Theories Underpinning Conflict and Its Implications for the Socio-Political

Development of Ghana

Abdul Karim Issifu, M.Phil. Student, Peace and Development Studies, Institute for
Development Studies, University of Cape Coast, Ghana.
Email: [email protected]

Abstract
Conflict is part of human existence and it cannot be prevented entirely. The only way to
survive it is to adapt to it. Many internal conflicts are seen in countless countries around the
world with Africa having the largest share. Ghana is described as the gate way to Africa
because of the peaceful atmosphere of the country and the desire not to be tag as
warmongers. However, Ghana should not allow complacency to take away the hard earn
international reputation as far a peace is concern. This paper tries to analyse the theories
underpinning conflict and how the implications of these theories can help strengthen the
socio-political development of Ghana.

Key Words: conflict, development, theories of conflict, socio-political implications of the

theories for development.

Introduction

There are numerous definitions for conflict. However, considering the context in
which it is used, how it is used and where it is used would give a comprehensive
understanding of the term conflict. Hence, conflict is context specific. Conflict occurs when
two or more parties pursue incompatible interests or goals through actions that the parties try
to weak or damage each other. These parties could be individuals, groups or countries. The
partys interests can differ over access to resources, the control of political or chieftaincy
authority, identity and recognition, values or ideology. In this paper, I argue that conflict is
seen as the aggressive or negative manifestations in the form of physical destruction of
property, loss of human lives, and the destruction of the ecosphere.
Development (social or political) on the other hand, is generally about a progress in
human well-being. This includes well-being in the general life of human beings such as
peoples health, education, security, happiness and peace. The relationship between conflict
and development (social or political) is such that underdevelopment can cause violent
conflict. Thus, development reduces the potential of violent conflict. Conflicts are driven by
underdevelopment, poverty and inequality (Subrke & Chaudhary, 2007). In several studies on
the nexus between violent conflict and development, the World Bank has emphasized that
conflict is a bane to development since it tends to reverse development efforts. Any type of
conflict; resource based conflict, ethnic conflict, political conflict, economic conflict,
chieftaincy conflict, religious conflict and the likes have effects on socio-political
development and are underpinned by certain theoretical perspectives. In this paper, I am
going to assess critically the theories underpinning conflict and analyse its implications for
the socio-political development of Ghana.

Concept of Conflict

Conflict is inevitable in human existence and is a necessary part of human life

(Bukari, 2011). It is also a characteristic of human endeavour that cannot be prevented
completely. Kendie (2007) argues that conflict cannot be avoided in social life but it can only
be contained. Conflict might be at the class level, local government level, state or even
international level. Conflict usually occurs primarily as a result of a clash of interest in the
relationship between parties, groups or states, either because they are pursuing opposing or
incompatible goals (Oyeniyi, 2011). Usually, conflict is assumed to be present when two or
more parties perceived that their interest are incompatible, express hostile attitudes or pursue
their interest through actions that damage the other parties. Conflict is normally assumed to
have occurred when individuals fail to live according to their values, or when their values are
threatened (Kendie, 2010). Conflict is seen as the struggle between individuals and groups. A
broad definition of conflict that would apply to many of the types of conflicts referred to in
this paper has been provided by Coser. Coser (1956) defines social conflict as a struggle over
values or claims to status, power and scarce resources in which the aims of the conflicting
parties are not only to gain the desired values, but also to neutralise injury or eliminate their
rivals.
Bujra (2002) notes that, any attempt to conceptualise conflict should place emphasis
on disagreement between wider aggregate of society as well as the incidence of violence and
injury. Awedoba (2009:5) on the other hand, explains conflict as a relationship between two
or more parties that centre on difference, disagreements, incompatibilities and clash of wills.
Johnson (1991) further defines conflict as a real or perceived difference which may affect
actions or outcomes that we believe are important. These definitions emphasise the
importance of difference as it demonstrate the action that people in agreement need to take.
Thus, the element of difference in social life must be seen as valid even though some of the
agreement may not eventually lead to violent conflict since they may be tangential to the

