PLAXIS 3D

Reference Manual

2013
Build 6448
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 Introduction 11

2 General information 13
2.1 Units and sign conventions 13
2.2 File handling 15
2.3 Help facilities 15

3 Input program - General overview 17

3.1 Starting the Input program 17
3.1.1 New project 17
3.1.2 Existing project 19
3.1.3 Packing a project 20
3.2 Layout of the Input program 21
3.3 Menus in the Menu bar 24
3.3.1 File menu 24
3.3.2 Edit menu 24
3.3.3 View menu 25
3.3.4 Soil menu 25
3.3.5 Structures menu 25
3.3.6 Mesh menu 26
3.3.7 Water levels menu 26
3.3.8 Phases menu 27
3.3.9 Options menu 27
3.3.10 Expert menu 27
3.3.11 Help menu 28
3.4 Input program structure - Modes 28
3.4.1 Geometry modes 28
3.4.2 Calculation modes 28
3.5 Model in the draw area 29
3.5.1 Model view - Zooming 29
3.5.2 Selecting geometry components 29
3.5.3 Model View - Visualisation settings 30
3.5.4 Model View - Orientation 32
3.5.5 Drawing in 3D 33
3.6 General information on command line 35
3.6.1 Indexing in commands 37
3.7 Explorers 38
3.7.1 Model explorer 38
3.7.2 Selection explorer 43
3.7.3 Phases explorer 43

4 Ground modelling - Soil mode 45

4.1 Adjustment of the soil contour 45
4.2 Creating boreholes 46
4.2.1 Creating new boreholes 46
4.2.2 Creating multiple boreholes 47
4.2.3 Editing boreholes 48
4.3 Soil layers 48

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4.3.1 Creating soil layers in boreholes 49

4.3.2 Defining water conditions 50
4.3.3 Initial conditions of soil 52
4.3.4 Surfaces 53
4.3.5 Generating soil stratigraphy from CPT logs 53
4.4 Importing soil layers 54

5 Modelling loads and structures - Structures mode 57

5.1 Assisting tools 57
5.1.1 Move object 57
5.1.2 Rotate object 57
5.1.3 Extrude object 58
5.1.4 Copy object - Array 60
5.2 Geometric entities 61
5.2.1 Points 61
5.2.2 Lines 61
5.2.3 Polycurves 62
5.2.4 Surfaces 67
5.2.5 Volumes 69
5.2.6 Advanced geometric modelling options 69
5.3 Loads 73
5.3.1 Point load 74
5.3.2 Line load 74
5.3.3 Surface load 75
5.4 Prescribed Displacements 76
5.4.1 Point prescribed displacement 78
5.4.2 Line prescribed displacement 78
5.4.3 Surface prescribed displacement 78
5.4.4 Contraction 79
5.5 Dynamic loading 79
5.5.1 Definition of multipliers 79
5.5.2 Harmonic signal 80
5.5.3 Signal from table 81
5.6 Structural elements 83
5.6.1 Fixed-end anchors 84
5.6.2 Beams 85
5.6.3 Node-to-node anchors 85
5.6.4 Embedded piles 86
5.6.5 Plates 88
5.6.6 Geogrids 89
5.6.7 Interfaces 89
5.7 Hydraulic conditions 93
5.7.1 Well 94
5.7.2 Line drain 94
5.7.3 Surface drain 94
5.7.4 Surface flow boundary conditions 95
5.8 Flow functions 100
5.8.1 Harmonic 101
5.8.2 Signal from table 102

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5.8.3 Linear 103

5.8.4 Flow functions in consecutive phases 104
5.9 Import structures 105

6 Material properties and material database 109

6.1 Modelling soil and interface behaviour 111
6.1.1 General tabsheet 111
6.1.2 Parameters tabsheet 117
6.1.3 Flow parameters tabsheet 133
6.1.4 Interfaces tabsheet 139
6.1.5 Initial tabsheet 144
6.2 Modelling undrained behaviour 146
6.2.1 Undrained (A) 148
6.2.2 Undrained (B) 148
6.2.3 Undrained (C) 149
6.3 Simulation of soil tests 149
6.3.1 Triaxial test 152
6.3.2 Oedometer 153
6.3.3 CRS 154
6.3.4 DSS 154
6.3.5 General 155
6.3.6 Results 156
6.3.7 Parameter optimisation 157
6.4 Material data sets for plates 164
6.4.1 Material set 164
6.4.2 Properties 165
6.5 Material data sets for geogrids 167
6.5.1 Material set 167
6.5.2 Properties 168
6.6 Material data sets for beams 169
6.6.1 Material set 169
6.6.2 Properties 170
6.7 Material data sets for embedded piles 171
6.7.1 Material set 171
6.7.2 Pile properties 172
6.7.3 Interaction properties (pile bearing capacity) 174
6.8 Material data sets for anchors 176
6.8.1 Material set 176
6.8.2 Properties 177
6.9 Assigning material data sets to geometry components 179

7 Meshing and calculations 181

7.1 Mesh generation - Mesh mode 181
7.1.1 Global settings 182
7.1.2 Local refinement 183
7.1.3 Advised mesh generation practice 184
7.1.4 View mesh 184
7.1.5 Select points for curves 185
7.2 Defining calculation phases 185

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7.2.1 Phases explorer 185

7.2.2 Order of calculation phases 187
7.2.3 Phases window 188
7.3 Types of analysis 189
7.3.1 Initial stress generation 189
7.3.2 Plastic calculation 192
7.3.3 Consolidation calculation 193
7.3.4 Fully coupled flow-deformation analysis 194
7.3.5 Safety calculation (phi/c reduction) 195
7.3.6 Dynamic calculation 197
7.3.7 Plastic nil-step 198
7.3.8 Updated mesh analysis 198
7.4 Loading type 201
7.4.1 Staged construction 201
7.4.2 Minimum pore pressure 202
7.4.3 Degree of consolidation 202
7.4.4 Target SumMsf 203
7.4.5 Incremental multipliers 203
7.5 Water pressure calculation 203
7.5.1 Calculation type 204
7.5.2 Global water level 205
7.6 Load stepping procedures 206
7.6.1 Automatic step size procedure 207
7.6.2 Load advancement - Ultimate level 207
7.6.3 Load advancement - Number of steps 209
7.6.4 Automatic time stepping (consolidation or fully coupled analysis) 210
7.6.5 Automatic time stepping (dynamics) 210
7.7 Calculation control parameters 210
7.7.1 General phase parameters 210
7.7.2 Deformation control parameters 212
7.7.3 Numerical control parameters 215
7.7.4 Water control parameters 222
7.7.5 Dynamic control parameters 223
7.7.6 Reached values 224
7.8 Water conditions 225
7.8.1 Water levels 226
7.8.2 Assigning water conditions to soil volumes 228
7.8.3 Water pressure generation and previewing 230
7.8.4 Flow boundary conditions 230
7.8.5 Precipitation 231
7.9 Geometry configuration - Staged Construction mode 233
7.9.1 Changing geometry configuration 233
7.9.2 Staged construction procedure in calculations 234
7.9.3 Changing loads 235
7.9.4 Definition of connections 235
7.9.5 Changing prescribed displacements 238
7.9.6 Reassigning material data sets 238
7.9.7 Applying volumetric strains in clusters 238
7.9.8 Prestressing of anchors 239

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7.9.9 Model conditions 239

7.10 Starting a calculation 242
7.10.1 Previewing a construction stage 242
7.10.2 Selecting points for curves 243
7.10.3 Execution of the calculation process 243
7.10.4 Aborting a calculation 243
7.10.5 Output during calculations 244
7.10.6 Selecting calculation phases for output 249
7.10.7 Adjustment to input data in between calculations 249
7.10.8 Automatic error checks 250

8 Output program - General overview 253

8.1 Layout of the output program 254
8.2 Menus in the Menu bar 254
8.2.1 File menu 255
8.2.2 View menu 255
8.2.3 Project menu 257
8.2.4 Geometry menu 258
8.2.5 Mesh menu 258
8.2.6 Deformations menu 259
8.2.7 Stresses menu 259
8.2.8 Forces menu 259
8.2.9 Tools menu 259
8.2.10 Window menu 260
8.2.11 Help menu 261
8.3 Tools in the Output program 261
8.3.1 Accessing the Output program 261
8.3.2 Exporting output data 262
8.3.3 Curves manager 263
8.3.4 Store the view for reports 263
8.3.5 Zooming the plot 264
8.3.6 Relocation and reorientation of the plot 264
8.3.7 Scaling the displayed results 264
8.3.8 Tables 265
8.3.9 Selection of results 266
8.3.10 Display type of results 266
8.3.11 Select structures 267
8.3.12 Partial geometry 268
8.3.13 Viewing results in cross sections 269
8.3.14 Miscellaneous tools 270
8.4 Display area 273
8.4.1 Legend 273
8.4.2 Modifying the display settings 274
8.5 Views in Output 276
8.5.1 Model view 276
8.5.2 Structures view 276
8.5.3 Cross section view 276
8.6 Report generation 276
8.6.1 Configuration of the document 279

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8.7 Creating animations 279

9 Results available in Output program 281

9.1 Connectivity plot 281
9.2 Deformations 281
9.2.1 Deformed mesh 282
9.2.2 Total displacements 282
9.2.3 Phase displacements 282
9.2.4 Sum phase displacements 282
9.2.5 Incremental displacements 283
9.2.6 Velocities 283
9.2.7 Accelerations 283
9.2.8 Accelerations in 'g' 284
9.2.9 Total cartesian strains 284
9.2.10 Phase cartesian strains 284
9.2.11 Incremental cartesian strains 284
9.2.12 Total strains 284
9.2.13 Phase strains 285
9.2.14 Incremental strains 285
9.3 Stresses 285
9.3.1 Cartesian effective stresses 286
9.3.2 Cartesian total stresses 286
9.3.3 Principal effective stresses 286
9.3.4 Principal total stresses 287
9.3.5 State parameters 288
9.3.6 Pore pressures 289
9.3.7 Plastic points 291
9.3.8 Fixed end anchors 292
9.3.9 Node to node anchors 292
9.3.10 Wells 292
9.3.11 Drains 293
9.4 Structures and interfaces 293
9.4.1 Deformation in structures and interfaces 293
9.4.2 Resulting forces in Beams 294
9.4.3 Resulting forces in Plates 295
9.4.4 Resulting forces in Geogrids 295
9.4.5 Resulting forces in embedded piles 296
9.4.6 Resulting force in anchors 297
9.4.7 Resulting stresses in interfaces 297

10 Curves 299
10.1 Selecting points for curves 299
10.1.1 Mesh point selection 299
10.1.2 Pre-calculation points 300
10.1.3 Post-calculation points 300
10.2 Generating curves 301
10.2.1 Load-displacement curves 302
10.2.2 Force-displacement curves 303
10.2.3 Displacement-time or force-time curves 304

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10.2.4 Stress and strain diagrams 304

10.2.5 Curves in Dynamic calculations 304
10.3 Formatting curves 307
10.3.1 Menus for curves 308
10.3.2 Editing curve data in table 309
10.3.3 Value indication 309
10.4 Formatting options 309
10.4.1 Chart settings 310
10.4.2 Curve settings 311
10.5 Regeneration of curves 312
10.6 Multiple curves in one chart 313

11 References 315

Index

Appendix A - The format required for the files to import CPT data 321

Appendix B - Summary of the creation of General water levels 323

Appendix C - Conventional and unsaturated soil behaviour in PLAXIS 325

Appendix D - Shortcuts Input program 337

Appendix E - Shortcuts Output program 339

Appendix F - Python HTTP REST API wrapper 341

Appendix G - HTTP REST API 351

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 INTRODUCTION

1 INTRODUCTION

PLAXIS 3D is a special purpose three-dimensional finite element program used to

perform deformation and stability analysis for various types of geotechnical
applications.The program uses a convenient graphical user interface that enables users
to quickly generate a geometry model and finite element mesh. Users need to be familiar
with the Windows environment, and should preferably (but not necessarily) have some
experience with PLAXIS 2D. To obtain a quick working knowledge of the main features of
PLAXIS users should work through the example problems contained in the Tutorial
Manual.
The Reference Manual is intended for users who want more detailed information about
program features. The manual covers topics that are not covered exhaustively in the
Tutorial Manual. It also contains practical details on how to use the PLAXIS program for a
wide variety of problem types. The user interface consists of two sub-programs (Input
and Output).
The Input program is a pre-processor, which is used to define the problem
geometry, to create the finite element mesh and to define calculation phases.
The Output program is a post-processor, which is used to inspect the results
of calculations in a three dimensional view or in cross sections, and to plot graphs
(curves) of output quantities of selected geometry points.
The contents of this Reference Manual are arranged according to the sub-programs and
their respective options as listed in the corresponding modes and menus. This manual
does not contain detailed information about the constitutive models, the finite element
formulations or the non-linear solution algorithms used in the program. For detailed
information on these and other related subjects, users are referred to the various
chapters and papers listed in the Scientific Manual and the Material Models Manual.

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 GENERAL INFORMATION

2 GENERAL INFORMATION

Before describing the specific features in the different parts of the PLAXIS 3D user
interface, the information given in this chapter applies to all parts of the program.

2.1 UNITS AND SIGN CONVENTIONS

It is important in any analysis to adopt a consistent system of units. At the start of the
input of a geometry, a suitable set of basic units should be selected. The basic units
comprise a unit for length, force and time. These basic units are defined in the Model
tabsheet of the Project properties window in the Input program. The default units are
meters [m] for length, kiloNewton [kN] for force and day [day] for time. Table 2.1 gives an
overview of all available units, the [default] settings and conversion factors to the default
units. All subsequent input data should conform to the selected system of units and the
output data should be interpreted in terms of the same system. From the basic set of
units, as defined by the user, the appropriate unit for the input of a particular parameter is
generally listed directly behind the edit box or, when using input tables, above the input
column. In all of the examples given in the PLAXIS manuals, the standard units are used.
Table 2.1 Available units and their conversion factor to the default units
Length Conversion Force Conversion Time Conversion
mm = 0.001 m N = 0.001 kN s (sec) = 1/86400 day
cm = 0.01 m [kN] = 1 kN min = 1/1440 day
[m] =1m MN = 1000 kN h = 1/24 day
km = 1000 m lbf (pounds force) = 0.0044482 kN [day] = 1 day
in (inch) = 0.0254 m kip = 4.4482 kN
ft (feet) = 0.3048 m
yd (yard) = 0.9144 m

For convenience, the units of commonly used quantities in two different sets of units are
listed below:
Int. system Imperial system
Basic units: Length [m] [in] or [ft]
Force [N] [lbf] or [kip]
Time [day] [day]

Geometry: Coordinates [m] [in] or [ft]

Displacements [m] [in] or [ft]

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Material properties: Young's modulus [kN/m2 ]=[kPa] [psi]=[lbf/in2 ] or [ksf]=[kip/ft2 ]

Cohesion [kN/m2 ] [psi] or [ksf]
Friction angle [deg.] [deg.]
Dilatancy angle [deg.] [deg.]
Unit weight [kN/m3 ] [lbf/cu in] or [kip/cu ft]
Permeability [m/day] [in/day] or [ft/day]

Forces & stresses: Point loads [kN] [lbf] or [kip]

Line loads [kN/m] [lbf/in] or [kip/ft]
Distributed loads [kN/m2 ] [psi] or [kip/ft2 ]
Stresses [kN/m2 ] [psi] or [kip/ft2 ]
Units are generally only used as a reference for the user but, to some extent, changing
the basic units in the Project properties window will automatically convert existing input
values to the new units. This applies to parameters in material data sets and other
material properties in the Input program. It does not apply to geometry related input
values like geometry data, loads, prescribed displacements or phreatic levels or to any
value outside the Input program. If it is the user’s intention to use a different system of
units in an existing project, the user has to modify all geometrical data manually and redo
all calculations.
The generation of a three dimensional finite element model in PLAXIS 3D is based on the
creation of a geometry model. The geometry model involves a composition of volumes,
surfaces, lines and points. Multiple vertical boreholes can be defined to determine the
soil stratigraphy at different locations. In between the boreholes the soil layer positions
are interpolated. Soil layers and ground surfaces may be non-horizontal.

Sign convention
Stresses computed in PLAXIS 3D are based on the Cartesian coordinate system shown
in Figure 2.1. In all of the output data, compressive stresses and forces, including pore
pressures, are taken to be negative, whereas tensile stresses and forces are taken to be
positive. Figure 2.1 shows the positive stress directions.

σzz
z
σzy
σzx σyz
σxz
σyy
y σxy σyx
x σxx

Figure 2.1 Coordinate system and indication of positive stress components

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 GENERAL INFORMATION

2.2 FILE HANDLING

All file handling in PLAXIS is done using a modified version of the general Windows® file
requester (Figure 2.2).

Figure 2.2 PLAXIS file requester

With the file requester, it is possible to search for files in any admissible folder of the
computer (and network) environment. The main file used to store information for a
PLAXIS project has a structured format and is named <project>.P3D, where <project> is
the project title. Besides this file, additional data is stored in multiple files in the sub-folder
<project>.P3DAT. It is generally not necessary to enter such a folder because it is not
possible to read individual files in this folder.

2.3 HELP FACILITIES

To inform the user about the various program options and features, PLAXIS 3D provides
a link in the Help menu to a digital version of the Manuals. A link is provided to the
reference document of the commands used in the program as well. Moreover, the Help
menu may be used to generate a file with software license information as stored in the
security lock (to be used for license updates and extensions). A more detailed description
of the Help menu of the Input and Output program is given in Section 3.3.11 and Section
8.2.11 respectively.
Many features are available as buttons in a toolbar. When the mouse pointer is
positioned on a button for more than a second, a short description ('hint') appears,
indicating the function of the button. Feedback from the program on the user actions is
given in the command line area. For some input parameters side panels appear to help
the user decide which value to select.

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 INPUT PROGRAM - GENERAL OVERVIEW

3 INPUT PROGRAM - GENERAL OVERVIEW

To carry out a finite element analysis using the PLAXIS 3D program, the user has to
create a three dimensional geometry model composed of points, lines, surfaces,
volumes, and other components and specify the material properties and boundary
conditions. This is done in the first two tabsheets (Geometry modes) of the Input
program. The mesh generation and the definition of the calculation phases is done in the
last three tabsheets (Calculation modes) of the Input program.

3.1 STARTING THE INPUT PROGRAM

This icon represents the Input program. At the start of the Input program the Quick
select window appears in which a choice must be made between the selection of
an existing project and the creation of a new project (Figure 3.1).

Figure 3.1 Quick select window

3.1.1 NEW PROJECT

When the Start a new project option is selected, the Project properties window appears
in which the basic model parameters of the new project can be defined. The Project
properties window contains the Project and the Model tabsheets. The Project tabsheet
(Figure 3.2) contains the project name and description and offers the possibility to select
a company logo. The Model tabsheet (Figure 3.3) contains the basic units for length,
force and time (see Section 2.1), the direction and the value of gravity, the unit weight of
water and the initial horizontal dimensions of the model. The default values can be
replaced by the current values when selecting Set as default and clicking the OK button.
A more detailed description of all these options is given below.

Project
The title, folder and the file name of the project are available in the Project group box
available in the Project tabsheet.
Title The defined title appears as a default name for the file of the

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project when it is saved.

Directory The address to the folder where the project is saved is displayed.
For a new project, there is no information shown.
File name The name of the project file is displayed. For a new project, no
information is shown.

Comments
The Comments box in the Project tabsheet gives the possibility to add some extra
comments about the project.

Company logo
Clicking the Company logo box in the Project tabsheet will open a file requester from
which the desired file can be selected. This logo can be included in the output plots.

Figure 3.2 Project properties window (Project tabsheet)

General options
The general options of the project are available in the Project tabsheet of the Project
properties window.

Units
Units for length, force and time to be used in the analysis need to be specified. These
basic units are entered in the Model tabsheet of the Project properties window (Figure
3.3).
The default units, as suggested by the program, are m (meter) for length, kN (kiloNewton)
for force and day for time. The corresponding units for stress and unit weights are listed
in the box below the basic units.
All input values should be given in a consistent set of units (Section 2.1). The appropriate

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unit of a certain input value is usually given directly behind the edit box, based on the
basic set of units.

Gravity
By default, the earth gravity acceleration, g , is set to 9.810 m/s2 , assuming the default
basic length unit is [m]. The direction of gravity coincides with the negative z -axis.
Gravity is implicitly included in the unit weights given by the user (Section 6.1).

Unit weight of water

In projects that involve pore pressures, the input of a unit weight of water is required to
determine the effective stresses and pore pressures. The water weight (γwater ) can be
entered in the Model tabsheet of the Project properties window. By default, the unit
weight of water is set to 10.00, assuming the default basic units of [kN] and [m] are used.

Contour
At the start of a new project the user needs to specify the contours of the geometry
model. The initial setting of the xmin , xmax , ymin and ymax parameters set the outer
horizontal boundaries of the geometry model. The initial view of the draw area is such
that the model dimensions are fully visible within the draw area. The aforementioned
parameters are entered in the Model tabsheet of the Project properties window. The
contour of the geometry can also be modified in the draw area when the Soil mode is
selected.

Figure 3.3 Project properties window (Model tabsheet)

3.1.2 EXISTING PROJECT

When the Input program is started, a list of the recent projects appears in the Quick
select window. In the case when a project other than the listed recent ones is required,
the Open an existing project option should be selected. As this selection is made, the
Windows® file requester (Figure 2.2) pops up. It enables the user to browse through all

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available folders and to select the desired PLAXIS project file (*.P3D). After the selection
of an existing project, the corresponding geometry is presented in the main window.
An existing PLAXIS 3D project can also be read by selecting the Open project option in
the File menu. In the file requester, the type of the file is, by default, set to 'PLAXIS 3D
files (*.P3D)'.

3.1.3 PACKING A PROJECT

The created project can be compressed using the Pack project application which
is available in the File menu of the Input program. This application can be executed
directly from the PLAXIS 3D installation folder by double clicking the corresponding file
(PackProject.exe). A shortcut to the application can be created as well.
The project to be compressed and the archive can be located using the Browse button.
The options available in the Purpose box are:
Backup All the files in the project are included in the compressed project
as well as the mesh information, phase specification and the
results of all the saved calculation steps. The extension of the
project file, indicating in which program it was created, and the
archiving date are included in the archive name.
Support Selecting this option enables including all the information
required to give support for the project at hand. Note that
support is only provided to VIP users.
Custom The user can define the information to be included in the archive.

Figure 3.4 Pack project window

The options for compression and volume size are available in the Archive
options window (Figure 3.5), displayed by clicking the button in the Purpose box.
The Content box displays the options for the information to be included in the archive is
shown. The options available are:

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Figure 3.5 Archive options window

Mesh The information related to geometry is included when the Mesh

option is selected.
Phases The options available are:
Smart When a phase is selected in the tree,
the parent phase is selected
automatically in order to provide a
consistent chain of phases.
All All the phases available in the project
are selected.
Manual Specific phases can be selected by the
user.
Results The results to be included in the archive can be selected. The
options available are:
All steps The results of all the calculation steps
are included in the archive.
Last step only The results of only the last calculation
step of each phase are included in the
archive.
Manual The results of specific calculation steps
can be selected by the user.
Note that when the Backup or the Support option is selected, the Content options are
automatically selected by the program.

3.2 LAYOUT OF THE INPUT PROGRAM

The general layout of the Input program for a new project is shown in Figure 3.6. The
main window o the Input program contains the following items:

Title bar
The name of the program and the title of the project is displayed in the title bar. Unsaved
modifications in the project are indicated by a '∗' in the project name.

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Figure 3.6 Layout of the Input program

Menu bar
The menu bar contains drop-down menus covering the options available in the Input
program.

General toolbar
The general toolbar contains buttons for general actions such as disk operations, printing
and model display arrangement. It also contains a button to start the Output program.

Hint: If the mouse is moved over a button in a toolbar, a hint about the function of
this button is displayed.

Mode tabs
The mode tabs are used to separate different modelling modes. The following tabs are
available:
Soil The soil stratigraphy is defined.
Structures The structural components of the model are defined.
Mesh The mesh properties are defined and the geometry model is
discretized and transformed to a finite element model.
Water levels Water levels are defined.
Staged construction The calculation settings are defined and the project is calculated.
For a more detailed description of the modes in the Input program see Section 3.4.

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Hint: The first two modes (Soil and Structures) are referred to as the Geometry
modes, whereas the latter three modes (Mesh, Water levels and Staged
construction) are referred to as the Calculation modes.

Draw area
The draw area is the drawing sheet on which the geometry model is created and
modified. The geometry model can be created by means of the mouse and using the
buttons available in the side toolbar. The buttons in the side toolbar vary according to the
active mode. A more detailed description on the draw area is given in Section 3.5.

Side toolbar
The buttons of the features available in the active mode are located in the side toolbar. A
hint on the function of the button is displayed when the pointer is located on it for a few
seconds. The side toolbar also contains options to select one or more objects in the draw
area.

Status bar
The status bar displays information about the location of the mouse cursor in the draw
area, the model object it is located on and a hint on snapping when a drawing tool is
selected.

Command line
PLAXIS 3D enables to carry out actions using keyboard input by typing the
corresponding commands in the command line. On the other hand, all the actions carried
out using the mouse are translated into commands. All the commands executed in the
project are displayed when the Model history tab is clicked, whereas only the commands
executed in the active session together with the program's feedback are displayed when
the Session tab is clicked.
Information about the available commands is provided when the Command reference
option of the Help menu is selected.

Explorers
Information about the model and the project is given in the explorers. The availability and
the functionality of the explorers depend on the active mode.
The explorers available in the input program are:
Selection explorer It displays the properties of the selected geometry objects and
the features assigned to them and gives the possibility to
hide/show, activate/deactivate these objects (Section 3.7.2).
Model explorer It displays the properties of all the geometry objects and the
features assigned to them in the model and gives the possibility
to hide/show, activate/deactivate these objects (Section 3.7.1).
Phases explorer It shows the list of the calculation phases and enables adding,

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inserting, deleting or modifying a calculation phase as well as the

dependencies of all calculation phases (Section 7.2.1).

Hint: Selection explorer and Model explorer are referred to as Object explorers.

3.3 MENUS IN THE MENU BAR

The menu bar of the Input program contains drop-down menus covering most options for
handling files, transferring data, viewing graphs, creating a geometry model, generating
finite element meshes and entering data in general.
The availability of the menus depends on the active mode (Section 3.4). The menus
available in the Input program are:

3.3.1 FILE MENU

New project To create a new project. In case of a new project, the Project
properties window is automatically displayed to define its
properties.
Open project To open an existing project. The file requester is displayed.
Recent projects To quickly open one of the most recent projects.
Save project To save the current project under the existing name. If a name
has not been given before, the file requester is presented.
Save project as To save the current project under a new name. The file requester
is displayed.
Pack project To compress the current project.
Close project To close the current project.
Project properties To activate the Project properties window (Section 3.1.1).
Print To print the geometry model on a selected printer.
Exit To leave the Input program.

3.3.2 EDIT MENU

Undo To restore a previous status of the geometry model (after an
input error).
Redo To redo an action that was undone.
Copy screen image To copy the model image to the Windows clipboard.
Delete To remove an object.
Select all To select all the selectable entities in a mode.
Deselect all To deselect the selected entities.

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3.3.3 VIEW MENU

Pan camera To move the view in the draw area. Note that the model is not
relocated.
Rotate camera To rotate the view in the draw area. Note that the model is not
reoriented.
Zoom in To zoom into a rectangular area for a more detailed view. After
selection, click on the location to zoom in, or indicate the zoom
area using the mouse. Click the left mouse button at a corner of
the zoom area; hold the mouse button down and move the
mouse to the opposite corner of the zoom area; then release the
button. The program will zoom into the selected area. The zoom
option may be used repetitively. Alternatively, the mouse scroll
wheel may be used for zooming.
Zoom out To restore the view to before the most recent zoom action.
Reset zoom To restore the full draw area.
Default views To change the orientation of the model to the views defined by
the program.
Explode To virtually disassemble the components of the project geometry.
This option is available only in the Calculation modes.
Implode To assemble the components of the project geometry. This
option is available only in the Calculation modes.

3.3.4 SOIL MENU

Modify soil layers To modify the soil layers in the model using the borehole facility.
Select To select boreholes and volumes in the model Section 3.5.2.
Select multiple objects To select boreholes and volumes in the model located in the
region defined using the tool Section 3.5.2.
Move object To relocate boreholes in the model.
Adjust soil contour To modify the soil contour.
Create borehole To create a new borehole.
Import soil To import predefined soil volumes.
Show material To open the material data base with material data sets.
The Soil menu is available only in the Soil mode.

3.3.5 STRUCTURES MENU

Show dynamic multipliers
To open the Dynamic multipliers window.
Select To select entities in the model. The feature is described in
Section 3.5.2.
Select multiple objects To select entities in the model located in the region defined using

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the tool Section 3.5.2.

Move object To relocate structural entities in the model Section 5.1.1.
Rotate object To rotate a selection of entities over a global axis around a
rotation point Section 5.1.2.
Extrude object To extrude a selection of entities Section 5.1.3.
Create array To create multiple copies of a selection of entities Section 5.1.4.
Create point To create a point in the model Section 5.2.1.
Create line To create a line in the model Section 5.2.2.
Create polycurve To create a a single continuous curve composed of lines and
arcs in the model Section 5.2.3.
Create surface To create a surface in the model Section 5.2.4.
Create load To create a load in the model Section 5.3.
Create prescribed displacement
To create a prescribed displacement in the model Section 5.3.
Create structure To create a structure in the model Section 5.6.
Create hydraulic conditions
To create hydraulic conditions in the model Section 5.7.
Import structures To import predefined structures composed of volumes and
surfaces.
Show materials To open the material data base with material data sets.
The Structures menu is available only in the Structures mode.

3.3.6 MESH MENU

Select To select entities in the model Section 3.5.2.
Select multiple objects To select entities in the model located in the region defined using
the tool Section 3.5.2.
Refine mesh To refine the mesh locally.
Coarsen mesh To coarsen the mesh locally.
Reset local coarseness To reset the fineness factor of the mesh locally to the default
value.
Generate mesh To generate the mesh for the defined geometry.
View mesh To display the generated mesh for the defined geometry.
Select points for curves To select points to be considered in the plots.
The Mesh menu is available only in the Mesh mode.

3.3.7 WATER LEVELS MENU

Select To select entities in the model Section 3.5.2.

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Select multiple objects To select entities in the model located in the region defined using
the tool Section 3.5.2.
Move object To relocate a user water level in the model Section 5.1.1.
Create water level To create a water level in the model.
Preview phase To preview the phase selected in the Phases explorer.
The Water levels menu is available only in the Water levels mode.

3.3.8 PHASES MENU

Edit phases To open the Phases dialog window.
Show materials To open the material data base with material data sets.
Show dynamic multipliers
To open the Dynamic multipliers window.
Show flow functions To open the Flow functions window.
The Phases menu is available only in the Water levels and Staged construction modes.

3.3.9 OPTIONS MENU

Snap to grid To enable or disable snapping to grid.
Show grid and ruler To show or hide grid and ruler.
Show cursor location To show the cursor location in the draw area.
Show local axes To show or hide local axes. Note that different colours are used
to differentiate the local axes. Red, green and blue indicate the
local axis 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
Visualization settings To modify visualisation settings. The settings of the visualization
of the program may be changed in the Visualization settings
window.

3.3.10 EXPERT MENU

Examine commands To display the commands executed in the project and to enable
their examination.
Run commands To run commands available in a log-file.
Macro library To modify and run macros. Macros can be defined and indexed
in the Macro library window, displayed as the corresponding
option is selected in the sub-menu. To run a macro click the
corresponding option in the sub-menu.
Configure remote scripting server
To specify an available port and open it for connections by local
or remote clients (Appendices F and G)
View files To display the contents of the (binary) files used in the current
project.

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3.3.11 HELP MENU

Manuals To display the manuals.
Command reference To display information about commands in the program.
Instruction movies To reach the PLAXIS TV website where instruction movies are
displayed.
Request support To send a request for support.
Update license To update the PLAXIS 3D license via e-mail.
http://www.plaxis.nl/ To reach the PLAXIS website.
Disclaimer The complete disclaimer text is displayed.
About Information about the program version and license are displayed.

3.4 INPUT PROGRAM STRUCTURE - MODES

The modelling process is completed in five modes. The mode tabs are shown in the
mode bar. The modes are separated into Geometry and Calculation modes.

3.4.1 GEOMETRY MODES

The geometric configuration of the project is defined in the Geometry modes which are
indicated by blue coloured tabs in the Input program. All the changes of geometry (such
as creation, relocation, modification or removal of entities) are only possible in the
Geometry modes. Features, such as structures (plates, beams), interfaces or loads, can
be assigned to geometric entities only in the Structures mode.
The Geometry modes are:
Soil The soil stratigraphy, the general water levels and the initial
conditions of the soil layers are defined in the Soil mode. The
features required to define the soil material and stratigraphy in
the geometry are available. A detailed description on modelling
soil stratigraphy is given in Section 4. Note that the model
contour and soil stratigraphy can only be edited in this mode.
Structures The geometric entities as well as the structural elements and
forces in the project are defined in the Structures mode. Note
that features, such as structures (plates, beams), interfaces or
loads, can be assigned to geometric entities only in the
Structures mode.

