DATA STRUCTURE

&
ALGORITHM
For
Computer Science
&
Information Technology
By

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Syllabus

DSA

Syllabus for Data Structures and Algorithms

Programming in C; Functions, Recursion, Parameter passing, Scope, Binding; Abstract data types,
Arrays, Stacks, Queues, Linked Lists, Trees, Binary search trees, Binary heaps.
Analysis, Asymptotic notation, Notions of space and time complexity, Worst and average case
analysis; Design: Greedy approach, Dynamic programming, Divide-and-conquer; Tree and graph
traversals, Connected components, Spanning trees, Shortest paths; Hashing, Sorting, Searching.

Analysis of GATE Papers

(Data Structures and Algorithms)
Year

Percentage of marks

2013

18.00

2012

19.00

2011

13.0

2010

18.00

2009

4.67

2008

4.67

2007

4.67

2006

8.00

2005

7.33

2004

16.67

2003

10.67

Overall Percentage

11.33%

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Contents

DSA

CONTENTS
Chapters
#1.

Data Structure and Algorithm Analysis

#2.

Stacks and Queues

#3.

Stacks
Stack ADT Implementations
The Stack Purmutation
Running Time Analysis
Binary Expression Tree
Queue
Different Type of Queue Implementations
Assignment 1
Assignment 2
Answer keys
Explanations

Trees

#4.

Assymptotic Notation
Algorithm Analysis
Notation of Abstract Data Types
Recurrence
Assignment 1
Assignment 2
Answer keys
Explanations

Extended Binary Tree

Binary Tree
Height Analysis
Binary Tree Construction Using Inorder
Assignment 1
Assignment 2
Answer keys
Explanations

Height Balanced Trees (AVL Trees, B and B+)

AVL Trees
B Tree
Maximizing B-Tree Degree
B+Tree

Page No.
1 32
15
5 10
10 14
14 17
18 23
24 27
28
28 32

33 55
33
34 36
36 40
40 41
41 45
45
46 48
49 51
51 52
53
53 55

56 84
56
56 58
59 60
60 70
71 75
76 78
79
79 - 84

85 113
85 94
94 96
96 102
102 103

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Contents

#5.

Priority Queues (Heaps)

#6.

Bubble Sort
Insertion Sort
Selection Sort
Merge Sort
Heap Sort
Quick Sort
Assignment 1
Assignment 2
Answer keys
Explanations

Graph Algorithms

#8.

Introduction
Binary Heap
Array Representation of Binary Heap
MinHeap Vs MaxHeap
Basic Heap Operation
Building a Heap by Inserting Items One at the Time
Sum of the Height of All Nodes of a Perfect Binary Tree
Assignment 1
Assignment 2
Answer keys
Explanations

Sorting Algorithms

#7.

Maximizing B+ Tree Degree

Assignment 1
Assignment 2
Answer keys
Explanations

Important Definitions
Representation of Graphs
Single Source Shortest Path Algorithm
Minimum Spanning Tree
Assignment 1
Assignment 2
Answer keys
Explanations

Dynamic Programming

Introduction
Idea of Dynamic Programming

DSA

103 104
105 107
107 108
109
109 113

114 135
114
114 118
118 119
119
119 121
121 125
125 126
127 129
130 131
132
132 135

136 149
136 137
137 139
139 140
140 141
141
141 142
143 144
145 146
147
147 149

150 170
150 151
151
151 154
154 159
160 163
163 166
167
167 170

171 194
171
171 172

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Contents

Matrix Chain Multiplication Algorithm

Greedy Algorithm
NP-Completeness
Other NP- Complete Problems
Hashing

Module Test

Test Questions
Answer Keys
Explanations

Reference Books

DSA

172 175
175 183
183 186
186 189
189 194
195 209
195 205
206
206 209
210

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Chapter-1

DSA

CHAPTER 1
Data Structure and Algorithm Analysis
Once an algorithm is given for a problem and decided to be correct, then an important step is to
determine how much in the way of resources, such as time or space, the algorithm will be
required.
The analysis required to estimate use of these resources of an algorithm is generally a
theoretical issue and therefore a formal framework is required. In this framework, we shall
consider a normal computer as a model of computation that will have the standard repertoire of
simple instructions like addition, multiplication, comparison and assignment, but unlike the case
with real computer, it takes exactly one unit time unit to do anything (simple) and there are no
fancy operations such as matrix inversion or sorting, that clearly cannot be done in one unit
time. We also always assume infinite memory.

