Introduction to Signals and Operations on Mac

1. Introduction to Signals and Operations

Model of a Communication System [1]
Figure 1.1 (a) Model of a communication system, and (b) signal processing functions.
Classification of Signals
1.

Continuous-time and discrete-time signals [2]

By the term continuous-time signal we mean a real or complex function of time s(t),
where the independent variable t is continuous.
If t is a discrete variable, i.e., s(t) is defined at discrete times, then the signal s(t) is a
discrete-time signal. A discrete-time signal is often identified as a sequence of numbers,
denoted by {s(n)}, where n is an integer.
2.

Analogue and digital signals [2]

If a continuous-time signal s(t) can take on any values in a continuous time interval, then
s(t) is called an analogue signal.
If a discrete-time signal can take on only a finite number of distinct values, {s(n)}, then
the signal is called a digital signal.
3.

Deterministic and random signals [2]

Deterministic signals are those signals whose values are completely specified for any
given time.
Random signals are those signals that take random values at any given times.
4.

Periodic and nonperiodic signals [2]

A signal s(t) is a periodic signal if s(t) = s(t + n T 0 ), where T 0 is called the

period and the integer n > 0.
If s(t) s(t + T 0 ) for all t and any T 0 , then s(t) is a nonperiodic or aperiodic
signal.
1.1

Introduction to Signals and Operations on Mac

5.

Power and energy signals [2, 3]

A complex signal s(t) is a power signal if the average normalised power P is finite,
where

0<P=

T /2
1
lim
s(t)s*(t)dt <
T T T / 2

(1.1)

and s*(t) is the complex conjugate of s(t).

A complex signal s(t) is an energy signal if the normalised energy E is finite, where

0 < E = s(t)s*(t) dt = | s(t) |2 dt <

(1.2)

In communication systems, the received waveform is usually categorised into the desired
part, containing the information signal, and the undesired part, called noise.
Some Useful Functions
1.

Unit impulse function [2]

The unit impulse function, also known as the dirac delta function, (t), is defined
by

s(t) (t) dt = s(0)

(1.3)

An alternative definition [4] is

(t) dt = 1

(1.4a)

and
,
(t) =
0,

t=0
t0

(1.4b)

1.2

Introduction to Signals and Operations on Mac

Figure 1.2 Unit impulse function.

2.

Unit step function [2]

The unit step function u(t) is

t>0
t<0

1,
u(t) =
0,

(1.5)

Figure 1.3

Unit step function.

and the unit step function is related to the unit impulse function by
t

u(t) =

() d

(1.6)

and
du (t )
= (t)
dt
3.

(1.7)

Sampling function [4]

A sampling function is denoted by

x
Sa(x) = sin
x

(1.8)
Figure 1.4 Sampling function.

4.

Sinc function [4]

A sinc function is denoted by

x
sinc x = sin x

(1.9)

Hence,

( )

x
Sa(x) = sinc

(1.10)
1.3

Introduction to Signals and Operations on Mac

5.

Rectangular function [4]

A single rectangular pulse is denoted by

( )

t
T

6.

1, |t | T
2
=
T
0, |t | >
2

(1.11)

Triangular function [4]

A triangular function is denoted by

( )

t
T

1 |t |, |t | T
=
T
0, |t | > T

(1.12)

Some Useful Operations [4]

1.

Time average

The time average operator is given by

<[.]> =

T /2
1
lim
[.]dt
T T T / 2

(1.13)

If a waveform is periodic, the time average operator can be reduced to

a +T /2
0
<[.]> =
[.]dt

T
0a T / 2
0
1

(1.14)

where T0 is the period of the waveform and a is an arbitrary real constant, which may be
taken to be zero. Equation (1.14) readily follows from (1.13) because, referring to (1.13),
integrals over successive time intervals T 0 seconds wide have identical area if the
waveform is periodic. As these integrals are summed, the total area and T are
proportionally larger, resulting in a value for the time average that is the same as just
integrating over one period and dividing by T0.
In summary, (1.13) may be used to evaluate the time average of any type of waveform.
1.4

Introduction to Signals and Operations on Mac

Equation (1.14) is valid only for periodic waveforms.

2.

Direct-current value

The direct-current (dc) value of a waveform is given by

T /2
<s(t)> = lim 1 s(t) dt
T T T / 2

(1.15)

We can see that this is the time average of s(t). Over a finite interval of interest, the dc
value is
t
2
1
<s(t)> = t t s(t) dt
2 1t
1
3.

(1.16)

Power and energy

The instantaneous power (incremental work divided by incremental time) is given by

p(t) = v(t) i(t)

(1.17)

where v(t) denotes voltage and i(t) denotes current.

The average power is given by
P = <p(t)> = <v(t) i(t)>

(1.18)

The root mean square (rms) value of s(t) is given by

Srms =

< s 2 (t ) >

(1.19)

If a load is resistive, the average power is given by

2
Vrms
<v 2 (t ) >
P=
= <i2(t)>R = R
R

2
= Irms R = Vrms Irms

(1.20)

where R is the value of the resistive load. When R = 1 , P becomes the normalised
1.5

Introduction to Signals and Operations on Mac

power.
The average normalised power of a real-valued signal s(t) is given by

P = <s2(t)> =

T /2
1
lim
s2(t)dt
T
T T / 2

(1.21)

The total normalised energy of a real-valued signal s(t) is given by

E=

4.