motives for collective action and may require different responses or outcomes. The outcomes
of conflict depend on the choices that are available to social actors and these choices can lead
to different outcome in different situations. People make choice every time they respond to
the other party in a conflict and these choices dictates what happens in any conflict situation.
According to Avruch (1998), conflicts between two or more parties are not static,
time-bond events, but rather on-going processes that vary in intensity, scope, and duration.
With this definition, Avruch explicitly bridges the gap between two approaches to
understanding conflict: one based on the idea of scarcity (Coser, 1956) and the other related
to perception or belief (Pruitt & Rubin 1985). Seeing conflict from such a perspective reveals
the process nature of conflict (Rice, 2000). Thus, conflict between two parties is not static,
time-bond events, but rather on-going processes that vary in intensity, scope and duration
(Sriram & Wermester, 2003).
Although, the term conflict can be explained from different schools of thought, this
paper focuses mainly on violent conflicts as stipulated at the introduction. The reason is that
Wam and Sardesai (2005) thinks research must pay attention to violent conflict due to the
proliferation of small arms and light weapon, and the diffusion of the international
technology of destruction. Bujra (2002) also provides a broad working definition of conflict
to mean a violent and armed confrontation and struggle between groups, between the state
and one or more groups and between two or more states. Bujra writes that in such
confrontation and struggles, some of those involved are injured and killed with many people
displaced, while property is destroyed. Hence, violent conflicts have negative impact on
socio-political development of every country which Ghana is no exception.
However, it should be noted that conflict need not necessarily be violent. Hence,
conflict arising as a result of incompatible goals may not be a bad ideal but may give clues as
to the dissatisfaction or uneasiness that may exist in an important relationship that needs to be

addressed promptly (Dissanayake & Arno, 1984). Thus, conflicts are supposed to be
frameworks for resolving internal difference, as well as transforming hidden difference to
open tension (Ross, 1993). Conflict only becomes violent when it is not well handled either
by the authorities or parties concerned. Conflict becomes aggressive or negative when it
manifests in some form of physical destruction of property and high value symbols. It tend to
be violent when parties go beyond seeking to attain their goals peacefully, and try to
dominate or destroy the opposing parties ability to pursue their own interests. This is why
Burton (1990), argues that the potential for conflict being destructive of persons properties
and systems makes it more deeply rooted in aspect of human behaviour. What Burton seems
to be considering is that when peoples needs and desires are frustrated in a given situation by
others irrespective of whether they are closer to them or not, this may manifest in violent
conflicts that may have negative consequences on development. Different parameters
distinguish violent conflict. These dimensions include the parties involved in the conflict, the
main substantive issues in contention between the conflicting parties, the nature of force or
coercion employed by the conflicting parties as well as the geographic scope of the conflict.

Types of Conflict
In trying to get a comprehensive knowledge and understanding about violent conflict, I argue
in this paper that, it is prudent to identify the different categories underlying it. Among them
include;
Ethnic conflict: This is the type of conflict that exists between and among ethnic groups. It
can be cause by the struggle for power or authority, chieftaincy, land or boundary,
dominance, exclusion or marginalisation as well as, superiority and recognition. There are
two main categories under ethnic conflict. These are intra-ethnic conflict and inter-ethnic
conflict. The former is the type of conflict that exist between the same ethnic group for