3.4.2 CALCULATION MODES

The calculation process is defined in the Calculation modes which are indicated by blue
coloured tabs in the Input program. In these modes entities cannot be created and new
features cannot be assigned to existing geometry entities. However, the properties of the
defined features (material dataset, load values) can be modified.

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The Calculation modes are:

Mesh The geometry model is discretized and transformed to a finite
element mesh in the Mesh mode. The geometric configuration
cannot be modified in this mode. The mesh should be
regenerated whenever the geometry of the project is modified.
Water levels Besides water levels generated from the water conditions
defined in the Soil mode, user water levels can be defined and
modified in this mode.
Staged construction Parts of the geometry model can be activated/deactivated and
properties can be modified. The project is calculated in the
Staged construction mode.

3.5 MODEL IN THE DRAW AREA

The draw area displays the physical model and is automatically updated after any change
in the geometry. The buttons in the toolbar located at the left side of the draw area (side
toolbar) can be used to create and modify the model. The availability of the tools depends
on the active mode. These features are described in the following chapters depending on
their function.

3.5.1 MODEL VIEW - ZOOMING

To zoom in and out of the view, scroll the middle button (wheel) of the mouse. The
location of the mouse cursor is the center of the zoom. Other options for zooming are
available in the View menu or in the toolbar.
To define a local zooming rectangle, click the Zoom in button. The zoom area must
be indicated using the mouse. Click the left mouse button at a corner of the zoom
area; hold the mouse button down and move the mouse to the opposite corner of
the zoom area; then release the button. The program will zoom into the selected
area. The zoom option may be used repetitively.
To restore the view to the one before the most recent zoom action, click the Zoom
out button or select the corresponding option in the View menu.
To restore the original view, click the Reset zoom button or select the corresponding
option in the View menu.

3.5.2 SELECTING GEOMETRY COMPONENTS

When the Selection tool is active, a geometry component may be selected
by clicking once on that component in the geometry model. Multiple selection is
possible by holding down the <Ctrl> key on the keyboard while selecting the desired
components.
In addition to selecting geometry components one by one by using the Selection
tool, several geometry components can be selected at once by using the Select
multiple objects tool. A rectangle can be drawn in the draw area by clicking on the first
corner of the desired rectangle and moving the cursor while holding down the mouse
button. After release of the mouse button, all visible geometry components in this

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rectangle will be selected.

The order in which the rectangle is created influences the selection type. Drawing from
the upper left corner to the lower right corner selects all components that fall completely
inside the rectangle. Drawing from the lower right corner to the upper left corner selects
all components of which parts fall inside the rectangle.
It is also possible to select multiple geometry components of one type (for example
points, lines or surfaces) or multiple structural elements of one type (for example
node-to-node anchors, beams or plates) at once by selecting the desired sub-tool from
the menu that appears when the Select rectangle button is clicked.

Hint: Right clicking can be used to select entities in the model. After right clicking
an entity or a multiple selections of entities either in the draw area or
explorers, a menu appears displaying the name of the selection and different
options depending on the selection. Clicking the name of the object in the
menu copies it to clipboard. The copied name can be used in the command
line (Section 3.6).

3.5.3 MODEL VIEW - VISUALISATION SETTINGS

The general settings of the view are arranged in the Visualization settings window, which
consists of two tabsheets where the view options and the default visibilities can be
defined.

Hint: The Visualization settings window is displayed as the corresponding option is

selected in the Options menu.

View options
The display of the supporting tools (symbol, grid, global axes, etc.) in the view and their
presence in the draw area is defined in the View tabsheet of the Visualization settings
window.
Symbol size: The size of the symbols is defined in the Symbol size dialog box. The
default values are as shown in Figure 3.7. These values can be used as a reference to
get the preferred display.
Grid: The grid spacing and the number of intervals are available in the Grid dialog box.
To display the grid and ruler select the corresponding option in the Options menu. Points
indicating the grid are shown in the rulers which are displayed at the mouse cursor when
a drawing tool is selected.
Global axes: The availability, the display and the origin of the global axis in the draw
area are defined in the Global axes box.
3D view: The view of the model can be arranged according to the selected option in the
Visualization settings window. The options available are:

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Figure 3.7 View options for draw area

Most applicable The perspective view of the model is displayed only when the
corresponding option is selected as default orientation (Section
3.5.4). For the other default view options the objective view of
the model is displayed.
Always perspective The perspective view of the model is displayed regardless of the
options selected as default orientation (Section 3.5.4). The
perspective view mimics real life such as closer objects appear
larger than far away objects, and parallel lines vanish toward the
horizon.
Always objective The model will always be displayed such that two same-size
objects will appear the same size no matter how far apart they
are from each other or from the camera.

Default visibilities
The default visibility of the objects in the model can be defined in the Visibility tabsheet
(Figure 3.8).
The available options are:
The objects are displayed in full opacity. For individual objects in the model, right
click the object then click Show.
The objects are displayed in 70 percent opacity (30 percent transparent). For
individual objects in the model, right click the object, point to Custom and then click
Show 70%.
The objects are displayed in 30 percent opacity (70 percent transparent). For
individual objects in the model, right click the object, point to Custom and then click
Show 30%.
The objects are displayed as wireframes. For individual objects in the model, right
click the object, point to Custom and then click Show as wireframe.
The objects are made completely invisible (hidden). For individual objects in the

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Figure 3.8 Visibility of objects

model, right click the object then click Hide.

The default visibility of an object (or group of objects) is indicated by the letter 'A' in the
explorers. The default values for visualisation settings are shown in Figure 3.7 and Figure
3.8.
The settings defined in this tabsheet will be the default for the entities in the draw area.
However the settings can be modified by right-clicking on the entity either in the draw
area or in Object explorers (Section 3.7). The view can be shown or hidden by selecting
the corresponding option. More options on the view are available under the Custom
option in the right mouse button menu.

3.5.4 MODEL VIEW - ORIENTATION

The orientation of the view of the model can be changed to achieve better examination by
either using the default view options or by panning or rotating the view.

Default view options

Default views are available both in the View menu and in the general toolbar.

Figure 3.9 Default view options

The Movement limitation window pops up as one of the default views, except the first
(Perspective view), is selected. The movement limitation simplifies defining three
dimensional geometry. The movement limitation is cancelled by clicking on the
Perspective view button. Definition of geometry is described in detail in Section 3.5.5.

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Non-default views
The model in the draw area can be panned or rotated using the left and the middle
mouse buttons. The options are available either as buttons in the general toolbar or as
options in the View menu.
Click the Pan camera button to pan holding the left mouse button pressed. To rotate
the view, keep the <Ctrl> key pressed while dragging the view.
Click the Rotate camera button to rotate holding the left mouse button pressed. To
pan the view, keep the <Ctrl> key pressed while dragging the view.

3.5.5 DRAWING IN 3D
Defining 3D geometry using mouse input is a difficult task considering the fact that the
location in the direction perpendicular to the view cannot be precisely defined. This part
of the manual introduces the tools used in PLAXIS 3D to enable drawing in 3D. The
drawing procedure is illustrated with an example.

Hint: Instruction movies describing definition of geometry in 3D are available on

PLAXIS TV (www.youtube.com/user/PLAXISTV).

The drawing tools available in the side toolbar of the Geometry modes enable defining
the geometry of the model. When one of the drawing tools is selected, the location of the
mouse cursor in the draw area is displayed in the status bar.

Default movement limitation

While defining geometry, it is possible to move either in a plane or in the direction of an
axis perpendicular to the plane.
When a new project is created, the program, by default, enables movement in the x − y
plane located at z=0. Note that only the x− and y − coordinates change in the Cursor
location indicator.
Holding the <SHIFT> key pressed while moving the mouse, relocates the cursor in the
z− direction. While doing this, the x− and y − coordinates remain the same, only the z−
coordinate changes in the Cursor location indicator.

Defining movement limitation

Default views can be used as an assisting tool to define geometry in 3D. When one of the
default views is selected, the model view is re-oriented and the Movement limitation
window pops up.
In the Movement limitation window, one of the options available in the drop-down menu
can be selected as movement plane. There are two options of movement in the direction
perpendicular to the movement plane.
(x/y/z)-coordinate is fixed
The location of the plane in the axis perpendicular to it should be
defined in the Movement plane box. As the value is defined, the

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coordinate will be fixed at that value while moving in the draw

area. The coordinate is added in the Available drop-down menu.
More than one location in the perpendicular axis can be defined.
<SHIFT> moves in the x/y/z-direction
The movement will be restricted to the perpendicular direction
when the <SHIFT> key is pressed while moving in the draw area.
The movement limitation can be reset to default by clicking the Free movement (default)
button in the Movement limitation window or by clicking the Perspective view button in the
general toolbar.
The drawing process in 3D is illustrated in the following example:
• Create a new project.
• Activate the Structures mode by clicking the corresponding tab in the Modes menu.
Click the Create line button in the side toolbar of the Structures mode.
• Click at (0 0 0) in the draw area to define the first point.
• Move the mouse cursor in the draw area. Note that only the x and y coordinates
change in the cursor position indicator. Click at (0 10 0) to define the second point.
Click the Back view button in the general toolbar. The model view will be re-oriented
showing the back side of the model. The Movement limitation window pops (Figure
3.10). Note that the y-coordinate is fixed to 10.

Figure 3.10 Movement limitation window for Back view

• Click at (0 10 4) to define the third point.

Click the Left view button in the general toolbar. The model view will be re-oriented
showing the left side of the model. The Movement limitation window pops. Select
the SHIFT moves in x-direction option. Keep the <SHIFT> key pressed while moving
in the draw area. The values corresponding to y and z do not change.
• Release the <SHIFT> key at x = 12 and click at (12 0 4).
Click the Perspective view button in the general toolbar. The Movement limitation
window is closed.

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• Click at the commandline. Note that the first point in the current line segment is
already defined. Type 0 0 0 to define the last point and press <Enter>.
• Right-click to finalize the process. The resulting geometry is shown in Figure 3.11.

Figure 3.11 Resulting geometry of the illustration example

Hint: The Movement limitation window can be closed by selecting the Perspective
view option of the default views.

3.6 GENERAL INFORMATION ON COMMAND LINE

At the bottom of the input application, a command line panel is available. The command
line provides an alternative way of executing operations, by entering text commands. In
fact, all operations in the input application generate a text command, that is sent to an
interpreter, before being processed.
A feedback panel is situated above the command line panel. Here, the executed
commands are shown, together with the feedback of the command. Successful
commands return green colored feedback, consisting of details on newly generated
geometry or elements. Erroneous commands return red colored feedback, containing an
error report.
A text command consists of a command name, followed by a number of parameters.
Together, they constitute the signature of the command. The number and type of
parameters depends on the particular command, and can be zero or larger.
Commands can be divided into two types:
Global commands Operate on global objects (like the project or the geometry) that
are not necessarily named in the command, and may or may not
have parameters. An example is the undo command.
Target commands Operate on specifically named (target) objects, such as
geometric entities and materials. An example of such command
is the set command.
Command names consist of a simple string. Many commands have a short name in
addition to the standard, explicit long name (for example point and pt). Any command

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name can be prefixed with one underscore in order to distinguish it from any objects
bearing the same name (the commands undo and _undo are identical). The application
will always generate the commands with an underscore prefix. It is safe to omit the prefix
in hand written code. There are also commands that start with two underscores. These
are mostly intended for debugging, troubleshooting or advanced automation purposes.
The underscores are in those cases not optional.
Command parameters can be of two different types:
References to objects Represented by strings containing the name of an object. The
names of such objects may not start with an underscore (_).
Value Can be of many data types, such as strings, integers, floating
point numbers and enumerations. String value parameters must
be between single (') or double (") quotes, and may start and end
with either one, two or three of these quotes. Examples of valid
string value parameters are: "hello", "hello 'world'!", "Young's
"modulus"". Floating point numbers must always use the dot
decimal notation, even on systems that normally use comma as
decimal separator. Enumerations may be represented either by a
string value, or by the corresponding integer index of that value.
In most cases where a value is expected, a property of that type
is also allowed - this is indicated by a trailing single quote. For
example when trying to set the x coordinate of a point, this can
be done as set point_1.x 5.2 or as set point_1.x point_2.x.
In some cases it is allowed to place parameters between parentheses, which is indicated
by a trailing single quote in the parameter signature of a command. For example a point
can be made with the command point 1 2 3 or as point (1 2 3). The parentheses are
optional and are mostly useful for legibility, but may in some cases be necessary in order
to distinguish between different types of calls to a given method.
In PLAXIS 3D, a global command is included that shows information on the commands
that can be executed: cms. This command lists the signatures of all commands available
in PLAXIS 3D.
As an example, the signature for the delete command is shown here:

delete (del)

Material'

<1,...: Feature '>'

<1,...: Point' |Line' |StructuralSurface' |Volume'|Polycurve' >'
<1,...: Borehole>'
Soillayer

In the first line, the command name and its abbreviation are shown. Each of the following
lines shows a different set of parameters that can be used with this command. In this
example there are five different signatures for the delete command. The delete command
can be either used to delete a single material (referenced by its name), a set of features,
a set of geometric elements, a set of boreholes, or a single soil layer. Note that the
signatures do not allow a feature, a geometric element and a borehole to be deleted in

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one single call of delete.

Below are several examples of the use of the delete command:
• delete SoilMat_1
• delete Volume_1 Volume_2
• delete (Volume_1 Volume_2)
Another example is the cylinder command:

cylinder (cyl)

Number' Number'

Number' Number' Integer'

Number' Number' Integer' <Coords: Number' Number' Number'>'

Number' Number' Integer' <Coords: Number' Number' Number'>' <Coords: Number' Number' Number'>'

If we take a closer look at the bottommost line, the signature consists of two numbers, an
integer value and two sets of coordinates. The first two parameters represent the radius
and height parameters, respectively. Then an integer value representing the accuracy of
the cylinder is expected, followed by the position of the cylinder, and a vector
representing the orientation of the cylinder.
An example of the use of the cylinder command is:
• cylinder 3 12 8 (0 0 0) (0 0 1)
• cylinder 3 12 8 (point_1.x point_1.y point_1.z) (0 0 1)
An extended overview and description of all available commands is accessible via the
Help menu in the user interface of the PLAXIS 3D Input program.

3.6.1 INDEXING IN COMMANDS

Array indexing syntax can be used in the command line. This consists of square brackets
behind an object name, followed by either an integer or a string and a matching closing
bracket. Integer indexing is zero-based and works on any listable object, i.e. any object
on which you can fire a filter or tabulate command. Both positive and negative numbering
is used in indexing. The positive numbering starts at the top of the list, in which 0 is the
first item from the table, while negative numbering starts from the bottom and goes up the
list. As an example:

>line (1 2 0)(5 1 0)(5 3 0)(4 7 0) # Create points with coordinates specified in the brackets and lines connecting them

>tabulate Points "x y z" # List the created points and their coordinates

Object x y z

Point_1 1 2 0

Point_2 5 1 0

Point_3 5 3 0

Point_4 4 7 0

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>move points[0] -1 -2 0 # Relocate point_1 to (0 0 0)

>move points[-1] -1 -2 0 # Relocate the last added point, point_4 to (3 5 0)

>move points[-4] 1 2 0 # Relocate the first added point, point_1 to (1 2 0)

Note that indexing is done according to the order of creation of the geometric entities.
The indexing of features such as soil, structural elements, loads or prescribed
displacements, is NOT done according to the order of their assignment to geometry but
according to the order of creation of the geometric entities they are assigned to.

3.7 EXPLORERS

Explorers display information about the physical model, the calculation phases and their
configuration.
Model explorer: Information related to all the objects in the physical model is
given.
Selection explorer: Information related to the object (or group of objects) selected in
the draw area is given. From a group selection, only the
information valid for all the objects in the group is displayed.
Phases explorer: A list of the calculation phases defined in the project is displayed.
The Phases explorer is available only in Calculation modes.
However, as phases are defined only in the Phase definition
modes, it is greyed out in the Mesh mode.

Hint: Model explorer and Selection explorer are referred to as Object explorers.

3.7.1 MODEL EXPLORER

The Model explorer displays information related to the physical entities composing the
model. It is automatically updated as the model is modified (Figure 3.7.1).
The information displayed in the Object explorers varies according to the active mode.
Information related to geometry, such as location coordinates, is given in all modes,
however it can only be edited in Geometry modes.
The visibility of the model components is indicated and can be modified in the Object
explorers in all the modes of the program. However, activation/deactivation is possible
only in the Staged construction mode.
The information displayed in the Object explorers depends on the active mode. The
information is grouped under different categories.
Attributes library: The Attributes library contains global attributes that have been
defined and that have been (can be) assigned to individual objects. An example of such
an attribute is a material data set with properties. Other types of attributes are functions
that describe time-dependent conditions, such as Dynamic multipliers or Flow functions.
These functions can be assigned to dynamic loads and hydraulic boundary conditions,
respectively, in order to describe the variation of a condition with time. Finally, the

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a. Structures mode b. Staged construction mode

Figure 3.12 Layout of the Model explorer in different modes

Attributes library contains the set of water levels that have been created from the
information in the boreholes, the soil clusters and the user-defined water levels.
Dynamic multipliers All the displacement and load dynamic multipliers defined in the
project are listed under Dynamic multipliers.
Flow functions All the flow functions defined in the project are listed under Flow
functions.
Materials All the material sets assigned to the entities in the model are
listed under Materials. The identification and the colour
representing the material data set are displayed.
Water levels All the water levels created in the model are listed.
Borehole water levels The water levels generated according to
the water conditions defined in the
boreholes are listed.
User water levels The water levels created in the Water
levels mode are listed.
Note that the Water levels subtree is available only in the
Calculation (green) modes.
Since these attributes are Global, any change in such an attribute will affect the model as
a whole. If it is the intention to change an attribute only in a particular calculation phase, it
is advised to duplicate the attribute using the corresponding option in the right-hand
mouse menu, and make the change in the copy.
Geometry: All the geometric entities created in the model are listed under Geometry.
Note that when a geometric entity is created, its sub-entities are automatically created by
the program. When a line is created, the first (starting) point and the second (last) point
are automatically created. New geometric entities are also automatically created when a
geometric entity is decomposed.

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The sub-groups available are:

Points The points created in the model are listed. For each point, the
coordinates of its location, the features assigned and their
properties are given. Features such as point load, prescribed
point displacement and fixed-end anchors can be assigned to
points. More information on points is given in Section 5.2.1.
Lines The lines created in the model are listed. For each line the
coordinates of its first and second points, the features assigned
and their properties are given. Features such as beam,
embedded pile, line load, line prescribed displacement and
node-to-node anchor can be assigned to lines. More information
on lines is given in Section 5.2.2.
Surfaces The surfaces created in the model are listed. For each surface
the coordinates of its reference point, the local coordinate axes,
the features assigned and their properties are given. The flat
surfaces created by either using the Create surface tool or by
decomposing imported volumes or surfaces are listed as
polygons. The imported surfaces are listed as surfaces.
Features such as plates, surface loads or surface prescribed
displacements can be assigned to surfaces. More information on
surfaces is given in Section 5.2.4.
Volumes The volumes created or imported in the Structures mode are
listed. For each volume the coordinate of its reference point and
the material data set assigned to it is given. Note that the Import
structural volume option is available only for PLAXIS VIP. More
information on volumes is given in Section 5.2.5.
Soil volumes The soil volumes generated according to the soil layers in
boreholes or imported in the Soil mode (Section 4) and the
material data sets assigned are given. Note that the Import soil
volume option is available only for PLAXIS VIP.
Polycurves The polycurves created in the model are listed. For each
polycurve the sections composing it and their properties as well
as the components of the vectors defining the Direction axes of
the polycurve are given. More information on polycurves is given
in Section 5.2.3.

Hint: In the Geometry modes, coordinates indicating the location of geometric

entities are given in the Model explorer. It is possible to relocate the points by
changing these coordinates. Note that this is not possible in the Calculation
modes, where modification of geometry is not possible (Section 3.4).
» In the Calculation modes, the Fineness factor is given indicating the local
refinement of the mesh at the geometric entity. The mesh can be refined or
coarsened locally by modifying this value.

Boreholes: Under the Borehole heading, all the boreholes created in the model are

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listed. For each borehole, the x and y coordinates of each borehole and the Head level
are given.
Information about boreholes is available in the Model explorer only in the Geometry
modes. The values of coordinates and Head can be modified in the corresponding cells.
Connections: All the connections created explicitly by the user in the Staged
construction mode are listed. This option is available in the Model explorer only in the
Phase definition modes.
Beams: All the beams created in the model are listed. Information about the assigned
material is given for each beam.
Embedded piles: All the embedded piles created in the model are listed. Information
about the assigned material and the connection type is given for each embedded pile.
Soils: All the soil created in the model are listed. Information about the assigned
material, volumetric strain and water conditions is given for each soil.
Plates: All the plates created in the model are listed. Information about the assigned
material is given for each plate.
Geogrids: All the geogrids created in the model are listed. Information about the
assigned material is given for each geogrid.
Surface loads: All the surface loads created in the model are listed. The distribution
and the values of the load components can be defined.
Contractions: All the contractions created in the model are listed. The distribution and
the values of the contractions can be defined.
Surface prescribed displacement: All the surface prescribed displacements created in
the model are listed. The distribution and the values of the prescribed displacement
components can be defined.
Line loads: All the line loads created in the model are listed. The distribution and the
values of the load components can be defined.
Line prescribed displacement: All the line prescribed displacements created in the
model are listed. The distribution and the values of the prescribed displacement
components can be defined.
Point loads: All the point loads created in the model are listed. The values of the load
components can be defined.
Point prescribed displacement: All the point prescribed displacements created in the
model are listed. The values of the prescribed displacement components can be defined.
Interfaces: All the positive and negative interfaces created in the project are listed.
Either the material of the adjacent soil or a new material can be assigned. Permeability
condition can be specified.
Node-to-node anchors: All the node-to-node anchors created in the model are listed.
Information about the assigned material is given for each node-to-node anchor.
Fixed-end anchors: All the fixed-end anchors created in the model are listed.
Information about the assigned material is given for each fixed-end anchor. The
components and the equivalent length can be defined for each fixed-end anchor.

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Surface drains: All the surface drains created in the model are listed. The head can be
defined for each surface drain.
Surface groundwater flow BC's: All the surface groundwater flow boundary conditions
created in the model are listed. Information about the assigned behaviour (Seepage,
Closed or Head), is given for each boundary condition. The assigned behaviour can be
changed by selecting the option in the Behaviour drop-down menu.
Wells: All the wells created in the model are listed. The behaviour (Extraction,
Infiltration), the discharge (|qwell |) and the minimum head (hmin ) can be defined for each
well.
Line drains: All the line drains created in the model are listed. The head can be defined
for each line drain.
Model conditions: The general boundary conditions of the model as a whole for each
calculation phase can be specified in the Model conditions subtree in Model explorer.
The conditions at the extremities of the model are considered. This makes it possible to
make a quick selection of general boundary conditions that apply to the model as a
whole. The Model conditions subtree is available in the Calculation modes in the Input
program. Modification of the information given in the Model conditions subtree is possible
only in the Water levels and Staged construction modes. Note that any change in the
model boundaries is applied only to the phase selected in Phases explorer.
The options available are:
Deformations A set of general fixities is automatically applied to the boundaries
of the geometry model for the selected calculation phase. More
information on default fixities is given in Section 7.9.9. The
default general fixities are removed when the corresponding
option is set to False. In that case it is required to set the
appropriate boundary conditions manually.
Dynamics The model conditions for a dynamic analysis can be defined at
the extreme boundaries of the model. The options available are
None and Viscous. Besides the boundary conditions the
relaxation coefficient (C1 and C2 ) can be defined for each phase.
For more information on boundary conditions for Dynamic
calculations see Section 7.9.9.
GroundwaterFlow The model conditions for a groundwater flow calculation, a
consolidation analysis or a fully coupled flow-deformation
analysis can be defined at the extreme boundaries of the model.
The options available are Open and Closed.
Precipitation This option can be used to specify a general vertical recharge or
infiltration (q) due to weather conditions to all boundaries that
represent the ground surface. Other types of flow boundary
conditions can be defined using the corresponding feature in the
Structures mode (Section 5.7).
Water The global water level for a selected calculation phase can be
assigned in the Water subtree under Model conditions in Model
explorer. More information of the usage of the global water level
is given in Section 7.5.2.

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3.7.2 SELECTION EXPLORER

The Selection explorer displays information about the selection made in the draw area.
For multiple objects, the common information is displayed. The structure of the Selection
explorer is the same as the one of the Model explorer.

3.7.3 PHASES EXPLORER

The Phases explorer (Figure 3.13) is available in the Calculation modes in the Input
program. It visualises the order of the calculation phases and it provides information for
each calculation phase (e.g calculation status, calculation type, loading type, etc.)
Modification of the information given in the Phases explorer is possible only in the Water
levels and Staged construction modes. More information on the Phases explorer is given
in Section 7.2.1.

Figure 3.13 Phases explorer

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4 GROUND MODELLING - SOIL MODE

The soil stratigraphy is defined in the soil mode using the Borehole feature of the
program. When a new project is created, the soil contour defined in the Project properties
window is displayed in the draw area.

Figure 4.1 View of a new project in the Soil mode

4.1 ADJUSTMENT OF THE SOIL CONTOUR

The model contour can be defined using the options available in the side toolbar.
To modify the model contour click the Adjust soil contour button. The contour is
defined in the draw area. The buttons in the expanded menu can be used to modify the
model contour.
Click the Move contour points/lines button and drag any point or line in the contour
to a new location.
Click the Insert contour points button, click the contour where a new point is to be
defined and drag it to the desired position of the new point. The soil contour will be
modified accordingly.
Click the Delete contour points button and click the contour point that is to be
deleted.
Besides the expanded menu, the Surface points window pops up displaying the
coordinates of the points defining the model contour. Points defining the contour can be
relocated by entering the coordinates of the new location in the table. The options to
move, insert and delete contour points are available in the menu appearing as the

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contour point number is right clicked in the table. A more detailed description on Surface
points window is given in the Section 5.2.4.

4.2 CREATING BOREHOLES

Boreholes are locations in the draw area at which the information on the position of soil
layers and the water table is given. If multiple boreholes are defined, PLAXIS 3D will
automatically interpolate between boreholes, and derive the position of the soil layers
from the borehole information. Each defined soil layer is used throughout the whole
model contour. In other words, all soil layers appear in all boreholes. The top and the
bottom boundaries of the layers may vary through boreholes, making it possible to define
non-horizontal soil layers of non-uniform thickness as well as layers that locally have a
zero thickness (Figure 4.5).

4.2.1 CREATING NEW BOREHOLES

To create a borehole click Create borehole and click on its location in the draw area.
The Modify soil layers window pops up (Figure 4.2). Boreholes and soil layers can
be modified in this window.

Figure 4.2 Modify soil layers window

To add new boreholes in the Modify soil layers window:

• Click Boreholes (lower button) and select the Add option. The Add window pops up
(Figure 4.3).
• In the Add window define the position of the new borehole (x and y coordinates).
• Define the source borehole to copy initial layer boundaries from. By default, the

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source borehole is the nearest one.

Figure 4.3 Add borehole window

Hint: A warning message appears in the Modify soil layers window when multiple
boreholes are located at the same position.

4.2.2 CREATING MULTIPLE BOREHOLES

To create multiple copies of existing boreholes organized in a rectangular pattern:
• In the Modify soil layers window, click Boreholes and select the Add array option.
The Add borehole array window pops up (Figure 4.4).

Figure 4.4 Add borehole array window

• To select the source borehole click the corresponding check box. The thickness of
the layers in the new borehole is equal to that in the source borehole.
• Select the appropriate option in the Shape drop-down menu.

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• Define the number of columns (and/or rows) and the distance between them. A
detailed description of the Array feature is given in Section 5.1.4.

4.2.3 EDITING BOREHOLES

Boreholes are named consecutively by the program. Boreholes can be renamed in the
Model explorer and in its soil column in the Modify soil layers window. The name should
start with a letter and should be composed of either letters or digits. No special character
besides '_' is accepted. The location of a borehole can be changed by specifying the
coordinates of the new location in its soil column in the Modify soil layers window.
To relocate a borehole in the Draw area:
Click the Move borehole button in the side toolbar.
• In the draw area select the borehole and drag and drop it to the new location.
The interpolation of layer boundaries is automatically adapted according to the new
borehole position.
The display of the boreholes in the Modify soil layers window is managed using the
options in the menu appearing as the Boreholes button is clicked.
Select: The boreholes to be displayed in the Modify soil layers window
are selected.
Show all: All the created boreholes are shown.
Hide all: All the created boreholes are hidden.
Invert visibility: The view of the Modify soil layers can be inverted to selected or
unselected boreholes.
Sort by: The appearance order of the boreholes in the Modify soil layers
window can be arranged according to the Creation order, Name
and X position.

4.3 SOIL LAYERS

The first borehole, created at the start of a new project, contains no soil layers. Soil layers
in boreholes are defined in the Modify soil layers window.
The Modify soil layers window contains the following items (Figure 4.2):
Soil column: Graphs of all boreholes with indication of their locations, water
head, layer boundary levels and soil material.
Upper buttons: Buttons to add, insert or delete soil layers.
Soil layers tabsheet: Table showing the boundaries and the materials of the soil
layers.
Water tabsheet: Table showing the water conditions in every layer and the top
and bottom pressure values per borehole in each layer boundary.
Initial conditions tabsheet:
Table showing the name, material model and the initial stress
condition parameters, OCR , POP , K 0x and K 0y for all soil

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layers.
Surfaces tabsheet: This tabsheet enables the import of predefined top and bottom
soil surfaces.
Field data tabsheet: This tabsheet enables the import of CPT measurements. More
information on the usage of CPT logs to generate the soil
stratigraphy is given in Section 4.3.5.
Bottom buttons: Buttons to add, select, visualize or sort boreholes, to open the
material database and to accept (OK ) the soil layers. Pressing
Ok closes the Modify soil layers window.

4.3.1 CREATING SOIL LAYERS IN BOREHOLES

Soil layers are created using the top buttons in the Soil layers tabsheet.
Add: To add a new layer below the lowest layer in the model.
Insert: To insert a new layer above the selected one.
The thickness of the new layers is zero length units by default. The thickness of the top
soil layer in a borehole can be changed by modifying its Top and Bottom boundaries. The
top boundary of an underlying layer is defined by the lower boundariy of the overlying
layer. So, to change the thickness of such a layer, the bottom boundary must be changed.
If a new borehole should contain a layer that does not exist yet, this additional soil layer
may be added using the Add or Insert buttons. In principle, this action creates a new soil
layer in all existing boreholes, but the new layer has a zero thickness in all the boreholes
that have been defined earlier to ensure that existing layer distributions are not influenced
by this action. In the current borehole the layer thickness can be modified according to
the description given in the previous paragraph.
An existing layer may be removed by right-clicking it, either in the tabsheet or in the Soil
column, and select the option Delete in the appearing menu. It should be noted that the
layer will be deleted in all the boreholes of the project. If a layer is selected and the Delete
button is clicked, the Delete soil layer window will appear (Figure 4.5)

Figure 4.5 Delete soil layer window

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If a certain layer does not exist in the current borehole but it exists in other boreholes, it
should be eliminated only in the soil column of the current borehole by setting its bottom
level equal to its top level.

Assigning soil properties

Different soil layers will have different properties. Individual layer properties can be
defined in material data sets. Material data sets are contained in the material database.
There are several ways to assign material properties to a soil layer in the Modify soil
layers window. You can:
• Click the Materials button. The Material sets window pops up. Drag and drop the
material to the corresponding layer either in the tabsheet or in the soil column.
• Click the material either in the Soil layers tabsheet or in the Initial conditions
tabsheet. Select the material from the drop-down menu of defined material sets.
• Right-click the soil layer in the tabsheet, point to Set material and then click the
material you want to assign.
The colour of the layer in the geometry indicates the material set assigned. The
procedure of assigning material datasets to soil layers should be repeated until each layer
has its appropriate data set. The names and colours of the material data sets for all
layers are shown in the Soil layers tabsheet. If the material data set of a layer is changed
in a borehole, the same change will be applied to the same layer in all other boreholes.
To assign material to soil layers in the draw area in the Soil mode:
Click the Show materials button in the side toolbar. The Material sets window pops
up.
• Drag and drop the material to the corresponding layer.

