =

Ws
Ws / Vs
1
=
= s
V (Vs + VV )Vs
1+ e

d =

Gs . w
1+ e

, since,

Gs =

s s
=
w w

5.2.14 Submerged Unit Weight (sub)

Where the in situ soil is saturated with water, the particles are subjected to an all
round thrust. The submerged unit weight is given by difference in the unit weight
of a saturated weight of soil and the unit weight of water.

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FCE 311 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING I

6
6.1

OSN - Lecture Notes

CONSISTENCY AND PLASTICITY OF SOILS

STATE OF CONSISTENCY
The term consistency refers to the relative ease with which a soil mass can be
deformed and is used to describe the degree of firmness of fine-grained soils for
which consistency relates to a large extent to water content. The four states of
consistency suggested by Atterberg are indicated below in Fig. 6-1 and 6-2.

Increasing water content

Fluid soil-water
mixture

Liquid State
Liquid Limit, LL
Plastic State
Plastic Limit, PL
Semisolid State
Shrinkage Limit, SL
Solid State

Dry Soil
18

Fig. 6-1: The four states of consistency

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FCE 311 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING I

OSN - Lecture Notes

Fig. 6-2: The four states of consistency in a chart form

In the solid state there will be no change in volume of soil mass accompanying
change in water content. In the remaining the three states increase in water content
is accompanies by increase in volume of soil mass and decrease of water content by
reduction in volume of soil mass. In the liquid state the soil mass behaves like a
liquid possessing very less sheer strength. In the plastic state the soil mass can be
deformed without cracking. In the semi-solid state the soil mass cannot be deformed
without cracking.
The water contents, which arbitrarily define the boundary between the four states of
consistency, are referred to as consistency limits or Atterbag limits.
The three consistency limits are Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit and Shrinkage Limit.
Liquid limit is denoted by WL and is the boundary between plastic and liquid states of
consistency. It is the minimum water content at which the soil mass still flows like a
liquid.
Liquid limit is defined as the water context at which a groove, cut with a standard
grooving tool, in soil pat taken in the cup of a standard liquid limit device (Fig. 6-3)
closes for a distance of 13mm when the cup is imparted 25 blows.

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OSN - Lecture Notes

Fig. 6-3: The standard liquid limit device

Plastic limit is denoted by WP and is the boundary between semi-solid and plastic
states of consistency. It is the minimum water content at which the soil mass can still
be deformed without cracking.
Plastic limit is defined as the water context at which the soil mass can be rolled into a
threat of 3mm diameter and the thread first shows signs of cracking.
Shrinkage limit is denoted by WS and is the boundary between solid and semi-solid
state of consistency. It is defined as the maximum water content at which there is no
reduction in volume of soil mass accompanying reduction in water content.
The laboratory determination of these states is discussed in Chapter 7.

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OSN - Lecture Notes

DETERMINATION OF SOIL PROPERTIES BY LABORATORY

TESTING

7.1

DETERMINATION OF LIQUID LIMIT

7.1.1

Casagrande Apparatus
The apparatus consists of a mechanical device consisting of a cup mounted on an
edge pivot. The cup rests on a hard rubber base. A mechanism enables the cup
to be lifted by 10mm and dropped on the base. The soil is put in cup and levelled
off horizontally. The soil is divided by a standard grooving tool through the pivot
of the cup. The two halves of the soil flow together as the cup is repeatedly
dropped onto the base. The number of drops at the rate of two revolutions per
second required to close the groove over a distance of 13mm is recorded. The
test is repeated over four times and the water content is determined each time.
The water content is plotted against log of blows. The best straight line fitting
the points is drawn. The moisture content at twenty five (25) blow is the Liquid
Limit of the soil. Fig. 7-1 and 7-2 show Casagrande Equipment.

N=25 blows
Closing distance =
13mm
13mm

(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

21

Fig. 7-1: Schematic representation of the Casagrande Apparatus

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OSN - Lecture Notes

Fig. 7-2: A photograph of the Casagrande Apparatus

It is convenient to increase the water content in successive steps and obtain
counts near about 40, 30, 20 and 10.
The resulting curve drawn as the best fitting straight line is called the flow
curve (Fig. 7-3).

Das, 1998

N
22

Fig. 7-3: Flow Curve

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7.1.2

OSN - Lecture Notes

Cone Penetrometer Appratus

The Penetrometer is fitted with a stainless steel cone having a smooth, polished
surface. The cone is approximately 35 mm long and has an angle of 30 + 1.
The mass of the cone together with its sliding shaft is 80g.
A metal cup, about 55mm in diameter and 40mm deep is used to contain the test
sample. Fig. 7-4 shows the Cone Penetrometer Apparatus Schematic.

(Head, 1992)

24

Fig. 7-4: The Cone Penetrometer Apparatus

An air dry soil sample (about 250g) passing the 425 micron sieve is mixed with
distilled water. The soil paste is filled in the metal cup and the surface struck off
level. The cone is lowered to just touch the surface of soil and then released for
a period of 5 seconds. The penetration is recorded. The cone is lifted and
cleaned. The test is repeated over four different moisture contents. The moisture
contents used in the tests should be such that the penetrations obtained lie
within a range of 15 to 35 mm.
To obtain the liquid limit, cone penetration is plotted against moisture content
both on normal scales to give the best fitting straight line. The moisture content
corresponding to a cone penetration of 20mm is taken as the liquid limit of the
soil (Fig. 7-5), which for all practical purposes is the same as the LL determined
by the Casagrande apparatus.
The Cone Peretrometer method gives a more consistent estimate of the LL than
the Casagrande apparatus, with greater repeatability and less operator
susceptibility.