Asymptotic Notation
The asymptotic notations are used to represent the relative growth rate between functions.
BigOh
Represent upper bound on the running time and the memory being consumed by the algorithms.
O(n) essentially conveys that the growth rate of running time/memory consumption rate will
not be more than n for all inputs of size n for a given algorithm. However, it may be less than
this.
More formally Big-Oh is defined as follows:
The function f n O g (n) if and only if f n c. g n for all n, n n0 where c, n0 are
positive constants.
Thus, if f n O g (n) statement is said to be true then the growth rate of function g(n) is
surely higher than/equal to f(n).
Example 1

f n 3n 2

3n 2 4n for all n 2
3n 2 O n Here c 4, n0 2
Example 2

f n n2 3n 5

n2 3n 5 2n2 for n 3
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Chapter-1

n2 3n 5 O n2

DSA

Here c 2, n0 3

Example 3

f n 3.4n n2

3.4n n2 5.4n

3.4n n2 O 4n for n 1
Example 4

3n2 2n 4 O n
Because here doesnt exist any positive n0 and c so that Big-Oh equation gets satisfied.
Remarks:
For the function 4n+3,
4n+3 is O n

2
3
Even though 4n+3 is O n and O n but the best answer for , 4n+3 is O n only, as
2
3
4n+3 is also O n and O n

O n shows most tighter upper bound than the other in the question.

Big-Oh Properties

1.

If f n is O g n then a. f n is also O g n

2.

If f n is O g n and h n is O p n then f n h n O max g n , p n

Example 5

f n = n2 , h n = logn

n2 logn O n2
3.

If f n is O g n and h n is O p n then f n .h n is O g n . p n

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Chapter-1

DSA

4.

If f n is O g n and g n is O h n then f n is also O h n

5.

log n k is O log n

6.

f n am.nm am1nm1 ....a1n a0 ,

If f n is any polynomial of degree m ,

m
then f n is O n

In general one should remember order of the following functions which will help while solving
the relative growth rate of more complicated functions.

, O n ....O n , O 2

O 1 , O logn , O n , O nlogn , O n

All the functions are arranged in increasing order of growth rate.

If an algorithm has the time complexity O 1 , then the time complexity is said to be constant,
that means running time is independent of input size.
Big Omega
Big Omega represents lower bound on the running time and the memory being consumed by the
algorithms. n essentially conveys that the growth rate of running time/memory
consumption rate will not be less than n for all inputs of size n for a given algorithm. However,
it may be greater than this.
More formally Big-Omega is defined as follows:

If f x and g x are any two functions and f x is g x ,

If f x c. g x for x

k where c and k are any two positive constants.

Thus, if f x is g x statement is said to be true then the growth rate of function g(x) is
surely lower than/equal to f(x).
Example 6:
f n
n
n
n for n

2n y 2n for n 1
2n 4 is n here c 2, k 1
we can also say that 2n 4 n for n 1 then c 1, k 1

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Chapter-1

DSA

Remarks:

If f n is O g n , then g n is f n .
Example: 7

n3 is n2
n 2 is O n3

Theta Notation ( )
Theta represents tightest bound on the running time and the memory being consumed by the
algorithms. (n) essentially conveys that the growth rate of running time/memory consumption
rate will be equal to n for all inputs of size n for a given algorithm. It actually conveys that both
lower and upper bounds are equal.
More formally Theta is defined as follows:
If f x and g x are two functions, and
if f x c. g x for x x0 , then

f x g x here c and x0 are two positive constants.

Thus, if f x g x statement is said to be true then the growth rate of function g(x) is
surely equal to f(x) and not less or not more than f(x).
Example 8
f(n) = n2 + n + 1; g(n) = 5n2 + 1; h(n) = 2logn + n2
Then, f(n) = (g(n)) because both have same degree and hence will have same growth rate.
f(n) = (h(n)) statement is also true because both have same degree and hence will have same
growth rates.
h(n) can be simplified as follows:
2logn is n only,
Let 2logn = n ---------> 1
By taking log on both sides in equation 1.
logn*loge2 = logen
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Chapter-1

DSA

Then, after simplifying the above equation

logn = logen/ loge2 = logn.
Therefore, h(n) = n + n2.

Remarks

If f x g x then g x is also f x

If f x g x we can say that f x is O g x and f x is

g x and also g x is O f x and g x is f x

Algorithm Definition
An algorithm is a finite set of steps or instructions to accomplish a particular task represented in
a step by step procedure. Algorithm possesses the following basic properties:

An algorithm may have some input.

An algorithm should produce at least one output.

Each statement should be clear without any ambiguity.

An algorithm in contrast to a program should terminate in a finite amount of time.

Algorithm Analysis
The following two components need to be analyzed for determining algorithm efficiency. If we
have more than one algorithms for solving a problem then we really need to consider these two
before utilizing one of them.

Running time complexity

The time required for running an algorithm.

Space complexity
The amount of space required at run-time by an algorithm for solving a given problem.

In general these measurements are expressed in terms of asymptotic notations, like Big-Oh,
theta, Omega etc.

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