4.3.2 DEFINING WATER CONDITIONS

Groundwater and pore pressures play an important role in the soil behaviour. PLAXIS is
based on effective stress principles, in which total soil stresses are divided into effective
stresses (in the grain skeleton) and pore pressures (in the pores of the soil). This requires
a proper definition of water conditions. In many cases groundwater flow can be neglected
and the (steady-state) pore pressure distribution in the ground is more or less known from
in-situ soil investigation data. In this case the definition of water conditions can be
conveniently related to the creation of boreholes, which forms the basis for a direct
generation of pore pressures. In situations where groundwater flow occurs, the pore
pressure distribution is not necessarily a priori known, and it may be required to perform a
groundwater flow calculation in order to generate the pore pressures in the soil. More
details on groundwater flow calculations and the definition of hydraulic boundary
conditions is given in Section 5.7. The current section deals with the definition of water
conditions in boreholes for a direct generation of pore pressures.
The water conditions of the soil layers can be defined for each borehole in the Water
tabsheet by selecting one of the options available in the drop-down menu for each soil
layer. There are two columns for each borehole showing the values of the pore pressure
distribution at the top (ptop ), and the bottom (pbottom ) of each soil layer. Note that pressure
is considered to be negative. The options for water conditions are:

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Head: The pore pressures are generated according to the specified

head (phreatic level or water level) in each borehole. The
generated pore pressure distribution is visualized in the soil
column of the borehole. A head level lower than the top level of
the layer, is indicated by a positive value (suction) at the top
(ptop ). However, positive pore stresses are not shown.
Hydrostatic: The pressure value at the top boundary of the soil layer is to be
defined. The program will calculate the pore pressure distribution
in the soil layer accordingly, taking into account the unit weight of
water.
Interpolate: It enables linear vertical interpolation of the pore pressure
distribution of the layer from the pressure in the layer above to
the pressure in the layer below the current layer.
Dry: To remove water pressures from a soil layer select the Dry
option. The value of pore pressure at the upper level of the layer
(ptop ) and the value of the pore pressure at the bottom level of
the layer (pbottom ) will be zero and no pressure will be generated
in the layer.
User-defined: Positive and negative values can be assigned to the top and
bottom levels of the soil layer. The pore pressure distribution in
the soil layer is interpolated linearly from these values. However,
in the borehole only negative pressure values will be visualised.
Note that PLAXIS can deal with positive pore water stresses
(suction) in calculations. Defining a positive value at the top of
the layer and a negative value at the bottom means that there is
a phreatic level in the layer.

Figure 4.6 Water tabsheet of the Modify soil layers window

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The program generates water levels according to the information provided in the Water
tabsheet. Water levels can represent external water levels as well as phreatic levels in the
soil. The water level created according to the Head levels in the boreholes is
automatically assigned as Global water level in the calculation phases. A more detailed
description is given in Section 7.8.
By default, positive pore water stress (suction) in the unsaturated zone above the phreatic
level is ignored. However, PLAXIS can deal with suction in calculations. This requires the
selection of an appropriate soil water retention curve in the material data set (Section
6.1.3). It also requires that suction is allowed during the calculations (Section 7.7.4).

4.3.3 INITIAL CONDITIONS OF SOIL

The initial stresses in a soil body are influenced by the weight of the soil, the water
conditions and the history of its formation. This stress state can be generated using
either the K0 procedure or Gravity loading.
If the K0 procedure is used, proper K 0 values need to be specified for all layers i.e. the
initial ratio between horizontal effective stress and vertical effective stress. Two K0 values
can be specified, one for the x -direction and one for the y -direction.
If a material is overconsolidated, information is required about the Over-Consolidation
Ratio (OCR), at least when advanced soil models are used. It is also possible to specify
the initial stress state using the Pre-Overburden Pressure (Section 2.8 of the Material
Models Manual). These parameters can be entered when defining the material data sets
(Section 6.1.5).
The Initial conditions tabsheet in the Modify soil layers window offers a table where the
soil model and the parameters mentioned are shown (Figure 4.7). Double clicking one of
these values in the Initial conditions tabsheet will open the corresponding material
dataset in the material database. The generation of initial state stresses is described in
Section 7.3.1.

Figure 4.7 Initial conditions tabsheet of the Modify soil layers window

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4.3.4 SURFACES
By default, the ground level surface and the bottom layer of the soil are modelled using
the information provided by boreholes, as indicated by the From boreholes option in the
Surfaces tabsheet (Figure 4.8). The surface level between two boreholes is linearly
interpolated. Alternatively, predefined surfaces can be used to define the top and bottom
surfaces of the soil volume. In order to use predefined surfaces, the Custom option in the
Surfaces tabsheet is selected. An Import (top/bottom) soil surface window appears from
which the desired surface can be selected.

Figure 4.8 Surfaces tabsheet of the Modify soil layers window

4.3.5 GENERATING SOIL STRATIGRAPHY FROM CPT LOGS

The soil stratigraphy in a borehole can be specified using available CPT logs. PLAXIS
supports CPT data in GEF format CUR (2004). In case the data is not provided in GEF
format, PLAXIS enables importing them with the condition that they are saved in properly
formatted ASCII or CPT files. More information on the required format is given in
Appendix A.
To import field data:
• Create one or more boreholes in the model.
• Proceed to the Field data tabsheet by clicking the corresponding tab in the Modify
soil layers window.
Add field data by clicking the green plus button and select the file containing the
data in the Open Field data window. The available logs are listed in the Field data
tabsheet.

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Click the expansion button next to the borehole the stratigraphy of which is to be
created according to the imported data.
• Select the data to be considered from the Field data drop-down menu.
• Select the Interpretation method (currently only the CUR 3 layers option is available.
• Enter the minimal layer thickness (Minimal thickness option) to be considered in
layer generation to avoid multiple very thin layers. The expanded Modify soil layers
window is shown in Figure 4.9.
• Click Apply layers to subdivide the soil cluster into the layers shown in the borehole.

Figure 4.9 CPT data in the Modify soil layers window

Hint: When soil stratigraphy is generated from CPT logs the created layers will be
applied through the whole model. Boreholes can be used to modify the layer
thicknesses at their location.
» Only one CPT log can be used in a project. Generation of layers resulting
from a new CPT log will overwrite the existing ones.

4.4 IMPORTING SOIL LAYERS

The geometry of the soil can be imported from predefined files. Instead of using the
Borehole tool, the Import soil tool can be used. Note that the soil material will not be
imported. A detailed description on how geometry is imported is given in Section 5.9.

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Figure 4.10 The Import soil volumes window

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5 MODELLING LOADS AND STRUCTURES - STRUCTURES MODE

Geometric entities, structural elements and boundary conditions are defined in the
Structures mode. Click the Structures tab to switch to this mode. The soil layers created
in the Soil mode will appear in the draw area of the Structures mode according to the
default visibilities defined in the Visualization settings option on the Options mode, i.e.
somewhat transparent. Boreholes cannot be modified in the Structures mode.

5.1 ASSISTING TOOLS

The assisting tools enable modifying the geometry by changing the location or the
orientation of the object in the model or by creating higher objects with a higher
dimension (from lines to surfaces or from surfaces to volumes).

5.1.1 MOVE OBJECT

A selection can be moved in the model. To move a selection:
• Select the objects to be relocated in the model.
Click the Move object button and drag the selection to the new location.

5.1.2 ROTATE OBJECT

A selection can be rotated over a global axis around a rotation point. The Rotate object
button is activated only after one or more objects have been selected.
To rotate a selection:
Click the Rotate object button. The Rotate selection window pops up. Note that the
name of the window varies according to the selection.

Figure 5.1 Rotate object window for a line

• Define the coordinates of the rotation point. The default rotation point is the object
reference point. The rotation point can be relocated by dragging it in the draw area.

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For cases where the rotation point is not visible, it is possible to drag the rotation
point by clicking the Drag point button in the Rotate object window and dragging it in
the draw area.
• Define the rotation angles. The rotation angles are positive for counterclockwise
rotation. Alternatively, the rotation may be defined by dragging one of the points on
one of the circles.
In the draw area, the circle defined by rotation over the x -axis is marked in red colour.
The circle defined by rotation over the y -axis is marked in green colour. The circle
defined by rotation over the z -axis is marked in blue colour.

Figure 5.2 Rotation point and rotation axis for a selected line

Hint: Note that the options to rotate or pan camera do not change the orientation of
the objects in the model but only the view.

5.1.3 EXTRUDE OBJECT

Points, lines and surfaces can be extruded to create lines, surfaces and volumes
correspondingly. The Extrude object button is activated only after the selection of one or
more such geometry entities.
The graphical definition of the extrusion is possible by dragging the entity. The
coordinates defining the direction of extrusion and its magnitude will change accordingly
as the entity is dragged in the draw area. Note that the selected entity can only be
dragged in the direction defined by its normal. Holding the <Shift> key pressed while
moving the mouse enables lateral movement. For a group of selections the dragging
direction is defined by the normal of the geometry entity clicked before dragging.

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Extrusion
The extrusion of points, lines and surfaces can be defined in the Extrusion tabsheet in
the Extrude object window. As an example, the extrusion of a line is described.
To extrude a line:
• Select a line in the draw area.
Click the Extrude object button. The Extrude line window pops up (Figure 5.3).

Figure 5.3 Extrude object window for a point selection

• Define the components of the extrusion vector. The length of the extrusion vector is
automatically calculated.
• If the length of the extrusion vector is redefined, the vector components are
automatically recalculated according to their previous values and the new length.

Extrude surface - Skew

A volume can be created by extruding a surface. In addition to a normal extrusion, the
extrusion can be defined in the Skew tabsheet in the Extrude object window. Note that
the Skew tabsheet is available only when a line or a surface is extruded (Figure 5.4).

Figure 5.4 Extrude object window for a surface selection

This option enables defining the extrusion by entering the skew components in the first
and second local axis and the height of the extrusion in the direction of the third local axis
(Figure 5.5).

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skew (axis 2)

height

skew (axis 1)
Figure 5.5 Skew components

Extrusion along a predefined path

PLAXIS 3D enables the extrusion of a polycurve (Section 5.2.3) or a polygon (Section
5.2.4) along a nonlinear path. A non-linear path can be defined using the Polycurve tool.
A polygon must be non-self-intersecting and flat to be valid for extrusion along a
nonlinear path.
To extrude a polycurve/polygon along a nonlinear path path:
• Select the polycurve/polygon to be extruded.
• Keep the <Ctrl> pressed and select the polycurve representing the extrusion path.
• Click the right mouse button and select the Extrude option in the appearing menu.
• The extruded geometry is created in the model. The original geometric entities are
still available.

5.1.4 COPY OBJECT - ARRAY

Multiple copies of a selection, arranged in a rectangular pattern, can be created in the
Structures mode.
• Select the source object in the model. Multiple selections can be copied.
Click the Create array button. Note that the Create array button is active only after
the selection is made. The Create array window pops up (Figure 5.6) where the
pattern of the array can be defined.

Figure 5.6 Create array window

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• Select the necessary option in the Shape drop-down menu. Enter the total number
of rows (or columns) after copying and define accordingly the distances between
adjoining copies.

Hint: Note that when Array is used to create copies, besides the geometry entity
itself, the assigned features are copied as well.

5.2 GEOMETRIC ENTITIES

The geometric entities are the basic components of the physical model. Features such as
structures, loads etc., can be assigned to geometric entities. The created entities in the
model are automatically named by the program. They can be renamed in the Object
explorers.
A geometric entity can be relocated by selecting it first using the Selection tool in the
toolbar and dragging it to the desired position. Alternatively, the location coordinates can
be changed in the Object explorers.
There are two options of deleting entities in the model. To delete a geometric entity and
all the features assigned to it, right click it and select the Delete option from the appearing
menu. To delete only features assigned, right click it, click on the feature you want to
delete in the appearing menu and click Delete.

Hint: Note that using the <Delete> key, deletes the geometric entity and all the
features assigned to it.

5.2.1 POINTS
One of the basic input items for the creation of a geometry is a point. To create a
point click the Create point button in the side toolbar and then click at the location of
the point. A Point load, Point prescribed displacement and Fixed-end anchor feature can
be assigned to a point.

5.2.2 LINES
Another basic input item for the creation of a geometry is a line. To create a line
click the Create line button in the side toolbar and then click at the location of the
first and the second point of the line in the draw area. Optionally, additional points may be
created resulting in a chain of lines. After creating the last (end) point of the line,
right-click or use the <Esc> key to stop drawing. When a line is created, its first and
second points are also created.

Local coordinate system

A local coordinate system for lines is defined automatically by the program. Defining a
local coordinate system for a line element is required in order to define the material

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Figure 5.7 Line in theModel explorer

properties of structural elements having orthotropic material behaviour and to show the
forces in the Output program.
The local coordinate system can be modified in the Model explorer. The first local axis
always corresponds to the axial line direction. The Automatic axis function defines
automatically the second axis of the line according to the global coordinate system.
When the Manual option in the AxisFunction drop-down menu in the Model explorer
(Figure 5.7) is selected, the user has to define the direction of the second axis. In both
cases the third axis is determined automatically from the first and the second axis
according to the right hand rotation rule.
A Beam, Embedded pile, Line load, Line prescribed displacement, Node-to-node anchor,
Well and Line drain can be assigned to a line.

Hint: A node-to-node anchor or an embedded pile cannot be assigned to a line to

which other features are assigned.

5.2.3 POLYCURVES
A polycurve is a collection of lines and arcs that form a single continuous curve. Each
line and arc composing the polycurve is defined as a segment. The starting point of each
new segment is the end point of the previous segment.
To create a polycurve:
Click the Create polycurve button in the side toolbar.
• Click the location where the polycurve is to be inserted. The Shape designer
window is displayed (Figure 5.8).
The Shape designer window consists of a toolbar and two tabsheets where the
properties of the polycurve are defined and a display area showing the created polycurve.

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Definition of polycurve shape

The general shape settings of a polycurve are defined in the General tabsheet of the
Shape designer window.
Shape: The available types for the shape of a polycurve are:
Free Allows to create a polycurve composed of line and arc segments.
Circular Allows to create a closed circular polycurve.

Figure 5.8 Shape tabsheet of the Shape designer window

Polycurve layout in the model: The general properties of the polycurve in the model
are defined using the options available in the Shape tabsheet.
• The coordinates of the insertion point can be defined in the Object explorers. By
default the coordinates of the location clicked in the model before the Shape
designer window is displayed are shown. As the coordinates are changed the
polycurve will be relocated.
• The Orientation axis 1 and the Orientation axis 2 define a plane in which the
polycurve is drawn.
• By default the insertion point is the starting point of the first segment of the
polycurve. The Offset to begin point group can be used to specify offset distances
from the orientation axis when insertions point (origin of the orientation axis) and the
starting point of the first segment of the polycurve do not coincide.

Definition of polycurve segments

The segments of a polycurve can be defined in the Segments tabsheet of the Shape
designer window (Figure 5.9).
A new segment is added to the last segment in a polycurve by clicking the
Add segment button available either in the toolbar or under the segment list in the
Segments tabsheet. The last point of the last segment in the polycurve is the first point of

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Figure 5.9 Segments tabsheet of the Shape designer window

the newly added segment. The newly created segment is displayed in the segment list
(Figure 5.10).

Hint: A segment can be selected by clicking it in the list. A selected segment is

highlighted in the list and in the Display area.

Figure 5.10 Segment list displaying the segments composing the polycurve

A new segment is inserted before a selected segment in a polycurve as the Insert

segment button is clicked. The last point of the newly inserted segment becomes
the first point of the previously selected segment. The indices of the segments are
updated according to their position in the list.
A selected segment in a polycurve is deleted as the Delete segment button is
clicked. The indices of the segments are updated according to their position in the
list.
General properties of segments:
Type To define the type of the segment. The options available are Line
and Arc. For a Line segment the length of the segment should

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be specified. For an Arc segment the radius, the segment angle

and the angle for discretization should be specified (Figure 5.11).

Radius

Segment angle

Discretization
angle

Figure 5.11 Properties of Arc segment

When specifying a negative radius for an Arc segment, the arc will be mirrored in the line
described by the tangent vector. Note that when the Circular shape option is selected,
the created polycurve consists only of one Arc segment with a Segment angle value of
360◦ . An arc is discretized into line segments (cords). The angle subtended by each cord
along the discretized arc is called the Discretization angle.
Relative start angle To define the value of the angle between the start tangent of the
next segment and the end tangent of the previous segment
(Figure 5.12).

Tangent to segment 2 Tangent to segment 1

segment 2

Relative start angle

segment 1

Figure 5.12 Description of Relative start angle

To extend the polycurve to the symmetry axis click the corresponding button in the
toolbar of the Shape designer window. A new segment is added connecting the last
point of the polycurve to the axis of symmetry.
To close the polycurve by mirroring the existing segments, click the Symmetrically
close polycurve button in the toolbar of the Shape designer window. This is only
possible when one half is completed up to the symmetry axis.

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To close the polycurve click the corresponding button in the toolbar of the
Shape designer window. A new segment is created connecting the last point of the
polycurve to the first one.

Modification of polycurve
Modification of a polycurve is possible in the Model explorer after closing the Shape
designer window (Figure 5.13).

Figure 5.13 Polycurves in Model explorer

The menu appearing when a polycurve is right-clicked either in the model or in the Object
explorers displays the following specific options for polycurves:
• Add segment
• Extend to symmetry axis
• Close symmetrically
• Close Polycurve
• Create surface

Hint: Complex geometries can be created by extruding a polycurve or a polygon

along a predefined path (Section 5.1.3).

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5.2.4 SURFACES
The third basic input item for the creation of a geometry is a surface. To create
a surface click Create surface and then on the locations of the points that define the
surface.
The first point defined in the surface is the reference point of the surface. After the first
point is created, the user may draw a line by entering another point. After the first line is
created, the user may draw a surface by entering another point. As the third surface point
is defined, the Surface points window pops up (Figure 5.14).

Figure 5.14 Surface points window

Hint: The plane of the created polygon is displayed in the model as the third point
is defined. The program allows creation of new points located only in this
plane by clicking.
» To add new points out of the plane, right-click the points in the Surface points
window and select either the Insert point or the Add point option.

The points defining the surface and their coordinates are listed in the Surface points
window. Crossing lines are indicated in the Plane state option. Existence of crossing
lines indicates that no valid surface can be created. When there are no crossing lines, the
condition of the Plane state is OK. The options to define the plane of the surface are:
First points: The first three points in the Surface points window are
considered to define the surface plane. Values in the error
column indicate whether the surface is in or out of the defined
plane.
Best fit: Best fit of surface points is considered to define a plane surface
that fits the best to the defined points. The error column is not
applicable.
The points defining the surface can be projected to the plane of the surface by clicking
Project points to plane in the Surface points window. The creation of a surface is finished
by clicking on the selection tool in the side tool bar.

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Hint: Note that the points and the lines defining a surface are not shown in the
Model explorer.
» The points and lines defining the surface can be added to the model by
selecting the Decompose into outlines option from the right mouse button
menu.

Figure 5.15 Surface in Model explorer

Modification of surfaces
The points defining surfaces can be modified using the options available in the menu that
appears when the point ID is right-clicked in the Surface points window. Using these
options a point can be added, inserted or deleted.
The points defining the surface can be relocated by changing their coordinates in the
corresponding cells in the Surface points window.
Note that the options to modify the points defining a surface are available in the Create
surface submenu (Figure 5.16) and they are selectable after the surface to be modified is
double clicked first.

Figure 5.16 Create surface menu

Local coordinate system

A local coordinate system for surfaces is defined automatically by the program. Defining
a local coordinate system for a surface element is required in order to define the material
properties of structural elements having orthotropic material behaviour and to show the
forces in the Output program. The first and second local axis lie in the plane of the
surface, whereas the third axis is perpendicular to the plane of the surface (Section 15.6
of the Material Models Manual). The Automatic option of the Axis function drop-down

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menu in the Model explorer assigns the first axis according to the global coordinate
system. The direction of the first axis can be defined by the user if the Manual option is
selected. For example, in case of a straight tunnel it will be convenient to use the
direction of the tunnel as the direction of the first axis. The direction of the second axis is
determined automatically from the first and third axis according to the right hand rule.
A Plate, Geogrid, Interfaces, Surface load, Surface prescribed displacement, Contraction,
Surface groundwater flow boundary condition and Surface drain can be assigned to a
surface (either created or imported).

Imported surfaces
Predefined surfaces can be imported in the Structures mode (Section 5.9). The geometry
of an imported surface can be modified after being decomposed into outlines.

Hint: Volumes can be created by extruding a polygon along a predefined path

created using the Polycurve feature (Section 5.1.3).

5.2.5 VOLUMES
In PLAXIS 3D volumes can be created by extruding surfaces (Section 5.1.3). Import
volume feature enables usage of predefined volumes (Section 5.9). Note that the soil
volumes generated according to the soil layers defined in the Modify soil layers window
and the volumes imported in the Soil mode are listed under Soil volumes in the Geometry
subtree of the Model explorer. The volumes created by extruding surfaces or that are
imported in the Structures mode are listed under Volumes in the Geometry subtree.

Hint: The surfaces and the outlines defining a volume created or imported in the
Structures mode can be added to the model by selecting the Decompose into
surfaces or Decompose into outlines option respectively from the right
mouse button menu.

Soil and interfaces material data sets, Volumetric strain and Water conditions can be
assigned to volumes.

5.2.6 ADVANCED GEOMETRIC MODELLING OPTIONS

Advanced options for modifying geometric entities in the model are available in the menu
appearing as the entity (or multiple entities) is (are) selected by clicking the right mouse
button.

Hint: Multiple entities can be selected by keeping the <Ctrl> key pressed while
clicking on the entities.

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Feature assignment to existing geometric entity

When the geometric entity is already available in the model (e.g. a surface) it is advised
to assign a feature to it (e.g. plate) without recreating the geometry in order to prevent the
model from being unnecessarily large and complicated.
To assign a feature to an existing geometric entity:
• Right click the geometric entity either in the Object explorers or in the draw area.
• In the appearing menu select the option corresponding to the feature that is to be
assigned. An overview of the features assignable to geometric entities is given in
Table 5.1 and Table 5.2.

Hint: Note that Volume strain can be assigned to soil clusters only in the Phase
definition modes.
» If an embedded pile or a node-to node anchor is assigned to a line in the
model, no other features can be assigned to it.

Table 5.1 Assignable loads

Point Line Surface Volume
Load Load Load Volume strain
Prescribed Prescribed Prescribed
displacement displacement displacement

Table 5.2 Assignable structures and boundaries

Point Line Surface Volume
Fixed-end anchor Beam Geogrid
Node to node anchor Plate
Embedded pile Positive interface
Well Negative interface
Line drain Contraction
Surface drain
Surface groundwater
flow boundary condition

Invert normal
The Invert normal option is available for surfaces in the right mouse button menu. Note
that the location of an interface relative to the surface to which it is assigned depends on
the type of the interface (positive or negative) and the normal of the surface. If the normal
of a surface is inverted, the assigned interface will automatically be applied to the other
side of the surface.

Merge equivalent geometric objects

There are different options to create a feature:
1. Using the buttons in the side toolbar
2. Assigning the feature to an existing geometric entity

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3. Using the command line

Consider the case when a geometric entity (e.g. a line) already exists in the model. If a
node-to-node anchor is created at (nearly) the same position as the existing line, a new
line will be added with the Node-to-node anchor feature. This means that, in principle,
two lines will exist at that position; one with the Node-to-node anchor feature and one
without. PLAXIS allows for merging equivalent objects in order to remove unnecessary
objects from the model. The way this works depends on which option has been selected
to create the node-to-node anchor.
• If the above option 2 is used, no new line is created, and the Node-to-node anchor
feature is directly assigned to the existing line.
• If the above options 1 and 3 are used, the existing line and the new line with the
Node-to-node anchor feature will both exist in the Structures mode. When
proceeding to the Calculation modes the equivalent line objects are automatically
merged into a single line having the Node-to-node anchor feature.
In the latter case it may be desired to already merge equivalent objects in the Structures
mode (in order to manually remove unnecessary objects from the model). This can be
done by right-clicking on Geometry, Points, Lines or Surfaces in the Model explorer and
selecting Merge equivalent geometric objects from the appearing menu, or by using the
corresponding command (see command reference), for example:

mergeequivalents geometry
The Merge equivalent geometric objects command may also be used to merge objects
that are not exactly located at the same position, but very close to each other. By default,
the distance tolerance is 0.001 length units, equal to the standard snap distance (see
below), but the user can include the distance tolerance in the command, for example:

Mergeequivalents geometry 0.2

When similar geometric objects were created not exactly at the same position but less
than 0.2 length units apart, they will be merged into a single object by this command. Any
feature assigned to one of the original objects will be assigned to the remaining single
object.

Hint: Boreholes cannot be merged.

» Features that are sensitive to local axes need to be checked by the user after
the merging.
» If an embedded pile or a node-to node anchor is assigned to a line in the
model it cannot be merged to equivalent lines to which other features are
assigned to it.

Snap
Drawing imperfections such as disconnected or overlapping geometric entities can lead
to intersection or meshing difficulties. The Snap feature enables the correction of such
imperfections in a range of 0.001 length units. The default value of snapping distance
can be temporarily modified when snapping is performed using the corresponding

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command (see Command reference).

Decompose
The Decompose option enables decomposing the selected geometric entity into lower
entities. A surface is decomposed into outlines and a volume is decomposed into
surfaces. An example of decomposition of a surface into outlines is given in the Tutorial 3
of the Tutorial Manual.

Intersect and recluster

A multiple selection of geometric entities can be intersected by selecting the
corresponding option in the right mouse menu. The Figure 5.17 displays two surfaces
before and after intersecting.

Combine
A multiple selection of geometric entities can be combined (merged/fused together) by
selecting the corresponding option in the right mouse menu. The Figure 5.18 displays
two volumes before and after combining. After combining different entities into one new
entity, the original entities do not exist anymore.

Before intersecting After intersecting

Figure 5.17 Example of intersection of surfaces

Before combining After combining

Figure 5.18 Example of combination of volumes

Group
The Group option in the right mouse menu enables creating groups of entities in the
model. The created group will be listed under the Groups subtree in the Model explorer.
Grouping enables modification of the common properties of the group at the same time.
After grouping different entities into a group, the original entities still exist.

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5.3 LOADS

Loads are features that can be assigned to geometric entities. Loads can be assigned to
existing geometric entities by right clicking the entity and selecting the corresponding
option in the appearing menu. Alternatively, the options available in the Create load
menu can be used. To assign loads to existing geometry entities:
Select the button corresponding to the load from the menu appearing when the
Create load is selected (Figure 5.19).

Figure 5.19 The Create load menu

• Drag the tool (keep the left mouse button down) and drop it on the geometric entity.
A geometric entity can be created and a load can be assigned to it simultaneously using
the options available in the menu displayed as the Create load button is selected in the
side toolbar, (Figure 5.19). This provides a faster definition of loads. Instead of creating
the geometric entity and then assigning a load to it, the process is completed in one step.
The process is similar to the creation of a geometric entity with the difference that the
load is assigned to it as well.
Although the input values of loads are specified in the Structures mode, the activation,
deactivation or change of loads may be considered in the framework of Staged
construction (Section 7.9.3).
On a part of the geometry where both fixities and loads are applied and active, the fixities
have priority over the loads during calculations. Hence, it is not useful to apply loads on a
fixed geometric entity. However, it is possible to apply a load in the free directions.
The Load subtree in the Object explorers consists of two parts where the static and the
dynamic components of the load can be defined respectively.

Static load
The distribution and the components of the static load are assigned in the first part of the
Load subtree. Note that the Distribution option is not available for Point loads.

Dynamic load
The distribution and the components of the dynamic load are assigned in the second part
of the Load subtree when the subtree of the dynamic load is extended. Note that the
Distribution option is not available for Point loads. Besides the Distribution and the
components of the load, Multipliers can be defined for each of the load components
separately. One of the available multipliers defined in Attributes library (Section 5.5.1)
can be selected from the drop-down menu. The view of the dynamic load in the Object
explorers is given in Figure 5.20.

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Figure 5.20 Dynamic load in the Object explorers

5.3.1 POINT LOAD

A point load can be created using the Create point load button. The input values of
a point load are given in the unit of force. The default value of point loads is one unit
in negative z -direction. The x -, y - and z -components of a point load can be defined or
modified in the Object explorers (Figure 5.21). If a different magnitude value is assigned
to the absolute load, the program calculates the individual components accordingly,
assuming the initial load direction.

Figure 5.21 Point load in Selection explorer

5.3.2 LINE LOAD

A line load can be created using the Create line load button. The input values of
a line load is given in the unit of force per length. The default value of a line load is
one unit in negative z -direction. If a different magnitude value is assigned to the absolute
load, the program calculates the individual components accordingly, assuming the initial

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load direction (Figure 5.22).

Figure 5.22 Line load in the Selection explorer

The distribution options for a line load are:

Uniform: To create a uniform line load.
Linear: A linearly varying line load is created by defining the components
and the magnitude of the force at the start and at the end points
of the line.

5.3.3 SURFACE LOAD

A surface load can be created using the Create surface load button.The input
values of a surface load are given in the unit of force per area (for example kN/m2 ).
Surface loads may consist of a x -, y - and/or z -component. The magnitude is
automatically calculated by the program. If a different magnitude value is defined, the
components are calculated accordingly.
The options to define a surface load are:
Uniform: To create a uniformly distributed surface load.
x−aligned increment: To create a linearly distributed surface load varying in x -direction.
y −aligned increment: To create a linearly distributed surface load varying in
y -direction.
z−aligned increment: To create a linearly distributed surface load varying in z -direction.
Vector aligned increment:
To create a linearly distributed load varying in a specified
direction.
Free increment: To create a general load varying in all directions.
Perpendicular: To create a uniformly distributed load perpendicular to the
surface.

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Figure 5.23 Surface load in Selection explorer

Perpendicular, vertical increment:

To create a load perpendicular to the surface varying in −z
direction by defining the components and the magnitude of the
load at the reference point and its increment in −z direction.

5.4 PRESCRIBED DISPLACEMENTS

Prescribed displacements are special conditions that can be imposed to the model to
control the displacements at certain locations. Prescribed displacements can be
assigned to existing geometric entities by right clicking the entity and selecting the
corresponding option in the appearing menu. Alternatively, the options available in the
Create prescribed displacement menu can be used. To assign prescribed displacements
to existing geometry entities:
Select the button corresponding to the prescribed displacement from the menu
appearing when the Create prescribed displacement button is selected (Figure
5.30).

Figure 5.24 Create prescribed displacement menu

• Drag the tool (keep the left mouse button down) and drop it on the geometric entity.
The creation of a prescribed displacement is similar to the creation of a geometric entity.
The options available in the menu displayed as the Create prescribed displacement

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button is selected in the side toolbar, (Figure 5.24), provide a faster definition of
prescribed displacements. Instead of creating the geometric entity and then assigning a
prescribed displacement to it, the process is completed in one step.
Although the input values of prescribed displacements are specified in the Structures
mode, the activation, deactivation or change of values may be considered in the
framework of Staged construction (Section 7.9.1).
On a geometric entity where both prescribed displacements and loads are applied and
active, the prescribed displacement has priority over the load during calculations. If both
prescribed and fixed displacement are assigned to a line, the fixed displacement will be
taken into consideration. However, when not all the displacement directions are fixed, it is
possible to apply a load in the free directions.

Hint: Prescribed displacements should be interpreted as specified total

displacements at the end of the phase instead of additional (incremental)
phase displacements. If no prescribed displacement increment should be
applied in a phase, the value assigned to the prescribed displacement should
be equal to the one in the previous phase. Assigning 0 to the value will
implicitly apply an incremental prescribed displacement with the same value
but in the opposite direction resulting in a zero displacement at the end of the
phase.

The Prescribed displacement subtree in the Object explorers consists of two parts where
the static and the dynamic components of the prescribed displacement can be defined
respectively.

Static prescribed displacement

The distribution and the components of the static prescribed displacement are assigned
in the first part of the Prescribed displacements subtree. Note that the Distribution option
is not available for the Point prescribed displacements.

Dynamic prescribed displacement

Multipliers can be defined for each of the static prescribed displacement components
separately. One of the available dynamic multipliers defined in Attributes library (Section
5.5.1) can be selected form the drop-down menu. The view of the dynamic prescribed
displacement in the Object explorers is given in Figure 5.25.

Figure 5.25 Dynamic prescribed displacement in the Object explorers

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5.4.1 POINT PRESCRIBED DISPLACEMENT

A point prescribed displacement can be created using the Create point prescribed
displacement button. The input of point prescribed displacements in the geometry
model is similar to the creation of points (Section 5.2.1).
The default point prescribed displacement is free in x and y directions and it has a
prescribed value of -1 unit in the z -direction. The options for the components of point
prescribed displacements are Free, Fixed and Prescribed. These options can be
selected and the displacement value can be defined if the Prescribed option is selected
in the Object explorer.