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Penetration of cone
(mm)

FCE 311 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING I

OSN - Lecture Notes

20 mm

LL
Water content w%
25

Fig. 7-5: Cone penetration against moisture content

7.2

DETERMINATION OF PLASTIC LIMIT

The sample of soil is mixed with distilled water until it is sufficiently plastic to be
rolled into a ball between palms of hands. A small portion of the ball is then rolled on
a smooth plate into a thread of 3mm diameter, and the thread is looked for signs of
cracking. If no cracks are seen, the thread is picked up and again rolled into a ball
between palms. The water content is reduced by the heat of the fingers. The ball is
then rolled on smooth plate into a threat of 3mm diameter. The steps are repeated
until a 3mm diameter threat first shows signs of cracking. A portion of the threat is
taken for water content determination which gives the plastic limit.

Fig. 7-6: Rolling on a smooth plate

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OSN - Lecture Notes

Fig. 7-7: Rolling on between palms of hands

Fig. 7-8: Soil thread 3mm diameter just crumbles

7.3

DETERMINATION OF SHRINKAGE LIMIT

It is defined as the maximum water content at which there is no reduction in volume
of soil mass accompanying reduction in water content.
A saturated sample of soil is placed in a container of known volume V1. The weight of
the soil is determined in stage (a) of the experiment. The soil is initially dried in the
air and then in an oven to ensure that no cracks are formed. Further drying of the
soil at some water content (b) will not result in the reduction of the volume of the
soil.
At stage (c) of the drying process the soil is completely dry but the volume in the
stage is the same as at stage (b). The weight of the soil is measured at stage (c) and
its volume is measured by immersing the dry soil in mercury.

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OSN - Lecture Notes

Copyright2001

(V1, M1)
Water

(V2, M2)

(Vd, Md)

Water

Air

M1

V1
Solids

M2 Vd
V2

Ms

(a) Wet soil

Solids

Ms

(b) Soil at
Shrinkage Limit

Md
Solids

Ms

(c) Dry Soil

SIVA

Fig. 7-9: Shrinkage Limit Phase Diagram

Shrinkage Limit =

Mass of Water in (b)

Mass of Soil Solids

(a) Fully saturated sample of soil of volume V1 and (b) mass M1 which on reducing
water content attains volume V2 and Mass M2.
If it is assumed that any further reduction in water does not cause a decrease in the
total volume of the sample, the water content is the shrinkage limit.

Mass of water in (a) =

(M1- Md)

Loss in water from (a) to (b) = (V1-V2)w

Mass of water (b) =

(M 1 M d ) (V1 V2 ) w

7.4

ATTERBERG INDICES

7.4.1

Plasticity Index

Md

Is defined as Liquid Limit minus Plastic Limit

PI = LL PL

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7.4.2

OSN - Lecture Notes

Flow Index, IF
Is the slope of flow curve obtained by plotting water content as ordinate or
natural scale against number of blows as abscissa on logarithmic scale (Fig. 710).

Fig. 7-10: Flow curve for determination of Liquid Limit

IF =

w1 w2
N
log 2
N1

Where;
w1 = water content corresponding to number of blows N1, and
w2 = water content corresponding to number of blows N2.
7.4.3

Toughness Index
Defined as the ratio of Plasticity Index to Flow Index.

IT =
7.4.4

Ip
IF

Consistency Index
Defined as the ratio of Liquid Limit minus natural Water Content to the Plasticity
Index.

IC =

LL w
IP

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7.4.5

OSN - Lecture Notes

Liquidity Index
Defined as the ratio of natural Water Content minus Plastic Limit to Plasticity
Index.

IL =
7.5

w PL
IP

USE OF CONSISTENCY LIMITS

The consistency limits and related indices are very useful for soil identification and
classification. The limits are often in specification for soil compaction and in semiempirical methods of design. The liquid limit and plastic limit depend on both the
type and amount of clay.

Plasticity Index

Plasticity

Non-Plastic

<7

Low Plastic

7 - 17

Medium Plastic

>17

Highly Plastic

The following table shows some typical values of Atterberg Limits

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7.6

OSN - Lecture Notes

WATER CONTENT

The water content may be determined by a number of methods.

7.6.1

Oven-drying method
This is the usual standard laboratory method in which the soil is dried in an oven
at 105C to 110C. This is the most accurate method. The temperature range of
105 to 110C has been selected because at higher heating temperatures there
may be danger of breaking down of crystalline structure of clay particles resulting
in the loss of chemically bound structural water. Also at higher temperatures
organic soils tend to decompose and get oxidated giving a reduced weight of the
dried soil. Drying time may extend up to 24 hours or more depending upon the
amount and type of soil. The water content is always reported on the basis of the
dry weight of the soil sample.

w=

Mw
Ms

Soils containing gypsum or significant amount of organic matter are dried at a

lower temperature (60 - 80C) for a longer time. Though very accurate, this
method is time consuming.
7.6.2

Sand Bath method

It is a field method requiring only about one hours drying period. A sand bath (a
basin containing about 50mm thick sand layer) is heated over a gas burner or
stove. Wet soil sample kept in a container, is placed on the sand bath and heated
until dry. The sand is stirred with a palette knife (or a rod) during heating to
assist drying. Observations are similar to those of the oven drying method and
the moisture content is calculated using the formulae;

w=

Mw
Ms

If M1 = Mass of container
M2 = Mass of wet soil + container
M3 = Mass of dry soil + container

w=

Mw M2 M3
=
100%
M s M 3 M1

However, the method suffers from the disadvantages of higher heating. The
method should not be used for soils containing large proportions of gypsum,
calcareous or organic matter.

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7.6.3

OSN - Lecture Notes

Other methods
Infrared lamp and torsion balance method, calcium carbide method and nuclear
method can be used for rapid determination of water content.