example the Dagbon violent conflict between the Abudus and the Andanis which led to the
death of the Yaa Na (Yakubu Andani), overlord of Dagbon in 2002. Brukum (1995)
described it as a war of emancipation or secession. The latter, is the type where conflict exists
between and among different ethnic groups. Kendie & Tuffour (2014) argued that, interethnic conflicts are mostly caused by feelings of superiority by one ethnic group (mostly the
indigenes) overs others. For example, Nkoya vs. Alavayo conflict, Dagomba vs. Kokomba,
Manprusi vs. Kusase and many more. The underlying interest is either over land ownership,
chieftaincy succession, competition over land usage or location of institutions and services.
Ethnicity has been a major source of violent ethnic conflict despite the existence of
peaceful and cooperative ethnic groups in Ghana (GSS, 2010). Richardson and Sen (1996)
have noted that ethnic conflicts have the potential of undermining economic and sociopolitical development. This is because it slows down growth and advancement as resources
are diverted to maintaining peace and security. It also destroys physical infrastructure; causes
brain drain; and curtails foreign investments (Bukari, 2011). Above all, ethnic conflicts have
generated internecine wars of grave effects and truncating development and democratic
institutions in many pluralistic societies, thereby destabilising the nation-state in many
African counties which Ghana is no exception (Tuffour & Obeng, 2008).

Religious conflict: This type of conflict exists between and among religious groups with
diverse beliefs, practices, traditions and rituals. It could be the disagreement between
Muslims and Muslims, Christians and Muslims, between Christians and Muslims and
between Christians and followers of traditional and primitive idols worshipers. A typical
example is the much debated religious conflict between the Ga traditional authority and the
Christian council of Ghana. Some Christian churches in Ghana see no reason why they
should respect the annual prohibition on drumming and dancing in churches which precedes

the Homowo festical of the Ga community. Not more than four cases of conflict are reported
every year about attack by organised unofficial enforcers of the ban on some Christian
churches who failed to respect the ban. Moreover, the Tijanniya Muslims and the Al-Sunni
Muslims clash at Tamale in the northern region, where one person died and several injured is
a typical example of religious conflict. The dispute between Muslims at Chereponi in the
northern region over who should become the next Imam after the serving Imam died
according to Tsikata and Seini (2004) are all examples of religious conflict in Ghana.

Political conflict: This type of conflict comes about when political parties tend to compete
for political power. It occurs as a result of violent clashes between rival political groupings
mostly party supporters (Kendie, 2014).

In the process of political strategies, party

supporters sometimes tend to use aggressive methods and illegal means to help their party
leaders capture political power. Meanwhile, it could lead to violent political clash. State
repression, civil strife, coup dtat, electoral violence and disputes are some of the
characteristics of the nature of political conflict in Ghana. A typical example is the Gushiegu
conflict in northern Ghana. A post-election violence occurred on the 30th December 2008 at
Kpatinga electoral area when the National Democratic Congress (NDC) supporters were
hoisting a flag to celebrate the victory of their party in the December 2008 elections.
Unfortunately, the ceremony was taking place at a location which was not far from where the
rival party supporters of the New Patriotic Party (NPP) were also constructing their party
shed. As part of the jubilations, hooting and chants of mockery ended up in stone throwing.
It later escalated into a physical fight and the police had to intervene to calm the situation
after many activist sustaining injuries. Therefore, political conflicts emanating from the
processes of politics and governance are a major source of conflict in sub-Saharan Africa.

Natural resource based conflict: This type of conflict emanate as a result of interests and
increasing attention over the advantages and benefits within a nation and between states over
natural resources. These natural resources can be land, gold, diamond, tin, iron ore, oil etc.
Kendie and Tuffour (2014) argues that, resource based conflicts are the misunderstanding in
the utilisation and ownership of resources which could be state own, private own, communal
own or open access. Khortari (1979) also see resource as a major cause of conflict between
individuals and groups within political systems and between nations. Parties struggle over
natural resources exploitation, usage and ownership rights. Conflict in the Niger Delta in
Nigeria is a typical example of natural resource based conflict. More so, the Sierra Leone war
in the 1990s has a part to blame on diamond. The recently discovered oil in Ghana if not well
manage can result into violent conflict between residents and government or between Ghana
government and Ivory Coast. The numerous natural resource based conflict in Africa
challenged me to ask on several occasions whether natural resources are blessing or curse.