5.4.2 LINE PRESCRIBED DISPLACEMENT

In order to define line prescribed displacements, the Create line prescribed
displacement option should be selected from the menu appearing as the Create
prescribed displacement button is clicked.
The default line prescribed displacement is free in x and y directions and it has a
prescribed value of -1 in z -direction. The options for the components of line prescribed
displacements are Free, Fixed and Prescribed. These options can be selected in the
Model explorer. Either a uniform or a linearly varying prescribed displacement can be
assigned to a line. When the Linear option is selected in the Distribution drop-down
menu, the displacement value at the start of the line (the first point) and at the end of the
line (the second point) can be defined.

5.4.3 SURFACE PRESCRIBED DISPLACEMENT

In order to define surface prescribed displacements, the Create surface prescribed
displacement option should be selected from the menu appearing as the Create
prescribed displacement icon is clicked.
The options to define a surface prescribed displacement are:
Uniform: A uniformly distributed surface prescribed displacement is
defined.
x−aligned increment: A linearly distributed surface prescribed displacement varying in
x -direction is defined.
y−aligned increment: A linearly distributed surface prescribed displacement varying in
y -direction is defined.
z−aligned increment: A linearly distributed surface prescribed displacement varying in
z -direction is defined.
Vector aligned increment:
A linearly distributed surface prescribed displacement varying in
a specified direction is defined.
Free increment: A general surface prescribed displacement varying in all the
directions is defined.
Perpendicular: A uniformly distributed prescribed displacement perpendicular to
the surface is defined.

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Perpendicular, vertical increment

A prescribed displacement perpendicular to the surface varying
in z direction is created by defining the components and the
magnitude of the displacement at the reference point and its
increment in z direction.

5.4.4 CONTRACTION
Contraction can be used to 'shrink' a surface or to simulate a volume loss around a tunnel
lining. Contraction is specified as a strain without any unit associated.
In order to define a contraction on surfaces, the Create surface contraction
option should be selected from the menu appearing as the Create prescribed
displacement icon is clicked.
The options to define a surface contraction are:
Constant: A constant contraction is defined. The contraction is applied in
the local Axis2-direction.
Axial increment: A linear contraction varying in the local Axis1-direction is
defined. The contraction is applied in the local Axis2-direction.

Hint: When contraction is used to simulate the volume loss around a TBM tunnel,
note that the value of surface contraction to be applied should be half the
volume loss as a percentage of the tunnel volume.

5.5 DYNAMIC LOADING

In PLAXIS 3D, a dynamic impulse is specified by means of an input value and a

multiplier. The actual dynamic value at each time step equals to the input value times the
multiplier. Dynamic multipliers can be assigned to the dynamic component of a load
(Section 5.3) or to a prescribed displacement (Section 5.4). The dynamic multipliers to be
applied in the model can be defined in the Dynamic multipliers subtree under the
Attributes library in the Model explorer.

Figure 5.26 Dynamic multipliers branch in the Model explorer

5.5.1 DEFINITION OF MULTIPLIERS

The multipliers can be defined in the Multipliers window that pops up when the Dynamic
multipliers subtree under the Attributes library in the Model explorer is right-clicked and

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the Edit option is selected in the appearing menu (Figure 5.26). The window consists of
two tabsheets, i.e Displacement multipliers and Load multipliers where the multipliers
applicable to the prescribed displacements and to the loads can be defined respectively.
The buttons available under the multipliers tabs can be used to add new multipliers or to
delete the selected multiplier in the list. When a new multiplier is added, the options to
define it are displayed.
Name The name of the multiplier can be defined.
Signal The type of the signal can be assigned. The options available
are Harmonic and Table. More information on definition of a
harmonic multiplier and definition of the multipliers in a table is
given in Section 5.5.2 and Section 5.8.2 respectively.
Type The options Displacements, Velocities and Accelerations are
available. Note that the Type drop-down menu is available only
for displacement multipliers. For Load multipliers the type does
not need to be specified.
Drift correction It is used to correct the displacement drift. Due to the integration
of the accelerations and velocities, a drift might occur in the
displacements. When selected, the displacement drift is
corrected by applying a low frequency motion from the beginning
of the calculation and by correcting the acceleration accordingly.

Figure 5.27 Dynamic multipliers window

5.5.2 HARMONIC SIGNAL

In PLAXIS harmonic loads are defined as:

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F = M̂ F̂ sin (ω t + φ0 )

in which:
M̂ Amplitude multiplier
F̂ Input value of the load
ω 2 π f with f = Frequency in Hz
φ0 Initial phase angle in degrees
(M̂ F̂ is the amplitude of the dynamic load.)

Hint: A dynamic load can also suddenly be applied in a single time step or sub
step (block load). In case of a Harmonic load multiplier, a block load can be
modelled by setting the Amplitude multiplier equal to the magnitude of the
block load, the Frequency to 0Hz and Initial phase angle to 90◦ giving the
relation F = M̂ F̂ . In case of a Load multiplier from data file, a block load
can directly be defined.

Figure 5.28 shows the Multipliers window where a Harmonic signal is defined and plotted.

Figure 5.28 Definition and display of a Harmonic signal in the Dynamic multipliers window

5.5.3 SIGNAL FROM TABLE

Besides a harmonic signal there is also the possibility to define a signal by specifying the
values in the table that appears when the corresponding option is selected in the Signal
drop-down menu. The table consists of Time and Multiplier columns where Time relates
to the Dynamic time in the project. The buttons in the toolbar can be used to modify the
table.
Click the Add row button in the toolbar to add a new row in the table.

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Click the Insert button to insert a new row before the selected row in the table.
Click the Delete button to delete the selected row in the table.
The values can be defined by clicking the cell in the table and by typing the value.

Importing data for signals

Besides defining the signal in the table, there is also the possibility to read data
from a file with a digitised load signal using the Open button in the toolbar. PLAXIS
enables reading data from files in plain ASCII or in SMC format.

Hint: PLAXIS assumes the data file is located in the current project directory when
no directory is specified in the Dynamic loading window.

A signal, either defined in a table or received from a file and modified, can be
saved using the Save button in the toolbar enabling the usage of the signal in other
projects or validating the effect of the modifications in the current project.
A signal, either defined in a table or received
from a file and modified, can be copied using the Copy button in the toolbar.
Copied data from other applications (using <Ctrl+c>) can be imported by using the
Paste button. The Import data window appears (Figure 5.29). The starting row of
the data to be imported can be defined in the From row cell. The data can be parsed as
Plain text files or Strong motion CD-Rom files (SMC). The data and the plot is displayed
in the Dynamic multipliers window after pressing OK.

Figure 5.29 Import data window for dynamic multipliers

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ASCII file: An ASCII file can be created by the user with any text editor. In every line a
pair of values (Dynamic time and corresponding multiplier) is defined, leaving at least one
space between them. The time should increase in each new line. It is not necessary to
use constant time intervals.
If the time steps in the dynamic analysis are such that they do not correspond with the
time series given in the file, the multipliers at a given (Dynamic) time will be linearly
interpolated from the data in the file. If the Dynamic time in the calculation is beyond the
last time value in the file a constant value, equal to the last multiplier in the file, will be
used in the calculations.
SMC file: In addition, it is possible to use earthquake records in SMC-format as input for
earthquake loading. The SMC (Strong Motion CD-ROM) format is currently used by the
U.S. Geological Survey National Strong-motion Program to record data of earthquakes
and other strong vibrations. This format uses ASCII character codes and provides text
headers, integer headers, real headers, and comments followed by either digitised
time-series coordinates or response values. The header information is designed to
provide the user with information about the earthquake and the recording instrument.
Most of the SMC files contain accelerations, but they may also contain velocity or
displacement series and response spectra. It is strongly recommended to use corrected
earthquake data records, i.e. time series, that are corrected for final drift and non-zero
final velocities. SMC files should be used in combination with prescribed boundary
displacements at the bottom of a geometry model.
The strong motion data are collected by the U.S. Geological Survey and are available
from the National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) of the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration. Information on NGDC products is available on the
World-wide Web at http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazard or by writing to:
National Geophysical Data Center NOAA/EGC/1
325 Broadway
Boulder, Colorado 80303
USA

Hint: The time value in dynamic multipliers always refers to the global dynamic
time in the whole list of calculation phases, rather than to the time interval of
an individual phase. This means that in series of continuing dynamic
calculation phases each phase will only use its consecutive part of the
dynamic multiplier.

5.6 STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

The creation of a structure is similar to the creation of the corresponding geometric

entities. To assign structures to existing geometry entities:
Select the button corresponding to the structure from the menu appearing when the
Create structure button is selected (Figure 5.30).
• Drag the tool (keep the left mouse button down) and drop it on the geometric entity.

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Figure 5.30 Create structure menu

Note that the assignment of structures is also possible by right-clicking the geometric
entity either in the draw area or in the Object explorers and selecting the corresponding
option in the appearing menu. Assignment of materials to structures is described in
Section 6.9.
Structures can be activated, de-activated or the assigned material data sets can be
modified in calculation phases.

5.6.1 FIXED-END ANCHORS

A fixed-end anchor is a point element that is attached to a structure at one side
and fixed 'to the world' at the other side. Fixed-end anchors can be used to simulate
piles in a simplified way, i.e. without taking into account pile-soil interaction. Alternatively,
fixed-end anchors can be used to simulate anchors or props to support retaining walls..
The length of the plotted T is arbitrary and does not have any particular physical meaning.
The creation of a fixed-end anchor is similar to the creation of a geometry point (Section
5.2.1). The default direction is (0, 0, -1), which is in downward direction. The direction of
the fixed-end anchor is defined starting from the fixed-end anchor connection point in the
fixed-end anchor direction. The user may enter the fixed-end anchor direction by
specifying the individual x -, y - and z -components. The length defined by the individual
components is defined as the equivalent length of the fixed-end anchor.
The Equivalent length parameter of a fixed-end anchor is defined as the distance
between the anchor connection point and the fictitious point in the longitudinal direction of
the anchor where the displacement is assumed to be zero. The direction and equivalent
length of a fixed-end anchor may be changed in the Object explorers. Changing the
equivalent length will change the individual direction components while retaining the
anchor direction.

Anchor material properties

The material properties of fixed-end anchors are contained in Anchors material data sets
(Section 6.8) and can be conveniently assigned using drag-and-drop, the Object
explorers or the right hand mouse button menu in the draw area (Section 6.9).

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5.6.2 BEAMS
Beams are structural objects to model slender (one-dimensional) structures with a
significant flexural rigidity (bending stiffness) and an axial stiffness. The creation of
a beam is similar to the creation of a geometry line (Section 5.2.2).

Beam elements
After meshing beams are composed of 3-node line elements (beam elements) with six
degrees of freedom per node: three translational degrees of freedom (ux , uy and uz ) and
three rotational degrees of freedom (φx , φy and φz ). The beam elements are based on
Mindlin's beam theory (Bathe (1982)). This theory allows for beam deflections due to
shearing as well as bending. In addition, the element can change length when an axial
force is applied. Note that the element cannot sustain torsion. Element stiffness matrices
are based on the properties as defined in the material data sets and numerically
integrated from the four Gaussian integration points (stress points) along the length of the
element and numerically integrated from the 4 (2x2) Gaussian integration points√over the
cross section of the element. These 4 stress points are √ located at a distance 1/6 3deq3 in
the local 3-direction of the beam and at a distance of /6 3deq2 in the local 2-direction of
1

the beam, where:

r
I3
deq3 = 12
r A
I2
deq2 = 12
A
Details about the element formulation are given in the Scientific Manual.
When a beam element is connected to another structural element, they share all degrees
of freedom in the connected node, which implies that the connection is rigid (moment
connection) unless a (custom) Connection is defined (Section 7.9.4).
When a beam extends to the model boundary, additional boundary conditions for the
rotational degrees of freedom are automatically applied (Section 7.9.9).

Beam material properties

The material properties of beams are contained in Beams material data sets (Section
6.6) and can be conveniently assigned using drag-and-drop, the Object explorers or the
right hand mouse button menu in the draw area (Section 6.9).

5.6.3 NODE-TO-NODE ANCHORS

Node-to-node anchors can be used to model a spring connection
between two points. Typical applications include the modelling of a cofferdam.
The creation of a node-to-node anchor is similar to the creation of a geometry line
(Section 5.2.2).

Anchor material properties

The material properties of node-to-node anchors are contained in Anchors material data
sets and can be conveniently assigned using drag-and-drop, using the Object explorers

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or the right hand mouse button menu in the draw area (Section 6.9).

Hint: A node-to-node anchor cannot be assigned to a line to which other features

are assigned.

5.6.4 EMBEDDED PILES

An embedded pile is a pile composed of beam elements that can be placed
in arbitrary direction in the sub-soil and that interacts with the sub-soil by means of
special interface elements. The interaction may involve a skin resistance as well as a foot
resistance. The skin friction and and the tip force are determined by the relative
displacement between the soil and the pile. Although an embedded pile does not occupy
volume, a particular volume around the pile (elastic zone) is assumed in which plastic soil
behaviour is excluded. The size of this zone is based on the (equivalent) pile diameter
according to the corresponding embedded pile material data set. This makes the pile
almost behave like a volume pile. However, installation effects of piles are not taken into
account and the pile-soil interaction is modelled at the centre rather than at the
circumference.

Hint: Since installation effects cannot be considered, the embedded piles option
should be primarily used for pile types that cause a limited disturbance of the
surrounding soil during installation. This may include some types of bored
piles, but obviously not driven piles or soil displacement piles.

The creation of a pile is similar to the creation of a geometry line (Section 5.2.2). The
point of connection of the pile to the surrounding geometry and the type of the connection
can be specified in the Object explorers.
In the case of the pile connection point coinciding with soil elements, the connection
behaviour is as follows:
Free The Connection point is free to move and rotate relative to the
surrounding soil. The pile and the surrounding soil interact only
through the special interface elements.
Hinged The displacement at the connection point of the pile is directly
coupled with the displacement of the soil element in which the
pile connection point is located, which means that they undergo
exactly the same displacement. However, their rotation may be
different.
Rigid The displacement and rotation at the pile connection point are
both coupled with the displacement and rotation of the soil
element in which the pile top is located, provided that this
element has rotational degrees of freedom. This option only
applies if the pile connection point coincides with structural
elements like plates or beams.

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In the case of the pile connection point coinciding with structural elements (without
interface elements) the connection behaviour is as follows:
Free The Connection point is free to move and rotate relative to the
surrounding soil and the structural element. The pile interacts
with the surrounding soil and the structural elements only
through the special interface elements. Note that the structural
elements are not free to move and rotate relative to the
surrounding soil.
Hinged The displacement at the connection point of the pile is directly
coupled with the displacement of the structural element and/or
the surrounding soil in which the pile connection point is located,
which means that they undergo exactly the same displacement.
Rigid The displacement and rotation at the pile connection point are
both coupled with the displacement and rotation of the structural
and/or soil element in which the pile top is located.
In the case of the pile connection point coinciding with structural elements which
interaction with the surrounding soil is moddelled using interfaces, the connection
behaviour is as follows:
Free The Connection point is free to move and rotate relative to the
surrounding soil and the structural element. The pile interacts
with the surrounding soil and the structural elements only
through the special interface elements. In the same way, the
structural element interacts with the surrounding soil through the
defined interface elements. This is the default option in the
program.
Hinged The displacement at the connection point of the pile is directly
coupled with the displacement of the structural element in which
the pile connection point is located, which means that they
undergo exactly the same displacement. Note that the structural
element interacts with the surrounding soil through the defined
interface elements.
Rigid The displacement and rotation at the pile connection point are
both coupled with the displacement and rotation of the structural
element in which the pile top is located. Note that the structural
element interacts with the surrounding soil through the defined
interface elements.
Note that when an anchor is present in the model at the position of an embedded pile
connection point, the anchor will be automatically connected to the embedded pile
connection point and not to the corresponding point in the soil element. The options
specified for the embedded pile in the Object explorers are valid for the connection of the
anchor-pile connection to the surrounding soil.

Embedded pile elements

An embedded pile consists of beam elements with special interface elements providing
the interaction between the beam and the surrounding soil.

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Hint: When embedded piles penetrate a volume cluster with linear elastic material
behaviour, the specified value of the shaft resistance is ignored. The reason
for this is that the linear elastic material is not supposed to be soil, but part of
a structure. The connection between the pile and the structure is supposed
to be rigid to avoid, for example, punching of piles through a concrete deck.

After meshing, the beam elements are 3-node line elements with six degrees of freedom
per node: Three translational degrees of freedom (ux , uy and uz ) and three rotational
degrees of freedom (ϕx , ϕy and ϕz ). Element stiffness matrices are numerically
integrated from the four Gaussian integration points (stress points). The element allows
for beam deflections due to shearing as well as bending. In addition, the element can
change length when an axial force is applied.
The special interface elements are different from the regular interface elements as used
along walls or volume piles. Therefore, at the position of the beam element nodes, virtual
nodes are created in the soil volume element from the element shape functions. The
special interface forms a connection between the beam element nodes and these virtual
nodes, and thus with all nodes of the soil volume element.
Pile forces (structural forces) are evaluated at the beam element integration points and
extrapolated to the beam element nodes. These forces can be viewed graphically and
tabulated in the Output program. Details about the embedded pile element formulations
are given in the Scientific Manual.

Embedded pile material properties

The material properties of embedded piles are contained in Embedded piles material
data sets (Section 6.7) and can be conveniently assigned using drag-and-drop, the
Object explorers or the right hand mouse button menu in the draw area (Section 6.9).
The lowest z-coordinate of the embedded pile is considered as the base of the pile. In the
case of a horizontal embedded pile, its maximum x-coordinate is considered as the base.
In case z-coordinate and x-coordinate are the same, the maximum y-coordinate is
considered as the base. More information regarding the interaction properties of the
embedded piles is given in Section 6.7.3.

5.6.5 PLATES
Plates are structural objects used to model thin two-dimensional structures in the
ground with a significant flexural rigidity (bending stiffness). The creation of a plate
is similar to the creation of a geometry surface (Section 5.2.4).

Plate elements
After meshing plates are composed of 6-node triangular plate elements with six degrees
of freedom per node: three translational degrees of freedom (ux , uy and uz ) and three
rotational degrees of freedom (φx , φy and φz ). The plate elements are based on Mindlin's
plate theory (Bathe, 1982). This theory allows for plate deflections due to shearing as
well as bending. In addition, the element can change length when an axial force is
applied. Element stiffness matrices are based on the properties as defined in the material

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data sets and numerically integrated from the three pairs of Gaussian integration
√ points
(stress points). Within each pair, stress points are located at a distance 1/6 3d above
and below the plate centre-line. Details about the element formulation are given in the
Scientific Manual.

Plate properties
The material properties of plates are contained in Plates material data sets (Section 6.4)
and can be conveniently assigned using drag-and-drop, the Object explorers or the right
hand mouse button menu in the draw area (Section 6.9).
Structural forces are evaluated at the plate element integration points (Scientific Manual)
and extrapolated to the element nodes. These forces can be viewed graphically and
tabulated in the Output program. Details about the material properties are given in
Section 6.4 and Material Models Manual.

5.6.6 GEOGRIDS
Geogrids are slender structures with an axial stiffness but with no bending stiffness.
Geogrids can only sustain tensile forces and no compression. These objects are
generally used to model soil reinforcements.

Geogrid elements
After meshing, geogrids are composed of 6-node triangular surface elements with three
translational degrees of freedom per node (ux , uy and uz ). Element stiffness matrices are
based on the properties as defined in the material data sets and numerically integrated
from the three Gaussian integration points (stress points). The element can change
length when a tension force is applied. Details about the element formulation are given in
the Scientific Manual.
When a geogrid element is connected to another structural element, they share the
translational degrees of freedom in the connecting node(s).

Geogrid properties
The basic material parameter is the axial stiffness EA. In addition the tension force can
be limited to allow for the simulation of tension failure. Axial forces can be viewed
graphically and tabulated in the Output program. Details about the material properties are
given in Section 6.5 and Material Models Manual.

5.6.7 INTERFACES
Interfaces are joint elements to be added to plates or geogrids to allow for a proper
modelling of soil-structure interaction. Interfaces may be used to simulate, for example,
the thin zone of intensely shearing material at the contact between a plate and the
surrounding soil. Interfaces can be created next to plate or geogrid elements or between
two soil volumes.
An interface can be created using the Create interface option available in
the menu displayed when the Create structure button in the side toolbar is clicked.
The creation of an interface is similar to the creation of a geometry surface (Section

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5.2.4). In this case a surface with an interface assigned to it will be created. When
the geometric entity (surface) is already available in the model it is advised to assign an
interface to it without recreating the geometry in order to prevent the model from being
unnecessarily large and unwieldy. Assignment of features to existing geometric entities is
described in Section 5.2.6.
Distinction is made between a positive interface (the side of the surface at the positive
local z -direction) and a negative interface (the side of the surface at the negative local
z -direction).

Hint: The sign of an interface is only used to enable distinguishing interfaces at

either side of a surface, but it does not affect its behaviour.

Interfaces can be activated or de-activated in calculation phases using Staged

construction as Loading input.

Interface properties
The interfaces created in the model are listed in the Interfaces subtree in the Object
explorers. Properties such as Material mode, permeability condition and Virtual thickness
factor, available for each interface in the Object explorers can be assigned to an interface
in the model (Figure 5.31).

Figure 5.31 Flexible corner point with improved stress results

Material mode: The material properties of an interface can be assigned according to

the mode specified in the selected interface subtree in the Object explorers. As an
example, consider a typical application of interfaces such as the interaction between a
diaphragm wall and the soil, which is intermediate between smooth and fully rough. The
options available are:
From adjacent soil The roughness of the interaction is modelled by choosing a
suitable value for the strength reduction factor (Rinter ) specified
in the Interface tabsheet of the material set assigned to the
surrounding material. This factor relates the interface strength
(wall friction and adhesion) to the soil strength (friction angle and
cohesion). Note that by default the From adjacent soil option is
selected for the Material mode parameter. For detailed
information on the material properties of interfaces see Section

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6.1.4.
Custom A material dataset can be assigned directly to an interface when
the Custom option is selected. Note that the strength reduction
factor of the selected material is by default set to one.
Permeability: By default structural elements such as Plates and Geogrids are
permeable. Impermeability can be introduced by assigning an interface to the geometric
entity, besided the structural element. Note that for an interface a checkbox is available in
the Objects explorers, enabling specifying the permeability condition (either fully
permeable or fully impermeable). In Groundwater flow only calculations no structural
element needs to be assigned to the geometric entity as deformations will not be taken
into account. Hence, it is sufficient to use only interfaces to block the flow.
Virtual interface thickness: Each interface has assigned to it a 'virtual thickness' which
is an imaginary dimension used to define the material properties of the interface. The
higher the virtual thickness is, the more elastic deformations are generated. In general,
interface elements are supposed to generate very little elastic deformations and therefore
the virtual thickness should be small. On the other hand, if the virtual thickness is too
small, numerical ill-conditioning may occur. The virtual thickness is calculated as the
Virtual thickness factor times the global element size. The global element size is
determined by the global coarseness setting for the mesh generation (Section 7.1.1). The
default value of the Virtual thickness factor is 0.1. This value can be changed in the
Object explorers. In general, care should be taken when changing the default factor.
However, if interface elements are subjected to very large normal stresses, it may be
required to reduce the Virtual thickness factor. Further details of the significance of the
virtual thickness are given in Section 6.1.4.

Interface elements
After meshing, interfaces are composed of 12-node interface elements. Interface
elements consist of pairs of nodes, compatible with the 6-noded triangular side of a soil
element or plate element. In some output plots, interface elements are shown to have a
finite thickness, but in the finite element formulation the coordinates of each node pair are
identical, which means that the element has a zero thickness.
The stiffness matrix for triangular interface elements is based on the properties as
defined in the material data sets and obtained by means of Gaussian integration using 6
integration points. The position of these integration points (or stress points) is chosen
such that the numerical integration is exact for linear stress distributions. For more details
about the element formulation reference is made to the Scientific Manual.
At interface ends interface element node pairs are 'degenerated ' to single nodes. Also
when structural elements are connected perpendicular to each other (for example, a plate
is connected to a beam), interface element node pairs are locally 'degenerated' to single
nodes to avoid a disconnection between both structural elements.

Interfaces around corner points

Figure 5.32 and Figure 5.33 show that problems of soil-structure interaction may involve
points that require special attention. Corners in stiff structures and an abrupt change in
boundary condition may lead to high peaks in the stresses and strains. Volume elements
are not capable of reproducing these sharp peaks and will, as a result, produce

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non-physical stress oscillations. This problem can be solved by making use of interface
elements as shown in Figure 5.33.

Figure 5.32 Inflexible corner point, causing poor quality stress results

Figure 5.33 Flexible corner point with improved stress results

Figure 5.33 shows that the problem of stress oscillation may be prevented by specifying
additional interface elements inside the soil body. These elements will enhance the
flexibility of the finite element mesh and will thus prevent non-physical stress results.
However, these elements should not introduce an unrealistic weakness in the soil.
Therefore special attention should be made to the properties of these interface elements
(Section 6.1.4).
At interface ends, interface element node pairs are 'degenerated' to single nodes. When
an interface exists on only one side of a structure, the interface end node is collapsed to
the corresponding structure node. As a result, there exists only one node at that location.
When interfaces are assigned on both sides of a structure the end nodes of the interfaces
are collapsed, however the collapsed node is not the corresponding structure node. As a
result, there exist two node at that specific location, the structure node and the node
shared by both interfaces. The interactions between the structure and the surrounding
soil at that node is controlled by a combined effect of both interfaces. Also when
structural elements are connected perpendicular to each other (for example, a plate is
connected to a beam), interface element node pairs are locally 'degenerated' to single
nodes to avoid a disconnection between both structural elements, connecting them
rigidly. A description on how to define a non-rigid connection is given in Section 7.9.4.
Additional theoretical details on this special use of interface elements is provided by
Goodman, Taylor & Brekke (1968) and van Langen & Vermeer (1991).

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Hint: If an interface is defined at only one side of the structure, it is strongly

advised to extend the interface beyond the bottom of the plate to avoid that
the bottom of the plate is fixed to the soil. In that case, a small interface
should be modelled in line with the plate but a bit below it. Properties of this
'extra' interface should be such that it does not lead to unrealistic soil
strength reduction.

5.7 HYDRAULIC CONDITIONS

As an alternative to a direct generation of pore pressures based on the water conditions

in the boreholes and the soil clusters, the pore pressure distribution may be calculated on
the basis of a groundwater flow calculation or a fully coupled flow-deformation analysis.
This requires the definition of groundwater flow boundary conditions, which are termed
Hydraulic conditions. Hydraulic conditions may also include special conditions that can
be imposed to the model to control the pore pressure at certain locations in the case of
groundwater flow calculations or fully coupled flow-deformation analysis.
The creation of a hydraulic condition is similar to the creation of a geometric entity. The
options available in the menu displayed as the Create hydraulic conditions button is
selected in the side toolbar (Figure 5.34), provide a faster definition of conditions. Instead
of creating the geometric entity and then assigning a hydraulic condition to it, the whole
process is completed in one step. To assign hydraulic conditions to existing geometry
entities:
Select the button corresponding to the hydraulic condition from the menu appearing
when the Create hydraulic conditions button is selected (Figure 5.34).

Figure 5.34 Create hydraulic conditions menu

• Drag the tool (keep the left mouse button down) and drop it on the geometric entity.
Note that the assignment of hydraulic conditions is also possible by right-clicking the
geometric entity either in the draw area or in the Object explorers and selecting the
corresponding option in the appearing menu.
Although the input values of hydraulic conditions are specified in the geometry model, the
activation, deactivation or change of values may be considered in the framework of
Staged construction (Section 7.9.1).
In addition to the specific boundary conditions as considered here, global model
conditions for the model as a whole in terms of 'open' and 'closed' boundaries as well as
precipitation conditions can be defined for each calculation phase in the Model conditions
subtree in the Model explorer (Section 7.9.9). Note that specific hydraulic conditions have
priority over global model conditions.

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For transient groundwater flow and fully coupled flow-deformation analysis, hydraulic
conditions can be defined as a function of time using so-called Flow functions (Section
5.8).

5.7.1 WELL
In order to define a well, the Create well option should be selected from the menu
appearing as the Create hydraulic conditions button is clicked. The creation of a
well in the geometry model is similar to the creation of a line (Section 5.2.2). Wells are
used to prescribe lines inside the geometry model where a specific flux (discharge) is
extracted from or infiltrated into the soil. The required properties of a well are:
Behaviour The behaviour of the well needs to be specified. The available
options are Extraction (taking water from the ground) and
Infiltration (bringing water into the ground).
|Qwell | The discharge of the well.
hmin The minimum possible head in the well. When the groundwater
head reduces below the hmin level no further extraction will
occur. As a habit, hmin may be set equal to the bottom level of
the well in the ground.
This option is only relevant for groundwater flow calculations and fully coupled
flow-deformation analysis. Wells can be activated or de-activated in calculation phases.

Hint: When a well intersects multiple soil layers the prescribed flux for each soil
layer is a function of the saturated permeability and the intersected depth.
» Note that the saturated permeability is specified in the Flow parameters
tabsheet of the material dataset.

5.7.2 LINE DRAIN

In order to define a line drain, the Create line drain option should be selected
from the menu appearing as the Create hydraulic conditions button is clicked. The
creation of a drain in the geometry model is similar to the creation of a geometry line
(Section 5.2.2). Line drains are used to prescribe lines inside the geometry model where
(excess) pore pressures are reduced.
Together with the creation of a line drain, the input of a groundwater head (h) is required.
This option is only relevant for consolidation analysis, groundwater flow calculations or
fully coupled analysis. In such calculations, the pore pressure in all nodes of the drain is
reduced such that it is equivalent to the given head. Pore pressures lower than the
equivalent to the given head are not affected by the drain. Drains can be activated or
de-activated in calculation phases.

5.7.3 SURFACE DRAIN

In order to define a surface drain, the Create surface drain option should
be selected from the menu appearing as the Create hydraulic conditions button is

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clicked. The creation of a drain in the geometry model is similar to the creation of a
surface (Section 5.2.4). Surface drains are used to prescribe surfaces inside the
geometry model where (excess) pore pressures are reduced.
Together with the creation of a surface drain, the input of a groundwater head (h) is
required. This option is only relevant for consolidation analyses or groundwater flow
calculations. In such calculations, the pore pressure in all nodes of the drain is reduced
such that it is equivalent to the given head. Pore pressures lower than the equivalent to
the given head are not affected by the drain. Drains can be activated or de-activated in
calculation phases.

5.7.4 SURFACE FLOW BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

In order to define a surface flow boundary condition, the Create surface
groundwater flow boundary condition option should be selected from the menu
appearing as the Create hydraulic conditions button is clicked. The creation of a surface
flow boundary condition in the geometry model is similar to the creation of a surface
(Section 5.2.4).
The behaviour of the surface flow boundary conditions can be specified by selecting the
corresponding option in the Object explorer. Figure 5.35 shows the behaviour options
available.

Figure 5.35 Options for the behaviour of Surface groundwater flow boundary conditions

Hint: The boundary conditions at the extremities of the model can be conveniently
specified in the Model conditions subtree in the Model explorer. By default
the bottom of the model is set to Closed, preventing flow across it, whereas
the three remaining boundaries are set to Open (Seepage).
» In a calculation phase the hydraulic conditions defined using the Surface flow
boundary conditions feature always prevail over the Model conditions. As an
example, if if a surface flow boundary conditions is placed on the top surface
and precipitation is specified in Model conditions only the behaviour specified
for the surface flow boundary condition will be considered, ignoring the
precipitation.

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Seepage: A Seepage boundary is a boundary where water can flow in or out freely. It is
generally used at the ground surface above the phreatic level or above the external water
level.
If a surface flow boundary is set to Seepage and is completely above the (external) water
level, then the seepage condition applies to this boundary. This means that water inside
the geometry may flow freely out of this boundary.
If a boundary is Seepage and completely below the (external) water level, the free
boundary condition automatically turns into a groundwater head condition. In that case
the magnitude of the groundwater head in each boundary node is determined by the
vertical distance between the boundary node and the water level.
The pore pressure is zero where a (external) water level crosses a geometry boundary
surface. The part of the geometry surface above the transition line is treated as a
boundary above the water level, whereas the part of the geometry surface below the
transition line is treated as a boundary below the water level. Hence, different conditions
can apply to such a geometry boundary surface. This is possible because, in general, a
geometry surface consists of many nodes and the actual information on boundary
conditions as used by the calculation program is contained in the boundary nodes rather
than in geometry surfaces.

Hint: Note that a boundary that is explicitly set to Seepage will NOT automatically
turn into an Infiltration boundary when precipitation is specified.

Closed: When the Closed option is assigned to a boundary, no flow can occur across it.
Flow, in this case, refers to groundwater flow (in groundwater flow calculations and fully
coupled flow-deformation analysis) as well as dissipation of excess pore pressure (in
consolidation calculations).
Head: In addition to the automatic setting of hydraulic conditions based on the general
phreatic level in Model conditions (Section 7.8.4), a prescribed groundwater head may be
entered manually to the Surface groundwater flow boundary conditions defined by the
user in the model. If a groundwater head is prescribed at an outer geometry boundary,
external water pressures will be generated for that boundary. The deformation analysis
program will treat external water pressures as traction loads and they are taken into
account together with the soil weight and the pore pressures. Figure 5.36 shows the
options available for the definition of head in Object explorers.
The options available for variation of head along the boundary are:
Constant A constant value of the head (href ) is specified along the
boundary.
Linear A linear variation of the head along the boundary is specified.
The parameters required to specify a linear variation are:
href The reference head value at the
specified reference level.
hinc,z Increment value specifying the change
of the head with depth.

