UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

GEOLOGY AND DRILLING LABORATORY
(CGE 558)

GROUP MEMBERS

MUHAMMAD ZULHILMI B. AHMAD FAUZI

NIK KHAIRUL IKHWAN B. FAUZI
MUHAMMAD NAZIM B. MOHAMAD FAUZI
MUHSIN BIN IBRAHIM
NAZIRUL MUBIN BIN SAMSUDIN

EXPERIMENT
DATE PERFORMED
SEMESTER
PROGRAMME / CODE
SUBMIT TO
GROUP

:
:
:
:
:
:

MUD VISCOCITIES AND OTHER RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES

1st OCTOBER 2013
SEPT 2013 JAN 2014
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS.) OIL AND GAS (EH223)
SIR HOSSEIN HAMIDI
4

No.

Title

Allocated marks %

1 Abstract/Summary

2 Introduction

3 Aims/Objectives

4 Theory

5 Apparatus

6 Procedures

10

7 Result

10

8 Calculations

10

9 Discussion

20

10 Conclusion

10

11 Recommendations

12 References

13 Appendices
TOTAL MARKS

Remarks:

Checked by:

5
100

(2012887124)
(2012895986)
(2012651824)
(2012464662)
(2012299766)

Marks %

Table of Contents
SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................................... 2
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 3
OBJECTIVE ............................................................................................................................................... 5
THEORY ................................................................................................................................................... 6
PROCEDURES........................................................................................................................................... 7
APPARATUS ............................................................................................................................................. 8
RESULTS .................................................................................................................................................. 9
SAMPLE CALCULATIONS.......................................................................................................................... 9
SAMPLE OF CALCULATION OF ERRORS ................................................................................................. 10
DISCUSSION........................................................................................................................................... 11
CONCLUSION......................................................................................................................................... 19
RECOMMENDATION ............................................................................................................................. 20
REFFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................ 21
APPENDICES .......................................................................................................................................... 22

SUMMARY
The objective of this study is to determine the viscosity, gel strength and yield
point of each of the samples. Rheological measurements made on fluids help to
determine how well this fluid will flow under a variety of different conditions. This
information is important in the design of circulating systems required to accomplish
certain desired objectives in drilling operations.

For the results that we had calculated is plastic viscosity= 26cp and apparent
viscosity = 43cp. For the results that we had obtained, shows that the gel strength is
12cp. The yield point is 47lb/

. At the same time, we had calculated that the

percentage error from the experiment. The percentage error for gel strength is 4.76%
whereas the percentage error for yield point is 374.74%. The higher percentage error
of yield point may occur due to parallax error.
To measure the funnel viscosity of drilling mud is the second objective Funnel
viscosity is defined as time, in seconds for one quart of mud to flow through a Marsh
funnel which has a capacity of 946 cm 3. From our experiment we used 200ml of
mud and the time taken for mud finish to flow out from funnel is 70s.
In a nutshell, we can said that the point at which a material can no longer
deform elastically known as yield point and gel strength is the shear stress of drilling
mud that is measured t low shear rate after the drilling mud is static for a certain
period of time. Funnel viscosity is time, in seconds for one quart of mud to flow
through a Marsh funnel. The funnel viscosity is useful only for relative comparison.
There are few precautions taken place in order to increase the accuracy of the
data such as ensure the viscometer is clean and set up correctly and make sure the
viscometer is switched off before change the speed of the viscometer.

INTRODUCTION
PART A: MUD RHEOLOGY DETERMINATION USING VISCOMETER
Rheology is the study of flow and deformation of materials under applied
forces. The measurement of rheological properties is applicable to all materials
from fluids such as dilute solutions of polymers and surfactants through to
concentrated protein formulations, to semi-solids such as pastes and creams, to
molten or solid polymers. Rheological properties can be measured from bulk sample
deformation using a mechanical rheometer.
Many commonly-used materials and formulations exhibit complex rheological
properties, whose viscosity and viscoelasticity can vary depending upon the external
conditions applied, such as stress, strain, timescale and temperature. Internal
sample variations such as protein concentration and stability, and formulation type
for biopharmaceuticals, are also key factors that determine rheological properties.
In the drilling operations knows that muds behave with non-Newtonian fluid
flow properties as their viscosity is not only influenced by temperature and pressure
but is also strongly related to the velocity at which the mud flows through the
hydraulic system. The drilling fluid velocity and the resulting rate of shear at the walls
of the conduits play an important role on the viscosity of the fluid pumped. For this
reason, it is important to know the viscosity in the full range of shear rate usually
considered for hydraulic calculations. There is a well characterized minimum stress,
called yield point, below which flow does not occur. At low shear rates there is a
typical non-linear relationship between shear stress and shear rate, which tends to
be attenuated with the increase of shear rate.

