Paul E.

Moler

Wildlife Biologist
Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish
Commission
Wildlife Research Laboratory
Gainesville, Florida 32601

FROGS AND TOADS

Fig. 1. Great Plains toad, Bufo cognatus

Damage Prevention and

Control Methods
Exclusion

Seal all openings 3/16 inch (0.5 cm) or

larger to exclude frogs.

Habitat Modification

Trapping

Around hatchery ponds, keep vegetation closely mown and remove

emergent vegetation and other
types of cover.

Funnel traps.

Frightening

Egg masses may be removed with a

fine-meshed net.

A frogproof fence can be used for

nonclimbing species, but will be ineffective against treefrogs and a few
related species.

Not applicable.

On fish farms, mesh tenting over

ponds will serve to exclude frogs as
well as birds and other predators.

Toxicants

Repellents

None are registered.

None are registered.

Capture

Capture by hand or gig at night.

Shooting

Allowed in some states, but often not

safe in areas requiring control.
Some states permit shooting only
during daylight hours.

Fumigants

None are registered.

PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF WILDLIFE DAMAGE 1994
Cooperative Extension Division
Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources
University of Nebraska - Lincoln
United States Department of Agriculture
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service
Animal Damage Control
Great Plains Agricultural Council
Wildlife Committee

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Identification
Frogs and toads are amphibians with
four legs and no tail. They may have
skin that is smooth and moist or dry
and warty, but they have no scales or
claws. The front legs are short, but the
hind legs are muscular and elongated
for hopping or jumping. The popular
distinction between frogs and toads is
somewhat artificial; basically, toads
are a particular group of frogs.
Throughout this chapter, the term frog
will be used to include toads. North
American frogs range in body size
from the 11/16-inch (1.7-cm) little
grass frog to the 8-inch (20-cm) bullfrog.

Range
At least 85 species of frogs are native
to the United States, and there are
three well-established exotic species.
There is no part of the country that is
not home to at least a few species.

Habitat
Frogs occur in almost all nonmarine
habitats. True frogs (genus Rana)
and treefrogs predominate in the more
humid east. In the drier Great Plains
and western regions, toads and
spadefoots are typically more numerous. Whereas some species are seldom
found far from permanent water,
others return to water only seasonally
to breed. Some desert species spend
most of their time beneath ground,
venturing to the surface only following
rains.

Food Habits
Most frogs have a two-phased life
cycle, including an aquatic larval form
(tadpole) and a terrestrial or semiaquatic adult form. Tadpoles are primarily herbivorous, feeding on algae
and decaying organic matter. Adults,
on the other hand, are carnivorous,
consuming almost any prey that can be
overpowered. Although the diet consists primarily of insects, crayfish, and
other invertebrates, larger frogs occasionally take snakes, other frogs, fish,
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mice, and small birds. In natural habitats, fish usually comprise less than 5%
of the diet of the bullfrog. On fish
farms, as many as 30% of bullfrogs
have been found to contain fish.

General Biology,
Reproduction, and
Behavior
Although some species spend most of
their adult lives away from water,
most frogs native to North America
must return to water to lay eggs. Some
species breed during the cooler winter
and spring months, whereas others
breed during the warmer months. Following rain, males begin calling from
breeding sites. Each species has its
own distinctive call, and females
respond only to the calls of their own
species. Several recordings of frog calls
are available, and four are listed at the
end of this chapter.
Eggs are fertilized by the male as they
are released by the female. Hatching
occurs a few days later. The aquatic
tadpole stage may last as little as 2 to 3
weeks in some species of spadefoots or
as long as 2 years in some northern
populations of bullfrogs.
Frogs are typically most active at
night. Some species aggregate around
artificial lights and feed on the insects
attracted there. Frogs are an important
component of the vertebrate food
chain and are consumed by a variety
of predators, including fish, snakes,
turtles, wading birds, raptors, skunks,
and raccoons. Individuals of many
species may live 12 to 15 years, but life
expectancy is much shorter in the
wild.

Damage
The greatest potential for economic
damage is at fish farms and hatcheries.
Tadpoles compete for food intended
for fish, and adult bullfrogs may actually feed on the fish. Losses are said to
be high at some fish farms. One study
suggested that the mere presence of
high densities of tadpoles retarded
reproduction of fish. Although the
bullfrog is native to most of the eastern
United States, its introduction to por-

tions of the west has seriously affected

some native species. In at least some
cases, these introductions may have
resulted from the unintentional release
of tadpoles during fish-stocking programs. Considerable labor is required
to separate tadpoles from loads of fry.
Only in rare instances do frogs cause
any significant damage. Some species
(toads, for example) produce skin
secretions that are toxic if ingested.
This does not normally present a problem for people, and pets usually learn
to avoid such frogs. A few species
(giant toad, Colorado River toad) produce especially copious or toxic secretions, and there have been cases in
which dogs have died after biting
them.
The noise sometimes produced by
large breeding choruses of frogs following heavy rains can be annoying to
humans. These aggregations usually
last only a few days, however, and seldom warrant control. Similarly, complaints sometimes arise when large
numbers of young frogs leave the
ponds en masse, but the frogs disperse
quickly, and the problem will take
care of itself in a few days.