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zref The reference value for which the

reference head value is specified. If this
value is lower than the top of the
boundary, the head value below this
level is changed according to the hinc,z
value (h = href + zref - z hinc,z ).

Figure 5.36 Head definition in Object explorers

The options available for Time dependency of Head assigned to a surface flow boundary
condition are:
Constant The head in the boundary does not change with time
Time dependent The head in the boundary varies with time. This option is only
available for transient flow and fully coupled flow-deformation
analysis. The flow function representing the time dependency
can be selected from the drop-down menu. Information on Flow
functions is available in Section 5.8.
Inflow: Inflow to the model through a boundary can be specified by selecting the
corresponding Behaviour option in the Object explorers. Figure 5.37 shows the options
available for the definition of inflow.
The options available for the distribution of the inflow discharge along the boundary are:
Constant A constant value of the discharge is specified along the
boundary. The value is assigned to the |qref | parameter.
Linear A linear variation of the discharge along the boundary is
specified. The parameters required to specify a linear variation
are:
|qref | The reference head value at the
specified reference level.
|qinc,z | Increment value specifying the rate of
variation of discharge along the
boundary

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zref The reference level for which the

reference discharge is specified. If this
value is lower than the top of the
boundary, the discharge value below
this level is changed according to the
|qinc,z | value.

Figure 5.37 Inflow definition in Object explorers

The options available for Time dependency of the discharge are:

Constant The discharge does not change with time
Time dependent The discharge in the boundary varies with time. This option is
only available for transient flow and fully coupled
flow-deformation analysis. The flow function representing the
time dependency can be selected from the drop-down menu.
Information on Flow functions is available in Section 5.8.
Outflow: Outflow from the model through a boundary can be specified by selecting the
corresponding option for Behaviour in the Object explorers. Figure 5.38 shows the
options available for the definition of outflow:
The options available for the distribution of the outflow discharge along the boundary are:
Constant A constant value of the discharge is specified along the
boundary. The value is assigned to the |qref | parameter.
Linear A linear variation of the discharge along the boundary is
specified. The parameters required to specify a linear variation
are:
|qref | The reference head value at the
specified reference level.
|qinc,z | Increment value specifying the rate of
variation of discharge along the
boundary

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zref The reference level for which the

reference discharge is specified. If this
value is lower than the top of the
boundary, the discharge value below
this level is changed according to the
|qinc,z | value.

Figure 5.38 Outflow definition in Object explorers

The options available for variation of discharge with time are (Time dependency):
Constant The discharge does not change with time
Time dependent The discharge in the boundary varies with time. This option is
only available for transient flow and fully coupled
flow-deformation analysis. The flow function representing the
time dependency can be selected from the drop-down menu.
Information on Flow functions is available in Section 5.8.
Infiltration: Apart from the automatic generation of infiltration boundary conditions from
precipitation (Section 7.8.4), infiltration conditions may also be specified manually for
geometry boundaries above the water level. Infiltration boundary condition is a
conditional inflow. Figure 5.39 shows the properties of infiltration in Object explorers. The
parameters required for an infiltration boundary are:
q Recharge (infiltration), specified in the unit of length per unit of
time. Negative values can be used to model evapotranspiration
(evaporation + transpiration).
ψmax Maximum pore pressure head, relative to the elevation of the
boundary, specified in the unit of length (default 0.1 length units).
ψmin Minimum pore pressure head, relative to the elevation of the
boundary, specified in the unit of length (default -1.0 length
units).
The options available for variation of discharge with time are (Time dependency):
Constant The discharge does not change with time

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Time dependent The discharge in the boundary varies with time. This option is
only available for transient flow and fully coupled
flow-deformation analysis. The flow function representing the
time dependency can be selected from the drop-down menu.
Information on Flow functions is available in Section 5.8.

Hint: Note that a negative value of infiltration represents Evaporation.

Figure 5.39 Infiltration definition in Object explorers

5.8 FLOW FUNCTIONS

Flow functions describing the variation with time of quantities such as Head and
Discharge can be defined in the corresponding subtree under the Attributes library in the
Model explorer (Figure 5.40).

Figure 5.40 Flow functions subtree in Model explorer

Flow functions can be assigned to Water levels or Surface groundwater flow boundary
conditions. Note that time-dependent conditions can be defined for all behaviour options
except for Seepage and Closed.

Hint: Flow functions cannot be assigned to non-horizontal water levels.

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Functions can be defined in the corresponding window that pops up when the Flow
functions subtree is right-clicked and the Edit option is selected in the appearing menu.
The window consists of two tabsheets, i.e Head functions and Discharge functions, where
the functions applicable to head and discharge can be defined respectively (Figure 5.41).

Figure 5.41 Flow functions window

The buttons available under the function tabs can be used to add new functions or to
delete the function selected in the list. When a new function is added, the options to
define it are displayed.
Name The name of the flow function can be defined.
Signal The type of the signal can be assigned, The options available
are Linear, Harmonic and Table.
The options available in the Signal drop-down menu are described in the following
sections.

5.8.1 HARMONIC
This option can be used when a condition varies harmonically in time. The harmonic
variation of the water level is generally described as:

y (t) = y0 + A sin(ω0 t + φ0 ), with ω0 = 2π/T

in which A is the amplitude (in unit of length), T is the wave period (in unit of time) and φ0
is the initial phase angle. y0 is the centre of the harmonic variation, not necessarily equal
to the water level at the end of the previous phase (y '0 ). In fact the later is equal to:

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y '0 = y0 + A sin(ω0 )

Figure 5.42 shows the Flow functions window where a Harmonic signal is defined and
plotted.

Figure 5.42 Definition and display of a Harmonic signal in the Flow functions window

5.8.2 SIGNAL FROM TABLE

Besides a harmonic signal there is also the possibility to define a signal by specifying the
values in the table that appears when the corresponding option is selected in the Signal
drop-down menu. The table consists of Time and Head columns. The buttons in the
toolbar can be used to modify the table.
Click the Add row button in the toolbar to add a new row in the table.
Click the Insert button to insert a new row before the selected row in the table.
Click the Delete button to delete the selected row in the table.
The values can be defined by clicking the cell in the table and by typing the value.

Importing data for signals

Besides defining the signal in the table, there is also the possibility
to read data from a file with a digitised signal using the Open button in the toolbar.

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Hint: PLAXIS assumes the data file is located in the current project directory when
no directory is specified.

A signal, either defined in a table or received from a file and modified, can be
saved using the Save button in the toolbar enabling the usage of the signal in other
projects or validating the effect of the modifications in the current project.
A signal, either defined in a table or received
from a file and modified, can be copied using the Copy button in the toolbar.
Copied data from other applications (using <Ctrl+c>) can be imported by using the
Paste button. The Import data window appears (Figure 5.43). The starting row of
the data to be imported can be defined in the From row cell. The data and the plot is
displayed in the Flow functions window after pressing OK.

Figure 5.43 Import data window for flow functions

Clicking the Open .txt file button on the right hand side of the window will open the
Open window where the file can be selected. The file must be an ASCII file that can
be created with any text editor. For every line a pair of values (actual time and
corresponding water level value) must be defined, leaving at least one space between
them. Note that PLAXIS only supports the English notation of decimal numbers using a
dot. The resulting graph of the input data is shown in the Graph tabsheet of the Time
dependent condition window.

5.8.3 LINEAR
This option can be used to describe the increase or decrease of a condition linearly in
time. For a linear variation of groundwater head, the input of the following parameters are
required:
∆Head This parameter, specified in unit of length, represents the
increase or decrease of the water level in the time interval for the
current calculation phase. Hence, together with the time interval
this parameter determines the rate of the water level increase or
decrease.
t This parameter represents the time interval for the calculation
phase, expressed in unit of time. Note that the time interval

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specified for a function does not effect the duration of a phase as

defined in the Phases window.
For a linear variation of discharge infiltration, inflow or outflow the input of the following
parameters are required for the discharge in the corresponding tabsheet:
∆q This parameter, specified in unit of volume per unit of time,
represents the increase or decrease of the specific discharge in
the time interval of the current calculation phase.

Hint: The time value in flow functions always refers to the global time in the whole
list of calculation phases rather than to the time interval of an individual
phase. This means that in a series of consecutive flow calculations each
phase will only use its corresponding part of the flow function.

5.8.4 FLOW FUNCTIONS IN CONSECUTIVE PHASES

A flow function can be assigned as an atribute to Surface groundwater flow boundaries or
to Water levels. PLAXIS ensures the continuity of the flow functions in consecutive
phases when the corresponding options are selected in the Phase definition modes.

Function continuity for boundaries

Besides the options described in Section 5.7.4, two new options are added for boundary
conditions in the Phase definition mode (Figure 5.44). These options are:
Constant value from previous phase
The condition of the boundary in the current phase is a
continuation of the state reached at the end of the previous
phase and it will not change during the calculation of the phase.
Maintain function from the previous phase
The condition of the boundary in the current phase is equal to
the state reached in the previous phase. PLAXIS enables
continuity of the state at the boundary according to the flow
function assigned to the boundary in the previous phase. The
accumulated time from the previous phases is used as an offset
to enter the flow function for the current phase.

Function continuity for water levels

The continuity of the flow functions assigned to water levels in consecutive phases can
be maintained by using the options available in the pop up menu displayed when the
water level is right-clicked. These options are:
Create the reached water level
When this option is selected a new water level is created at the
position reached at the end of the previous phase. The location
of the water level will be constant in the current phase.
Create the reached water level and continue

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Figure 5.44 Options for boundary condition behaviour in Phase definition modes

When this option is selected a new water level is created at the

position reached at the end of the previous phase. The location
of the water level in the current phase will change from that point
on according to the flow function assigned to the original water
level in the previous phase. PLAXIS ensures the continuity of the
flow function, whereby the accumulated time from previous
phases is used as an offset to enter the flow function for the
current phase.

5.9 IMPORT STRUCTURES

PLAXIS 3D allows to import geometry. This can be done by using the Import soil volume
button in the Soil mode or the Import volume or the top and bottom soil surfaces can be
imported in the Surfaces tabsheet of the Modify soil layers window.
In the Structures mode, geometry can be imported by clicking the Import structures
button available in the side toolbar. Note that only surfaces and volumes can be
imported. When importing a geometry file, a list of possible file extensions are shown.
Most common import file types are:
AutoCAD native (*.DWG) and interchange (*.DXF)
For DWG and DXF files only the 3DFACE entities are supported
(i.e. surfaces/volume boundaries made up of triangles or
quadrilaterals), other entity types are ignored.
3D Studio files (*.3DS) Valid surfaces or volumes need to be defined.
In both cases a file requester pops up from which the desired surface or volume can be
selected.

Hint: PLAXIS 3D provides predefined geometry objects. The corresponding files

are available in the Importables folder located in the program installation
folder.

After selecting the file, the Import structures window pops up (Figure 5.45), where the
geometry can be modified. It is possible to import only surfaces or volumes by keeping

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the corresponding option checked in the Import structures window.

Figure 5.45 The Import structures window

Scaling
The imported geometry can be scaled by defining factors for each of the global
directions. The Keep original aspect ratio option enables applying the same scale to all
the directions. In this case, only the scale value for the x-direction can be changed.

Axis transformation
The orientation of the imported geometry might need to be modified in order to be
properly mounted in the project.
Source vertical axis It enables reorienting the imported geometry such that the
vertical axes of the imported geometry and the program
coincide. The source vertical axis enables axis transformation
according to the right hand rule of rotation. Note that the vertical
direction in PLAXIS 3D is the z-axis.
Mirror y-axis The geometry will be transformed such that the values of y
coordinates will be changed to −y coordinates (effectively in the
xz-plane).
Swap x-axis and y-axis The geometry will be transformed such that the values of x
coordinates will be changed to y coordinates and vice versa.

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Insertion point
When a geometric object is imported, its reference point is located at (0 0 0) in the model.
Redefining the location of the insertion point will relocate the reference point.

Bounding box
The coordinates of the box bounding the imported geometry are shown.

Hint: Material properties of volumes or surfaces are not imported and need to be
created in the material data base.
» A description of the feature and an illustration movie is given in the
Knowledge Base section of the PLAXIS website (www.plaxis.nl).

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6 MATERIAL PROPERTIES AND MATERIAL DATABASE

In PLAXIS, soil properties and material properties of structures are stored in material
data sets. There are six different types of material sets grouped as data sets for soil and
interfaces, beams, embedded piles, plates, geogrids anchors. All data sets are stored in
the material database. From the database, the data sets can be assigned to the soil
clusters or to the corresponding structural objects in the geometry model.
The material database can be activated by selecting the option Show materials
in the Soil menu of the Soil mode or in the Structures menu of the Structures mode.
Another way to activate the material database is by clicking on the Show materials button
available in the Soil, Structures and Staged construction modes.
As a result, the Material sets window appears showing the contents of the project
material database. The window can be extended to show the global database by clicking
the Show global button in the upper part of the window. The Material sets window
displaying the material defined in the current project and the ones available in a selected
global database is shown in Figure 6.1.

Figure 6.1 Material sets window showing the project and the global database

The database of a new project is empty. The global database can be used to store
material data sets in a global folder and to exchange data sets between different projects.
At both sides of the window (Project materials and Global materials) there are two
drop-down menus and a tree view. The Set type can be selected from the drop-down
menu on the left hand side. The Set type parameter determines which type of material
data set is displayed in the tree view (Soil and interfaces, Plates, Geogrids, Beams,
Embedded piles, Anchors).
The data sets in the tree view are identified by a user-defined name. The data sets for
Soil and interfaces can be ordered in groups according to the material model, the
material type or the name of the data set by selecting this order in the Group order
drop-down menu. The None option can be used to discard the group ordering.

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The small buttons between the two tree views can be used to copy individual data sets
from the project database to the selected global database or vice versa.
To copy the selected project material set to the global database.
To copy all the project material sets of the specified type to the global database.
To copy the selected global material set to the project database.
The location of the selected global database is shown below its tree view. The buttons
below the tree view of the global database enable actions in the global database.
Select To select an existing global database.
Delete To delete a selected material data set from the selected global
database.
By default, the global database for soil and interface data contains the data sets of all the
tutorials and it is contained in the file 'SoilMat.matdb'. This file is compatible with other
PLAXIS database files for soil and interfaces and is stored in the installation folder of
PLAXIS 3D. Material data sets for structural elements will be contained in separate files.
Similarly, the global data bases for plates, geogrids, beams, embedded piles and anchors
are contained in the files 'PlateMat3D.matdb', 'GeogridMat.matdb', 'BeamMat.matdb',
'EmbeddedPileMat.matdb' and 'AnchorMat3D.matdb' respectively.
Note that besides the global material files (*.matdb), it is possible to select project
material files (*.plxmat) and legacy project material files (*.mat) as global database.
In addition, databases with data sets of standard sheet-pile wall profiles are available
from the Plaxis Knowledge Base
(http://kb.plaxis.nl/downloads/material-parameter-datasets-sheetpiles-and-beams).

Hint: A new global database can be created by clicking the Select button, defining
the name of the new global database and clicking Open.

The project data base can be managed using the buttons below the tree view of the
project database.
New To create a new data set in the project. As a result, a new
window appears in which the material properties or model
parameters can be entered. The first item to be entered is
always the Identification, which is the user-defined name of the
data set. After completing a data set, it will appear in the tree
view, indicated by its name as defined by the Identification.
Edit To modify the selected data set in the project material database.
SoilTest To perform standard soil lab tests. A separate window will open
where several basic soil tests can be simulated and the
behaviour of the selected soil material model with the given
material parameters can be checked (Section 6.3).
Copy To create a copy of a selected data set in the project material
database.

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Delete To delete a selected material data set from the project material
database.

Hint: In a Material dataset window (Section 6.1 to 6.8) it is possible to go through

the options with arrows and/or <Enter>. When a property such as Material
model or Drainage type, is reached, the drop-down menu can be activated
by pressing the <Space> key. Arrows and /or letters can be used to make a
selection, that is finalized by pressing <Enter>.

6.1 MODELLING SOIL AND INTERFACE BEHAVIOUR

The material properties and model parameters for soil clusters are entered in material
data sets (Figure 6.2). The properties in the data sets are divided into five tabsheets:
General, Parameters, Flow parameters, Interfaces and Initial.

6.1.1 GENERAL TABSHEET

The General tabsheet contains the type of soil model, the drainage type and the general
soil properties such as unit weights. Several data sets may be created to distinguish
between different soil layers. A user may specify any identification title for a data set in
the General tabsheet of the Soil window. It is advisable to use a meaningful name since
the data set will appear in the database tree view by its identification.
For easy recognition in the model, a colour is given to a certain data set. This colour also
appears in the database tree view. PLAXIS 3D selects a unique default colour for a data
set, but this colour may be changed by the user. Changing the colour can be done by
clicking on the colour box in the General tabsheet.

Figure 6.2 General tabsheet of the Soil window

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Material model
Soil and rock tend to behave in a highly non-linear way under load. This non-linear
stress-strain behaviour can be modelled at several levels of sophistication. Clearly, the
number of model parameters increases with the level of sophistication. PLAXIS supports
different models to simulate the behaviour of soil and other continua. The models and
their parameters are described in detail in the Material Models Manual. A short
discussion of the available models is given below:
Linear elastic model: This model represents Hooke's law of isotropic linear elasticity.
The linear elastic model is too limited for the simulation of soil behaviour. It is primarily
used for stiff structures in the soil.
Mohr-Coulomb model (MC): This well-known linear elastic perfectly-plastic model is
used as a first approximation of soil behaviour in general. It is recommended to use this
model for a first analysis of the problem considered. A constant average stiffness is
estimated for the soil layer. Due to this constant stiffness, computations tend to be
relatively fast and a first estimate of deformations can be obtained.
Hardening Soil model (HS): This is an advanced model for the simulation of soil
behaviour. The Hardening Soil model is an elastoplastic type of hyperbolic model,
formulated in the framework of shear hardening plasticity. Moreover, the model involves
compression hardening to simulate irreversible compaction of soil under primary
compression. This second-order model can be used to simulate the behaviour of sands
and gravel as well as softer types of soil such as clays and silts.
Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness (HSsmall): This is an elastoplastic
type of hyperbolic model, similar to the Hardening Soil model. Moreover, this model
incorporates strain dependent stiffness moduli, simulating the different reaction of soils
from small strains (for example vibrations with strain levels below 10-5 ) to large strains
(engineering strain levels above 10-3 ).
Soft Soil model (SS): This is a Cam-Clay type model that can be used to simulate the
behaviour of soft soils like normally consolidated clays and peat. The model performs
best in situations of primary compression.
Soft Soil Creep model (SSC): This is a second order model formulated in the
framework of viscoplasticity. The model can be used to simulate the time-dependent
behaviour of soft soils like normally consolidated clays and peat. The model includes
logarithmic primary and secondary compression.
Jointed Rock model (JR): This is an anisotropic elastic-perfectly plastic model where
plastic shearing can only occur in a limited number of shearing directions. This model
can be used to simulate the anisotropic behaviour of stratified or jointed rock.
Modified Cam-Clay model (MCC): This well-known critical state model can be used to
simulate the behaviour of normally consolidated soft soils. The model assumes a
logarithmic relationship between the volumetric strain and the mean effective stress.
NGI-ADP model (NGI-ADP): The NGI-ADP model may be used for capacity,
deformation and soil-structure interaction analysis involving undrained loading of clay.
Distinct anisotropic stress strengths may be defined for different stress paths.
Hoek-Brown model (HB): This well-known elastic perfectly-plastic model is used to
simulate the isotropic behaviour of rock. A constant stiffness is used for the rock mass.
Shear failure and tension failure are described by a non-linear stress curve.

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User-defined soil models (UDSM): With this option it is possible to use other
constitutive models than the standard PLAXIS models. For a detailed description of this
facility, reference is made to the Material Models Manual. Links to existing User-defined
soil models are available on the Plaxis Knowledge Base (http://kb.plaxis.nl/models).

Drainage type
In principle, all model parameters in PLAXIS are meant to represent the effective soil
response, i.e. the relationship between the stresses and the strains associated with the
soil skeleton. An important feature of soil is the presence of pore water. Pore pressures
significantly influence the (time-dependent) soil response. PLAXIS offers several options
to enable incorporation of the water-skeleton interaction in the soil response. The most
advanced option is a Fully coupled flow-deformation analysis. However, in many cases it
is sufficient to analyse either the long-term (drained) response or the short-term
(undrained) response without considering the time-dependent development of pore
pressures. In the latter case (undrained), excess pore pressures are generated as a
result of stress changes (loading or unloading). The dissipation of these excess pore
pressures with time can be analysed in a Consolidation calculation.
The simplified water-skeleton interaction, as considered in a Plastic calculation, a Safety
analysis or a Dynamic analysis, is defined by the Drainage type parameter. PLAXIS
offers a choice of different types of drainage:
Drained behaviour: Using this setting no excess pore pressures are generated. This is
clearly the case for dry soils and also for full drainage due to a high permeability (sands)
and/or a low rate of loading. This option may also be used to simulate long-term soil
behaviour without the need to model the precise history of undrained loading and
consolidation.
Undrained behaviour: This setting is used for saturated soils in cases where pore
water cannot freely flow through the soil skeleton. Flow of pore water can sometimes be
neglected due to a low permeability (clays) and/or a high rate of loading. All clusters that
are specified as undrained will indeed behave undrained, even if the cluster or a part of
the cluster is located above the phreatic level.
Distinction is made between three different methods of modelling undrained soil
behaviour. Method A is an undrained effective stress analysis with effective stiffness as
well as effective strength parameters. This method will give a prediction of the pore
pressures and the analysis can be followed by a consolidation analysis. The undrained
shear strength (su ) is a consequence of the model rather than an input parameter. It is
recommended to check this shear strength with known data. To consider this type of
analysis, the Undrained (A) option should be selected in the Drainage type drop-down
menu.
Method B is an undrained effective stress analysis with effective stiffness parameters and
undrained strength parameters. The undrained shear strength su is an input parameter.
This method will give a prediction of pore pressures. However, when followed by a
consolidation analysis, the undrained shear strength (su ) is not updated, since this is an
input parameter. To consider this type of analysis, the Undrained (B) option should be
selected in the Drainage type drop-down menu.
Method C is an undrained total stress analysis with all parameters undrained. This
method will not give a prediction of pore pressures. Therefore it is not useful to perform a

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consolidation analysis. The undrained shear strength (su ) is an input parameter. To

consider this type of analysis, the Undrained (C) option should be selected in the
Drainage type drop-down menu.
More information about modelling undrained behaviour can be found in Section 6.2 and
the Material Models Manual.
Non-porous behaviour: Using this setting neither initial nor excess pore pressures will
be taken into account in clusters of this type. Applications may be found in the modelling
of concrete or structural behaviour. Non-porous behaviour is often used in combination
with the Linear elastic model. The input of a saturated weight is not relevant for
non-porous materials or intact rock.
In a consolidation analysis or a fully coupled flow-deformation analysis it is the
permeability parameter in the Flow tabsheet that determines the drainage capacity of a
layer rather than the drainage type. Still, the drainage type has influence on the applied
compressibility of water in a consolidation analysis or a fully coupled flow-deformation
analysis. For more information see Appendix C.

Hint: The Drainage type setting is only considered in a Plastic calculation, a Safety
analysis or a Dynamic analysis. When a Consolidation analysis or a Fully
coupled flow-deformation analysis is performed, the Drainage type is ignored
and the soil response is determined by the Permeability of the material.

Saturated and unsaturated weight (γsat and γunsat )

The saturated and the unsaturated weights, entered as a force per unit volume, refer to
the total unit weight of the soil skeleton including the fluid in the pores. The unsaturated
weight γunsat applies to all material above the phreatic level and the saturated unit weight
γsat applies to all material below the phreatic level, where the phreatic level itself is
generally defined as the level where the steady-state pore pressure is zero (psteady = 0).
Only in the case of a fully coupled flow-deformation analysis, the phreatic level is defined
as the level where the current pore water pressure is zero (pwater = 0). This means that
during a fully coupled flow-deformation analysis the position of the phreatic level and
hence the material weight can change.
For non-porous material only the unsaturated weight is relevant, which is just the total unit
weight. For porous soils the unsaturated weight is obviously smaller than the saturated
weight. For sands, for example, the saturated weight is generally around 20 kN/m3
whereas the unsaturated weight can be significantly lower, depending on the degree of
saturation.
Note that soils in practical situations are never completely dry. Hence, it is advisable not
to enter the fully dry unit weight for γunsat . For example, clays above the phreatic level
may be almost fully saturated due to capillary action. Other zones above the phreatic
level may be partially saturated. PLAXIS can deal with partially saturated soil behaviour
above the phreatic level. However, the unit weight of soil is always defined here by γunsat ,
irrespective of the degree-of-saturation.
Weights are activated by means of Gravity loading or K0 procedure in the Calculation
mode, which is always the first calculation phase (Initial phase) (see Section 7.3.1).

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Advanced general properties

Additional properties for advanced modelling features can be defined in the Advanced
subtree in the General tabsheet (Figure 6.2).
Void ratio (einit , emin , emax ): The void ratio, e, is related to the porosity, n
(e = n/(1 − n)). This quantity is used in some special options. The initial value einit is the
value in the initial situation. The actual void ratio is calculated in each calculation step
from the initial value and the volumetric strain ∆v . These parameters are used to
calculate the change of permeability when input is given for the ck value (in the Flow
tabsheet). In addition to einit , a minimum value emin and a maximum value emax can be
entered. These values are related to the maximum and minimum density that can be
reached in the soil. When the Hardening Soil model or Hardening Soil model with
small-strain stiffness is used with a certain (positive) value of dilatancy, the mobilised
dilatancy is set to zero as soon as the maximum void ratio is reached (this is termed
dilatancy cut-off). For other models this option is not available. To avoid the dilatancy
cut-off in the Hardening Soil model or Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness
the option may be deselected in the Advanced general properties subtree.
Rayleigh α and β : Material damping in dynamic calculations is caused by the viscous
properties of soil, friction and the development of irreversible strains. All plasticity models
in PLAXIS 3D can generate irreversible (plastic) strains, and may thus cause material
damping. However, this damping is generally not enough to model the damping
characteristics of real soils. For example, most soil models show pure elastic behaviour
upon unloading and reloading which does not lead to damping at all. There is one model
in PLAXIS that includes viscous behaviour, which is the Soft Soil Creep model. Using the
model in dynamic calculations may lead to viscous damping, but also the Soft Soil Creep
model hardly shows any creep strain in load / reload cycles. There is also one model in
PLAXIS that includes hysteretic behaviour in loading / reload cycles, which is the HS
small model (Chapter 7 of the Material Models Manual). When using this model, the
amount of damping that is obtained depends on the amplitude of the strain cycles.
Considering very small vibrations, even the HS small model does not show material
damping, whereas real soils still show a bit of viscous damping. Hence, additional
damping is needed to model realistic damping characteristics of soils in dynamic
calculations. This can be done by means of Rayleigh damping.
Rayleigh damping is a numerical feature in which a damping matrix C is composed by
adding a portion of the mass matrix M and a portion of the stiffness matrix K :

C = αM + βK

The parameters α and β are the Rayleigh coefficients and can be specified in the
corresponding cells in the Parameters tabsheet of the Soil window (Figure 6.3).
α is the parameter that determines the influence of mass in the damping of the system.
The higher α is, the more the lower frequencies are damped. β is the parameter that
determines the influence of stiffness in the damping of the system. The higher β is, the
more the higher frequencies are damped. In PLAXIS 3D, these parameters can be
specified for each material data set for soil and interfaces as well as for material data sets
for plates. In this way, the (viscous) damping characteristics can be specified for each
individual material in the finite element model.
Despite the considerable amount of research work in the field of dynamics, little has been

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Figure 6.3 Damping parameters in the General tabsheet

achieved yet for the development of a commonly accepted procedure for damping
parameter identification. Instead, for engineering purposes, some measures are made to
account for material damping. A commonly used engineering parameter is the damping
ratio ξ . The damping ratio is defined as ξ = 1 for critical damping, i.e. exactly the amount
of damping needed to let a single degree-of-freedom system that is released from an
initial excitation u0 , smoothly stop without rebouncing.
Considering Rayleigh damping, a relationship can be established between the damping
ratio ξ and the Rayleigh damping parameters α and β :

α + β ω 2 = 2 ω ξ and ω = 2 π f

where ω is the angular frequency in rad/s and f is the frequency in Hz (1/s).

Overdamped (ξ > 1)

Critically damped (ξ = 1)

Underdamped (ξ < 1)

Figure 6.4 Role of damping ratio ξ in free vibration of a single degree-of-freedom system

Solving this equation for two different target frequencies and corresponding target
damping ratios gives the required Rayleigh damping coefficients:
ω1 ξ2 − ω2 ξ1 ω1 ξ1 − ω2 ξ2
α = 2ω1 ω2 and β = 2
ω12 − ω22 ω12 − ω22
For example, when it is desired to have a target damping of 8% at the target frequencies
f = 1.5 Hz and 8.0 Hz, the corresponding Rayleigh damping ratios are α = 1.2698 and

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β = 0.002681. From Figure 6.5 it can be seen that within the range of frequencies as
defined by the target frequencies the damping is less than the target damping, whereas
outside this range the damping is more than the target damping.

0.5

0.4

1.5 8.0
Damping ratio (-)

0.3

0.2

Damping curve
0.1
8%
Influence of β Influence of α
0
0.1 1 10 100
Frequency (Hz)

Figure 6.5 Rayleigh damping parameter influence

The damping parameters (α and β ) can be automatically calculated by the program when
the target damping ratio (ξ ) and the target frequencies (f) are specified in the pane
displayed in the General tabsheet when one of the cells corresponding to the damping
parameters is clicked (Figure 6.6). A graph shows the damping ratio as a function of the
frequency.

Figure 6.6 Input of ξ and f

6.1.2 PARAMETERS TABSHEET

The Parameters tabsheet contains the stiffness and strength parameters of the selected
soil model. These parameters depend on the selected soil model as well as on the
selected drainage type.
Linear Elastic model (LE): The Parameters tabsheet for the Linear Elastic model

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(drained behaviour) is shown in Figure 6.7.

Hint: Optional drainage types when the Linear Elastic model is selected are:
Drained, Undrained (A), Undrained (C), and Non-porous.
» In the case of Undrained (A) or Non-porous drainage types, the same
parameters are used as for drained behaviour.
» In the case of Undrained (C) drainage type, an undrained Young's modulus
(Eu ) and undrained Poisson's ratio (νu ) are used.

The model involves two elastic stiffness parameters, namely the effective Young's
modulus E ' and the effective Poisson's ratio ν '.
E' : Effective Young's modulus [kN/m2 ]
ν' : Effective Poisson's ratio [-]
During the input for the Linear Elastic model the values of the shear modulus G and the
oedometer modulus Eoed are presented as auxiliary parameters (alternatives).
G : Shear modulus, where G = E' [kN/m2 ]
2(1 + ν ')
E '(1 − ν ')
Eoed : Oedometer modulus, where Eoed = [kN/m2 ]
(1 + ν ')(1 − 2ν ')

Figure 6.7 Parameters tabsheet for the Linear Elastic model (drained behaviour)

Note that the alternatives are influenced by the input values of E ' and ν '. Entering a
particular value for one of the alternatives G or Eoed results in a change of the Young's
modulus E '.
It is possible for the Linear Elastic model to specify a stiffness that varies linearly with
depth. Therefore, the increment of stiffness per unit of depth, E 'inc , can be defined.

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Together with the input of E 'inc the input of zref becomes relevant. For any z -coordinate
above zref the stiffness is equal to E 'ref . For any z -coordinate below zref the stiffness is
given by:

E '(z) = E ' + (zref − z)E 'inc z < zref (6.1)

The Linear Elastic model is usually inappropriate to model the highly non-linear behaviour
of soil, but it is of interest to simulate structural behaviour, such as thick concrete walls or
plates, for which strength properties are usually very high compared with those of soil.
For these applications, the Linear Elastic model will often be selected together with
Non-porous type of material behaviour in order to exclude pore pressures from these
structural elements.

Hint: When embedded piles penetrate a volume cluster with linear elastic material
behaviour, the specified value of the shaft resistance is ignored. The reason
for this is that the linear elastic material is not supposed to be soil, but part of
the structure. The connection between the pile and the structure is supposed
to be rigid to avoid, for example, punching of piles through a concrete deck.