A) Viscosity

Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow. It describes the internal

friction of a moving fluid. A fluid with large viscosity resists motion because its
molecular makeup gives it a lot of internal friction. A fluid with low viscosity flows
easily because its molecular makeup results in very little friction when it is in motion.

Gases also have viscosity, although it is a little harder to notice it in ordinary

circumstances.

Viscosity is due to friction between neighbouring parcels of the fluid that are moving
at different velocities. When fluid is forced through a tube, the fluid generally moves
faster near the axis and very slowly near the walls, therefore some stress (such as
a pressure difference between the two ends of the tube) is needed to overcome the
friction between layers and keep the fluid moving. For the same velocity pattern, the
stress required is proportional to the fluid's viscosity. A liquid's viscosity depends on
the size and shape of its particles and the attractions between the particles.

B) Gel strength
Gel strength is the shear stress of drilling mud that is measured at low shear
rate after the drilling mud is static for a certain period of time. The gel strength is one
of the important drilling fluid properties because it demonstrates the ability of the
drilling mud to suspend drill solid and weighting material when circulation is ceased.
The Fann viscometer is a concentric cylinder viscometer capable of measuring the
shear stress at two or more shear rates. This is by far the most common device used
at the rig site and in the laboratories to measure the rheological properties of drilling
fluids. The Fann viscometer was designed specifically for use with drilling fluids and
the various constants in the rheological models can be measured rather easily.
C) Yield point
This is the measure of the electro-chemical or attractive forces in the mud flow
(dynamic) conditions. These forces depend on (1) surface properties of the mud
solid, (2) volume concentrations of the solids and (3) electrical environment of the
solids. The yield point of the mud reflects its ability to carry drilled cutting out of the
hole.

PART B: MUD RHEOLOGY DETERMINATION USING VISCOMETER

Viscosity is measured using a Marsh funnel, a conical-shaped funnel, fitted with a
small-bore tube on the bottom end through which mud flow under a gravity head. A
screen over the top removes large particles that might plug the tube. In the test
standardized for evaluating water-base and oil-base muds, the funnel viscosity
measurement is the time (in seconds) required one quart of mud to flow out of a
Marsh funnel into a graduated cup. This test is quick and simple.
This test is quick and simple. Unfortunately, the Marsh funnel gives no useful
quantitative information about the rheological properties of the drilling fluid. Fluids
with widely varying rheologies may all have the same funnel viscosity. A reasonable
hydraulics program cannot be developed based on funnel viscosity, although it may
be the only flow property specified in the drilling fluids program.

OBJECTIVE
PART A: MUD RHEOLOGY DETERMINATION USING VISCOMETER

1. To determine the viscosity, gel strength and yield point of a sample.

PART B: MUD RHEOLOGY DETERMINATION USING VISCOMETER

1. To measure funnel viscosity of drilling fluid.

THEORY
Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid which is being deformed by
either shear stress or tensile stress. It is measured as the ratio of the shearing stress
to the rate of shearing strain. In this experiment, the viscosity was measured by
using Fann Viscometer.

= Viscosity (centipoise)
= Shear stress
= Shear rate

Gel strength is a function of inter-particle forces. Gel strength was measured by

using the Fann Viscometer, in lb/100sq.ft. First mix the water-based mud under
600rpm for 3 minutes, then rest for 3 minutes, then mix again under 3 rpm. The first
reading deflected was taken as the gel strength reading.
Yield Point (YP) is resistance of initial flow of fluid or the stress required in order to
move the fluid. Simply put that the Yield Point (YP) is the attractive force among
colloidal particles in drilling mud. Yield Point can be calculated by using this formula:

Yield Point (YP) = Reading from a viscometer at 300 rpm Plastic Viscosity
(PV)

A unit of YP is lb/100 ft2.

