All About Decorators in Python
All About Decorators in Python
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def shout(word="yes"):
return word.capitalize()+"!"
print shout()
# outputs : 'Yes!'
# As an object, you can assign the function to a variable like any
# other object
scream = shout
# Notice we don't use parentheses: we are not calling the function, we are
# putting the function "shout" into the variable "scream".
# It means you can then call "shout" from "scream":
print scream()
# outputs : 'Yes!'
# More than that, it means you can remove the old name 'shout', and
# the function will still be accessible from 'scream'
del shout
try:
print shout()
except NameError, e:
print e
#outputs: "name 'shout' is not defined"
print scream()
# outputs: 'Yes!'
OK, keep that in mind, we are going back to it soon. Another interesting property of Python
functions is they can be defined inside another function!
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def talk():
# You can define a function on the fly in "talk" ...
def whisper(word="yes"):
return word.lower()+"..."
# ... and use it right away!
print whisper()
# You call "talk", that defines "whisper" EVERY TIME you call it, then
# "whisper" is called in "talk".
talk()
# outputs:
# "yes..."
# But "whisper" DOES NOT EXIST outside "talk":
try:
print whisper()
except NameError, e:
print e
#outputs : "name 'whisper' is not defined"*
Functions references
OK, still here? Now the fun part, youve seen that functions are objects and therefore:
can be assigned to a variable;
can be defined in another function.
Well, that means that a function can return another function
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Have a look:
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def getTalk(type="shout"):
# We define functions on the fly
def shout(word="yes"):
return word.capitalize()+"!"
def whisper(word="yes") :
return word.lower()+"...";
# Then we return one of them
if type == "shout":
# We don't use "()", we are not calling the function,
# we are returning the function object
return shout
else:
return whisper
# How do you use this strange beast?
# Get the function and assign it to a variable
talk = getTalk()
# You can see that "talk" is here a function object:
print talk
#outputs : <function shout at 0xb7ea817c>
# The object is the one returned by the function:
print talk()
#outputs : Yes!
# And you can even use it directly if you feel wild:
print getTalk("whisper")()
#outputs : yes...
But wait, there is more. If you can return a function, then you can pass one as a parameter:
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def doSomethingBefore(func):
print "I do something before then I call the function you gave me"
print func()
doSomethingBefore(scream)
#outputs:
#I do something before then I call the function you gave me
#Yes!
Well, you just have everything needed to understand decorators. You see, decorators are
wrappers which means that they let you execute code before and after the function they
decorate without the need to modify the function itself.
Handcrafted decorators
How you would do it manually:
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a_stand_alone_function_decorated = my_shiny_new_decorator(a_stand_alone_function
a_stand_alone_function_decorated()
#outputs:
#Before the function runs
#I am a stand alone function, don't you dare modify me
#After the function runs
Now, you probably want that every time you call a_stand_alone_function,
a_stand_alone_function_decorated is called instead. Thats easy, just overwrite
a_stand_alone_function with the function returned by my_shiny_new_decorator:
a_stand_alone_function = my_shiny_new_decorator(a_stand_alone_function)
a_stand_alone_function()
#outputs:
#Before the function runs
#I am a stand alone function, don't you dare modify me
#After the function runs
# And guess what? That's EXACTLY what decorators do!
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Decorators demystified
The previous example, using the decorator syntax:
@my_shiny_new_decorator
def another_stand_alone_function():
print "Leave me alone"
another_stand_alone_function()
#outputs:
#Before the function runs
#Leave me alone
#After the function runs
Yes, thats all, its that simple. @decorator is just a shortcut to:
another_stand_alone_function = my_shiny_new_decorator(another_stand_alone_functi
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def bread(func):
def wrapper():
print "</''''''\>"
func()
print "<\______/>"
return wrapper
def ingredients(func):
def wrapper():
print "#tomatoes#"
func()
print "~salad~"
return wrapper
def sandwich(food="--ham--"):
print food
sandwich()
#outputs: --ham-sandwich = bread(ingredients(sandwich))
sandwich()
#outputs:
#</''''''\>
# #tomatoes#
# --ham-# ~salad~
#<\______/>
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@bread
@ingredients
def sandwich(food="--ham--"):
print food
sandwich()
#outputs:
#</''''''\>
# #tomatoes#
# --ham-# ~salad~
#<\______/>
@ingredients
@bread
def strange_sandwich(food="--ham--"):
print food
strange_sandwich()
#outputs:
##tomatoes#
#</''''''\>
# --ham-#<\______/>
# ~salad~
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You can now just leave happy, or burn your brain a little bit more and see advanced uses of
decorators.