T /2
lim
s2(t)dt
T T / 2

(1.22)

Decibel

The decibel gain of a circuit is given by

Pout
dB = 10 log10 P
in

(1.23)

If resistive loads are involved, (1.23) can be reduced to

R in
V

dB = 20 log10 rms out + 10 log10

Rload
V rms in

(1.24)

Rload
Irms out

dB = 20 log10
+ 10 log10
Rin
Irms in

(1.25)

or

If normalised powers are used,

V
I

dB = 20 log10 rms out = 20 log10 rms out

V rms in
Irms in
The decibel power level with respect to 1 mW is given by

1.6

(1.26)

Introduction to Signals and Operations on Mac

actual power level in watts

dBm = 10 log10

10

(1.27)

The decibel power level with respect to 1 W is given by

dBW = 10 log10 (actual power level in watts)
The decibel power level with respect to a 1 mV rms level is given by
Vrms
dBmV = 20 log10 3
10
5.

(1.28)

Complex number and phasor

A complex number c is said to be a phasor if it is used to represent a sinusoidal

waveform. That is,
s(t) = |c| cos [0t + c] = Re {c ej0t}

(1.29)

where the phasor

c = |c| ej

(1.30)

and = c.
Other Useful Operations
1.

Cross-correlation [5]

The cross-correlation of two real-valued power waveforms s1 (t) and s2 (t) is defined
by
T /2
R () = <s1(t) s2(t+ )> = lim
s1(t) s2(t+ ) dt
12
T T T / 2
1

(1.31)
If s1(t) and s2(t) are periodic with the same period T0, then
1.7

Introduction to Signals and Operations on Mac

T /2
0
R () =
s1(t) s2(t+ ) dt

T
12
0 T / 2
0
1

(1.32)

The cross-correlation of two real-valued energy waveforms s1 (t) and s2 (t) is defined
by
R

12

( ) =

s1(t) s2(t+ ) dt

(1.33)

Correlation is a useful operation to measure the similarity between two waveforms. To

compute the correlation between waveforms, it is necessary to specify which waveform is
being shifted.
In general, R
( ) is not equal to R
( ), where
12
21
R () = <s2(t) s1(t+ )>.
21
The cross-correlation of two complex waveforms is R

() = <s1*(t) s2(t+ )>.

12

2.

Auto-correlation [2, 4]

The auto-correlation of a real-valued power waveform s1(t) is defined by

11

() = <s1(t) s1(t+ )> =

T /2
lim 1 s1(t) s1(t+ ) dt
T T T / 2
(1.34)

If s1(t) is periodic with fundamental period T0, then

T /2
0
1
R () =
s1(t) s1(t+ ) dt

T
11
0 T / 2
0

(1.35)

The auto-correlation of a real-valued energy waveform s1(t) is defined by

R

11

( ) =

s1(t) s1(t+ ) dt

(1.36)

1.8

Introduction to Signals and Operations on Mac

The auto-correlation of a complex power waveform is R

3.

() = <s1*(t)s1(t+ )>.

11

Convolution [4]

The convolution of a waveform s1(t) with a waveform s2(t) is given by

s3(t) = s1(t) * s2(t) = s1() s2(t-) d

s3(t) = s1(t) * s2(t) = s1() s2[-(-t)] d

(1.37a)
(1.37b)

where * denotes the convolution operation. (1.37b) is obtained by

1.

Time reversal of s2(t) to obtain s2(-).

2.

Time shifting of s2(-) to obtain s2[-(-t)].

3.

Multiplying

s 1 ( ) and s 2 [ - ( - t )] to form the integrand

s1() s2[-(-t)].
1,
Example 1.1 Convolution of a rectangular waveform s1(t) =
0,
-t
an exponential waveform s2(t) = e /Tu(t).

0<t<T
elsewhere

with

Figure 1.5 Convolution between a rectangular waveform and an exponential waveform.

References
[1]

B. Sklar, Digital Communications, Prentice Hall, 1998.

[2]

H. P. Hsu, Analog and Digital Communications, McGraw-Hill, 1993.

[3]

J. D. Gibson, Modern Digital and Analog Communications, 2/e, Macmillan

Publishing Company, 1993.

[4]

L. W. Couch II, Digital and Analog Communication Systems, 5/e, Prentice Hall,
1997.

[5]

H. Taub, and D. L. Schilling, Principles of Communication Systems, 2/e,

McGraw-Hill, 1986.
1.9

ADC

1.10

Source
decoder

Essential

DAC

Source
encoder
...

Channel
encoder

Decipher

Figure 1.1

Demodulator

Synchroniser

Modulator

Frequency
despreader

Frequency
spreader

To other destinations

Demultiplex

Multiplex

Multiple
access

Receiver

Channel

Transmitter

Multiple
access

(a) Model of a communication system, and (b) signal processing functions.

(b)

DPSK
Noncoherent FSK
Noncoherent ASK
CPM

Modem
Multiplex/
Frequency
Multiple access
spreading
Coherent PSK
FDM/FDMA
Coherent FSK Direct sequence
TDM/TDMA
Coherent ASK Frequency/
Time hopping
CDM/CDMA
CPM

(a)

Channel
decoder

...

Digital
signals

Cipher

Encryption
ADC/
Channel coding
Source coding Block cipher
Block
PCM
Stream cipher Convolutional
DPCM
DM
Synchronisation
Synthesis coding
Transform coding
Carrier
Subcarrier
Symbol
Frame
Bit

Sink

Analogue
signal

Source

From other sources

Introduction to Signals and Operations on Mac

Introduction to Signals and Operations on Mac

(t )
t

Figure 1.2 Unit impulse function.

u (t )
1

t
0
Figure 1.3 Unit step function.

sin x
x
1

- 2

- 0

Figure 1.4 Sampling function.

1.11

Introduction to Signals and Operations on Mac

s 1( )
1

-T

2T

s 2( )
1

-T

2T

s 2(-( - t ))
1
0 t T

-T

2T

s 3( t )
T
0.63T
t
-T

2T

Figure 1.5 Convolution of a rectangular waveform and an exponential waveform.

1.12