7.7

SPECIFIC GRAVITY
A knowledge of the specific gravity of soils is required for the determination of voids
ratio, degree of saturation, and in the sedimentation and consolidation tests. The
individual mineral particles constituting a soil have different specific gravities. The
specific gravity G of a soil refers to the average value for all the particles. The
specific gravity can be determined either by the use of a 50 - 100ml density bottle, a
500ml flask or a pycnometer. The density bottle method is the usual laboratory
method.
The mass M1 of the clean, dry bottle is found. Suitable quantity of oven-dried soil
sample, cooled in a desiccator is put in the bottle and the mass M2 of the bottle with
soil is found. Distilled water is then added to the soil inside bottle until the bottle is
full, care being taken to see that entrapped air is fully expelled (either by applying
vacuum or by gentle heating and shaking). The mass M3 of the bottle with soil and
water is found. The bottle is then emptied of its contents, cleaned and filled with
distilled water only. The outer surface of the bottle is wiped dry and the mass M4 of
the bottle with water is found. Fig. 3-11 shows the phase diagram for determination
of Specific Gravity. Specific gravity of soil is computed as;

G=

M 2 M1
(M 2 M 1 ) (M 3 M 4 )
Copyright2001

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

Empty bottle With dry soil With soil and

(Mass M1)
(Mass M2) water (Mass M3)
SIVA

(iv)
With water
(Mass M4)
7

Fig. 7-11: Phase diagram for determination of Specific Gravity

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Mass of soil solids

OSN - Lecture Notes

= M2 M1

Mass of water in (iii) = M3 M2

Mass of water in (iv) = M4 M1
Hence mass of water equivalent in volume of that of soil solids
= Mass of water in (iv) minus Mass of water in (iii)
= (M4 M1) (M3 M2)

G=

Mass of soil solids

Mass of equivalent volume of water

M 2 M1
(M 4 M 1 ) (M 3 M 2 )

M 2 M1
Md
=
(M 2 M 1 ) (M 3 M 4 ) M d (M 3 M 4 )

Example 1:
An oven-dried sample having mass of 195g was put inside a pycnometer which was
then completely filled with distilled water. The mass of pycnometer with soil and
water was found to be 1584g. The mass of pycnometer filled with water alone was
1465g. Calculate the Specific Gravity of soil solids.

Solution:
Mass of solids, Md = 195g
Mass of pycnometer + soil + water = 1584g

(M3)

Mass of pycnometer + water = 1465g

(M4)

G=

Md
195
=
= 2.56
M d ( M 3 M 4 ) 195 (1584 1465)

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OSN - Lecture Notes

Example 2:
In above example, while finding mass of pycnometer with soil and water, 2cm3 of air
got entrapped. Will the computed value of G be higher or lower than the correct
value and what will be the percentage error?

Solution:

G=

195
195 (1584 1465)

If some air got entrapped while finding M3, then the value of M3 will be less than that
when water replaces the entrapped air. Since M3 occurs with negative sign in the
denominator, the denominator will increase and hence computed value of G will be
than the correct value.
Corrected value of G is obtained as;

G=

195
= 2.63
195 (1586 1465)

Percentage error =

7.8

2.63 2.57
100% = 2.28%
2.63

DETERMINATION OF FIELD DENSITY

The in-situ bulk density of a soil deposit in the field is commonly determined by;
(i)
Core-cutter method in the case of cohesive soils and
(ii)
Sand replacement method in the case of cohesionless soils
7.8.1

Core Cutter method

A core cutter is a steel cylinder open at both ends with one end sharpened to
form the cutting edge. The usual dimensions are 10cm internal diameter and
height about 12 to 15 cm. The internal diameter, height and mass of core-cutter
are noted. The place where the field density is to be determined is cleared of
shrubs, if any, levelled and the core-cutter is placed vertically on the ground
surface. A steel ring about 2.5cm height (Steel Dolly) is placed on top of the core
cutter and is gently driven into the ground by blows of a rammer, until the top of
the steel ring is nearly flush with the ground surface. Sufficient soil is excavated
from around the core-cutter to enable a person to put his hands and lift the corecutter with soil inside off the ground. The core cutter with soil inside is brought
to the laboratory, the ends are trimmed, levelled and weighed. The soil is
removed from the core-cutter and the samples are taken from top, middle and
bottom positions for water content determination. The average of the three
determinations gives the in-situ water content. Using the experimental data,
computations are as follows;
1. Internal volume of core cutter

V in cc

2. Weight of core cutter

W1 in g

3. Weight of core cutter + soil

W2 in g

4. Weight of soil

W2 - W1 in g

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OSN - Lecture Notes

5. Bulk density of soil ,

W2 W1
g / cc
V

6. Moisture content

Dry density, d =

7.

w in %

100
g / cc
100 + w

Derivation;
Relation between , d and w
We have w =

Mw
Ms

Adding 1 to both sides;

1+ w =

Mw
M + Ms
M
+1 = w
=
Ms
Ms
Ms

Ms =

M
1+ w

Dividing both sides by V,

M s M /V
=
V
1+ w

d =

1+ w

S/No.

Description

Determination No.
I

II

III

100

100

100

Internal diameter of corecutter (mm)

Internal height corecutter in mm

129.75

129.75

129.75

Volume of cutter (V) in cc

1019.05

1019.05

1019.05

Weight of core cutter (W1) in g

1130

1130

1130

Weight of core cutter + soil (W2) in g

3120

3122

3119

Weight of soil (W2 - W1) in g

1990

1992

1989

Bulk density of soil, =

1.95

1.95

1.95

Moisture content w in %

17.75

17.76

17.73

Dry density of soil, d =

1.66

1.66

1.66

Average value

UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

W2 W1
g / cm 2
V

1+ w

1.66 g/cm3

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FCE 311 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING I

7.8.2

OSN - Lecture Notes

Sand replacement method

Equipments:
(i) Small pouring cylinder: suitable for fine and medium grained soils.
(ii) Metal tray to excavate the hole with suitable shape and size.
(iii) Calibration container of the small pouring cylinder (size 100 x 150mm).
(iv) Large pouring cylinder: suitable for fine, medium and coarse grained soils.
(v) Calibration container
(iii) Medium pouring cylinder: suitable for line, medium and coarse grained soils.
(iv) Tools for levelling and excavating.
(v) Containers.
(vi) Sand.
(vii) Balance