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# It's not black magic, you just have to let the wrapper
# pass the argument:
def a_decorator_passing_arguments(function_to_decorate):
def a_wrapper_accepting_arguments(arg1, arg2):
print "I got args! Look:", arg1, arg2
function_to_decorate(arg1, arg2)
return a_wrapper_accepting_arguments
# Since when you are calling the function returned by the decorator, you are
# calling the wrapper, passing arguments to the wrapper will let it pass them to
# the decorated function
@a_decorator_passing_arguments
def print_full_name(first_name, last_name):
print "My name is", first_name, last_name
print_full_name("Peter", "Venkman")
# outputs:
#I got args! Look: Peter Venkman
#My name is Peter Venkman
Decorating methods
Whats great with Python is that methods and functions are really the same, except methods
expect their first parameter to be a reference to the current object (self). It means you can build a
decorator for methods the same way, just remember to take self in consideration:
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def method_friendly_decorator(method_to_decorate):
def wrapper(self, lie):
lie = lie - 3 # very friendly, decrease age even more :-)
return method_to_decorate(self, lie)
return wrapper
class Lucy(object):
def __init__(self):
self.age = 32
@method_friendly_decorator
def sayYourAge(self, lie):
print "I am %s, what did you think?" % (self.age + lie)
l = Lucy()
l.sayYourAge(-3)
#outputs: I am 26, what did you think?
Of course, if you make a very general decorator and want to apply it to any function or method,
no matter its arguments, then just use *args, **kwargs:
def a_decorator_passing_arbitrary_arguments(function_to_decorate):
# The wrapper accepts any arguments
def a_wrapper_accepting_arbitrary_arguments(*args, **kwargs):
print "Do I have args?:"
print args
print kwargs
# Then you unpack the arguments, here *args, **kwargs
# If you are not familiar with unpacking, check:
# http://www.saltycrane.com/blog/2008/01/how-to-use-args-and-kwargs-in-p
function_to_decorate(*args, **kwargs)
return a_wrapper_accepting_arbitrary_arguments
@a_decorator_passing_arbitrary_arguments
def function_with_no_argument():
print "Python is cool, no argument here."
function_with_no_argument()
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#outputs
#Do I have args?:
#()
#{}
#Python is cool, no argument here.
@a_decorator_passing_arbitrary_arguments
def function_with_arguments(a, b, c):
print a, b, c
function_with_arguments(1,2,3)
#outputs
#Do I have args?:
#(1, 2, 3)
#{}
#1 2 3
@a_decorator_passing_arbitrary_arguments
def function_with_named_arguments(a, b, c, platypus="Why not ?"):
print "Do %s, %s and %s like platypus? %s" %\
(a, b, c, platypus)
function_with_named_arguments("Bill", "Linus", "Steve", platypus="Indeed!")
#outputs
#Do I have args ? :
#('Bill', 'Linus', 'Steve')
#{'platypus': 'Indeed!'}
#Do Bill, Linus and Steve like platypus? Indeed!
class Mary(object):
def __init__(self):
self.age = 31
@a_decorator_passing_arbitrary_arguments
def sayYourAge(self, lie=-3): # You can now add a default value
print "I am %s, what did you think ?" % (self.age + lie)
m = Mary()
m.sayYourAge()
#outputs
# Do I have args?:
#(<__main__.Mary object at 0xb7d303ac>,)
#{}
#I am 28, what did you think?
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Its exactly the same. my_decorator is called. So when you @my_decorator, you are telling
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Its exactly the same. my_decorator is called. So when you @my_decorator, you are telling
Python to call the function labeled by the variable my_decorator. Its important, because the
label you give can point directly to the decorator or not! Lets start to be evil!
def decorator_maker():
print "I make decorators! I am executed only once: "+\
"when you make me create a decorator."
def my_decorator(func):
def wrapped():
print ("I am the wrapper around the decorated function. "
"I am called when you call the decorated function. "
"As the wrapper, I return the RESULT of the decorated function
return func()
print "As the decorator, I return the wrapped function."
return wrapped
print "As a decorator maker, I return a decorator"
return my_decorator
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#outputs:
#I am the wrapper around the decorated function. I am called when you call the d
#As the wrapper, I return the RESULT of the decorated function.