Chieftaincy conflict: This type of conflict is where ethnic groups or individuals compete
over who has the rights and legitimacy to assume chieftaincy succession and the power to
exercise authority. Struggle over land right, recognition and supremacy are all underlying
interest of chieftaincy conflict. Chieftaincy in Ghana for instance is the causative agent of
several communal conflicts, particularly those related to succession to traditional political
office and the struggle over land ownership. In Ghana, chieftaincy succession disputes often
are protracted and violent serving as major causes of violent conflict (Kendie, 2007). In
northern Ghana it is mostly about succession rules to skins, practises and processes. For
example, the chieftaincy conflict between Abudus and Andanis in northern Ghana.

Effects of conflict

Conflict may lead to loss of confidence and trust in each other especially with
reference to the parties involved. This is very likely to happen where people have been
betrayed, where agreements and contracts, established rules, laws or procedures have been
disregarded. This may also lead to insecurity most especially if the conflict had involved loss
of life and property. Nyalemegbe (2011) argues that Tsito and Awudome communities are
enjoying fragile peace because of fear and insecurity that exists between the two ethnic
groups. Conflicts tend to create tension in people and relationships become strained and as a
result, things that could be done within a short time have to go through lengthy procedures or
any not be done at all. Parties become suspicious of each other and the situation saps a lot of
energy and may drive people displaced. Not much can be achieved in such countries unless
steps are taken to bring down tensions and deal with the conflict situation.
Conflict makes individuals and groups unable to act and function properly. This is
the ultimate cost that a conflict may exact on development. Nothing works as desired and
social structures become more affected. Conflict also may divide a community, individuals
and groups into sharply contrasting positions with reference to beliefs, opinions or ideologies
on how things should be done. These tend to bring development to a standstill. This is likely
to occur in situations where the conflicting parties do not want to have anything in common
and mutually exclude each other in development activities. Socio-political development
involves cooperation or working together to achieve goals and objectives. Cooperation
between actors in development has become a necessary condition for development activity.
In an instance where individuals, groups or communities do not show the spirit of
cooperation, not much can be achieve on socio-political development.
During conflict times schools are interrupted; children and teachers fear for their
lives, and this retards educational development. Meanwhile, education is the engine of social
development and economic growth of every country including Ghana. The effects of conflicts

are often pervasive, affecting all aspects of a person or communitys social, political and
economic life and tend to also affect institutions such as education and health (Coleman,
2000). In the event of conflicts, agriculture is seriously hampered affecting crop yields and
animal production (Zaur, 2006).

Benefits of Conflict
Having analysed the cost of conflicts, it is fair to discuss the positive aspect of conflict
so that we can make the best use of it for socio-political development (Cox, 1972). Conflicts
are necessary for change in human society since they help to build relationships in groups,
establish a groups identity, build internal cohesion in groups and can lead to balance of
power in society as well as create new rules and laws (Coser, 1956). Conflict contributes to
development and growth. It brings about progress. Liberia went through a period of eight
year civil war and after, the country is being rebuilt with modern development planning
designs. Apart from that, the aftermath of Liberias civil war have given women the
opportunity to fully participate in governance and democracy which is one of the reasons why
a woman is the head of State.
Rwanda used not to have a constitution but after the 1994 genocide of mass killing of
Tutsi by Hutus, there has been a need to have a constitution to govern the country. Again, in
the aftermath of the Rwandan genocide womens lives have been transformed through the
opportunity given them to participate in decision making processes. Women have been
empowered to assume leadership roles at top government levels which prior to the conflict
they were relegated to the background (Mzvondiva, 2007).
In Ghana, Alavanyo and Nkonya refused to have a road built between the towns
because of ethnic conflict but after the parties brokered peace they have now built the road
which is serving the interest of the two towns (Nyalemegbe, 2011). These scenarios above

clearly underpin the fact that conflict in itself is beneficial but only tend to be bad when it
escalate into violence.