Procedure:
The units base plate is laid on the compacted surface and material is excavated
through the hole in the plate to a depth of about 150 mm. This wet material is
weighed, dried in an oven and weighed again to determine the moisture content.
The volume of the hole is measured by filling it with dry, free-flowing sand from
a special sand-cone cylinder. Since the density of the sand is known, the volume
of the hole is calculated. The density (wet unit weight) of the compacted sample
is found by dividing the weight of the material by the volume of the hole. Dry
unit weight is found by using the formulae;

d =

7.9

1+ w

PARTICLE-SIZE DISTRIBUTION
The soil grading or the distribution of particle size is quantitatively determined by
performing the particle-size analysis, also called mechanical analysis, which is carried
out in two parts: sieve analysis and sedimentation analysis. The distribution of gravel
and sand particles is determined by sieve analysis and that of silt and clay by
sedimentation analysis. Depending on the type of soil and the extent of particle-size
distribution required, mechanical analysis may involve both sieving and
sedimentation or it may be restricted to either of them. For gravel and sand, sieve
analysis alone will suffice, but if silt and clay are present, a combined sieve and
sedimentation analysis may be required. If soil is predominantly silty and or clayey,
sedimentation alone will do.

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7.9.1

OSN - Lecture Notes

Sieve analysis
Soil sample to be analysed is first either air-dried or oven-dried. Soil aggregates
are then broken by pulverisation with a wooden mallet or in a mortar with a
rubber pestle. If the sample is more than required, it is reduced in size by
means of a riffle box. A representative sample is then taken for sieve analysis.
The objective of this test is to determine the relative proportions of different
granular sizes as they are passing through certain sieve sizes. Thus, the
percentage of sand, gravel, silt and clay can be obtained.
Sieve analysis is widely used in classification of soils. Data obtained from
particle-size distribution curves is used in the design of filters for earth dams and
to determine suitability of soil for road, highway, construction, embankment fill
of dam, airport runway etc.
Sieve analysis of soil test is in accordance to ASTM D-422 (American Society for
Testing and Materials) or BS 1377: Part 2 1990 (British Standards) as both are
the most widely used technical standards in construction. The dry sieving of soil
is the simplest and cheapest method among others.

Apparatus;
i. Stack of Sieve aperture sizes (including cover and pan) (Fig. 7-12).
ii. Electronic balance.
iii. Rubber pestle, mortar (for crushing the soil if lumped) and brush.
iv. Mechanical sieve vibrator (shaker).
v. Oven dry (thermostatically controlled temperature).

Fig. 7-12: Sieve Analysis Apparatus: (A) Sieve aperture sizes, (B) Dry oven, (C)

Sieve shaker, (D) Mortar & Tray, (E) Rubber pestle, (F) Balance

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OSN - Lecture Notes

Procedure;
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

Oven-dry sample.
Crush the oven-dried sample using rubber pestle and mortar.
Determine mass of sample and label as Wtotal in (g).
Then prepare a stack of sieve aperture sizes with larger opening sizes
at the top and down to the last one with smaller opening sizes.
v. Pour the soil slowly into the stack of sieves from the top and place the
cover, put the stack onto the sieve shaker (vibrator), tighten the
clamps, adjust the time with 5 to 10 minutes and turn it on.
vi. When time is out, take out and measure the mass of retained soil
inside, from the top sieve until the pan.
The results are presented in a graph of percent passing versus the sieve size
(Fig. 7-13). On the graph the sieve size is logarithmic. To find the percent of
aggregate passing through each sieve, first find the percentage retained in each
sieve.

% Retained =

Wsieve
100%
Wtotal

Find cumulative percent of aggregate retained in each sieve.

Then % Cumulative Passing = 100% - % Cumulative Retained.

7.9.2

Particle-Size Distribution Curves

Consider Fig. 7.13 showing a typical particle-size distribution curve.

Fig. 7-13: Particle size distribution curve (Graph for BS 1377: Part 2 1990)

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The position and general shape and slope of a curve indicate type and grading of
the soil.
A curve lying higher up or to the left represents relatively finer material.
The gradation of soil is said to be either well graded or poorly graded.
A soil is well graded when there is a good representation of all the particle
sizes from the largest to the smallest.
A soil is poorly graded if there is an excess or a deficiency of certain
particle sizes within the limits of the minimum and maximum sizes, or if
most of the particles are of about the same sizes (uniformly graded).
We can compute the Coefficient of Uniformity Cu and Coefficient of Curvature Cc
by obtaining D10, D30 and D60 values from the curves.

D10

10% passing point on the curve.

D30

30% passing point on the curve.

D60

60% passing point on the curve.

Cu =

D60
D10

Cc =

( D30 ) 2
D10 D60

To be well graded, Cc must lie within 1 and 3 and in addition, Cu must be greater
than 4 for gravels and greater than 6 for sands. If all particles are of the same
size, Cu is unity.
A low value of Cu indicates a uniform soil and a high value a well graded soil.
7.9.3

Sieve analysis test result

Sieve Size

Weight
retained

% Retained

% Cum.
Retained

% Passing

126

12.6

12.6

87.4

86

8.6

21.2

78.8

0.6

194

19.4

40.6

59.4

0.2

202

20.2

60.8

39.2

0.075

124

12.4

73.2

26.8

Base

268

26.8

100

Total

1000

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7.9.4
(a)

OSN - Lecture Notes

Example Particle Size Distribution Curves

Silty SAND with little gravel

(b) Silty SAND with a trace of gravel

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(c)

(d)

OSN - Lecture Notes

Silty SAND and GRAVEL

Silty sandy GRAVEL with occasional cobbles

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OSN - Lecture Notes

(e) sandy GRAVEL

7.9.5

Limitations of Sieve Analysis

For materials finer than 150 m, dry sieving can be significantly less accurate.
This is because the mechanical energy required to make particles pass through
an opening and the surface attraction effects between the particles themselves
and between particles and the screen increase as the particle sizes decreases.
Wet sieving analysis can be utilized where the material analyzed is not affected
by the liquid except to disperse it. Suspending the particles in a suitable liquid
transports fine material through the sieve much more efficiently than shaking the
dry material.
Sieve analysis assumes that all particles will be round (spherical) or nearly so and
will pass through the square openings when the particle diameter is less than the
size of the square opening in the screen. For elongated and flat particles, a sieve
analysis will not yield reliable mass-based results, as the particle size reported
will assume that the particles size reported will assume that the particles are
spherical, where in fact an elongated particle might pass through the screen endon, but would be prevented from doing so if it presented itself side-on.