In water-based mud, the YP will be increased with following items;
High temperature the high temperature environment tends to increase the YP in
the water base mud.
Contaminants such as carbon dioxide, salt, and anhydrite in the drilling fluids.
Over treatment the drilling mud with lime or caustic soda.

PROCEDURES
PART A: Mud Rheological Determination Using Viscometer.
Viscosity:
1. Test Fluid is stirred at low speed for 5 minutes by using the Hamilton Beach
Mixer.
2. The drilling fluid is then poured into the sample cup to the level corresponding
to the predetermined bob length.
3. With drilling fluid in the cup properly placed in the viscometer, the rotor sleeve
is immersed exactly to the scribed line.
4. The test fluid is sheared at 600 rpm until torque reading reaching a steady
value, after which the stabilized dial reading is recorded in descending order
at 600 and 300 rpm.
5. Each dial reading is recorded just before shifting to the lower speed.

Gel Strength:
1. Water-based mud is stirred at 600 rpm about 1 minute.
2. Then, the mud is allowed to stand undisturbed for 1 minute.
3. The rpm knob is switched to 3 rpm.
4. The maximum reading attained after the start of the rotation is recorded.

Yield Point:
1. The dial reading of water-based mud is recorded at 600 rpm and 300 rpm by
using Fann Viscometer.
2. Then, the yield point is calculated by using the formula as follow:
Yield Point: The reading at 600 rpm The reading at 300 rpm

PART B: Determination of Marsh Funnel Viscosity

1. With the funnel in an upright position, the orifice is covered with a finger
and the water-based mud is poured through the screen until the mud
exactly reached the bottom of the screen.
2. Then, the finger is removed immediately from the outlet and the time
required is measured in seconds for 200 ml of mud to flow out of the
funnel.
3. The reading from stopwatch is recorded.
4. The experiment is repeated for three times in order to obtain average
value.
5. The number of seconds is reported as funnel viscosity.

APPARATUS
Part A
1. Baroid viscometer
2. Mud sample (water-based mud)
3. Mud mixer
Part B
1. Marsh funnel with receiving cup
2. Mud sample (water-based mud)
3. Mud mixer

RESULTS
A) Mud Rheology Determination Using Viscometer
By using a Fann Viscometer, these results were obtained:
Viscometer Speed (rpm)

Viscosity (Centipoise)

12

14

100

35

200

51

300

60

600

86

B) Determination of Marsh Funnel viscosity

Time taken for

mud to flow through Fann Marsh funnel:

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS
GEL STRENGTH
Initial reading of viscometer (5 minutes) : 86 cP
Gel Strength: 12 cp
YIELD POINT
Plastic viscosity (cp) = 600 rpm reading 300 rpm reading
= 86-60
= 26 cP
Apparent viscosity = 600 rpm reading/2
= 86/2
= 43 cP
9

Yield point = 300 rpm reading plastic viscosity x (0.5) N/m2

= 60 26(0.5)
= 47 lb/ft3

SAMPLE OF CALCULATION OF ERRORS

GEL STRENGTH

YIELD POINT

10

DISCUSSION
This experiment is carried out to determine mud viscosities and other
rheological properties, which are gel strength and yield point. This experiment can be
divided into two parts. The first part is the determination of mud rheology using
viscometer while the second one is the determination of marsh funnel viscosity. For
the first part, it is then divided into three, which are, viscosity, gel strength and yield
point. Firstly, viscosity is a measurement of the resistance of a fluid which is being
deformed by either shear stress or tensile stress. First of all, the Baroid Rheometer is
a coaxial cylindrical rotational viscometer, used to determine single or multi-point
viscosities. It has fixed speeds of 3, 6, 100, 200, 300 and 600 rpm that are switch
selectable with the RPM knob. First of all, place a recently agitated sample in the
cup, tilt back the upper housing of the rheometer, locate the cup under the sleeve
(the pins on the bottom of the cup fit into the holes in the base plate), and lower the
upper housing to its normal position. Turn the knurled knob between the rear support
posts to raise or lower the rotor sleeve until it is immersed in the sample to the
scribed line. Stir the sample for about 5 minutes at 600 RPM, and then select the
RPM desired for the best. Wait for the dial reading to stabilize (the time depends on
the sample's characteristics). Record the dial reading and RPM.
Secondly, for gel strength, at first, stir a sample at 600 RPM for about 5
minutess. Turn the RPM knob to the STOP position. Wait the desired rest time (for 5
minutes). Switch the RPM knob to the slowest gear position that is 3 RPM. Record
the maximum deflection of the dial before the Gel breaks, as the gel strength in
lb/100 ft2 (lb/100 ft2 x 5.077 = Gel strength in dynes/cm2). Lastly, for the yield point,
we use the Baroid Rheometer to obtain dial readings at 3, 300 and 600 RPM. By
means of the rheological calculations procedure, the Apparent and Plastic
Viscosities, Yield Point and initial 10 sec. and final 5-minute Gel Strength parameters
are determined. All the results are tabulated. For the second part, marsh funnel is
used to determine mud viscosity. Firstly, with the funnel in an upright position, cover
the orifice with a finger and pour the freshly collected mud sample through the
screen into a clean, dry funnel until the fluid level reaches the bottom of the screen
(1500ml). Immediately remove the finger from the outlet and measure the time
required for the mud to fill the receiving vessel to the 1-quart (946 ml) level. The time
is required to the nearest second.
11