#I am the decorated function.
No surprise here. Lets do EXACTLY the same thing, but skipping intermediate variables:
def decorated_function():
print "I am the decorated function."
decorated_function = decorator_maker()(decorated_function)
#outputs:
#I make decorators! I am executed only once: when you make me create a decorator
#As a decorator maker, I return a decorator
#I am a decorator! I am executed only when you decorate a function.
#As the decorator, I return the wrapped function.
# Finally:
decorated_function()
#outputs:
#I am the wrapper around the decorated function. I am called when you call the d
#As the wrapper, I return the RESULT of the decorated function.
#I am the decorated function.
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@decorator_maker()
def decorated_function():
print "I am the decorated function."
#outputs:
#I make decorators! I am executed only once: when you make me create a decorator
#As a decorator maker, I return a decorator
#I am a decorator! I am executed only when you decorate a function.
#As the decorator, I return the wrapped function.
#Eventually:
decorated_function()
#outputs:
#I am the wrapper around the decorated function. I am called when you call the d
#As the wrapper, I return the RESULT of the decorated function.
#I am the decorated function.
Hey, did you see that? We used a function call with the @ syntax
So back to decorators with arguments. If we can use functions to generate the decorator on the fly,
we can pass arguments to that function, right?
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def my_decorator(func):
# The ability to pass arguments here is a gift from closures.
# If you are not comfortable with closures, you can assume it's ok,
# or read: http://stackoverflow.com/questions/13857/can-you-explain-clos
print "I am the decorator. Somehow you passed me arguments:", decorator_
# Don't confuse decorator arguments and function arguments!
def wrapped(function_arg1, function_arg2) :
print ("I am the wrapper around the decorated function.\n"
"I can access all the variables\n"
"\t- from the decorator: {0} {1}\n"
"\t- from the function call: {2} {3}\n"
"Then I can pass them to the decorated function"
.format(decorator_arg1, decorator_arg2,
function_arg1, function_arg2))
return func(function_arg1, function_arg2)
return wrapped
return my_decorator
@decorator_maker_with_arguments("Leonard", "Sheldon")
def decorated_function_with_arguments(function_arg1, function_arg2):
print ("I am the decorated function and only knows about my arguments: {0}"
" {1}".format(function_arg1, function_arg2))
decorated_function_with_arguments("Rajesh", "Howard")
#outputs:
#I make decorators! And I accept arguments: Leonard Sheldon
#I am the decorator. Somehow you passed me arguments: Leonard Sheldon
#I am the wrapper around the decorated function.
#I can access all the variables
#
- from the decorator: Leonard Sheldon
#
- from the function call: Rajesh Howard
#Then I can pass them to the decorated function
#I am the decorated function and only knows about my arguments: Rajesh Howard
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c1 = "Penny"
c2 = "Leslie"
@decorator_maker_with_arguments("Leonard", c1)
def decorated_function_with_arguments(function_arg1, function_arg2):
print ("I am the decorated function and only knows about my arguments:"
" {0} {1}".format(function_arg1, function_arg2))
decorated_function_with_arguments(c2, "Howard")
#outputs:
#I make decorators! And I accept arguments: Leonard Penny
#I am the decorator. Somehow you passed me arguments: Leonard Penny
#I am the wrapper around the decorated function.
#I can access all the variables
#
- from the decorator: Leonard Penny
#
- from the function call: Leslie Howard
#Then I can pass them to the decorated function
#I am the decorated function and only knows about my arguments: Leslie Howard
As you can see, you can pass arguments to the decorator like any function using this trick. You
can even use *args, **kwargs if you wish. But remember decorators are called only once. Just
when Python imports the script. You cant dynamically set the arguments afterwards. When you
do import x, the function is already decorated, so you cant
change anything.
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def decorator_with_args(decorator_to_enhance):
"""
This function is supposed to be used as a decorator.
It must decorate an other function, that is intended to be used as a decorat
Take a cup of coffee.
It will allow any decorator to accept an arbitrary number of arguments,
saving you the headache to remember how to do that every time.