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8
8.1

OSN - Lecture Notes

SOIL DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION

INTRODUCTION
Soil description includes the details of both material and mass characteristics. Soil
classification on the other hand is the allocation of a soil to a limited number of
groups on the basis of material characteristics only, viz: - particle size distribution
and plasticity. Soil classification is therefore independent of the in situ mass
condition of the soil mass. It is unlikely that any two soils will have the same
description, while they could have the same classification.
In some engineering processes the description and classification are useful. Such
engineering processes include foundations and seepage. However in other cases the
classification is by the far the most important. Such processes include embankment
construction where classification of material is key factor in choice and construction
process. It is essential that a standard language be used in description and
classification of soils. A comprehensive description should include the characteristics
of both soil material and in situ soil mass.

Material characteristics can be determined from disturbed samples of soil, i.e.

samples having the same particle size distribution as the in situ soil but whose in situ
structure has been altered. The principal material characteristics are particle size
distribution (or grading) and plasticity. Secondary material characteristics are colour
of the soil, shape, texture and composition of the particles.

Mass characteristics are best determined in the field but can also be determined
in the laboratory when undisturbed samples are available. Mass characteristics
include firmness, strength, details of any bedding, discontinuities and weathering.
The arrangement of minor geological details referred to as macro-fabric should be
carefully described as this can influence the engineering behaviour of in situ soil
considerably. Such macro-fabric features are thin layers of fine sand and silt in a clay
strata, silt filled fissures in clay, small lenses of clay in sand, organic intrusions and
root holes etc.

8.2

SOIL DESCRIPTION
A detailed description of the method of describing soils is contained in BS 5930. The
basic soils are boulders, cobbles, gravels, sand, silt and clay. Often soils appear in
mixtures and are referred to composite types.
In accordance to BS 5930, a soil is of basic type sand or gravel (coarse soil), if after
removal of boulders and cobbles, over 65% of the material is in the sand and gravel
range. A soil is of basic type silt or clay (fine grained soil) when over 35% of the soil
is in the silt and clay range. Composite soils are named as described in Table 8-1.
Mixtures containing over 50% boulders and cobbles are referred to as very coarse
soils. The descriptions may be of the form COBBLES with finer material or gravelly
SAND with occasional cobbly BOULDERS.
The firmness or strength of the soil in the field can be assessed by means of tests
shown on Table 8-2.

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Table 8.1: Soil description terminology

COARSE SOILS

Soil
group

FINE SOILS

Soil description

Indicative particle size distribution

Slightly sandy GRAVEL

Up to 5% sand

Sandy GRAVEL

5-20% sand

Very sandy GRAVEL

Over 20% sand

GRAVEL/SAND

About equal proportions

Very gravelly SAND

Over 20% gravel

Gravelly SAND

5-20% gravel

Slightly gravelly SAND

Up to 5% gravel

Slightly silty SAND (or GRAVEL)

Up to 5% silt

Silty SAND (or GRAVEL)

5-15% silt

Very silty SAND (or GRAVEL)

15-35% silt

Slightly clayey SAND (or GRAVEL)

Up to 5% clay

Clayey SAND (or GRAVEL)

5-15% Clay

Very clayey SAND (or GRAVEL)

15-35% Clay

Sandy SILT (or CLAY)

35-65% Sand

Gravelly SILT (or CLAY)

35-65% Gravel

Table 8.2: Field identification tests

Clays

Silts

Sands and
gravels

Soil type

Organic
Peat

&

Term

Field test

Loose

Can be excavated by spade. A 50 mm wooden peg can be

easily driven

Dense

Requires a pick to excavate. 50 mm wooden peg difficult to

drive

Slightly cemented

Visual examination. Pick removes lumps

Soft or loose

Easily molded or crushed in the fingers

Firm or dense

Can be molded or crushed by strong pressure in fingers

Very soft

Exudes between fingers when squeezed in the hand

Soft

Molded by light finger pressure

Firm

Can be molded by strong finger pressure

Stiff

Cannot be molded by fingers

Very stiff

Cannot be indented by thumb nails

Firm

Fibers already compressed together

Spongy plastic

Very compressible and open structure. Can be molded by

fingers and smears fingers

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8.1

SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

8.1.1

Purpose of Soil classification

A soil classification system is an arrangement of different soils into soil groups
having the similar properties. The purpose of soil classification is to make
possible the estimation of soil properties by association with soils of the same
class whose properties are known. Thus with consistent soil classification it is
possible to;
1 Use data of others in predicting foundation performance.
2 Build the geotechnical engineers data base for application of design.
3 Maintain a permanent record which can be easily understood by others
should problems develop later.
There are several methods of soil classification. Two such methods in use by
engineers in Kenya are described below
(A)

BRITISH SOIL CLASSIFICATION

The British soil classification system is based on the particle size distribution and
the plasticity as plotted on a plasticity chart. The plasticity chart is a plot of the
soil PI against LL.
In the British soil classification any cobbles and boulders retained on 63mm BS
Sieve Size are removed from the soil before the classification. The percentage of
this very coarse portion is determined and mentioned in the report. The soil
groups in the classification are noted by the group symbols composed of main
and qualifying descriptive letters having the meaning shown on Table 8-3.
Table 8-3: Soils descriptive terms
Main terms