Beside the parameters related to strength and stiffness of the soil, the velocities of wave
propagation in soil can be defined in the Parameters tabsheet of the Soil window when
the Dynamics module of the program is available. These velocities are:
p
Vs : Shear wave velocity, where Vs = G/ρ [m/s]
p
Vp : Compression wave velocity, where Vp = Eoed /ρ [m/s]
where ρ = γ/g .

Hint: Note that the wave velocities are influenced by the input values of E ' and ν '.
Entering a particular value for one of the wave velocities results in a change
of the Young's modulus.
» Velocities of wave propagation in soil can be defined only for models with
stress independent stiffness.

Mohr-Coulomb model (MC): The linear-elastic perfectly-plastic model with

Mohr-Coulomb failure contour (in short the Mohr-Coulomb model) requires a total of five
parameters (two stiffness parameters and three strength parameters), which are
generally familiar to most geotechnical engineers and which can be obtained from basic
tests on soil samples.

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Figure 6.8 Parameters tabsheet for the Mohr-Coulomb model (drained behaviour)

The stiffness parameters of the Mohr-Coulomb model (drained behaviour) are:

E' : Effective Young's modulus [kN/m2 ]
ν' : Effective Poisson's ratio [-]

Hint: Optional drainage types when Mohr-Coulomb model is selected are:

Drained, Undrained (A), Undrained (B), Undrained (C), and Non-porous.
» In the case of Undrained (A) or Non-porous drainage types, the same
parameters are used as for drained behaviour.
» In the case of Undrained (B) drainage type, ϕ = ϕu = 0, ψ = 0 and the
undrained shear strength su is used instead of the effective cohesion (c').
» In the case of Undrained (C) drainage type all parameters are undrained. i.e.
Eu , νu and su as undrained Young's modulus, undrained Poisson's ratio and
undrained shear strength respectively, and ϕ = ψ = 0.

Instead of using the Young's modulus as a stiffness parameter, alternative stiffness

parameters can be entered. These parameters, the relations and their standard units are
listed below:
G : Shear modulus, where G = E' [kN/m2 ]
2(1 + ν ')
E '(1 − ν ')
Eoed : Oedometer modulus, where Eoed = [kN/m2 ]
(1 + ν ')(1 − 2ν ')
Note that the alternatives are influenced by the input values of E ' and ν '. Entering a
particular value for one of the alternatives G or Eoed results in a change of the Young's
modulus E '.
Stiffness varying with depth can be defined in Mohr-Coulomb model by entering a value

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for E 'inc which is the increment of stiffness per unit of depth. Together with the input of
E 'inc the input of zref becomes relevant. For any z -coordinate above zref the stiffness is
equal to E 'ref . For any z -coordinate below zref the stiffness is given by:

E '(z) = E ' + (zref − z)E 'inc z < zref (6.2)

The strength parameters for the Mohr-Coulomb model are:

c 'ref : Effective cohesion [kN/m2 ]
ϕ' : Effective friction angle [◦ ]
ψ : Dilatancy angle [◦ ]
A cohesion varying with depth can be defined in Mohr-Coulomb model by entering a
value for c 'inc which is the increment of effective cohesion per unit of depth. Together with
the input of c 'inc the input of zref becomes relevant. For any z -coordinate above zref the
cohesion is equal to c 'ref . For any z -coordinate below zref the cohesion is given by:

c '(z) = c 'ref + (zref − z)c 'inc z < zref (6.3)

In some practical problems an area with tensile stresses may develop. This is allowed
when the shear stress is sufficiently small. However, the soil surface near a trench in clay
sometimes shows tensile cracks. This indicates that soil may also fail in tension instead
of in shear. Such behaviour can be included in a PLAXIS analysis by selecting the
Tension cut-off option. When selecting the Tension cut-off option the allowable tensile
strength may be entered. The default value of the tensile strength is zero.
Hardening Soil model (HS): The Parameters tabsheet for the Hardening Soil model is
shown in Figure 6.9.

Hint: Optional drainage types when Hardening Soil model is selected are:
Drained, Undrained (A), and Undrained (B).
» In the case of Undrained (A) drainage type, the same parameters are used
as for drained behaviour.
» In the case of Undrained (B) drainage type, ϕ = ϕu = 0 , ψ = 0 and the
undrained shear strength su is used instead of the effective cohesion (c').

The stiffness parameters of the Hardening Soil model are:

ref
E50 : Secant stiffness in standard drained triaxial test [kN/m2 ]
ref
Eoed : Tangent stiffness for primary oedometer loading [kN/m2 ]
ref
Eur : Unloading / reloading stiffness (default Eur
ref
= 3E50
ref
) [kN/m2 ]
m : Power for stress-level dependency of stiffness [-]

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Figure 6.9 Parameters tabsheet for the Hardening Soil model (drained behaviour)

Instead of entering the basic parameters for soil stiffness, alternative parameters can be
entered. These parameters are listed below:
Cc : Compression index [-]
Cs : Swelling index or reloading index [-]
einit : Initial void ratio [-]
In addition, advanced parameters can be defined for stiffness (it is advised to use the
default setting):
νur : Poisson's ratio for unloading-reloading (default ν = 0.2) [-]
pref : Reference stress for stiffnesses (default pref = 100 [kN/m2 ]
kN/m2 )
K0nc : K0 -value for normal consolidation (default K0nc = [-]
1 − sin ϕ)
The strength parameters of the present hardening model coincide with those of the
non-hardening Mohr-Coulomb model:
c 'ref : Effective cohesion [kN/m2 ]
ϕ' : Effective angle of internal friction [◦ ]
ψ : Angle of dilatancy [◦ ]
In addition, advanced parameters can be defined for strength:
c 'inc : As in Mohr-Coulomb model (default cinc = 0) [kN/m3 ]
zref : Reference level [m]
Rf : Failure ratio qf / qa (default Rf = 0.9) [-]

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Tension : To be selected when tension cut-off is considered [-]

cut-off
Tensile : The allowable tensile strength [kN/m2 ]
strength
In some practical problems an area with tensile stresses may develop. This is allowed
when the shear stress is sufficiently small. However, the soil surface near a trench in clay
sometimes shows tensile cracks. This indicates that soil may also fail in tension instead
of in shear. Such behaviour can be included in a PLAXIS analysis by selecting the
Tension cut-off option. When selecting the Tension cut-off option the allowable tensile
strength may be entered. The default value of the tensile strength is zero.
Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness (HSsmall): Compared to the
standard HS model, the HS small model requires two additional stiffness parameters as
input: γ0.7 and G0ref . The Parameters tabsheet for the HS small model is shown in Figure
6.10.

Hint: Optional drainage types when Hardening Soil model with small-strain
stiffness is selected are: Drained, Undrained (A), and Undrained (B).
» In the case of Undrained (A) drainage type, the same parameters are used
as for drained behaviour.
» In the case of Undrained (B) drainage type, ϕ = ϕu = 0, ψ = 0 and the
undrained shear strength su is used instead of the effective cohesion (c').

Figure 6.10 Parameters tabsheet for the HS small model (drained behaviour)

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All other parameters, including the alternative stiffness parameters, remain the same as
in the standard Hardening Soil model. In summary, the input stiffness parameters of the
HS small model are listed below:
Parameters for stiffness:
ref
E50 : Secant stiffness in standard drained triaxial test [kN/m2 ]
ref
Eoed : Tangent stiffness for primary oedometer loading [kN/m2 ]
ref
Eur : unloading / reload stiffness at engineering strains [kN/m2 ]
( ≈ 10−3 to 10−2 )
m : Power for stress-level dependency of stiffness [-]
Alternative parameters for stiffness:
Cc : Compression index [-]
Cs : Swelling index or reloading index [-]
einit : Initial void ratio [-]
Advanced parameters for stiffness:
νur : Poisson's ratio for unloading-reloading (default ν = 0.2) [-]
p ref
: Reference stress for stiffnesses (default p ref
= 100 [kN/m2 ]
kN/m2 )
K0nc : K0 -value for normal consolidation (default K0nc = [-]
1 − sin ϕ)
Parameters for strength:
c 'ref : Effective cohesion [kN/m2 ]
ϕ' : Effective angle of internal friction [◦ ]
ψ : Angle of dilatancy [◦ ]
Advanced parameters for strength:
c 'inc : As in Mohr-Coulomb model (default c 'inc = 0) [kN/m3 ]
zref : Reference level [m]
Rf : Failure ratio qf / qa (default Rf = 0.9) [-]
Tension : To be selected when tension cut-off is considered [-]
cut-off
Tensile : The allowable tensile strength [kN/m2 ]
strength
Parameters for small strain stiffness:
γ0.7 : shear strain at which Gs = 0.722G0 [-]
G0ref : reference shear modulus at very small strains [kN/m2 ]
( < 10−6 )
In some practical problems an area with tensile stresses may develop. This is allowed
when the shear stress is sufficiently small. However, the soil surface near a trench in clay
sometimes shows tensile cracks. This indicates that soil may also fail in tension instead

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of in shear. Such behaviour can be included in a PLAXIS analysis by selecting the

Tension cut-off option. When selecting the Tension cut-off option the allowable tensile
strength may be entered. The default value of the tensile strength is zero.

Hysteretic damping
The elastic modulus ratio is plotted as a function of the shear strain (γ ) in a side pane
when specifying the small-strain stiffness parameters (Modulus reduction curve). The HS
small model shows typical hysteretic behaviour when subjected to cyclic shear loading. In
dynamic calculations this leads to hysteretic damping. The damping ratio is plotted as a
function of the cyclic shear strain γc . Details are given in Brinkgreve, Kappert & Bonnier
(2007).

Figure 6.11 Effect of small strain stiffness parameters on damping

Hint: Note that the Modulus reduction curve and the Damping curve are based on
fully elastic behaviour. Plastic strains as a result of hardening or local failure
may lead to significant lower stiffness and higher damping.

Soft Soil model (SS): The Parameters tabsheet for the Soft Soil model is shown in
Figure 6.12.

Hint: Optional drainage types when Soft Soil model is selected are: Drained and
Undrained (A).
» In the case of Undrained (A) drainage type, the same parameters are used
as for drained behaviour.

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Figure 6.12 Parameters tabsheet for the Soft Soil model (drained behaviour)

The parameters for stiffness are:

λ∗ : Modified compression index [-]
∗
κ : Modified swelling index [-]
Alternative parameters can be used to define stiffness:
Cc : Compression index [-]
Cs : Swelling index or reloading index [-]
einit : Initial void ratio [-]
The parameters for strength are:
c 'ref : Effective cohesion [kN/m2 ]
ϕ' : Effective friction angle [◦ ]
ψ : Dilatancy angle [◦ ]
Advanced parameters (use default settings):
νur : Poisson’s ratio for unloading / reloading (default [-]
νur = 0.15)
K0nc : Coefficient of lateral stress in normal consolidation [-]
(default K0nc = 1 − sin ϕ)
M : K0nc - related parameter [-]
Tension : To be selected when tension cut-off is considered [-]
cut-off
Tensile : The allowable tensile strength [kN/m2 ]
strength
In some practical problems an area with tensile stresses may develop. This is allowed

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when the shear stress is sufficiently small. However, the soil surface near a trench in clay
sometimes shows tensile cracks. This indicates that soil may also fail in tension instead
of in shear. Such behaviour can be included in a PLAXIS analysis by selecting the
Tension cut-off option. When selecting the Tension cut-off option the allowable tensile
strength may be entered. The default value of the tensile strength is zero.
Soft Soil Creep model (SSC): The Parameters tabsheet for the Soft Soil Creep model
is shown in Figure 6.13.

Hint: Optional drainage types when Soft Soil Creep model is selected are: Drained
and Undrained (A).
» In the case of Undrained (A) drainage type, the same parameters are used
as for drained behaviour.

Figure 6.13 Parameters tabsheet for the Soft Soil Creep model (drained behaviour)

The parameters for stiffness are:

λ∗ : Modified compression index [-]
∗
κ : Modified swelling index [-]
The parameter taking time effect into account is:
µ∗ : Modified creep index [-]
Alternative parameters can be used to define stiffness:
Cc : Compression index [-]
Cs : Swelling index or reloading index [-]
Cα : Secondary compression index [-]

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einit : Initial void ratio [-]

The parameters for strength are:
c 'ref : Cohesion [kN/m2 ]
ϕ' : Friction angle [◦ ]
ψ : Dilatancy angle [◦ ]
Advanced parameters (use default settings):
νur : Poisson’s ratio for unloading / reloading (default [-]
νur = 0.15)
K0nc : Coefficient of lateral stress in normal consolidation [-]
(default K0nc = 1 − sin ϕ)
M : K0nc - related parameter [-]
Tension : To be selected when tension cut-off is considered [-]
cut-off
Tensile : The allowable tensile strength [kN/m2 ]
strength
In some practical problems an area with tensile stresses may develop. This is allowed
when the shear stress is sufficiently small. However, the soil surface near a trench in clay
sometimes shows tensile cracks. This indicates that soil may also fail in tension instead
of in shear. Such behaviour can be included in a PLAXIS analysis by selecting the
Tension cut-off option. When selecting the Tension cut-off option the allowable tensile
strength may be entered. The default value of the tensile strength is zero.
Jointed Rock model (JR): The Parameters tabsheet for the Jointed Rock model is
shown in Figure 6.14.

Hint: Optional drainage types when Jointed Rock model is selected are: Drained
and Non-porous.
» In the case of Non-porous drainage type, the same parameters are used as
for drained behaviour.

Parameters for stiffness:

E1 : Young's modulus for rock as a continuum [kN/m2 ]
ν1 : Poisson's ratio for rock as a continuum [-]
Anisotropic elastic parameters 'Plane 1' direction (e.g. stratification direction):
E2 : Young's modulus in 'Plane 1' direction [kN/m2 ]
G2 : Shear modulus in 'Plane 1' direction [kN/m2 ]
ν2 : Poisson's ratio in 'Plane 1' direction [-]
Parameters for strength:
Strength parameters in joint directions (Plane i=1, 2, 3):
ci : Cohesion [kN/m2 ]

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Figure 6.14 Parameters tabsheet for the Jointed Rock model (drained behaviour)

ϕi : Friction angle [◦ ]
ψi : Dilatancy angle [◦ ]
σt,i : Tensile strength [kN/m2 ]
Definition of joint directions (Plane i=1, 2, 3):
n : Number of joint directions (1 ≤ n ≤ 3) [-]
α1,i : Dip angle [◦ ]
α2,i : Dip direction [◦ ]
In some practical problems an area with tensile stresses may develop. This is allowed
when the shear stress is sufficiently small. However, the soil surface near a trench in clay
sometimes shows tensile cracks. This indicates that soil may also fail in tension instead
of in shear. Such behaviour can be included in a PLAXIS analysis by selecting the
Tension cut-off option. When selecting the Tension cut-off option the allowable tensile
strength may be entered. The default value of the tensile strength is zero.
Modified Cam-Clay model (MCC): This is a critical state model that can be used to
simulate the behaviour of normally consolidated soft soils. The model assumes a
logarithmic relationship between the volumetric strain and the mean effective stress. The
Parameters tabsheet for the Modified Cam-Clay model is shown in Figure 6.15.
Parameters for stiffness:
λ : Cam-Clay compression index [-]
κ : Cam-Clay swelling index [-]
ν : Poisson’s ratio [-]

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Hint: Optional drainage types when Modified Cam-Clay model is selected are:
Drained and Undrained (A).
» In the case of Undrained (A) drainage type, the same parameters are used
as for drained behaviour.

Figure 6.15 Parameters tabsheet for the Modified Cam-Clay model (drained behaviour)

einit : Initial void ratio for loading/unloading [-]

Parameters for strength:
M : Tangent of the critical state line [-]
K0nc : Coefficient of lateral stress in normal consolidation [-]
derived from M . The relationship between M and K0nc
is given in Section 9.7 of the Material Models Manual

NGI-ADP model (NGI-ADP): The NGI-ADP model may be used for capacity,
deformation and soil-structure interaction analysis involving undrained loading of clay.
The Parameters tabsheet for the NGI-ADP model is shown in Figure 6.16.

Hint: Optional drainage types when NGI-ADP model is selected are: Drained,
Undrained (B) and Undrained (C).
» In the case of Undrained (B) drainage type, the same parameters are used
as for drained behaviour.

Parameters for stiffness:

Gur /suA : Ratio unloading/reloading shear modulus over (plane [-]
strain) active shear strength
γfC : Shear strain in triaxial compression (|γfC = 3/2C
1 |) [%]
γfE : Shear strain in triaxial extension [%]
γfDSS : Shear strain in direct simple shear [%]

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Figure 6.16 Parameters tabsheet for the NGI-ADP model

Parameters for strength:

suA,ref : Reference (plane strain) active shear strength [kN/m2 /m]

suC,TX /suA : Ratio triaxial compressive shear strength over (plane [-]
strain) active shear strength (default = 0.99)
yref : Reference depth [m]

A
su,inc : Increase of shear strength with depth [kN/m2 /m]
suP /suA : Ratio of (plane strain) passive shear strength over [-]
(plane strain) active shear strength
τ0 /suA : Initial mobilization (default = 0.7) [-]
suDSS /suA : Ratio of direct simple shear strength over (plane strain) [-]
active shear strength
Advanced parameters:
ν' : Effective Poisson's ratio [-]
νu : Undrained Poisson's ratio [-]
Hoek-Brown model (HB): The Parameters tabsheet for the Hoek-Brown model is
shown in Figure 6.17.
The stiffness parameters of the Hoek-Brown model are:
E : Young's modulus [kN/m2 ]
ν : Poisson's ratio [-]
The Hoek-Brown parameters are:

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Hint: Optional drainage types when Hoek-Brown model is selected are: Drained
and Non-porous.
» In the case of Non-porous drainage type, the same parameters are used as
for drained behaviour.

Figure 6.17 Parameters tabsheet for the Hoek-Brown model (drained behaviour)

σci : Uniaxial compressive strength [kN/m2 ]

mi : Material constant for the intact rock [-]
GSI : Geological Strength Index [-]
D : Disturbance factor which depends on the degree of [-]
disturbance to which the rock mass has been
subjected.
ψ max : Dilatancy at zero stress level [◦ ]
σψ : Stress level at which dilatancy is fully suppressed [◦ ]
User-defined soil models (UDSM): The Parameters tabsheet shows two drop-down
menus; the top combo box lists all the DLLs that contain valid User-defined soil models
and the next combo box shows the models defined in the selected DLL. Each UD model
has its own set of model parameters, defined in the same DLL that contains the model
definition.
When an available model is chosen PLAXIS will automatically read its parameter names
and units from the DLL and fill the parameter table below. For a detailed description of
this facility, reference is made to the Material Models Manual.

Hint: Available drainage types when User-defined soil models is selected are:
Drained, Undrained (A) and Non-porous.

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Advanced parameters for Undrained behaviour

The advanced parameters available in the Parameters tabsheet can be used to model the
Undrained behaviour of soils. The advanced parameters for the Undrained behaviour
are:
Skempton-B : A parameter that determines which portion of a [-]
change in mean stress is corrected by the pore water
νu : Undrained Poisson's ratio [-]
Kw,ref /n : The corresponding reference bulk stiffness of the [kN/m2 ]
pore fluid
A more detailed information is available in Section 2.4 of the Material Models Manual.

6.1.3 FLOW PARAMETERS TABSHEET

Flow parameters are required when dealing with problems that involve flow of pore water
in saturated or unsaturated soils, i.c. when using Groundwater flow, Consolidation or
Fully couple flow-deformation types of calculation. When considering steady-state
groundwater flow or consolidation of fully saturated soil layers, only the soil's (saturated)
permeability is a relevant parameter. However, when considering unconfined flow,
seepage, transient (time-dependent) flow or fully coupled flow-deformation analysis,
partially saturated soil behaviour becomes an issue and needs to be described in more
detail. This requires, amongst other things, the selection of a so-called soil-water
retention curve relating the suction (positive pore water stress) in the unsaturated zone to
the degree of saturation.
PLAXIS incorporates functions to describe the flow behaviour in the unsaturated zone,
among which the famous Mualem-Van Genuchten functions. In order to enable an easy
selection of the unsaturated flow parameters in these functions, predefined data sets are
available for common types of soil. These data sets can be selected based on
standardized soil classification systems.

Hint: Although the predefined data sets have been created for the convenience of
the user, the user remains at all times responsible for the model parameters
that he/she uses. Note that these predefined data sets have limited accuracy.

Hydraulic data sets and models

The program provides different data sets and models to model the flow in the saturated
zone in soil. The data sets available in the program are:
Standard: This option allows for a simplified selection of the most common soil types
(Coarse, Medium, Medium fine, Fine and Very fine non-organic materials and Organic
material) and is based on the Hypres topsoil classification series.
When one of the soil type options is selected, the particle fractions are automatically
defined and the soil type is indicated in the soil texture triangle (Figure 6.18). The particle
fractions can also be defined by clicking on the corresponding location in the soil texture
triangle or by directly typing the values.

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Figure 6.18 Flow parameters for Standard data set

Hypres: The Hypres series is an international soil classification system. The hydraulic
models available for Hypres data set are the Van Genuchten model and the Approximate
Van Genuchten (see Sections 16.1 and 16.2 of the Material Models Manual).
A distinction can be made between Topsoil and Subsoil. In general, soils are considered
to be subsoils. The Type drop-down menu for the Hypres data set includes Coarse,
Medium, Medium fine, Fine, Very fine and Organic soils.

Hint: Only soil layers that are located not more than 1 m below the ground surface
are considered to be Upper soils.

The selected soil type and grading (particle fractions) is indicated in the soil texture
triangle. As an alternative, the user can also select the type of soil by clicking one of the
sections in the triangle or by manually specifying the particle fraction values (Figure 6.19).
The predefined parameters for both the Van Genuchten model as well as the
Approximate Van Genuchten model are shown in Table 6.1 and 6.2.
Table 6.1 Hypres series with Van Genuchten parameters
θr (-) θs (-) Ksat (m/day) ga (1/m) gl (-) gn (-)
Topsoil:
coarse 0.025 0.403 0.600 3.83 1.2500 1.3774
medium 0.010 0.439 0.121 3.14 -2.3421 1.1804
medium fine 0.010 0.430 0.0227 0.83 -0.5884 1.2539
fine 0.010 0.520 0.248 3.67 -1.9772 1.1012
very fine 0.010 0.614 0.150 2.65 2.5000 1.1033
Subsoil:
coarse 0.025 0.366 0.700 4.30 1.2500 1.5206
medium 0.010 0.392 0.108 2.49 -0.7437 1.1689
medium fine 0.010 0.412 0.0400 0.82 0.5000 1.2179
fine 0.010 0.481 0.0850 1.98 -3.7124 1.0861
very fine 0.010 0.538 0.0823 1.68 0.0001 1.0730
organic 0.010 0.766 0.0800 1.30 0.4000 1.2039

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Figure 6.19 Flow parameters for Hypres data set

Table 6.2 Hypres series with Approximate Van Genuchten parameters

ψs (m) ψk (m)
Topsoil:
coarse -2.37 -1.06
medium -4.66 -0.50
medium fine -8.98 -1.20
fine -7.12 -0.50
very fine -8.31 -0.73
Subsoil:
coarse -1.82 -1.00
medium -5.60 -0.50
medium fine -10.15 -1.73
fine -11.66 -0.50
very fine -15.06 -0.50
organic -7.35 -0.97

USDA: The USDA series is another international soil classification system. The
hydraulic models available for USDA data set are the Van Genuchten model and the
Approximate Van Genuchten (see Sections 16.1 and 16.2 of the Material Models
Manual).
The Type drop-down menu for the USDA date set includes Sand, Loamy sand, Sandy
loam, Loam, Silt, Silt loam, Sandy clay loam, Clay loam, Silty clay loam, Sandy clay, Silty
clay and Clay. The selected soil type and grading (particle fractions) are different from
the Hypres data sets and can be visualised in the soil texture triangle. As an alternative,
the user can also select the type of soil by clicking one of the sections in the triangle or by
manually specifying the particle fraction values (Figure 6.20).
The parameters for the Van Genuchten and the Approximate Van Genuchten models are
shown in Table 6.3 and 6.4.
Staring: The Staring series is a soil classification system which is mainly used in The
Netherlands. The hydraulic models available for Staring data set are the Van Genuchten
model and the Approximate Van Genuchten (see Sections 16.1 and 16.2 of the Material

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Figure 6.20 Flow parameters for USDA data set

Table 6.3 USDA series with Van Genuchten parameters (gl = 0.5 for all sets)
θr (-) θs (-) Ksat (m/day) ga (1/m) gn (-)
sand 0.045 0.430 7.13 14.5 2.68
loamy sand 0.057 0.410 3.50 12.4 2.28
sandy loam 0.065 0.410 1.06 7.5 1.89
loam 0.078 0.430 0.250 3.6 1.56
silt 0.034 0.460 0.600 1.6 1.37
silty loam 0.067 0.450 0.108 2.0 1.41
sandy clay loam 0.100 0.390 0.314 5.9 1.48
clayey loam 0.095 0.410 0.624 1.9 1.31
silty clayey loam 0.089 0.430 0.168 1.0 1.23
sandy clay 0.100 0.380 0.288 2.7 1.23
silty clay 0.070 0.360 0.00475 0.5 1.09
clay 0.068 0.380 0.0475 0.8 1.09

Table 6.4 USDA series with Approximate Van Genuchten parameters

ψs (m) ψk (m)
sand -1.01 -0.50
loamy sand -1.04 -0.50
sandy loam -1.20 -0.50
loam -1.87 -0.60
silt -4.00 -1.22
silty loam -3.18 -1.02
sandy clay loam -1.72 -0.50
clayey loam -4.05 -0.95
silty clayey loam -8.23 -1.48
sandy clay -4.14 -0.55
silty clay -31.95 -0.95
clay -21.42 -0.60

Models Manual).
A distinction can be made between Topsoil and Subsoil. In general, soils are considered
to be subsoils. The Type drop-down menu for the Staring series (Figure 6.21) contains
the following subsoils: Non-loamy sand (O1), Loamy sand (O2), Very loamy sand (O3),

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Figure 6.21 Flow parameters for Staring data set

Extremely loamy sand (O4), Coarse sand (O5), Boulder clay (O6), River loam (O7),
Sandy loam (O8), Silt loam (O9), Clayey loam (O10), Light clay (O11), Heavy clay (O12),
Very heavy clay (O13), Loam (O14), Heavy loam (O15), Oligotrophic peat (O16),
Eutrophic peat (O17) and Peaty layer (O18), and the following topsoils: Non-loamy sand
(B1), Loamy sand (B2), Very loamy sand (B3), Extremely loamy sand (B4), Coarse sand
(B5), Boulder clay (B6), Sandy loam (B7), Silt loam (B8), Clayey loam (B9), Light clay
(B10), Heavy clay (B11), Very heavy clay (B12), Loam (B13), Heavy loam (B14), Peaty
sand (B15), Sandy peat (B16), Peaty clay (B17) and Clayey peat (B18). The selected soil
type and grading (particle fractions) are different from the Hypres and the USDA data
sets. The parameters of the hydraulic model for the selected soil type are displayed in the
Soil tab at the right side of the Flow parameters tabsheet.

Hint: Only soil layers that are located not more than 1 m below the ground surface
are considered to be Upper soils.

User defined: The User defined option enables the user to define both saturated and
unsaturated properties manually. Please note that this option requires adequate
experience with unsaturated groundwater flow modelling. The hydraulic models available
are:
Van Genuchten This well-known and widely accepted model requires direct input
of the residual saturation Sres , the saturation at p = 0, Ssat and
the three fitting parameters gn , ga and gl (see Section 16.1 in the
Material Models Manual).
Spline The Spline function requires direct input of the capillary height ψ
(in unit of length), the relative permeability Kr (-), and the degree
of saturation Sr (-). Data for the Spline function can be entered
by clicking the Table tab. During the calculations, the flow
calculation kernel will use 'smooth' relationships based on a
spline function between the relative permeability and the

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capillary height and also between the relative saturation and the
capillary height.
Saturated When the Saturated option is selected, no extra data input is
required. During the calculations, PLAXIS will continuously use
the saturated permeabilities for soil layers where a Saturated
data set was assigned.

Figure 6.22 Flow parameters for User defined data set

Permeabilities (kx , ky and kz )

Coefficients of permeability (hydraulic conductivity) have the dimension of velocity (unit of
length per unit of time). The input of permeability parameters is required for consolidation
calculations. In such calculations, it is necessary to specify the coefficient of permeability
for all drained or undrained clusters, including almost impermeable layers, except for fully
impervious layers with a non-porous drainage type. PLAXIS 3D allows for the anisotropic
permeability of soils where the anisotropy directions coincide with the principal axes x , y
and z .
Note that the input field for permeabilities are greyed out when the Non-porous option is
selected.
One of the advanced features is to account for the change of permeability during a
consolidation analysis. This can be applied by entering a proper value for the change of
permeability parameter ck and the void ratio's einit , emin and emax in the General tabsheet
of the Soil window.
In case of a Standard, Hypres, USDA or Staring data set default values for the
permeability can be automatically set by selecting the Set to default values option. These
values can be modified by unselecting the Set to default values option.

Unsaturated zone (ψunsat )

ψunsat (in unit of length relative to the phreatic level) sets the maximum pressure head
until which the Mualem-Van Genuchten functions are used for calculation of relative

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permeability and degree of saturation. The negative sign indicates suction. Above the
level of ψunsat , the value of Kr and S remains constant. In this way a minimum degree of
saturation (Smin ) is guaranteed (Figure 6.23). It is used to limit the relative permeability
Kr and degree of saturation for high unsaturated zones.

Figure 6.23 Relative permeability vs. Degree of saturation

By default a very large value is assigned to ψunsat (= 104 ). This value is only an indication
that the unsaturated zone is by default unlimited.
Change of permeability (ck ): This advanced feature is to account for the change of
permeability during a consolidation analysis. This can be applied by entering a proper
value for the ck parameter and the void ratio's. On entering a real value, the permeability
will change according to the formula:
 
k ∆e
log =
k0 ck

where ∆e is the change in void ratio, k is the permeability in the calculation and k0 is the
input value of the permeability in the data set (= kx and kz ). Note that a proper input of
the initial void ratio einit , in the General tabsheet is required. It is recommended to use a
changing permeability only in combination with the Hardening Soil model, Hardening Soil
model with small-strain stiffness, Soft Soil model or the Soft Soil Creep model. In that
case the ck -value is generally in the order of the compression index Cc . For all other
models the ck -value should be left to its default value of 1015 .

6.1.4 INTERFACES TABSHEET

The properties of interface elements are related to the soil model parameters of the
surrounding soil. The required parameters to derive the interface properties are defined
in the Interfaces tabsheet of the Soil window. These parameters depend on the material
model selected to represent the behaviour of the surrounding soil. In case the Linear
Elastic model, the Mohr-Coulomb model, the Hardening Soil model, the HS small model,
the Soft Soil model, the Soft Soil Creep model, the Jointed Rock model or the
Hoek-Brown model has been selected as the Material model, the strength reduction
factor Rinter is the main interface parameter (see Figure 6.24). In case of the Modified
Cam-Clay model, the interface parameters required are the effective cohesion c 'ref , the

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effective friction angle ϕ' and the dilatancy angle ψ '. In case of the User-defined soil
models, the tangent stiffness for primary oedometer loading Eoed ref
, the effective cohesion
c 'ref , the effective friction angle ϕ', the dilatancy angle ψ ' and the parameters UD-Power
and UD-Pref are required as interface parameters. For more information on the interface
parameters required for the User-defined soil models, see Section 14.3 in Material
Models Manual.

Figure 6.24 Interfaces tabsheet of the Soil window

Interface strength
In case of the Linear Elastic model, the Mohr-Coulomb model, the Hardening Soil model,
the HS small model, the Soft Soil model, the Soft Soil Creep model, the Jointed Rock
model or the Hoek-Brown model, the interface strength is defined by the parameter Rinter .
The interface strength can be set using the following options:
Rigid: This option is used when the interface should not have a reduced strength with
respect to the strength in the surrounding soil. For example, extended interfaces around
corners of structural objects (Figure 5.32) are not intended for soil-structure interaction
and should not have reduced strength properties. The strength of these interfaces should
be assigned as Rigid (which corresponds to Rinter = 1.0). As a result, the interface
properties, including the dilatancy angle ψi , are the same as the soil properties in the
data set, except for Poisson's ratio νi (see further).
Manual: The value of Rinter can be entered manually if the interface strength is set to
Manual. In general, for real soil-structure interaction the interface is weaker and more
flexible than the surrounding soil, which means that the value of Rinter should be less than
1. Suitable values for Rinter for the case of the interaction between various types of soil
and structures in the soil can be found in the literature. In the absence of detailed
information it may be assumed that Rinter is of the order of 2/3. A value of Rinter greater
than 1 would not normally be used.
When the interface is elastic then both slipping (relative movement parallel to the
interface) and gapping or overlapping (i.e. relative displacements perpendicular to the
interface) could be expected to occur.