Dynamics of Conflict
Every conflict has its properties and dynamics. Just as development planning is cyclical in
nature and goes through various stages so as conflict.
According to Fisher (2000), the first stage of conflict is the pre-conflict stage. Here,
goals between parties become incompatible, communication is broken and they try to hide it
from public notice.
The second stage is the stage of confrontation. Under this stage, conflict starts to
manifest, there is fighting sometimes but at low level. Parties tend to search for allies,
mobilize resources, strained relations and polarization begins.
The crisis stage is where the conflict reaches its peak. Here, situation are often intense
and fighting lead to killing, maiming and large scale of population displacements occur, and
the use of small arms and light weapons are manifested.
The fourth stage is often the outcome of the violence. One of the parties winning or
losing or a ceasefire may be declared and peace accord signed. One party may surrender or
the third party intervening uses forces stronger than the warring parties to impose a solution
to stop the fighting. At this stage, violence is often decreased and allows room for some
discussion to commence or alternative means of settling the conflict.
The fifth stage is the post-conflict stage. Here, violence is either reduced or ended.
This is when the causes of the conflict are mostly underlined; the goals of the conflicting
parties such as needs, fears, positions and interests are identified. However, if these issues are
not well addressed, the conflict may re-escalate and return to the first stage with consequent
re-eruption of violence. A careful analysis of the stages will bring out areas of agreement and

relationships which could constitute to common grounds to assist in either building peace or
managing conflict for socio-political development.

Theoretical Underpinnings of Conflict

Conflict can be explained and classified from various perspectives including those of
the classical social theorists (Karl Marx & August Comte) and the structural conflict theorist
(Collier, 2000). In this paper, seven (7) out of the numerous theories underpinning conflict
are explored. First of all, is the structural conflict theory attempts to explain conflict as a
product of the tension that arises when groups compete for scarce resources. This theory has
two main sub-orientations; the first is the radical structural theory represented by the Marxist
dialectical school with exponents like Mark and Engels, V.I Lenin etc., the second is the
liberal structuralism represented by Scarborough, and the famous Johan Garltung on
structural violence. Structuralisms thus sees incompatible interests based on competition for
resources which in most cases are assumed to be scarce, as being responsible for social
conflicts. People and groups exploit open access natural resources and when the resource is
depleting, they then to compete over it which most often result into conflict. The argument of
the theory is also that conflict is built into the particular ways societies are structured and
organised. It looks at political and economic exclusion, injustice, poverty, exploitation and
inequality as source of conflict (Tuffour & Obeng, 2008).
Secondly, Economic theories see the occurrence of conflict in human society as
basically arising from humans tendency to fight over things that are material (Faleti, 2006).
Thus, economic theories attribute the existence of conflict in society to the contest for
resources, employment, economic equalities and wealth. Some conflicts which arise from
economic factors such as the fight over resources tend to affect development negatively
because these conflicts become violent leading to destruction of property, social amenities,

and livelihoods. The theorist further argues that, some few people commonly referred to as
conflict entrepreneurs actually benefit from conflict, chaos, mayhem, civil war, strife,
hostility, upheaval etc. while majority of the people are negatively affected by the conflict
instigated by these conflict entrepreneurs. These conflict entrepreneurs could be politicians,
business tycoons and unemployed youth who take advantage in conflict. Politicians
sometimes mobilise unemployed youth who see the system as not favouring them to cause
conflict so that they can benefit. When conflict becomes violent and severe, conflict
entrepreneurs tend to make profit thereby supplying small arms to the conflicting parties.
Other entrepreneurs often participate in the violence because it offers them immediate
economic gains. Some tend to steal and loot. A critical example of conflict entrepreneurs is
the Boko Haram group in Nigeria. This is why Collier (2006) argues that conflicts in societies
are a way caused by some people called conflict entrepreneurs.
Thirdly, the Realist conflict theory originates from the classical political theory and
shares both theological and biological doctrines about an apparent weakness inherent in
human nature. It thus traces the roots of conflict to a flaw in human nature which is seen to be
selfish and engaging in the pursuit of personalized self-interest defined as power. Morgenthau
(1973) argue that the imperfection in the world, namely conflict, has its roots in forces that
are inherent in human nature, that human nature is selfish, individualistic and naturally
conflictive and that such interest will come into conflict with those of others leading to the
inevitability of conflict.
Furthermore, the Biological conflict theory has given rise to what may be referred to as
the innate theory of conflict which contends that conflict is innate in all social interactions,
and among all animals, including human beings. Human beings are animals, albeit higher
species of animals, and would fight naturally over things they cherish (Dollard, 1939). The
thinking is that since our ancestors were instructively violent beings, and since we evolved