Qualifying terms

GRAVEL

Well graded

SAND

Poorly graded

Uniform

Pu

Gap graded

Pg

FINE SOIL,
FINES SILT (M
SOIL) CLAY

Peat

Of low plasticity (LL<35)

Of intermediate plasticity (LL 35-50)

Of high plasticity (LL 50-70)

Of very high plasticity (LL 70-90)

Of extremely high plasticity

Of upper plasticity range (LL<35)

Organic (may be a suffix to any group

Pt

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The letter describing the dominant group is placed first in the group symbol.
When the group has significant organic content the suffix O is added as the last
letter. The above is illustrated below in the description of sand, clay and silt
samples.
SW well graded SAND
SCL very clayey SAND (the clay in the sample is of low plasticity)
CIS sandy CLAY of intermediate plasticity
MHSO organic sandy SILT of high plasticity

Plasticity Index (%)

The fine grained soils are represented by a point on the plasticity chart. The
plasticity chart is divided into a low plasticity (LL<35) and upper (U) plasticity
zones (LL>35). The upper plasticity zones are subdivided into Intermediate
plasticity (LL 35-50), High plasticity (LL 50-70), very high plasticity (LL 70-90)
and extremely high plasticity (LL >90). Fig. 8-1 shows the plasticity chart as
used in the British soil classification.

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

CE
CV
A line - PI = 0.73(LL-20)
ME

CH
CI
MV
CL
MH
0

ML
10 20

30

MI
40 50

60

70

80

90

100 110 120

Liquid limit (%)

Fig. 8-1: Plasticity Chart (BS 5930: 1981)

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The recommended standard for soil classification is the British Soil

Classification System (Table 8-4), and this is detailed in BS 5930 Site
Investigation.
Table 8-4: British soil classification system

Soil Group

Group
Subgroup
Symbol Symbol

Coarse
Soils

Fines %

GRAVEL

G-F

GF

SAND

S-F

SF
Fine soils

SILT

CLAY

Recommended name

GW

0-5

Well-graded GRAVEL

GPu/ GPg

0-5

Uniform/poorly-graded GRAVEL

GWM/GWC

5-15

Well-graded silty/clayey GRAVEL

GPM/GPC

5-15

Poorly graded silty/clayey GRAVEL

GML

15-35

Very silty GRAVEL

GCL

15-35

Very clayey GRAVEL

SW

0-5

Well-Graded SAND

SPu/ GPg

0-5

Uniform / poorly-graded SAND

SWM/SWC

5-15

Well-graded silty/clayey SAND

SPM/SPC

5-15

Poorly graded silty/clayey SAND

SML

15-35

Very silty SAND

SCL

15-35

Very clayey SAND

>35% Fines

Liquid
Limit %

MG

Gravelly SILT

MS

Sand SILT

CG

Gravelly SILT

CS

Sandy SILT

CL

<35

CLAY of low plasticity

CI

35 50

CLAY of intermediate plasticity

CH

50 70

CLAY of high plasticity

CV

70 - 90

CLAY of very high plasticity

CE

>90

CLAY of extremely high plasticity

Organic soils

[Add letter O to group symbol when

organic matter is present]

Peat

Pt

[Soil predominantly fibrous and organic]

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(B)

OSN - Lecture Notes

UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION

Like the British soil classification system, the Unified Soil Classification System is
based on the particle size distribution and the plasticity as plotted on a plasticity
chart. The plasticity chart is a plot of the soil PI against LL. Table 8-5 shows the
unified soil classification. The main difference with the British soil classification is
that the detail in the unified classification is reduced. In effect the classification is
simplified. Thus the separation of the coarse and the fine grained soils is basically
determined on the 50% percentage fraction instead of the 35 and 65% used in
the British classification system. In addition the division of the plasticity chart is
limited to the 50% value for the lower and the higher plasticity for the purposes
of classifying the fine grained soils.

The system is based on both grain size and plasticity characteristics of soils. In
this system soils are broadly divided into three divisions;
1. Course-grained soils if more than 50% by weight is retained on No.
200 ASTM sieves (American Society for Testing Materials)
2. Fine-grained soils if more than 50% by weight passes through No.
200 ASTM sieve
3. Organic soils
The soil components are assigned group symbols as indicated below;

Course-grained soils:
Gravel: G
Sand: S

Fine grained soils:

Silt: M (Symbol M is derived from the Swedish word Mo for Silt)
Clay: C
Organic soil: O

No. 200 sieve is of aperture size 0.074 mm

No. 4 sieve is of aperture size 4.76 mm

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Table 8-5: Unified Soil Classification System

Major Divisions

Typical names

Group
Symbol

Fines
%

Coarse
grained soils

Well graded gravels, sandy gravels with

little or no fines

GW

0-5

Poorly graded gravels, sandy gravels with

little or no fines

GP

0-5

Silty gravels, silty sandy gravels

GM

>12

Clayey gravels, clayey sandy gravels

GC

>12

Well graded sands, gravelly sands with little

or no fines

SW

0-5

Poorly graded sands, gravelly sands with

little or no fines

SP

0-5

Silty sands,

SM

>12

Clayey sands

SC

>12

Inorganic silts, silty or clayey fine sands

with slight plasticity

ML

Inorganic silts, silty or clayey fine sands of

low plasticity

CL

Organic silts, silty or clayey fine sands of

low plasticity

OL

Silts and clays

Inorganic silts of high plasticity

MH

(liquid limit
greater than
50%)

Inorganic clays of high plasticity

CH

Organic clays of high plasticity

OH

Peat and highly organic soils

Pt

(more than
50% larger
than 63BS
or No 200US
sieve size)

Gravels
(more than 50%
of coarse
fraction of
gravel size)

Sands
(more than 50%
of coarse
fraction of sand
size)

Fine grained
soils
(more than
50% smaller
than 63BS
or No 200US
sieve size)

Silts and clays

(liquid limit less
than 50%)

Highly organic soils

The original Casagrande plasticity chart used for classifying fine-grained soils is
given in Fig. 8-2.