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The magnitudes of the interface displacements are:

σn σn ti
Elastic gap displacement = =
Kn Eoed,i
τ τ ti
Elastic slip displacement = =
Ks Gi
where Gi is the shear modulus of the interface, Eoed,i is the one-dimensional
compression modulus of the interface, ti is the virtual thickness of the interface generated
during the creation of interfaces in the geometry model (Section 5.6.7), KN is the elastic
interface normal stiffness and KS is the elastic interface shear stiffness.
The shear and compression moduli are related by the expressions:

1 − νi
Eoed,i = 2 Gi
1 − 2 νi
2
Gi = Rinter Gsoil ≤ Gsoil

νi = 0.45

Hint: Note that a reduced value of Rinter not only reduces the interface strength,
but also the interface stiffness.

It is clear from these equations that, if the elastic parameters are set to low values, the
elastic displacements may be excessively large. If the values of the elastic parameters
are too large, however, this can result in numerical ill-conditioning of the stiffness matrix.
The key factor in the stiffness is the virtual thickness. This value is automatically chosen
such that an adequate stiffness is obtained.
Manual with residual strength: When the limit value of the interface strength as
defined by Rinter is reached, the interface strength may soften down to a reduced value
as defined by Rinter ,residual . Definition of the Rinter ,residual is possible when the Manual with
residual strength option is selected for the interface strength.
Interface strength (Rinter ): An elastic-plastic model is used to describe the behaviour of
interfaces for the modelling of soil-structure interaction. The Coulomb criterion is used to
distinguish between elastic behaviour, where small displacements can occur within the
interface, and plastic interface behaviour when permanent slip may occur. For the
interface to remain elastic the shear stress τ is given by:

|τ |< −σn tan ϕi + ci

where σn is the effective normal stress.

For plastic behaviour τ is given by:

|τ |= −σn tan ϕi + ci

where ϕi and ci are the friction angle and cohesion of the interface. The strength

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properties of interfaces are linked to the strength properties of a soil layer. Each data set
has an associated strength reduction factor for interfaces Rinter . The interface properties
are calculated from the soil properties in the associated data set and the strength
reduction factor by applying the following rules:

ci = Rinter csoil

tan ϕi = Rinter tan ϕsoil ≤ tan ϕsoil

ψi = 0° for Rinter < 1, otherwise ψi = ψsoil

In addition to Coulomb's shear stress criterion, the tension cut-off criterion, as described
before (see Section 6.1.2), also applies to interfaces (if not deactivated):

σn < σt,i = Rinter σt,soil

where σt,soil is the tensile strength of the soil.

Residual interface strength (Rinter ,residual ): When the Manual with residual strength
option is selected the parameter Rinter ,residual can be specified. The interface strength will
reduce to the residual strength as defined by (Rinter ,residual ) and the strength properties of
the soil, as soon as the interface strength is reached.

Hint: Note that the same values of partial factors in Design approaches are applied
to both interface strength Rinter and residual interface strength Rinter ,residual .
» A reduced residual strength is not recommended to be used in Safety
calculations.

Consider gap closure: When the interface tensile strength is reached a gap may occur
between the structure and the soil. When the load is reversed, the contact between the
structure and the soil needs to be restored before a compressive stress can developed.
This is achieved by selecting the Consider gap closure option in the Interfaces tabsheet
of the Soil window. If the option is NOT selected, contact stresses will immediately
develop upon load reversal, which may not be realistic.
Interfaces using the Hoek-Brown model: When using the Hoek-Brown model as a
continuum model to describe the behaviour of a rock section in which interface elements
are used, equivalent interface strength properties ϕi , ci and σt,i are derived from this
model. The general shear strength criterion for interfaces as well as the tensile strength
criterion are still used in this case:

|τ |≤ −σn tan ϕi + ci

σn ≤ σt,i

Starting point for the calculation of the interface strength properties is the minor principal
effective stress σ '3 in the adjacent continuum element. At this value of confining stress
the tangent to the Hoek-Brown contour is calculated and expressed in terms of ϕ and c :

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f'
sin ϕ =
2 + f'
2σ '3 sin ϕ
 
1 − sin ϕ
c= f+
2 cos ϕ 1 − sinϕ
where

−σ '3
 
f = σci mb +c a
σci
−σ '3
 
f ' = amb mb + s a−1
σci
and a, mb , s and ci are the Hoek-Brown model parameters in the corresponding material
data set. The interface friction angle ϕ'i and adhesion c 'i as well as the interface tensile
strength σt,i are now calculated using the interface strength reduction factor Rinter :

tan ϕi = Rinter c

ci = Rinter c

sσci
σt,i = Rinter σt = Rinter
mb
For more information about the Hoek-Brown model and an explanation of its parameters,
reference is made to Chapter 4 of the Material Models Manual.
Interfaces using the Modified Cam-Clay model: If the Modified Cam-Clay model is
selected in the Parameters tabsheet to describe the behaviour of the surrounding soil, the
following parameters are required to model the interface behaviour:
cref : Cohesion of the interface [kN/m2 ]
ϕi : Internal friction angle of the interface [◦ ]
ψi : Dilatancy angle of the interface [◦ ]
When the interface is elastic then both slipping (relative movement parallel to the
interface) and gapping or overlapping (i.e. relative displacements perpendicular to the
interface) could be expected to occur.
The magnitudes of these displacements are:
σn σn ti
Elastic gap displacement = =
Kn Eoed,i
τ τ ti
Elastic slip displacement = =
Ks Gi
where Gi is the shear modulus of the interface, Eoed,i is the one-dimensional
compression modulus of the interface and ti is the virtual thickness of the interface,
generated during the creation of interfaces in the geometry model (Section 5.6.7). KN is
the elastic interface normal stiffness and KS is the elastic interface shear stiffness. The
shear and compression moduli are related by the expressions:

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3 (1 − νi ) σn
Eoed,i =
λ (1 + νi ) (1 + e0 )
3(1 − 2νi ) σn
Gi =
2(1 + νi ) λ(1 + e0 )

νi = 0.45

Real interface thickness (δinter )

The real interface thickness δinter is a parameter that represents the real thickness of a
shear zone between a structure and the soil. The value of δinter is only of importance
when interfaces are used in combination with the Hardening Soil model. The real
interface thickness is expressed in the unit of length and is generally of the order of a few
times the average grain size. This parameter is used to calculate the change in void ratio
in interfaces for the dilatancy cut-off option. The dilatancy cut-off in interfaces can be of
importance, for example, to calculate the correct bearing capacity of tension piles.

Interfaces below or around corners of structures

When interfaces are extended below or around corners of structures to avoid stress
oscillations (Section 5.6.7), these extended interfaces are not meant to model
soil-structure interaction behaviour, but just to allow for sufficient flexibility. Hence, when
using Rinter < 1 for these interface elements an unrealistic strength reduction is
introduced in the ground, which may lead to unrealistic soil behaviour or even failure.
Therefore it is advised to create a separate data set with Rinter = 1 and to assign this data
set only to these particular interface elements. This can be done by right-clicking the
interface in the draw area and selecting the corresponding soil data set from the Set
material options in the right mouse button menu.

6.1.5 INITIAL TABSHEET

The Initial tabsheet contains parameters to generate the initial stresses by means of the
K0 procedure (Figure 6.25).

Figure 6.25 Soil window (Initial tabsheet of the Mohr-Coulomb model)

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The K0 -values can be defined automatically by selecting the option Automatic in the K0
determination drop-down menu or manually by selecting the option Manual.

K0 -values
In general, two K0 -values can be specified, one for the x -direction and one for the
y -direction:

K0,x = σ 'xx /σ 'zz K0,z = σ 'yy /σ 'zz

The default K0 -values are then in principal based on Jaky's formula:

K0 = 1 − sin ϕ

For advanced models (Hardening Soil model, Hardening Soil model with small-strain
stiffness, Soft Soil model, Soft Soil Creep model, Modified Cam-Clay model) the default
value is based on the K0nc model parameter and is also influenced by the OCR -value and
POP -value in the following way:
νur
K0nc POP − POP
νur
K0,x = K0,y = K0nc OCR − (OCR − 1) +  0  νur
1 −
1 − νur σzz 

The POP -value will result in a stress-dependent K0 -value within the layers resulting in
invisible K0 -values.
Be careful with very low or very high K0 -values, since these values might bring the initial
stress in a state of failure. For a cohesionless material it can easily be shown that to
avoid failure, the value of K0 is bounded by:

1 − sin ϕ 1 + sin ϕ
< K0 <
1 + sin ϕ 1 − sin ϕ
The checkbox can be used to set the K0,y value equal to the K0,x value.

OCR and POP

When using advanced models (Hardening Soil model, Hardening Soil model with
small-strain stiffness, Soft Soil model, Soft Soil Creep model, Modified Cam-Clay model)
an initial pre-consolidation stress has to be determined. In the engineering practice it is
common to use a vertical pre-consolidation stress, σp , but PLAXIS needs an equivalent
eq
isotropic pre-consolidation stress, pp to determine the initial position of a cap-type yield
surface. If a material is over-consolidated, information is required about the
Over-Consolidation Ratio (OCR), i.e. the ratio of the greatest effective vertical stress
previously reached, σp (see Figure 6.26), and the in-situ effective vertical stress, σ '0zz .
σp
OCR = (6.4)
σ '0zz
It is also possible to specify the initial stress state using the Pre-Overburden Pressure
(POP) as an alternative to prescribing the over-consolidation ratio. The Pre-Overburden

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σp
OCR=
σ '0zz POP

σ '0zz σp σ '0zz σp
a. Using OCR b. Using POP

Figure 6.26 Illustration of vertical pre-consolidation stress in relation to the in-situ vertical effective
stress

Pressure is defined by:

POP = |σp − σ '0zz | (6.5)

These two ways of specifying the vertical pre-consolidation stress are illustrated in Figure
6.26.
eq
The pre-consolidation stress σp is used to compute pp which determines the initial
eq
position of a cap-type yield surface in the advanced soil models. The calculation of pp is
based on the stress state:

σ '1 = σ p and: σ '2 = σ '3 = K0nc σp (6.6)

where K0nc is the K0 -value associated with normally consolidated states of stress, which
is based on Jaky's formula, K0nc ≈ 1 − sin ϕ, or it is a direct input parameter for the
advanced soil models.

6.2 MODELLING UNDRAINED BEHAVIOUR

In undrained conditions, no water movement takes place. As a result, excess pore

pressures are built up. Undrained analysis is appropriate when:
• Permeability is low or rate of loading is high.
• Short term behaviour has to be assessed
Different modelling schemes are possible in PLAXIS to model undrained soil response in
a Plastic calculation, a Safety analysis or a Dynamic analysis. The modelling scheme
depends on the selection of the Drainage type parameter (Section 6.1.1). More details
about these methods are give in Section 2.4 to 2.7 of the Material Models Manual.
Before considering the consequences of a particular selection of the drainage type
parameter for undrained soil behaviour, first a general description is given of the various
modelling possibilities.

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Hint: The Drainage type setting is only considered in a Plastic calculation, a Safety
analysis or a Dynamic analysis. When a Consolidation analysis or a Fully
coupled flow-deformation analysis is performed, the Drainage type is ignored
and the soil response is determined by the saturated permeability of the
material that is specified in the Flow parameters tabsheet of the material
datase.

Hint: The modelling of undrained soil behaviour is even more complicated than the
modelling of drained behaviour. Therefore, the user is advised to take the
utmost care with the modelling of undrained soil behaviour.

Undrained effective stress analysis with effective stiffness parameters

A change in total mean stress in an undrained material during a Plastic calculation phase
gives rise to excess pore pressures. PLAXIS differentiates between steady-state pore
pressures and excess pore pressures, the latter generated due to small volumetric strain
occurring during plastic calculations and assuming a low (but non zero) compressibility of
the pore water. This enables the determination of effective stresses during undrained
plastic calculations and allows undrained calculations to be performed with effective
stiffness parameters. This option to model undrained material behaviour based on
effective stiffness parameters is available for all material models in the PLAXIS. The
undrained calculations can be executed with effective stiffness parameters, with explicit
distinction between effective stresses and (excess) pore pressures.

Undrained effective stress analysis with effective strength parameters

Undrained effective stress analysis can be used in combination with effective strength
parameters ϕ' and c ' to model the material's undrained shear strength. In this case, the
development of the pore pressure plays a crucial role in providing the right effective
stress path that leads to failure at a realistic value of undrained shear strength (cu or su ).
However, note that most soil models are not capable of providing the right effective stress
path in undrained loading. As a result, they will produce the wrong undrained shear
strength if the material strength has been specified on the basis of effective strength
parameters. Another problem is that for undrained materials effective strength
parameters are usually not available from soil investigation data.
The advantage of using effective strength parameters in undrained loading conditions is
that after consolidation a qualitatively increased shear strength is obtained, although this
increased shear strength could also be quantitatively wrong, for the same reason as
explained before.

Undrained effective stress analysis with undrained strength parameters

Especially for soft soils, effective strength parameters are not always available, and one
has to deal with measured undrained shear strength (cu or su ) as obtained from
undrained tests. Undrained shear strength, however, cannot easily be used to determine
the effective strength parameters ϕ' and c '. Moreover, even if one would have proper
effective strength parameters, care has to be taken as to whether these effective strength

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parameters will provide the correct undrained shear strength in the analysis. This is
because the effective stress path that is followed in an undrained analysis may not be the
same as in reality, due to the limitations of the applied soil model.
In order to enable a direct control on the shear strength, PLAXIS allows for an undrained
effective stress analysis with direct input of the undrained shear strength (Undrained (B)).

6.2.1 UNDRAINED (A)

The Drainage type Undrained (A) enables modelling undrained behaviour using effective
parameters for stiffness and strength. The characteristic features of method Undrained
(A) are:
• The undrained calculation is performed as an effective stress analysis. Effective
stiffness and effective strength parameters are used.
• Pore pressures are generated, but may be inaccurate, depending on the selected
model and parameters.
• Undrained shear strength su is not an input parameter but an outcome of the
constitutive model. The resulting shear strength must be checked against known
data.
• Consolidation analysis can be performed after the undrained calculation, which
affect the shear strength.
Undrained (A) drainage type is available for the following models: Linear Elastic model,
Mohr-Coulomb model, Hardening Soil model, Hardening Soil model with small-strain
stiffness, Soft Soil model, Soft Soil Creep model, Modified Cam-Clay model and
User-defined soil models.

6.2.2 UNDRAINED (B)

The Drainage type Undrained (B) enables modelling undrained behaviour using effective
parameters for stiffness and undrained strength parameters. The characteristic features
of method Undrained (B) are:
• The undrained calculation is performed as an effective stress analysis.
• Effective stiffness parameters and undrained strength parameters are used.
• Pore pressures are generated, but may be highly inaccurate.
• Undrained shear strength su is an input parameter.
• Consolidation analysis should not be performed after the undrained calculation. If
consolidation analysis is performed anyway, su must be updated.
Undrained (B) drainage type is available for the following models: Mohr-Coulomb model,
Hardening Soil model and Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness. Note that
when using Undrained (B) in the Hardening Soil model or Hardening Soil model with
small-strain stiffness, the stiffness moduli in the model are no longer stress-dependent
and the model exhibits no compression hardening.

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6.2.3 UNDRAINED (C)

The Drainage type Undrained (C) enables simulation of undrained behaviour using a total
stress analysis with undrained parameters. In that case, stiffness is modelled using an
undrained Young's modulus Eu and an undrained Poisson ratio νu , and strength is
modelled using an undrained shear strength cu (su ) and ϕ = ϕu = 0°. Typically, for the
undrained Poisson ratio a value close to 0.5 is selected (between 0.495 and 0.499). A
value of exactly 0.5 is not possible, since this would lead to singularity of the stiffness
matrix. The disadvantage of this approach is that no distinction is made between effective
stresses and pore pressures. Hence, all output referring to effective stresses should now
be interpreted as total stresses and all pore pressures are equal to zero. Note that a
direct input of undrained shear strength does not automatically give the increase of shear
strength with consolidation. The characteristic features of method Undrained (C) are:
• The undrained calculation is performed as a total stress analysis.
• Undrained stiffness parameters and undrained strength parameters are used.
• Pore pressures are not generated.
• Undrained shear strength su is an input parameter.
• Consolidation analysis has no effect and should not be performed. If consolidation
analysis is performed anyway, su must be updated.
Undrained (C) drainage type is available for the following models: Linear Elastic model
and Mohr-Coulomb model.

Hint: For Undrained (B) and Undrained (C) an increased shear strength with depth
can be modelled using the advanced parameter su,inc .

6.3 SIMULATION OF SOIL TESTS

The SoilTest option is a quick and convenient procedure to simulate basic soil tests on
the basis of a single point algorithm, i.e. without the need to create a complete finite
element model. This option can be used to compare the behaviour as defined by the soil
model and the parameters of a soil data set with the results of laboratory test data
obtained from a site investigation. It also offers the possibility to optimise model
parameters such that a best fit is obtained between the model results and the lab test
data. The SoilTest facility works for any soil model, both standard soil models as well as
user-defined models.
The SoilTest option is available from the Material sets window if a soil data set is selected
(see Figure 6.27). Alternatively, the SoilTest option can be reached from the Soil dialog.
Once the SoilTest option has been selected, a separate window will open (Figure 6.28).
This window contains a menu, a toolbar and several smaller sections. The various items
are described in more detail below.

Main menu
The menus available in the menu bar are:

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Figure 6.27 Material sets window showing the project and the global database

Figure 6.28 SoilTest window showing drained triaxial test input

File To open, save and close a soil test data file (*.vlt).
Test To select the test that will be simulated. The options available
are Triaxial, Oedometer, CRS, DSS (Simple Shear) and General.
Results To select the configuration of diagrams to display.

Toolbar
The toolbar allows for loading, saving and running of soil test results and opening the
PLAXIS SoilTest - Settings window to set the configuration of the results. It also contains
the parameter optimisation feature (Section 6.3.7).

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Material properties
The Material properties box displays the name, material model and parameters of the
currently selected data set. Transferring of material parameters to and from the material
database is possible. To copy the modified parameters to the material database:
Click the Copy material button in the Material properties box.
• In the program open the Material sets window and either select the corresponding
material set or click New.
In the Soil window click Paste material button. The parameters will be copied in the
material database. In the same way it is also possible to copy material from material
database to soil test.

Test area
The type of test and the testing conditions are defined in the test area. The test options
available are Triaxial, Oedometer, CRS, DSS and General. As one of these options is
selected by clicking the corresponding tab, the testing conditions can be defined in the
tabsheet. A more detailed description of the tests is given in the following sections.

Run
The Run button starts the currently selected test∗ . Once the calculation has finished, the
results will be shown in the Results window.

Test configurations
The Test configurations button can be used to add and manage different soil test
configurations. A test configuration contains information about the test type and the
values of test input parameters. To save a test configuration select the Save option in the
menu displayed as the Test configuration button is clicked. The Manage option can be
used to manage the test configurations available. When the Manage option is selected,
the Manage configuration window pops up. Note that the name of the window indicates
the test to which the configuration belongs (Figure 6.29).

Figure 6.29 Manage configurations window for triaxial tests

The name and the location of the configuration file is indicated in the Filename and Path
respectively in the Manage configurations window.

∗ Although the soil test calculation kernel is a reduced version of the finite element calculation kernel, the
implementation of the soil models is identical.

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Set as default
The Set as default button saves the current input parameters as the default parameters.
These will be initialised as such the next time the SoilTest window is opened.

Loaded tests
When previously saved tests of the current type have been opened from the File menu,
the Loaded tests window lists all these tests within each tabsheet. The results of all
loaded tests are shown together with the results of the current test. The Delete button
can be used to remove the selected test from the list of loaded tests. It does not remove
the soil test file (*.vlt) from disk.

Results
The results of the test are displayed in the predefined diagrams in the results area.

6.3.1 TRIAXIAL TEST

The Triaxial tabsheet contains facilities to define different types of triaxial tests. Before
specifying the test conditions, a selection can be made between different triaxial tests
options.

Triaxial test - Options

Drained / undrained triaxial test
In the latter case, undrained soil conditions and zero drainage
are assumed (similar as when the Drainage type has been set to
Undrained (A) or Undrained (B), see Section 6.2), irrespective of
the drainage type setting in the material data set.
Triaxial compression / triaxial extension test
In the former case the axial load is increased; in the latter case
the axial load is decreased.
Isotropically consolidated / K0 -consolidated test
In the latter case the K0 -value (ratio of lateral stress over axial
stress) can be specified to set the initial stress state.

Triaxial test - Conditions

The following test conditions can be defined:
Initial effective stress |σ '3 |
The absolute value of the isotropic cell pressure at which the
sample is consolidated, entered in units of stress. This sets the
initial stress state. In the case of a K0 -consolidated test, this
value represents the initial lateral stress, σ3 ; the initial vertical
stress, σ1 , is defined as σ3 /K0 .
Maximum strain |ε1 | The absolute value of the axial strain that will be reached in the
last calculation step.
Time ∆t Time increment (only relevant for time-dependent models;

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Hint: During a laboratory consolidated undrained triaxial test (CU test) a

backpressure is applied to make sure that the sample is fully saturated. Then
the sample is consolidated by using a constant cell pressure and back
pressure. Note that the value assigned to the Initial effective stress in the
SoilTest should be the effective stress at the start of the test, which is equal
to the cell pressure minus the back pressure at the start of the test.

consolidation is not considered).

Number of steps The number of steps that will be used in the calculation.
|vertical precons. stress|
The vertical pre-consolidation pressure to which the soil has
been subjected. If the soil is normally consolidated this value
should be set equal to the initial stress state, i.e. zero. From the
vertical pre-consolidation stress the program calculates the
isotropic pre-consolidation stress based on the K0nc loading path
(see Section 2.8 of the Material Models Manual). This option is
only available for the advanced soil models.
Mobilized relative shear strength
This option is only available for the Hardening Soil model and HS
small model to set the initial shear hardening contour. This value
must be between 0 (isotropic stress state) and 1 (failure state).

6.3.2 OEDOMETER
The Oedometer tabsheet contains facilities to define a one-dimensional compression
(oedometer) test. The following settings can be defined:
|vertical precons. stress|
The vertical pre-consolidation pressure to which the soil has
been subjected. If the soil is normally consolidated this value
should be set equal to the initial stress state, i.e. zero. From the
vertical pre-consolidation stress the program calculates the
isotropic pre-consolidation stress based on the K0nc loading path
(see Section 2.8 of the Material Models Manual). This option is
only available for the advanced soil models.
Mobilized relative shear strength
This option is only available for the Hardening Soil model and HS
small model to set the initial shear hardening contour. This value
must be between 0 (isotropic stress state) and 1 (failure state).
Phases Lists the different phases of the oedometer test. Each phase is
defined by a Duration (in units of time), a vertical Stress
increment (in units of stress) and a Number of steps. The initial
state is always assumed to be stress free. The given stress
increment will be reached at the end of the given duration in the
given number of steps. The input values can be changed by
clicking in the table. A negative stress increment implies

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additional compression, whereas a positive stress increment

implies unloading or tension. If a period of constant load is
desired, enter the desired duration with a zero stress increment.
Add Adds a new phase to the end of the Phases list.
Insert Inserts a new phase before the currently selected phase.
Remove Removes the currently selected phase from the Phases list.

6.3.3 CRS
The CRS tabsheet contains facilities to define a constant rate-of-strain compression test.
The following settings can be defined:
|vertical precons. stress|
The vertical pre-consolidation pressure to which the soil has
been subjected. If the soil is normally consolidated this value
should be set equal to the initial stress state, i.e. zero. From the
vertical pre-consolidation stress the program calculates the
isotropic pre-consolidation stress based on the K0nc loading path
(see Section 2.8 of the Material Models Manual). This option is
only available for the advanced soil models.
Mobilized relative shear strength
This option is only available for the Hardening Soil model and HS
small model to set the initial shear hardening contour. This value
must be between 0 (isotropic stress state) and 1 (failure state).
Phases Lists the different phases of the CRS test. Each phase is defined
by a Duration (in units of time), a vertical Strain increment (in %)
and a Number of steps. The initial state is always assumed to be
stress free. The given strain increment will be reached at the end
of the given duration in the given number of steps. The input
values can be changed by clicking in the table. A negative strain
increment implies additional compression, whereas a positive
strain increment implies unloading or tension. If a period of zero
strain is desired, enter the desired duration with a zero strain
increment.
Add Adds a new phase to the end of the Phases list.
Insert Inserts a new phase before the currently selected phase.
Remove Removes the currently selected phase from the Phases list.

6.3.4 DSS
The DSS tabsheet contains facilities to define a direct simple-shear test. Before
specifying the test conditions, a selection can be made between different test options.

DSS - Options
Drained / undrained DSS test
In the latter case, undrained soil conditions and zero drainage

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are assumed (similar as when the Drainage type has been set to
Undrained (A) or Undrained (B), see Section 6.2), irrespective of
the drainage type setting in the material data set.
Isotropically consolidated / K0 -consolidated test
In the latter case the K0 -value (ratio of lateral stress over axial
stress) can be specified to set the initial stress state.

DSS - Conditions
The following settings can be defined:
|vertical precons. stress|
The vertical pre-consolidation pressure to which the soil has
been subjected. If the soil is normally consolidated this value
should be set equal to the initial stress state or kept zero. From
the vertical pre-consolidation stress the program calculates the
isotropic pre-consolidation stress based on the K0nc loading path
(see Section 2.8 of the Material Models Manual). This option is
only available for the advanced soil models.
Mobilized relative shear strength
This option is only available for the Hardening Soil model and HS
small model to set the initial shear hardening contour. This value
must be between 0 (isotropic stress state) and 1 (failure state).
Initial stress |σyy | The absolute value of the initial vertical stress at which the
sample is consolidated, entered in units of stress. In the case of
an isotropically consolidated test, the initial lateral stress is equal
to the initial vertical stress. In the case of a K0 -consolidated test,
the initial lateral stress is equal to K0 σyy .
Time ∆t Time increment (only relevant for time-dependent models;
consolidation is not considered).
Number of steps The number of steps that will be used in the calculation.
Maximum shear strain |γxy |
The maximum value of shear strain (entered in %) that will be
reached in the last calculation step.

6.3.5 GENERAL
The General tabsheet contains facilities to define arbitrary stress and strain conditions.
The following settings can be defined:
Type of test The type of the test, whether Drained or Undrained can be
specified.
|vertical precons. stress|
The vertical pre-consolidation pressure to which the soil has
been subjected. If the soil is normally consolidated this value
should be set equal to the initial stress state or kept zero. From
the vertical pre-consolidation stress the program calculates the
isotropic pre-consolidation stress based on the K0nc loading path

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(see Section 2.8 of the Material Models Manual). This option is

only available for the advanced soil models.
Mobilized relative shear strength
This option is only available for the Hardening Soil model and HS
small model to set the initial shear hardening contour. This value
must be between 0 (isotropic stress state) and 1 (failure state).
Phases Lists the initial stress conditions and the stress/strain conditions
in the subsequent phases of the test. In the initial phase it should
be indicated for each direction whether a stress increment or a
strain increment is defined for that direction (applies to all
phases). Each phase is defined by a Duration (in units of time)
and a Number of steps, followed by the applied stress or strain
increments. The given stress or strain increment will be reached
at the end of the given duration in the given number of steps.
The input values can be changed by clicking in the table. A
negative stress or strain increment implies additional
compression, whereas a positive stress or strain increment
implies unloading or tension.
Add Adds a new phase to the end of the Phases list.
Insert Inserts a new phase before the currently selected phase.
Remove Removes the currently selected phase from the Phases list.

6.3.6 RESULTS
The Results window shows several predefined typical diagrams to display the results of
the current test. Double-clicking one of the graphs opens the selected diagram in a larger
window (Figure 6.30). This window shows the selected diagram, the table of the data
points that are used to plot this diagram as well as the tangent and the secant values of
the plot. Note that the point to be taken into consideration for the calculation of the
tangent and the secant values can be determined by clicking on the plot. The diagram or
the data can be copied to the clipboard by selecting the corresponding option in the
drop-down menu displayed when the Copy button is clicked.

Figure 6.30 Results diagram

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The diagram can be zoomed in or out using the mouse by first clicking and holding the
left mouse button in the diagram area and then moving the mouse to a second location
and releasing the mouse button. Moving the mouse from the left upper corner to the right
lower corner zooms the diagram to the selected area, whereas moving the mouse from
the right lower corner to the left upper corner resets the view. The zoom action can also
be undone using the Zoom out option on the toolbar.
The wheel button of the mouse can be used for panning: click and hold the mouse wheel
down and move the diagram to the desired position. When clicking the left mouse button
on a curve in the diagram, the corresponding secant and tangent line through the
selected point are indicated by dashed lines. This enables, for example, the
back-calculation of stiffness parameters from stress-strain diagrams. The corresponding
secant and tangent values are indicated below the table.

Hint: The failure line is indicated by a dashed line in the plot.

» In plots where deviatoric stress q is considered, the failure line is always
shown for the compression point.

6.3.7 PARAMETER OPTIMISATION

The soil test facility can be used to optimise model parameters such that a best fit is
obtained between the model results and the results of real soil lab tests. This option can
be selected from the toolbar.
Click the Parameter optimisation button in the toolbar. The Parameter optimisation
window will appear, showing different colour tabs according to the various steps to
follow in the parameter optimisation process (Figure 6.31). The first tab (Select
parameters) is active.

Figure 6.31 Parameter optimisation window

Select parameters
The Select parameters tab shows the parameters of the selected material data set that
could participate in the optimisation process. Click on the square in front of the
parameter(s) that need(s) to be optimised (Figure 6.32). The more parameters are
selected, the more time the optimisation process will take. For the selected parameters,
minimum and maximum values need to be specified. The optimisation algorithm will

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search for optimum values within this range. If the optimised value turns out to be equal
to the minimum or maximum value, it might be that the best value lies outside the
specified range.
Note that parameters may influence only specific parts of a test. For example, when
considering a triaxial test, the initial part of the test curve is dominated by stiffness
parameters (such as E50 ), whereas the last part of the curve is dominated by strength
parameters (such as ϕ'). In order to obtain a best fit the optimisation should be
performed in separate runs; one for the stiffness parameter using the initial part of the
curve and one for the strength parameter using the last part of the curve, while fixing the
stiffness as the previously optimised value.

Figure 6.32 Selection of the parameters in the Select parameters tabsheet

Select curves
The Select curves tab enables selection and uploading of real soil lab test data and
corresponding test conditions. Alternatively, synthetic test data may be used in the form
of other PLAXIS soil test results. In this way it is possible to optimise, for example,
parameters of the Mohr-Coulomb model against simulated tests using the Hardening Soil
model.
Initially, the window shows a tree with the five standard test types (Triaxial, Oedometer,
CRS, DSS and General). For each test type, different test conditions can be defined,
which can be taken into account in the optimisation process. By default, the Current
model test is available as test conditions for each test type. The Current model test
contains the test conditions as previously defined for that test (Figure 6.33).
New test conditions can be defined by selecting the New test configuration option
from the tool bar. This will introduce Custom # under the selected test, for which the
test conditions can be defined in the right-hand panel (Figure 6.34).
In both cases (Current model test and Custom test) corresponding test data need
to be selected and uploaded using the Import curve option. Another possibility is to
upload test conditions together with the test data in case it is stored in the format of a
PLAXIS soil test project (<test>.vlt).
Hence, there are different ways to define test conditions and to select the external test
data. The possibilities are summarized below:
• If the test data corresponds to one of the Current model test conditions, the
corresponding line should be selected in the tree and the Import curve option should
be used to upload the test data (Figure 6.35). The test data are assumed to be

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Figure 6.33 Selection of the test curves in the Select curves tabsheet

Figure 6.34 Custom test definition in the Select curves tabsheet

stored in a text file (<data>.txt) and should contain two columns, separated by a
Space, Tab, Comma, Colon (:), Semicolon (;) or arbitrary character. The separator is
to be indicated at the top of the Import test data window. The meaning of the values
in each column has to be selected from the drop down list below the column. Here,
a selection can be made amongst various stress and strain quantities. Moreover, the
basic units of the test data quantities need to be selected from the drop down lists in
the Units group. By pressing OK the data is read and visualised in a diagram, and
the curve is listed in the tree under the Current model (test) conditions.
• If the test data corresponds to other than one of the current model test conditions,
first new Custom test conditions need to be defined. Select the appropriate test type
and click the New test configuration button. The test conditions of the data to be
uploaded can be defined in the right-hand panel. Subsequently, the Import curve
option should be used to upload the test data. The test data are assumed to be
stored in a text file (<data>.txt) and should contain two columns (see explanation
before). The meaning of the values in each column has to be selected from the drop
down list below the column. Moreover, the basic units of the test quantities need to
be selected from the drop down lists in the Units group. By pressing OK the data is
read and a visualised in a diagram, and the curve is listed in the tree under the
Custom (test) conditions (Figure 6.36).
• If the test data together with the test conditions are stored in the format of a PLAXIS

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Figure 6.35 Import test data window

soil test project (<test>.vlt), the Open file option should be used. After selection of a
valid PLAXIS soil test project, the test conditions are listed under the corresponding
test type in the tree, and the available test data curves are listed under the test
conditions (Figure 6.37). This option should typically be used to fit current model
parameters to synthetic data previously produced in the PLAXIS soil test facility and
stored in <test>.vlt format.