from them, we too must bear destructive impulses in our generic make up. Thomas Hobbes
and St. Augustine of Hippo are classical biological theorists. Conflict under this category is
produced as a result of the biological motivation actions of human beings (Sandole, 1990).
Besides, the position of Human needs theory is that, all human beings have basic
needs which they seek to fulfil in life, and the denial of these needs by other agents including
government, groups or individuals could affect them immediately or later, thereby leading to
conflict. Basic human needs in this sense comprise physical, psychological, social and
spiritual needs. In essence, to provide access to one (e.g. food, water, clothing) and deny or
hinder access to another (e.g. freedom of worship) will amount to denial and could make
people to resort to violence in an effort to protect these needs. The denial of these needs
hampers the actualization of the potentials of groups and individuals, subsequently leading to
violent conflict.
Nevertheless, Relational theories attempt to provide explanations for the violent
conflicts between groups by exploring sociological, political, economic and historical
relationships between such groups. Thus, the belief here is that cultural and value differences
are as well as group interests all influence relationships between individuals. A number of
conflicts grow out of a past history of conflict between groups that has led to the development
of negative stereotypes, racial intolerance and discrimination. Such a history of negative
exchanges between groups may make it difficult for efforts to integrate different ethnic and
religious groups within the society to succeed because their past interactions make it difficult
for them to trust one another. In the West African sub-region for instance, it has been difficult
to get groups like the Hausa/Fulani, Igbo and the Yoruba in Nigeria and in Ghana between
the Ewes and Ashantis to let go their past.
The Frustration-aggression theories argue that frustration has a variety of sources and
can take two forms. First, it can be absolute, which happens when people do not have enough

to survive, and second, it can be relative, which happen when people have enough to survive
but have less than those around them. The theories argues that human beings have basic
needs (food, water, shelter, clothe, employment etc.) which they intend to enjoy, therefore the
moment they are denied, marginalised, discriminated and deprived of such basic needs they
become frustrated and then aggressive on the very structures that is denying them access to
their basic needs. It is obvious that, naturally human beings do not want to be frustrated for
too long, if it happens so; they tend to forget about their relations with whoever is frustrating
them and they end up acting furiously.

Analysing the Theories for Socio-political Development

In assessing the structural conflict theory for socio-political development, I want to
argue that solution to this type of conflict in our society is to eliminate structural defects with
policy reforms and paradigm shift. Conflict occurs among groups and that groups have
structures which define the group. For the purpose of social and political development of
Ghana, governments must place pragmatic mechanism that tends to remove structural
deficiencies. There should be community management committees at local levels whose role
should be to ensure that social exclusion and ethnic discrimination, inequality and
marginalisation between individuals and among groups in accessing scarce resource are dealt
with. In so doing competition over scarce resources leading to violent conflict can be minimal
since conflict cannot be avoided completely in human existence.
Evaluating economic conflict theory for socio-political development, I want to argue
that, conflicts; civil wars, ethnic wars, religious conflict, etc. in West Africa, and for that
matter Ghana are seen from the worldview of the economic rationality in which William
Renos words become an instrument of enterprise and violence as a mode of accumulation.
The basis of violent conflict is the economic industry that it generates in which mineral and