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Plasticity Index (%)

FCE 311 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING I

OSN - Lecture Notes

60

CH

A line - PI = 0.73(LL-20)

40

CL

MH or OH

20
CL-ML

MLor OL

ML

0
0

25

50
75
Liquid limit (%)

100

Plasticity Chart Unified System

Fig. 8-2: Unified classification system plasticity chart

8.1.2

Shortcomings of the classification systems

The classification systems are based on the properties of the grains and their
remolded properties. They do not consider the properties of the materials in situ.
Yet it is the intact nature of soils in the field that determine the behaviour of the
soil during and after construction. The foundation engineer should therefore take
recognition of the description of soil described above. It is also important to have
basic understanding of the geology of the soil to have a complete description and
understanding of the soil under study.

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9
9.1

OSN - Lecture Notes

SOIL COMPACTION
INTRODUTION

Soil compaction is the process of increasing the density of soil by packing the particles
together with reduction in volume of air. The process does not involve removal of water.
The process primarily results in the increase of soil unit weight (density). The reduction of
the air content results in the reduction of pores which act as conduits of water and
consequently reduce the permeability of the soil. In addition compaction reduces the
liquefaction and increases the erosion resistance of the soil. The result is increased shear
strength and less compressibility of the soil.
The purpose of the compaction is to produce a soil having the physical properties
appropriate to the particular project. A good measure of compaction is needed in the
construction of road embankments, improvement of road subgrade, subbase and base
layers. Compaction of materials in dams is needed to ensure stability and water tightness
of the dam walls

9.2

THEORY OF COMPACTION

9.2.1

General

The degree of compaction is measured quantitatively by the dry density (d). The
increase in dry density of soil is a function of the moisture content of the soil and the
compaction effort. The variation of dry density and moisture content (M) is shown in Fig
9.1. Curve is usually plotted by obtaining the dry density from bulk density and water
content measurements as follows;

b =

W Ww + Ws Ww / Ws + 1 ( w + 1)
=
=
=
V
V
V / Ws
1/ d

d =

b
1+ w

At low water content, the soil is stiff and difficult to compact. As the water content
increases, the soil is workable facilitating compaction and reduction in air. The dry
density increases. As the air is reduced and replaced by water, at certain water content
the voids are occupied by water and prevent any appreciable decrease in the air voids.
The result is increase in the void ratio and consequent decrease in the dry density. The
curve has a peak which shows an optimum moisture content (OMC) at which the soil
would need to be compacted to achieve the maximum dry density (MDD).
If it was possible to remove all the air at various water contents, then the dry density
achieved at the zero air voids would be the maximum achievable for the various water
contents. This curve can be drawn by the relationship of dry density and Gs w, and Sr
and assuming the degree of saturation Sr is equal to one.

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d =

A=

d =

G
w
1+ e

e w * Gs
1+ e

G s * w (1 A)
1 + wG s

The dry unit weight can also be expressed in terms of, A, w and Gs. The zero air voids
curve is also obtained by assuming that A is zero.

Fig. 9.1: Typical compaction curve

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9.2.2

OSN - Lecture Notes

Variation in Compaction Curve

A) Variation in compaction effort

Increasing the compaction effort results in the increase in the maximum dry density
and a decrease in the optimum moisture content as shown in Fig. 9.2. Thus if light
compaction is used more water would be needed to overcome the resistance of the
soil grains to packing. With more compaction effort the soil grains need less water to
occupy the available pore spaces.

Fig. 9.2: Effect of compaction effort

B) Variation in soil grading soil type

The particle size distribution influences the arrangement of particles in the
compaction of soils. A well-graded soil will compact to lesser voids than a poorly
graded soil. The effect is that the well-graded soils will have an increased density
and improved properties such as bearing capacity on compaction. These enhanced
strength characteristics of compacted fills are important because of the increasing
need of embankments capable of supporting higher loads.
The behaviour of soils containing clay particles is different from that of granular soils.
Their behaviour is related to the arrangement of the clay minerals, the inter-particle
forces and the nature of soil water. Thus when two particles are pressed together
the contact is initially between a few grains. These grains deform elastically to
develop Van der Waal forces. The Van de Waal forces arise from electrical forces
developed in atoms bonding the particles together. They hold the particles together
and when they are brought closer more forces have to be overcome during shearing.
However, the overall effect of the cohesive forces and the plasticity is reduction in
the maximum dry density achieved upon compaction
Thus for the same compaction effort MDD and OMC increases and decreases
respectively as the soil grain size increases and the plasticity decreases (Fig. 9.3).