From the experiment that we have conducted, based on all the result and all
the calculation that we had done, for the first part, the viscosity for 3, 6, 100, 200,
300 and 600 rpm are 12, 14, 35, 51, 60 and 86 cP respectively. The plastic viscosity
is 26 cp while apparent viscosity is 43 cp. The gel strength is 12 cP and the yield
point is 47 lb/ft3. For the second part, the time taken for 200 ml mud to flow through
Fann Marsh funnel is 70 seconds.
Primarily, all drilling fluids, especially drilling mud can have wide range of
chemical and physical properties. These properties are specifically designed for
drilling conditions and the special problems that must be handled in drilling a well.
The purposes of drilling fluids include cooling and lubricate the drill bit. Besides that,
it also removes cuttings from the well. Moreover, it controls the pressure to prevent
blowout. Drilling mud also solve some drilling problems include lost circulation and
stuck pipe.
Plastic viscosity (PV) controls the magnitude of shear stress develops as one
layer of fluid slides over another. It is a measure of friction between layers and
provides a scale of the fluid thickness. With liquid, plastic viscosity decreases with
the increasing in temperature but reverse with gasses. Any increase in solid content
in drilling mud as Bartie, drill solid, lost circulation material, etc will result in higher
the plastic viscosity. In order to lower the PV, you must reduce the solid content that
can be achieved by using solid control equipment and/or diluting drilling mud with
base fluid. With increasing temperate while drilling deeper, the plastic viscosity of the
drilling mud will decrease because the viscosity of the base fluid decreases.
Normally, the higher mud weight, the higher PV will be. However, if you have an
increasing trend of PV without mud weight change, it means that there is an increase
in ultra-fine drill solid content in the mud system. Moreover, if you use oil base mud,
please keep in mind that emulsified water in oil base drilling fluid will act like a solid,
and it will increase the plastic viscosity dramatically. Effective viscosity depends on
fluid velocity flow pattern. It is difficult to measure but can be calculated.
The gel strength is the shear stress of drilling mud that is measured at low
shear rate after the drilling mud is static for a certain period of time. The gel strength
is one of the important drilling fluid properties because it demonstrates the ability of
the drilling mud to suspend drill solids and weighting material when circulation is
ceased. If the mud has the high gel strength, it will create high pump pressure in
12

order to break circulation after the mud is static for long time. Furthermore,
increasing in a trend of 30-minute gel strength indicates a build-up of ultra-fine solid.
Therefore, the mud must be treated by adding chemicals or diluting with fresh base
fluid. Yield point is a resistance of an initial flow of fluid or the stress required in order
to move the fluid. In other words, yield point (YP) is the attractive force among the
colloidal particles in drilling mud. Yield point is influenced by the concentration of
solids, their electrical charge and other factors. If not at the proper value, it can also
reduce drilling efficiency by cutting penetration rate, increasing circulating pressure,
and posing the danger of lost circulation.
Lastly, based on the experiment that has been carried out, the percentage
error for gel strength is 4

whereas the percentage error for yield point is

. This error may occur due to parallax error, error in timing the mud coming
out from the marsh funnel. Besides that, error may also occur when eyes of the
observer is not perpendicular to the scale while taking RPM reading. Other errors are
encountered from other carelessness during the experiment.