"""
# We use the same trick we did to pass arguments
def decorator_maker(*args, **kwargs):
# We create on the fly a decorator that accepts only a function
# but keeps the passed arguments from the maker.
def decorator_wrapper(func):
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# You create the function you will use as a decorator. And stick a decorator on
# Don't forget, the signature is "decorator(func, *args, **kwargs)"
@decorator_with_args
def decorated_decorator(func, *args, **kwargs):
def wrapper(function_arg1, function_arg2):
print "Decorated with", args, kwargs
return func(function_arg1, function_arg2)
return wrapper
# Then you decorate the functions you wish with your brand new decorated decorat
@decorated_decorator(42, 404, 1024)
def decorated_function(function_arg1, function_arg2):
print "Hello", function_arg1, function_arg2
decorated_function("Universe and", "everything")
#outputs:
#Decorated with (42, 404, 1024) {}
#Hello Universe and everything
# Whoooot!
I know, the last time you had this feeling, it was after listening a guy saying: before
understanding recursion, you must first understand recursion. But now, dont you feel good
about mastering this?
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def benchmark(func):
"""
A decorator that prints the time a function takes
to execute.
"""
import time
def wrapper(*args, **kwargs):
t = time.clock()
res = func(*args, **kwargs)
print func.__name__, time.clock()-t
return res
return wrapper
def logging(func):
"""
A decorator that logs the activity of the script.
(it actually just prints it, but it could be logging!)
"""
def wrapper(*args, **kwargs):
res = func(*args, **kwargs)
print func.__name__, args, kwargs
return res
return wrapper
def counter(func):
"""
A decorator that counts and prints the number of times a function has been e
"""
def wrapper(*args, **kwargs):
wrapper.count = wrapper.count + 1
res = func(*args, **kwargs)
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#outputs:
#reverse_string ('Able was I ere I saw Elba',) {}
#wrapper 0.0
#wrapper has been used: 1x
#ablE was I ere I saw elbA
#reverse_string ('A man, a plan, a canoe, pasta, heros, rajahs, a coloratura, ma
#wrapper 0.0
#wrapper has been used: 2x
#!amanaP :lanac a ,noep a ,stah eros ,raj a ,hsac ,oloR a ,tur a ,mapS ,snip ,ep
Of course the good thing with decorators is that you can use them right away on almost anything
without rewriting. DRY, I said:
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@counter
@benchmark
@logging
def get_random_futurama_quote():
import httplib
conn = httplib.HTTPConnection("slashdot.org:80")
conn.request("HEAD", "/index.html")
for key, value in conn.getresponse().getheaders():
if key.startswith("x-b") or key.startswith("x-f"):
return value
return "No, I'm ... doesn't!"
print get_random_futurama_quote()
print get_random_futurama_quote()
#outputs:
#get_random_futurama_quote () {}
#wrapper 0.02
#wrapper has been used: 1x
#The laws of science be a harsh mistress.
#get_random_futurama_quote () {}
#wrapper 0.01
#wrapper has been used: 2x
#Curse you, merciful Poseidon!
Python itself provides several decorators: property, staticmethod, etc. Django use decorators to
manage caching and view permissions. Twisted to fake inlining asynchronous functions calls.
This really is a large playground.
Source: Stackoverflow (http://stackoverflow.com/questions/739654/how-can-i-make-a-chain-offunction-decorators-in-python#1594484)
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annotated command line tool. So I was searching how to do that and your post has helped me
a lot
Typically I do:
-start
import plac
@plac.annotations(
name=first name,
surname=family name
)
def main(name, surname):
have a fun with name and surname decorated
print name, surname
if __name__ == __main__:
plac.call(main)
end
try to call it form command line::
$ python fun.py -h
But for my celery project, I need my main to exist in simpe form and then in decoreated one.
The trick was this one:
start
import plac
def fun(name, surname):
have a fun with name and surname decorated
print name, surname
main = plac.annotations(
name=first name,
surname=family name
) (fun)
if __name__ == __main__:
plac.call(main)
end
This way I can preserve my fun function in bare shape, which shall run a bit faster, when
called from celery task. And at the same time I can produce command line version using plac
decorator.
Thanks for your post, it helped me a lto to get through passing decorator parameters.
MARCH 19, 2014 AT 3:57 AM | REPLY
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