agricultural products, diamonds, oil, cocoa and coffee goad rebels into rebellion. There are
two basic elements in the theory which I intend to explain in detailed in this paper. First of
all, looting is the purpose of conflicts and during conflict rebels begin their tactics as ordinary
robbers. Ordinary robbers are influenced by economies of scale, after certain threshold of
killing and looting they attain the status of rebels. Governments should ensure that the
redistribution of the nations natural resource revenue is evenly distributed and most
especially should targets vulnerable communities by providing them with adequate safety
nets; social amenities to enable them develop in order to avoid chaos and conflict. For me, I
see conflict at the Niger Delta in Nigeria as the cause of unequal redistribution of the oil
revenues and corruption hence, frustrated individuals forcibly becomes aggressive rebels who
tend to fight the government in order to have access to the national cake. This is why Berdal
and Malone (2000) argue that economic factors such as poverty, economic disparities and
unemployment are the main factors that compel people to violence although a lot of other
factors do exist. The contest for the control of economic assets, resources and systems are the
basic causes of conflicts in human society. Therefore assessing critically, the theory tends to
advice government to ensure equal redistribution of state revenues. Creating employment for
the youth as well as putting pragmatic measures in place to check corruptions will in the long
run ensure socio-political development.
Examining the realist conflict theory for socio-political development, I want to
contend that, human being is by nature selfish and would want to have everything at all cost
without considering others. This is why Ademola (2006) argued that the starting point of
conflict is the individual level. Therefore governments should put in place effective measures
that can check the activities of especially public workers in order not to misappropriate public
funds. The recent corruption allegation of the acting national service director, the Tamale
DVLA boss, Ghana Customs service, Alfred Agbeshie Wayome, Victoria Hummer and

Muntaka Mubarak- all former public servants and former ministers of state, etc. raised the
source of conflict in incompatible of ideals between the NPP and NDC. The opposition NPP
accused the ruling government NDC of not only misappropriating state fund but also
nurturing political thieves. However, if the realist conflict theory is considered and that
human beings are by nature selfish and would use any strategy to accumulate wealth and
other vital resources to themself and their familys alone, incompatible ideals between and
among politicians, organisations, institutions and civil society leading to conflict would be
minimal. I want to support my argument with the fact that in economics we often hear human
wants are unlimited so therefore human beings become selfish because they are not satisfied
with what they have, and sort to have everything through any channel without thinking about
others and the consequences attached to their actions. The implication of this theory for the
socio-political development of Ghana is that, effective check and balance measures,
monitoring and evaluation mechanism and legal action should be put in place to monitor the
selfish nature of individuals who would want to have everything through every means at all
cost, which in the long run may lead to conflict.
Arguing on the biological conflict theory for socio-political development, I want to put
on record that, human beings by no means can end violent conflict. This is why Kendie
(2010) argued that social conflict in our society cannot be prevented entirely. This is because
humans possess the generic features of violence and we cherish conflicts. Over 2000 years
ago BC, Aden and Eve were governed by heavenly city of God. One of the laws of the city of
God was not to touch nor eat the fruit of evil and knowledge but because of the conflicting
nature of humans and the desire to break laws disobeyed God and ate the fruit. More so, in
the same Bible Cain killed his brother Abel out of jealousy. What about the coup dtat in
heaven leading to Lucifers thrown down from heaven. These are all manifestations of mans
desire to break law and cause violence. Human beings are born law breakers from creation?

Interested researchers can look at it to advance knowledge. The thinking is that since our
ancestors were instructively violent beings, and since we evolved from them, we too must
bear destructive impulses in our generic make up. The basic implication of this theory for the
socio-political development is that Ghana governments should recruit more security
personnel to boost security and defence since human beings are unpredictable and can cause
violence at any point in time. Considering the theory critically will have a significant
influence for human security and social development.
Human beings have basic needs that make them feel complete in life. The denial from
realising their basic needs such as food, water, clothing, freedom, participation, spiritual
needs, psychological needs, peace and security and the likes, they become frustrated and then
aggressive towards the hindrance against their basic needs. The Frustration-aggression
theories underpin most of the conflicts in human existence. More often than not people tend
to question the status quo that hinders them their basic needs. In the process of questioning
sometimes lead to violent conflicts. This theory suggest that inasmuch as every country want
to develop and have violent conflict free society, basic human needs including water, food,
access to health care, social security, education should not be denied. I want to emphasized
that one of the reasons why Africa and for that matter Ghana is a conflict zone is that peoples
basic needs are denied them. Are European countries and USA not recording violent conflict
because basic human needs are provided? I believe most readers will quickly say yes of
course. If so, I want to argue further that, socio-political development can in a way be
ensured when peoples basic needs are not denied them. In a nut shell, the theory advice that
basic human needs should not be denied. Social amenities including, schools, affordable
housing, hospitals, roads, markets, recreation, potable drinking water, security etc. should be
provided by the state thereby targeting especially the vulnerable, weak, and marginalised
groups in society so that people will not be frustrated to cause violent conflict.