13

QUESTIONS
1. (a) What is Plastic Viscosity?
Plastic viscosity (PV) is a parameter of the Bingham plastic rheological model. PV is
the slope of the shear stress-shear rate plot above the yield point (See Figure 1).
Viscometer is equipment to measure Plastic Viscosity. Plastic Viscosity is derived
from the 600 rpm reading minus the 300 rpm reading and PV is in centipoises (cP).

Figure 1: Bingham plastic model describe Plastic Viscosity and

Yield Point

1. (b) What does it characterize?

A low PV indicates that the mud is capable of drilling rapidly because of the low
viscosity of mud exiting at the bit. With increasing temperate while drilling deeper,
the plastic viscosity of the drilling mud will decrease because the viscosity of the
base fluid decreases. High PV is caused by a viscous base fluid and by excess
colloidal solids. To lower PV, a reduction in solids content can be achieved by
dilution. Our group is using oil-based mud as the mud sample, thus the emulsified

14

water in oil base drilling fluid will act like a solid, and it will increase the plastic
viscosity dramatically.

(c) What is the difference between the Plastic Viscosity and Apparent Viscosity
of a drilling fluid?
Plastic viscosity is the slope of the shear stress line above the yield point. Plastic
viscosity can control the magnitude of shear stress develops as one layer of fluid
slides over another. Plastic viscosity also can provide a scale of full thickness
besides it will decrease with increasing temperature; with liquids: but reverse with
gasses. The apparent viscosity is the slope of the dashed line in figure 2, it is the
shear stress divided by the shear strain rate at a particular point in the curve. The
apparent viscosity depends on the point chosen. Apparent viscosity (AV) is one-half
of the dial reading at 600 rpm (1022 sec-1 shear rate) using a direct-indicating,
rotational viscometer.

Figure 2: Relationship of stress to shear train for

a Bingham plastic, illustrating the difference
between plastic viscosity and apparent viscosity

15

2. Which role does Gel Strength play in the drilling process?

Gel strength is the ability of the mud to develop gel structure. The gel strength is the
shear stress of drilling mud that is measured at low shear rate after the drilling mud
is static for a certain period of time. The gel strength is one of the important drilling
fluid properties because it demonstrates the ability of the drilling mud to suspend drill
solids and weighting material when circulation is ceased. With proper gel strength
can help suspend solids in the hole and allow them to settle out on the surface,
excessive gel strength can cause a number drilling problems. Gel strengths are
usually classified as progressive (strong) or as fragile (weak) type gels.

3. What type of fluids does drilling fluids belong to?

The drilling fluid can be air, foam (a combination of air and liquid or a liquid). Liquid
drilling fluids are commonly called drilling mud. All drilling fluids, especially drilling
mud, can have a wide range of chemical and physical properties. These properties
are specifically designed for drilling conditions and the special problems that must be
handled in drilling a well.

4. What is the Yield Point?

Yield point is a resistance of an initial flow of fluid or the stress required in order to
move the fluid. In another words, yield point (YP) is the attractive force among
colloidal particles in drilling mud. YP is calculated from 300- and 600-rpm viscometer
dial readings by subtracting PV from the 300-rpm dial reading. The YP indicates the
ability of the drilling mud to carry cuttings to surface. The Bingham plastic fluid plots
as a straight line on a shear-rate (x-axis) versus shear stress (y-axis) plot, in which
YP is the zero-shear-rate intercept (PV is the slope of the line).

16

Figure 2: Bingham Plastic models describe PV and YP

4. (b) What does it characterize?

A high Yield Point implies a non-Newtonian fluid, one that carries cuttings better than
a fluid of similar density but lower YP. Moreover, frictional pressure loss is directly
related to the YP. If you have higher YP, you will have high pressure loss while the
drilling mud is being circulated.
In water-based mud, the YP will be increased as the temperature of the environment
getting higher. Presence of the contaminants also one of the factors that the water
based will increase in yield point. As for the oil-based mud, the more drill solid it
contains, the more yield point will be. Lower temperature of the op based will
increase the viscosity and the yield point.
4. (c) What is the difference between Gel Strength and Yield Point of
drilling mud?
Gel strength measurements denote the thixotropic properties of the mud. They are a
measure of the attractive forces under static or-non-flow conditions. Yield point on
the other hand is a measurement of attractive forces under flowing conditions and
should not be confused with gel strength. However, since both gel strength and yield
point are a measure of the force of flocculation as yield point decreases the gel
strength will usually decrease. A low yield point does not necessarily indicate a
condition of 0/0 gels, but without any appreciable reduction in apparent viscosity.
17