Legal Status
Laws pertaining to frogs vary from
state to state. Some rare species (for
example, Houston toad, Wyoming
toad, Pine Barrens treefrog) may be
fully protected under federal or state
laws. Seasons and bag limits may
apply to other species (bullfrogs, for
example). Permits to remove frogs that
are causing damage are available in
some states. Contact your state wildlife
department to determine the legal
status of frogs in your area.

Damage Prevention and

Control Methods
Exclusion

The effectiveness of exclusion depends

in part on the species involved. Most
species responsible for potential or real
damage can be effectively excluded
from limited areas. Giant toads (south-

ern Florida, extreme southern Texas)

or Colorado River toads (southern
Arizona, extreme southeastern California) can be excluded from pet enclosures by placing a strip of 1/8-inch
(0.3-cm) mesh hardware cloth along
the outside base of the perimeter fence.
The hardware cloth should be buried
at least 4 inches (10 cm) in the ground
and should extend to a height of at
least 20 inches (50 cm). A similar exclusion fence can be used to control
breeding aggregations of nonclimbing
species in small, urban stormwater
detention basins or to exclude these
species from small hatchery ponds.
Although treefrogs and some related
species will readily climb such a fence,
most treefrogs normally breed in seasonal, fish-free waters. In addition,
their eggs and tadpoles are readily
eaten by fish, so they do not usually
present a significant problem on fish
farms.
Habitat Modification

Keep the shoreline of ponds free of

emergent vegetation to minimize cover
for adult frogs and allow predators to
assist in control. Efforts to directly
remove adult frogs at night will also be
facilitated.
Frightening

Not applicable.
Repellents

None are registered.

Toxicants

None are registered.

Fumigants

Caution: traps may capture other nontarget species, including snakes,

turtles, and small mammals.

Acknowledgments
Figure 1 by Randy Babb, Arizona Game and
Fish Department.

Capture

Frogs can be located at night by the reflection of their eyes in the beam of a
headlamp. They can be collected by
gig or hand. Captured frogs may be
eaten, or where allowed by law, sold
to provide additional economic
returns. Check with your state wildlife
agency regarding seasons, bag limits,
legal methods of take, and restrictions
on sale.
Shooting

Although shooting is allowable in

some states, it is not safe in some areas
requiring control.

Economics of Damage
and Control
Frogs eat many insect pests. With the
exception of fish farms, control measures for frogs are seldom warranted
and, in most cases, should be discouraged. On fish farms, the economic
damage depends in part on the unit
value of the fish produced. Corse and
Metter (1980) provided data suggesting that a 350-pond farm that produced goldfish might sustain $42,000
in annual losses to bullfrogs, whereas
the same facility might sustain only
$12,600 in losses if it produced golden
shiners, a less valuable species. It follows that losses might be still higher
on farms specializing in valuable
aquarium fishes.

For Additional
Information
Altig, R. 1970. A key to the tadpoles of the
continental United States and Canada.
Herpetol. 26:180-207.
Bogert, C. M. Sounds of North American frogs:
the biological significance of voice in frogs.
(Record or cassette. Calls of 50 species.)
Distributed by Rounder Records,
Cambridge, Massachusetts, and Smithsonian
Folkways Records, Rockville, Maryland.
Boyd, S. H. 1975. Inhibition of fish reproduction
by Rana catesbeiana larvae. Physiol. Zool.
48:225-234.
Conant, R., and J. T. Collins. 1991. A field guide
to reptiles and amphibians: eastern and
central North America. Houghton Mifflin
Co., Boston. 450 pp.
Corse, W. A., and D. E. Metter. 1980. Economics,
adult feeding and larval growth of Rana
catesbeiana on a fish hatchery. J. Herpetol.
14:231-238.
Duellman, W. E., and L. Trueb. 1986. Biology of
amphibians. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
York. 670 pp.
Elliot, L. 1992. The calls of frogs and toads:
Eastern and Central North America.
(Cassette and booklet. Calls of 42 species.)
Chelsea Green Pub. Co. Post Mills, Vermont.
Johnson, T. R. Talking toad and frog poster and
cassette. (Includes 20 frogs found in
Missouri.) Missouri Dep. Conserv., Jefferson
City.
Kellogg, P. P., and A. A. Allen. Voices of the
night. (Calls of 34 species found in eastern
North America). Houghton Mifflin Co. (for
the Cornell Lab. Ornith.), Boston.
Stebbins, R. C. 1985. A field guide to western
reptiles and amphibians. Houghton Mifflin
Co., Boston. 336 pp.

None are registered.

Trapping

Place funnel traps along the base of a

perimeter fence. Toads may also be
trapped by burying several 5-gallon
(19-l) buckets flush with the ground
surface beneath an overhead light.
Toads attracted by the insects drawn
to the light will fall into the buckets
and be unable to escape.

Editors
Scott E. Hygnstrom
Robert M. Timm
Gary E. Larson

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