Rational conflict theories thinks that lack of trust and past history is the basis of most
violent conflict. A number of conflicts grow out of a past history of conflict between groups
that has led to the development of negative stereotypes, racial intolerance and discrimination.
Most of the ethnic discrimination leading to conflict is as the result of ethnic groups relying
on past events. Citizens tend to follow other political parties because of an unfair treating
against them by another political party. For example, in Ghana many Akan ethnic groups are
NPP supporters because of a past event during the military era where former President
Rawlings an Ewe from the Volta region punished several Akans. The Ashanti-Ewe rivalry
has persisted into Ghanas Fourth Republic, with Ashanti-Ewe exceptionalism in voting
patterns. While other regions distribute their votes, Volta and Ashanti Regions concentrate
their votes on their home-based parties in all the elections held in the 4th Republic. I want to
argue that, for the benefit of socio-political development, Ghana needs to adopt a holistic and
pragmatic ethnicfication approach. Also, the identity configuration of the Ghana need to be
critically examined vis a vis the western democracy we have adopted so as to develop ethnic
policies for the country. A national framework with which all can identify without any
distinction based on ethnicity and tribe needs to be put in place. A few states in Africa such
as Botswana and Benin have been able to pragmatically manage their relatively
inconsequential diversity to reflect exemplary cohesiveness, democracy, stability and
sustained growth. Hence, Ghana should learn from these countries through a policy transfer
to help prevent ethnic discrimination which the rational theories thinks is source of violent
conflict in our society.
A significant element of the frustration-aggression theory concerns the redirection or
displacement of aggression. Human beings do not want to be frustrated for too long. The
longitudinal nature of their frustrations harbours aggressiveness leading to conflict. I want to
debate that individual and groups should not be caused to be frustrated for too long else they

may become aggressive and misbehave or put to a standstill their services. It is for this reason
why in Ghana, the University Teachers Association of Ghana (UTAG) became frustrated by
the government over the denial of their books and research allowances which made them
aggressive and went on strike. The theories further on contend that a particular frustration
instigates aggression primarily against the source of the frustration and also instigates
aggression against targets that are to some degree related to that source. Employers must
ensure that they fulfil their promises to their employees, heads of institutions and
organisations should equally ensure that they do not frustrates their members because the
frustration can lead to conflict when they become aggressive. For the purpose of sociopolitical development, memorandum of understanding should be signed and promises should
be fulfilled when individuals and groups begin to raise sentiments. This is because failure
disappointments lead to groups or individuals expressing their anger through violence geared
towards those they hold responsible or people who are directly or indirectly related to them
(Tuffour & Obeng, 2008).

Conclusion
Conflicts are part of social life and daily activities of human beings. It is not entirely
wrong because it create awareness and brings about changes and development. It only
becomes bad when it metamorphoses into violence conflict. Generally, speaking the term
conflict describes a situation in which two or more actors pursue incompatible, yet from their
individual perspectives entirely just goals. Just as planning undergoes through stages so do
conflict also undergoes through stages that is from the precondition stage to post conflict
stage. There are various types of conflict including religious, chieftaincy, political, and
resource based etc. which defines the categories of conflicts. Also, any type of conflicts is
underpinned by certain theory. Among these theories include the biological, realist, human

need, frustration aggression etc. Above all, theories of conflict have implication for sociopolitical development of every country including Ghana and if critically examined can
promote peace and sustainable development.

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