5. Explain what you know about one point and two point curve fluids? Give
one example of each type of fluid.

6. Discuss the difference between Plastic Viscosity and Funnel Viscosity.

Marsh funnel is a great advantage is its simplicity and reliability under field
conditions. There is, however, no recognized method of converting Marsh funnel
times to viscosity in conventional units. Moreover, since drilling muds are generally
highly non-Newtonian in character, their flow characteristics cannot be defined by a
single viscosity. Besides, the viscosity given by the Marsh Funnel is not a true
viscosity, but serves as qualitative measure of how thick the mud sample is. The
Funnel viscosity is useful only for relative comparisons. It indicates the changes in
viscosity and cannot be used to quantify the rheological properties such as Yield
Point and Plastic Viscosity. The funnel viscosity measures at only one rate of shear
but the temperature each time of measurement is not constant. This is the reason
why the viscosity measured from the Marsh Funnel does not represent the true mud
viscosity.
18

CONCLUSION
The main objective of this experiment is to measure the rheology properties of
the mud samples which is the viscosity, yield point and also the gel strength of the
mud sample. As for the Marsh funnel experiment, the objective is to measure the
funnel viscosity and then we can compare it with the plastic viscosity that we get
during the experiment.
The purposes of drilling fluids are good for cooling and lubrication. As the drill bit
drills into the rock formation, the friction caused by the rotating bit against the rock
generate heat. Besides, drilling fluids may also be a cutting removal as it is an
important function of the drilling fluid is to carry rock cuttings removed by the bit to
the surface. Furthermore, it will also act as a pressure control as it can prevent
against the kick or loss of well control caused by formation pressures. That why it is
important to control the viscosity of mud during the drilling well activity.
Next, based on the experiment that has been carried out, the percentage error
for gel strength is 4

whereas the percentage error for yield point is

This error may occur due to parallax error, error in timing the mud coming out from
the marsh funnel. Besides that, error may also occur when eyes of the observer is
not perpendicular to the scale while taking RPM reading likes we mention before.
Here, we already listing the precaution should be takes during the experiment to
avoid the errors happened. For the last, the objectives for this experiment has
achieved for both part.

19

RECOMMENDATION
Part A
1. Before start the experiment, we have to make sure that each of our member
wearing laboratory coat, safety goggle, gloves and enclosed shoes. This is
really important to keep our member in safe from any unexpected incident that
could happen.
2. Make sure that calibration of the viscometer is being checked properly before
run the experiment. If there some error happen, adjust the meter in correct
position and if it cannot be adjusted, record the error (+/- ) of the value.
3. Check the bob and rotor and make sure both of it are in good condition and
clean either before or after experiment. This is important because to prevent
any impurities mixing with the muds.
4. The timing also must be correct and need to be monitored well so that we can
get the most accurate result.
5. The experiment should be repeated a few time so that we can get the average
value for the experiment.

Part B

1. Make sure the starting timing that been taken by stopwatch is simultaneous
with the mud that start to flow out from funnel.

2. When pouring mud into a funnel, make sure that the mud will pour on marsh.
This is because to prevent any larger substance from clog or blocking the hole
at the end of funnel.

20

REFFERENCES
1. Laboratory Manual; Geology And Drilling Laboratory (CGE 558), Faculty of

Chemical Engineering, UiTM Shah Alam.

2. Doughlas, J. F. (2010). Fluid Mechanic, 5th Edition. New York: Pearson

Prentice.

3. 13B-1 Recommended Standard Procedure for Field Testing Water-Based

Drilling Fluids, Dallas: American Petroleum Institute, 1990

4. http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/Display.cfm?Term=apparent%20viscosity

5. http://www.drillingahead.com/profiles/blogs/gel-strength

6. http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/Display.cfm?Term=viscosity

21

APPENDICES

Figure 4: Viscometer

Figure 3: Water based Mud

Figure 6: Stopwatch

Figure 5: MIxer

Figure 7: Marsh and Funnel

22