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OSN - Lecture Notes

Fig. 9.3: Effect of soil type on compaction

9.3

LABORATORY COMPACTION TESTS

Three types of compaction tests are explained. The first is the light manual compaction
test with 2.5kg hammer. The second is heavy compaction test in which much greater
compaction is achieved by use of 4.5kg hammer. The third is use of a vibrating hammer
and is intended mainly for granular soils passing 37.5 mm test sieve with no more than
30% retained on a 20mm test sieve. For each type of test a small variation of the test is
done to take recognition of whether the soil crushes during compaction.
The mould for 2.5 kg rammer method is 1000 cm3 and 100mm diameter. The test covers
soil with particles finer than 20mm sieve size. The compaction is effected by free fall of
the 2.5 kg rammer through 300mm in three layers. Each layer receives 27 blows
In 4.5kg method the rammer is 4.5kg. The rammer is made to freely fall through 450mm.
In addition the soil in the same type of mould is compacted through 5 layers. Each layer
receives 62 blows. The test is suitable for soils containing not more than 30% retained on
20mm sieve size. These particles may include particles retained on 37.5mm sieve size.
In the vibratory rammer method the mould is 2360cm3 and 152 mm diameter. The
compaction is effected by placing the rammer on the soil surface and vibrating the
rammer at 602seconds. During this period a steady downward force on the rammer is
applied to enable a force of between 300 and 400 N to be applied on the soil. Like the
method using 4.5 kg rammer the test is suitable for soils containing not more than 30%
retained on 20mm sieve size. These particles may include particles retained on 37.5mm
sieve size. The test is however not suitable for cohesive soils.
After the compaction using any of the three methods the mould is trimmed at the top.
The soil bulk density and moisture content are determined. The soil dry density is then
computed. The procedure is repeated at different moisture contents to enable the
plotting of the compaction curve. The coordinates of the peak dry density define the MDD
and OMC. Typical results are shown on Fig 9.4.

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OSN - Lecture Notes

2.5 kg rammer
4.5 kg rammer
Vibratory rammer
Power (0% air voids)
Power (10% air voids)

Dry unit weight (kN/m2)

22

20

18

16

14
0

10
15
20
Moisture content (%)

25

30

Fig. 9.4: Laboratory compaction curves

9.4

FIELD COMPACTION

9.4.1

Compaction

In the field, compaction of soil is carried out by applying energy by application of

pressure, Impact or vibration or combination of two or three of the ways. The application
of energy is effected by different machinery including rollers, rammers, vibrators,
tampers and construction equipment. The type of compaction method to be adopted in
the field depends on the kind of soils and the level of compaction required. Table 9.1
shows the different varieties of compaction equipment. A brief outline of the various
compacting equipment is now presented.
Table 9.1: Varieties of compaction equipment
Rollers

Rammers

Vibrators

Construction
equipment

Smooth wheeled rollers

Dropping wheel

Out of balance weight

Lorries

Vibratory rollers

Internal
combustion

Pulsating hydraulic

Scrapers

Pneumatic tired rollers

Pneumatic type

Excavators

Sheeps foot rollers

Piling equipment

Graders

Construction equipment

The smooth wheeled rollers have their dead weight increased by water or sand. A
smooth surface is generally achieved after compaction. The compacted layers are
laminated. These rollers can be fitted with vibratory equipment for more effective
compaction. They generally come in three tandem or three axle tandem rollers and are
particularly good for finishing works on embankments and roads.

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The pneumatic tired rollers are good for coarse and fine grained soils. They are set
on two axles. Usually the rear axle may have three wheels while the front axle has two
wheels. In between the axles a platform is mounted which carries loads for providing the
needed pressure on the soils under compaction. The tires are wide and increase in
pressure increases the compaction effort. It is common to have the rollers towed by
tractors.
The sheeps foot rollers consists of a roller with hollow steel drums acting as wheels
fitted with numerous tapered or club shaped feet projecting from a drum surface. The
feet take the shape of a sheeps foot and hence the name. Initially a soft soil is
penetrated by the sheeps foot. As the soil increases in density upon rolling of the roller,
the sheeps foot rises to the surface. The penetrating feet mix the soil up bonding it
together. This type of roller is suitable for water retaining earthworks.
Rammers are usually employed when the site conditions are such that conventional
rollers are not suitable. They are usually in various shapes and are used by manual
labour. They are particularly useful in compacting corners and crevices. They are used for
compacting backfill soil below ground floor slabs

Vibrators are generally used for compacting coarse grained soils. They are attached to
smooth wheeled rollers and fitted with out of balance weights or pulsating type engine is
fitted to the vibrator.
Construction equipment can be utilized to compact soils to a reasonable degree of
compaction. This type of compaction has been used in reclaiming swampy fields where
the quality of the final surface need not be of high quality. In the field compaction
equipment employed is usually in different types depending on the complexity of the
works. This construction traffic should be channelled and directed on the earthworks
systematically on the loose earthworks to achieve beneficial compaction. The construction
equipment comes in an array of different types such as;
i)
Lorries
ii)
Scrapers
iii)
Excavators
iv)
Graders
v)
Etc
9.4.2

Field Control of Compaction

Tests for determination of bulk density and water content during earthwork construction
must be carried out at every layer of the compacted earthworks. In the least at least four
density tests per 8 hour shift with a minimum one test for every 400m3 of earthworks are
needed. Bulk density determination may be carried out by means of a core cutter, sand
replacement method or nuclear radiation.
In the core cutter method undisturbed sample is obtained by pushing a thin walled
cutter, 10cm in diameter and 12.5 cm high into a compacted soil. The bulk density and
the moisture content are determined to enable determination of the field dry density.
The sand replacement is by far the most widely used method. In this method a hole of

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100x150mm (diameter x depth) is dug at the test site. The mass of soil from the hole is
carefully retrieved and weighed. The volume from where the soil has been excavated is
gotten by pouring loose dry sand from a fixed height through a cone shaped stand.
The nuclear radiation technique uses a nuclear gauge. In the usage of the gauge, an
aluminum probe is inserted in the compacted soil. Neutrons are then released from a
source. The neutrons loose energy depending on the soil density and water content as
they pass through the soil. The instrument is calibrated to give water content, bulk
density and the dry density of the soil. The instrument should be calibrated against the
sand replacement test results.

9.4.3

Specification of the Field Compacted Density

The compacted density is usually specified as a percentage of the MDD as determined in

the laboratory. In some instances the moisture content is required to be within a small
band above or below the OMC. In rare instances the air content is specified. The
specification usually ranges from 95-100% MDD when a 2.5 kg hammer is used the field
control. A minimum number of roller passes is usually required to reach the desired
compaction. The usual range is between 3 and 12 passes.
In road work embankments the specification for the lower layers is usually a minimum of
95% MDD. The compaction for the upper subgrade and the pavement layers should
however be raised to between 100 and 105 MDD.

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