Hint: When a line representing test conditions is selected in the tree, the
corresponding test conditions are shown on the panel at the right-hand side.
» When a line representing test data is selected in the tree, the corresponding
curve is visualised in the diagram, and a table of corresponding data points is
shown at the right-hand side of the diagram.
» A sub-set of test data to be used in the optimisation process can be selected
in the table at the right-hand side by clicking on the corresponding cells,
using the standard multi-select convention (using <Shift> for ranges and
<Ctrl> for individual values). The selected values are indicated as 'thick' lines
in the curve whereas non-selected values are indicated as 'thin' lines.
» A line in the tree (either test conditions or test data) can be removed by
selecting that line and clicking the red cross in the toolbar.

All test data to be used in the optimisation process need to be selected in the tree by
clicking the square in front of the corresponding line (if not already selected). The
corresponding test conditions are automatically selected.

Multiple phases
In the case of an Oedometer, CRS or General test, the SoilTest facility allows for multiple
phases. However, the parameter optimisation facility can only deal with one phase at a
time. Therefore, after importing the test data, the desired calculation phase needs to be
selected from the drop down list above the test data curve, together with the

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Figure 6.36 Display of the imported test curves

corresponding part of the test data in the column at the right-hand side. In this way it is
possible, for example, to optimise a primary loading stiffness against the first (loading)
phase in an oedometer test and the unloading stiffness against the second (unloading)
phase. Note that the test data needs to be for each phase.

Settings
The Settings tab enables the accuracy selection of the optimisation process (Figure
6.38). Three levels of search intensity are available: Coarse and quick, Moderate,
Thorough. In addition, the relative tolerance of the search algorithm can be selected. The
default value is 1E-3. Note that a more rigorous optimisation may give more accurate
results, but also requires more calculation time. The calculation time also depends on the
number of parameters to be optimised, as selected in the first tab.

Resulting parameters
The Resulting parameters tab shows the optimum values of the parameters used to
obtain the best fit to the selected test data in addition to the minimum and maximum
values and the reference values in the material data set (Figure 6.39). If the optimum
value is equal to the minimum or maximum value, it might be that the best value lies
outside the specified range. Finally, the table shows the sensitivity of the selected
parameters. A sensitivity of 100% means that the parameter has a high influence on the
simulated test results, whereas a low sensitivity means that the parameter has a low
influence on the simulated test results. Note that a low sensitivity also means that the test
may not be suitable to optimise that parameter and, as a result, the suggested optimum
value may not be accurate. Therefore it is better to do separate optimisations for different
parameters based on relevant sections of test data curves rather than one optimisation
with multiple parameters based on the full data curves.

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Figure 6.37 Importing data from SoilTest

Figure 6.38 Settings window

A button is available to copy the optimised parameters to the material data

set. This should only be done after it has been properly validated that the optimised
parameters are indeed better than the original parameters, considering the use of the
material data set in the finite element model.
Note that the parameters optimised for soil lab tests may not be the best parameters for
the practical application as considered in the finite element model.

Resulting charts
The Resulting charts tab shows the results of the selected tests (Figure 6.40).
For each test, three curves are visible:
Optimisation target This curve represents the uploaded test data.
Optimisation results This curve represents the simulated test with optimised
parameters.

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Figure 6.39 Resulting parameters window

Reference simulation This curve represents the simulated test with original
parameters. It has no meaning in the optimisation process, but
just shows how good or bad the existing material data set would
fit the uploaded test data for the selected test conditions without
optimisation.

Figure 6.40 Resulting charts window

Limitations
The Parameter optimisation facility should be used with care. Note that parameters
optimised for soil lab tests may not be the best parameters for the practical application as
considered in the finite element model. This is because the application may involve
stress levels, stress paths and strain levels which might be significantly different from the
ones that occur in the soil lab tests.
Furthermore, the parameter optimisation facility has the following limitations:
• It is not possible to automatically optimise test data curves that consist of multiple
phases (for example loading and unloading phases). Such curves need to be
uploaded for each phase and the corresponding part of the curves (phase) needs to

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be selected in order to perform the optimisation.

• The optimisation process itself is a numerical procedure which may involve
numerical errors. The user remains responsible for validating the outcome of the
optimisation process and the use of optimised model parameters in applications.
The parameter optimisation is based on curve fitting. It is not possible to fit
envelopes such as the failure line in a p-q diagram. As a consequence, it is not
possible to find the optimised friction angle or cohesion from a p-q diagram.

6.4 MATERIAL DATA SETS FOR PLATES

In addition to material data sets for soil and interfaces, the material properties and model
parameters for plates are also entered in separate material data sets. A data set for
plates generally represents a certain type of plate material or plate profile, and can be
assigned to the corresponding (group of) plate elements in the geometry model.

Figure 6.41 Plate window

6.4.1 MATERIAL SET

Several data sets may be created to distinguish between different types of plates. Figure
6.41 shows the Plate window. The material data set is defined by:
Identification:
A user may specify any identification title for a data set. It is advisable to use a
meaningful name since the data set will appear in the database tree view by its
identification.
Comments:
A user may write down comments related to the material data set.

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2 3

N1 E1 ε1 N2 E2 ε2

Q12 G12 γ12 Q13 G13 γ13 Q23 G23 γ23

M12 κ12 M11 κ11 M22 κ22

Figure 6.42 Definition of positive normal forces (N), shear forces (Q) and bending moments (M) for
a plate based on local system of axes

Colour: Colour can be used as a distinction tool in the model.

6.4.2 PROPERTIES
The properties required for plates can be grouped into general properties and stiffness
properties.

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General properties
A plate has two general properties:
d: The (equivalent) thickness (in the unit of length) is the material cross section
area of the plate across its major axial direction per 1 m width. For massive
plates without a particular profile this is just the plate thickness, but for plates
that have a certain profile (such as sheet-pile walls or sandwich plates), the
thickness is relatively small and should be properly calculated from the above
definition.
γ: The unit weight is the unit weight of the material from which the plate is
composed. The product γ · d determines the distributed weight of the plate.

Hint: When specifying a unit weight, please consider the fact that the element itself
does not occupy any volume and overlaps with the soil elements. Hence, it
might be considered to subtract the unit soil weight from the real unit weight
of the plate material in order to compensate for the overlap. For partially
overlapping plates the reduction of the unit weight should be proportional.

End bearing of plates

In reality vertical loads on structures, such as walls, are sustained by the shaft friction
and the tip resistance. A certain amount of resistance is offered by the soil under the tip,
depending on the thickness or the cross section area of the tip.
Slender structures are often modelled as plates. Due to the zero thickness of the plate
elements vertical plates (walls) have no end bearing. The effects of the end bearing can
still be considered in the calculation when the corresponding option is selected in the
material data set. In order to consider the bearing capacity at the bottom of plates, a zone
in the soil volume elements surrounding the bottom of the plate is identified where any
kind ofp soil plasticity is excluded (elastic zone). The size of this zone is determined as
Deq = 12EI/EA.

Stiffness properties
Plate stiffnesses will be linear. PLAXIS 3D allows for orthotropic as well as anisotropic
material behaviour in plates, which is defined by the following parameters:
E1 : Young's modulus in first axial direction.
E2 : Young's modulus in second axial direction.
G12 : In-plane shear modulus.
G13 : Out-of-plane shear modulus related to shear deformation over first direction.
G23 : Out-of-plane shear modulus related to shear deformation over second
direction.
ν12 : Poisson's ratio.
These parameters appear in the following (approximate) relationships for structural
forces:

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    
N1 E1 d ν12 E2 d ε1
 =  
N2 ν12 E2 d E2 d ε2
    
Q12 G12 d 0 0 γ12
    
 ∗ 
 Q13  =  0 kG13 d 0 γ 
  
 13 

  
∗
Q23 0 0 kG23 d γ23
   E d3 ν E d3  
1 12 2 0
M11  12 12  κ11
ν12 E2 d 3 E2 d 3
    
 M22  =  0 κ
   
   12 12  22 


G12 d 3
 
M12 0 0 κ12
12
Where k represents the modification factor to the shear modulus and is taken equal to 5/6 .
Figure 6.42 visualises the plate's local system of axes and the major quantities. The local
system of axes in a plate element is such that the first and the second local axis lie in the
plane of the plate whereas the third axis is perpendicular to the plane of the plate.
If the Isotropic option is checked the input is limited to E1 and ν12 , where as E2 = E1 and
G12 = G13 = G23 = E/2(1 + ν12 ).
More information about the behaviour and structural forces in plates can be found in
Chapter 15.6 of the Material Models Manual.

6.5 MATERIAL DATA SETS FOR GEOGRIDS

In addition to material data sets for soil and interfaces, the material properties and model
parameters for geogrids are also entered in separate material data sets. Geogrids are
flexible elastic elements that represent a grid or sheet of fabric. Geogrids cannot sustain
compressive forces. A data set for geogrids generally represents a certain type of
geogrid material, and can be assigned to the corresponding (group of) geogrid elements
in the geometry model.

6.5.1 MATERIAL SET

Several data sets may be created to distinguish between different types of geogrids.
Figure 6.43 shows the Geogrid window. The material data set is defined by:
Identification:
A user may specify any identification title for a data set. It is advisable to use a
meaningful name since the data set will appear in the database tree view by its
identification.
Comments:
A user may write down comments related to the material data set.
Colour: Colour can be used as a distinction tool in the model.

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Figure 6.43 Geogrid window

Material type:
There are two available options, describing the material type of a plate. These
options are Elastic and Elastoplastic. The availability of the parameters
defined in the Properties box depends on the selected material type.

6.5.2 PROPERTIES
The properties required for geogrids can be grouped into stiffness properties and
strength properties in case of elastoplastic behaviour.

Isotropic
Different stiffnesses in-plane and out-of-plane may be considered. The latter is most
relevant for axisymmetric models when modelling geogrids with an anisotropic pattern. If
this is not the case, the Isotropic option may be selected to ensure that both stiffness are
equal.

Stiffness properties
For elastic behaviour, the axial stiffness EA should be specified. PLAXIS 3D allows for
orthotropic as well as anisotropic material behaviour in geogrids, which is defined by the
following parameters:
EA1 : The normal elastic stiffness in 1-direction (in plane).
EA2 : The normal elastic stiffness in 2-direction (out of plane, anisotropic behaviour).
GA: In-plane shear stiffness (anisotropic behaviour).
The axial stiffness EA is usually provided by the geogrid manufacturer and can be
determined from diagrams in which the elongation of the geogrid is plotted against the
applied force in a longitudinal direction. The axial stiffness is the ratio of the axial force
per unit width and the axial strain (∆l/l where ∆l is the elongation and l is the length):

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F
EA =
∆l/l
If the Isotropic option is checked the input is limited to EA1 where as EA1 =EA2 and GA
= EA1 /2.

Hint: When a material dataset is imported from PLAXIS 2D to PLAXIS 3D the

value of GA is defined as GA = min (EA1 , EA2 ) / 2.

Strength properties (plasticity)

Strength parameters are required in case of plasticity:
Np,1 : The maximum force in 1-direction (in-plane).
Np,2 : The maximum force in 2-direction (out of plane, anisotropic behaviour).
The maximum axial tension force Np is specified in units of force per unit width. If Np is
exceeded, stresses are redistributed according to the theory of plasticity, so that the
maxima are complied with. This will result in irreversible deformations. Output of axial
forces is given in the nodes, which requires extrapolation of the values at the stress
points. Due to the position of the stress points in a geogrid element, it is possible that the
nodal values of the axial force may slightly exceed Np .
If the Isotropic option is checked the input is limited to Np, 1 where as Np, 1 =Np, 2.

6.6 MATERIAL DATA SETS FOR BEAMS

In addition to material data sets for soil and interfaces, the material properties and model
parameters for beams are also entered in separate material data sets. A data set for
beams generally represents a certain type of beam material or beam profile, and can be
assigned to the corresponding (group of) beam elements in the geometry model.

6.6.1 MATERIAL SET

Several data sets may be created to distinguish between different types of beams. Figure
6.44 shows the Beam window. The material data set is defined by:
Identification:
A user may specify any identification title for a data set. It is advisable to use a
meaningful name since the data set will appear in the database tree view by its
identification.
Comments:
A user may write down comments related to the material data set.
Colour: Colour can be used as a distinction tool in the model.

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Figure 6.44 Beam window

6.6.2 PROPERTIES
The properties required for beams can be grouped into general properties and stiffness
properties.

General properties
A beam has two general properties:
A: The cross section area is the actual area (in the unit of length squared)
perpendicular to the axial beam direction where beam material is present. For
beams that have a certain profile (such as steel beams), the cross section
area can be found in tables that are provided by steel factories.
γ: The unit weight (in the unit of force per unit of volume) is the unit weight of the
material from which the beam is composed. The product γ · A determines the
distributed beam weight.

Hint: When specifying a unit weight, please consider the fact that the element itself
does not occupy any volume and overlaps with the soil elements. Hence, it
might be considered to subtract the unit soil weight from the real unit weight
of the beam material in order to compensate for the overlap. For partially
overlapping beams the reduction of the unit weight should be proportional.
» Please note that when reducing the unit weight, the axial forces in the beam
may not be realistic.

Stiffness properties
Stiffnesses can only be linear. Beam stiffnesses involve the following properties:
E: Young's modulus.
I3 : Moment of inertia against bending around the third axis.

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I2 : Moment of inertia against bending around the second axis.

The definition of various quantities according to the beam's local system of axes are
visualised in Figure 6.45.

1
1 1 1

3 3 3 3

2 2 2 2
I3 M3 κ3 I2 M2 κ2 EN

Figure 6.45 Definition of moment of inertia (I ), positive bending moment (M ), positive curvature (κ)
and stiffness (E ) for a horizontal beam based on local system of axes

More information about the behaviour and structural forces in beams can be found in
Chapter 15.2 of the Material Models Manual.

6.7 MATERIAL DATA SETS FOR EMBEDDED PILES

Properties and model parameters for embedded piles are entered in separate material
data sets. A data set for embedded piles generally represents a certain type of pile,
including the pile material and geometric properties, as well as the interaction properties
with the surrounding soil (pile bearing capacity).
Note that the embedded pile material data set does not contain so-called 'p-y curves', nor
equivalent spring constants. In fact, the stiffness response of an embedded pile
subjected to loading is the result of the specified pile length, equivalent radius, spacing,
stiffness and bearing capacity as well as the stiffness of the surrounding soil.

Hint: In contrast to what is common in the Finite Element Method, the bearing
capacity of an embedded pile is considered to be an input parameter rather
than the result of the finite element calculation. The user should realise the
importance of this input parameter. Preferably, the input value of this
parameter should be based on representative pile load test data. Moreover, it
is advised to perform a calibration in which the behaviour of the embedded
pile is compared with the behaviour as measured from the pile load test.
Since embedded piles are used in a row, the group action must be taken into
account when defining the pile bearing capacity.

6.7.1 MATERIAL SET

Several data sets may be created to distinguish between different types of embedded
piles or pile spacings. Figure 6.46 shows the Embedded pile window.

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Figure 6.46 Embedded pile window

The material data set is defined by:

Identification:
A user may specify any identification title for a data set. It is advisable to use a
meaningful name since the data set will appear in the database tree view by its
identification.
Comments:
A user may write down comments related to the material data set.
Colour: Colour can be used as a distinction tool in the model.

6.7.2 PILE PROPERTIES

The properties required for embedded piles are:
E: Young's modulus.
γ: Unit weight of the pile material.

Geometric properties
An embedded pile requires several geometric parameters used to calculate additional
properties:
Pile type: Either a Predefined or a User defined type can be selected.

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Predefined pile type:

A list of predefined types (Massive circular pile, Circular tube, Massive square
pile).
Diameter:
The pile diameter is to be defined for Massive circular pile and Circular tube
predefined pile types. The pile diameter determines the size of the elastic
zone in the soil around the pile in which plastic soil behaviour is excluded. This
makes the embedded pile behave almost like a volume pile.
Width: The pile width is to be defined for a Massive square pile predefined pile type.
The pile width is recalculated into an equivalent diameter.
Thickness:
The wall thickness needs to be defined for a Circular tube predefined pile type.
Alternatively, a user-defined type may be defined by means of the pile cross section area,
A, and its respective moment s of inertia I3 and I2 :
A: The cross section area is the actual area (in the unit of length squared)
perpendicular to the pile axis (direction 1) where pile material is present. For
piles that have a certain profile (such as steel beams), the cross section area
can be found in tables that are provided by steel factories.
I3 : Moment of inertia against bending around the third axis.
I2 : Moment of inertia against bending around the second axis.
Lspacing : Spacing of the piles in the out-of-plane direction

Dynamic properties
For dynamic behaviour, two additional parameters can be specified as material
properties:
Rayleigh α:
Rayleigh damping parameter determining the influence of mass in the
damping of the system.
Rayleigh β :
Rayleigh damping parameter determining the influence of the stiffness in the
damping of the system.
For more information on Rayleigh damping, see Page 115.
From the pile geometric properties an equivalent radius for the elastic zone, Req , is
determined:
np o
(2Iavg /A) where Iavg = (I2 + I3 )/2
p
Req = max (A/π),

The definition of various quantities according to the pile's local system of axes are
visualised in Figure 6.47. More information about the behaviour and forces in embedded
piles can be found in Section 15.8 of the Material Models Manual.

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2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3

1 1 1 1
I3 M3 κ3 I2 M2 κ2 ENε
Figure 6.47 Definition of moment of inertia (I ), positive bending moment (M ), positive curvature (κ)
and stiffness (E ) for a vertical user-defined pile type (beam profile) based on the local
system of axes

6.7.3 INTERACTION PROPERTIES (PILE BEARING CAPACITY)

The interaction between the pile (beam element) and the surrounding soil (soil volume
element) is modelled by means of a special interface element. An elastic-plastic model is
used to describe the behaviour of the interface. The elastic behaviour of the interface
should account for the difference in pile displacements and average soil displacements in
the out-of-plane direction. This depends on the out-of-plane pile spacing in relation to the
pile diameter. Regarding the plastic behaviour distinction is made in the material data set
between the Skin resistance (in the unit of force per unit pile length) and the Base
resistance (in the unit of force). In a plane strain analysis, these values are automatically
recalculated per unit of width in the out-of-plane direction. For the skin resistance as well
as the base resistance a failure criterion is used to distinguish between elastic interface
behaviour and plastic interface behaviour. For elastic behaviour relatively small
displacement differences occur within the interface (i.e. between the pile and the average
soil displacement), and for plastic behaviour permanent slip may occur.
For the interface to remain elastic the shear force ts at a particular point is given by:

|ts |< Tmax

where Tmax is the equivalent local skin resistance at that point.

For plastic behaviour the shear force ts is given by:

|ts |= Tmax

The input for the shaft resistance is defined by means of the skin resistance at the pile
top, Ttop,max (in force per unit pile length) and the skin resistance at the pile bottom,
Tbot,max (in force per unit pile length). This way of defining the pile skin resistance is
mostly applicable to piles in a homogeneous soil layer. Using this approach the total pile
bearing capacity, Npile , is given by:

1

Npile = Fmax + Lpile Ttop,max + Tbot,max
2
where Lpile is the pile length.

Hint: Note that the length of the embedded pile and the magnitude of the skin
resistance increments are inversely proportional.

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In addition to the shaft resistance, the embedded pile has extra bearing capacity at the
base. The base resistance Fmax can be entered directly (in the unit of force) in the
embedded pile material data set window.

Hint: The base resistance is only mobilized when the pile body moves in the
direction of the base (example: with a load on top).

The pile bearing capacities are automatically divided by the pile spacing in order to obtain
the equivalent bearing capacity per unit of width in the out-of-plane direction.

Linear
The first way (Linear) is the easiest way to enter the skin resistance profile. The input is
defined by means of the skin resistance at the pile top, Ttop,max (in force per unit pile
length) and the skin resistance at the pile bottom, Tbot,max (in force per unit pile length).
This way of defining the pile skin resistance is mostly applicable to piles in a
homogeneous soil layer. Using this approach the total pile bearing capacity, Npile , is given
by:

1

Npile = Fmax + Lpile Ttop,max + Tbot,max
2
where Lpile is the pile length.

Hint: Note that the length of the embedded pile and the magnitude of the skin
resistance increments are inversely proportional.

Multi-linear
The second way (Multi-linear) can be used to take into account inhomogeneous or
multiple soil layers with different properties and, as a result, different resistances. The
skin resistance, Tmax , is defined in a table at different positions along the pile, L, where L
is measured from the pile top (L=0) to the bottom of the pile (L = Lpile ). Using this
approach the total pile bearing capacity, Npile , is given by:
n−1
X 1
Npile = Fmax + (Li+1 − Li )(Ti + Ti+1 )
i=1
2

where i is the index number in the table.

Layer dependent
The third way (Layer dependent) can be used to relate the local skin resistance to the
strength properties (cohesion c and friction angle ϕ) of the soil layer in which the pile is
located, and the interface strength reduction factor, Rinter , as defined in the material data
set of the corresponding soil layers (Section 6.1.4). In this respect the special interface in
the embedded pile behaves similar as an interface along a wall, except that it is a line

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interface rather than a sheet. Using this approach the pile bearing capacity is based on
the stress state in the soil, and thus unknown at the start of a calculation. To avoid that
the skin resistance could increase to undesired high values, an overall maximum
resistance (constant value along the pile in force per unit pile length) can be specified in
the embedded pile material data set, which acts as an overall cut-off value.

Hint: The pile-soil interaction parameters in the embedded pile material data set
involve only the pile bearing capacity (skin resistance and base resistance).
Note that the material data set does NOT include the stiffness response of
the pile in the soil (or p − y curve). The stiffness response is the result of the
pile length, equivalent radius, stiffness and bearing capacity as well as the
stiffness of the soil layers in which the pile is located.

In order to ensure that a realistic pile bearing capacity as specified can actually be
reached, a zone in the soil volume elements surrounding the beam is identified where
any kind of soil plasticity is excluded (elastic zone). The size of this zone is determined by
the embedded pile's diameter or equivalent radius Req (Section 6.7). The elastic zone
makes the embedded pile almost behave like a volume pile. However, installation effects
of piles are not taken into account and the pile-soil interaction is modelled at the centre
rather than at the circumference.
In addition to displacement differences and shear forces in axial direction along the pile,
the pile can undergo transverse forces, t⊥ , due to lateral displacements. These
transverse forces are not limited in the special interface element that connects the pile
with the soil, but, in general, they are limited due to failure conditions in the surrounding
soil itself outside the elastic zone. However, embedded piles are not meant to be used as
laterally loaded piles and will therefore not show accurate failure loads when subjected to
transverse forces.
More details about the way the shear and transverse forces are calculated on the basis of
displacement differences between the embedded beam element and the surrounding soil
element are described in the Material Models Manual.

6.8 MATERIAL DATA SETS FOR ANCHORS

In addition to material data sets for soil and interfaces, the material properties and model
parameters for anchors are also entered in separate material data sets. A material data
set for anchors may contain the properties of node-to-node anchors as well as fixed-end
anchors. In both cases the anchor is just a spring element. A data set for anchors
generally represents a certain type of anchor material, and can be assigned to the
corresponding (group of) anchor elements in the geometry model.

6.8.1 MATERIAL SET

Several data sets may be created to distinguish between different types of anchors.
Figure 6.48 shows the Anchor window. The material data set is defined by:

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Figure 6.48 Anchor window

Identification:
A user may specify any identification title for a data set. It is advisable to use a
meaningful name since the data set will appear in the database tree view by its
identification.
Comments:
A user may write down comments related to the material data set.
Colour: Colour can be used as a distinction tool in the model.
Material type:
There are three available options, describing the material type of an anchor.
These options are Elastic and Elastoplastic. The availability of the parameters
defined in the Properties box depends on the selected material type.

6.8.2 PROPERTIES
The properties required for anchors can be grouped into stiffness properties and strength
properties in case of elastoplastic behaviour.

Stiffness properties
An anchor requires only one stiffness parameter:
EA: Axial stiffness, entered per anchor in the unit of force

Strength parameters (plasticity)

If the material type is selected as Elastoplastic, two maximum anchor forces can be
entered:
Fmax,tens : Maximum tension force
Fmax,comp :
Maximum compression force
The Force-displacement diagram displaying the elastoplastic behaviour of the anchors is
given in Figure 6.49.

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Figure 6.49 The force-displacement diagram displaying the elastoplastic behaviour of anchors

In the same way as the stiffness, the maximum anchor forces are divided by the
out-of-plane spacing in order to obtain the proper maximum force in a plane strain
analysis.
The Elastoplastic with residual strength option can be used to model anchor failure or
softening behaviour (e.g. buckling of struts). When this option is selected two residual
anchor forces can be specified:
Fresidual,tens :
Residual tension force
Fresidual,comp :
Residual compression force
The Force-displacement diagram displaying the elastoplastic behaviour with residual
strength of the anchors is given in Figure 6.50.
If, during a calculation, the maximum anchor force is reached, the maximum force will
immediately reduce to the residual force. From that point on the anchor force will not
exceed the residual force anymore. Even if the anchor force would intermediately reduce
to lower values, the defined residual force will be its maximum limit.
Note that if the anchor has failed (in tension, compression or both) the residual force will
be valid in the following calculation phases where the anchor is active. If the anchor is
deactivated in a phase and reactivated in the next phase, the maximum anchor force will
be restored, assuming that the anchor is a completely a new one.

Hint: A reduced residual strength is not recommended to be used in Safety

calculations.

Anchors can be prestressed in a Staged construction calculation. In such a calculation

the prestress force for a certain calculation phase can directly be given in the Anchor

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Figure 6.50 The force-displacement diagram displaying the elastoplastic behaviour with residual
strength of the anchors

window. The prestress force is not considered to be a material property and is therefore
not included in an anchor data set.

6.9 ASSIGNING MATERIAL DATA SETS TO GEOMETRY COMPONENTS

After creating material data sets, the data sets must be assigned to the corresponding
geometry components (soil layers and structures). This can be done in different ways,
which are explained below. The methods described below are primarily meant to assign
properties to the initial geometry. For details on the change of properties during
calculations in the framework of staged construction (Section 7.9.6).

Soil layers
Regarding soil data, material data sets can be assigned to individual soil layers in the
boreholes. Therefore a borehole should be double clicked to open the corresponding
Modify soil layers window. In the Modify soil layers window the Materials button at the
lower right hand side of the window should be clicked to open the material database.
To assign a data set to a particular soil layer, select the desired data set from the material
database tree view (click on the data set and hold the left hand mouse button down),
drag it to the soil column in the borehole window (hold the mouse button down while
moving) and drop it on the desired layer (release the mouse button). The layer should
now show the corresponding material data set colour. The drag and drop procedure
should be repeated until all layers have their appropriate data set. Note that material sets
cannot be dragged directly from the global database tree view and must be copied to the
project database first.
When multiple boreholes are used it should be noted that assigning a data set to a layer
in one particular borehole will also influence the other boreholes, since all layers appear
in all boreholes, except for layers with a zero thickness.

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Structures
Regarding structures (fixed-end anchors, beams, node-to-node anchors, embedded
piles, plates, geogrids and interfaces), there are three different methods of assigning
material data sets.
• The first method is based on an open Material sets window, showing the created
material sets in the project database tree view. The desired material set can be
dragged (select it and keep the left mouse button down) to the draw area and
dropped on the desired component. It can be seen from the shape of the cursor
whether or not it is valid to drop the material set.
• The second method is to select the desired structure in the draw area or model
explorer and select the desired material set from the Set material of the right hand
mouse button menu.
• The third method is to select the desired structure in the draw area or model explorer
and use the Material combo box in the explorer to define the material data set.

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7 MESHING AND CALCULATIONS

When the geometry modelling process is complete, one can proceed with the
calculations. This consists of generation of mesh and definition of the construction
stages.
In the engineering practice, a project is divided into project phases. Similarly, a
calculation process in PLAXIS is also divided into calculation phases. Examples of
calculation phases are the activation of a particular loading at a certain time, the
simulation of a construction stage, the introduction of a consolidation period, the
calculation of a safety factor, etc. Each calculation phase is generally divided into a
number of calculation steps. This is necessary because the non-linear behaviour of the
soil requires loadings to be applied in small proportions (called load steps). In most
cases, however, it is sufficient to specify the situation that has to be reached at the end of
a calculation phase. Robust and automatic procedures in PLAXIS will take care of the
sub-division into appropriate load steps.
The construction stages can be defined in the Water levels and Staged construction
modes.The first calculation phase (Initial phase) is always a calculation of the initial
stress field for the initial geometry configuration by means of Gravity loading or K0
procedure. Alternatively, it may be indicated that the calculations only involve
groundwaterflow. After this initial phase, subsequent calculation phases may be defined
by the user. In each phase, the type of calculation must be selected.
For deformation calculations distinction is made between Plastic, Consolidation, Fully
coupled flow-deformation or Safety calculation. The different types of calculations are
explained in Section 7.3.

7.1 MESH GENERATION - MESH MODE

To perform finite element calculations, the geometry has to be divided into elements. A
composition of finite elements is called a finite element mesh. The mesh is created in the
Mesh mode. The mesh should be sufficiently fine to obtain accurate numerical results.
On the other hand, very fine meshes should be avoided since this will lead to excessive
calculation times. The PLAXIS 3D program allows for a fully automatic generation of
finite element meshes. The mesh generation process takes into account the soil
stratigraphy as well as all structural objects, loads and boundary conditions.

Elements
The basic soil elements of the 3D finite element mesh are the 10-node tetrahedral
elements (Figure 7.1).
In addition to the soil elements, special types of elements are used to model structural
behaviour. For beams, 3-node line elements are used, which are compatible with the
3-node edges of a soil element. In addition, 6-node plate and geogrid elements are used
to simulate the behaviour of plates and geogrids respectively. Moreover, 12-node
interface elements are used to simulate soil-structure interaction behaviour. The element
formulations are given in the Scientific Manual.

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η
4

4
10
9 8
1 3
2 51 7 3 ξ

6
ζ 2
Figure 7.1 3D soil elements (10-node tetrahedrons)

To generate the mesh, click the Generate mesh button in the side toolbar
of the Mesh mode or select the corresponding option in the Mesh menu. The Mesh
options window pops up where the general mesh properties can be defined (Figure 7.2).

Figure 7.2 Mesh options Window

The mesh is generated by clicking on the OK button in the Mesh options window.

7.1.1 GLOBAL SETTINGS

The mesh generator requires a global meshing parameter that represents the target
element size, le . In PLAXIS this parameter is calculated from the outer geometry
dimensions (xmin , xmax , ymin , ymax , zmin , zmax ) and the element distribution selected in the
Element distribution drop-down menu in the Mesh options window. The target element
dimension is calculated according to the formula:
re p
le = × (xmax − xmin )2 + (ymax − ymin )2 + (zmax − zmin )2
20
The target element dimension or Average element size, (le ), is displayed in the General
project information option of the Project menu in the Output program (Section 8.2.3). It is
based on a parameter called Relative element size factor (re ). Regarding the element
distribution, distinction is made between five global levels. By default, the element
distribution is set to Medium but the user may select one of the other levels to make the
mesh globally finer or coarser.
The values of the parameter re for the element distributions predefined in the program are
given below:

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Very coarse : re = 2.0

Coarse : re = 1.5
Medium : re = 1.0
Fine : re = 0.7
Very fine : re = 0.5
Besides the options in the Element distribution drop-down menu, the mesh can be
defined using Expert settings.
Relative element size: The relative element size factor (re ) as defined above. The
default value is 1.0.
Element dimension: The target element dimension (le ) as defined above.
Polyline angle tolerance:
The polyline angle tolerance defines how accurately the mesh
will follow the lines in the project. As the polyline angle tolerance
increases, the mesh becomes coarser and the lines are less
accurate. As the polyline angle tolerance decreases, the mesh is
finer and the lines are more precise. This parameter is important
for curved lines. The default value is 30 ◦ .
Surface angle tolerance:
The surface angle tolerance defines how accurately the mesh
will follow the surfaces in the project. The default value is 15 ◦ .
As the surface angle tolerance increases, the mesh is coarser
and the surfaces are less precise. As the surface angle
tolerance decreases, the mesh becomes finer and the surfaces
are more precise. This parameter is important for non-planar
surfaces. A proper value can be defined according to the
geometry of the model.
The number of cores to be used in the meshing process can be defined in the
corresponding cell (Max cores to use) in the Mesh options window. By default this value
is set to 256, ensuring that full core capacity is utilized.

7.1.2 LOCAL REFINEMENT

In areas where large stress concentrations or large deformation gradients are expected, it
is desirable to have a more accurate (finer) finite element mesh, whereas other parts of
the geometry might not require a fine mesh. Such a situation often occurs when the
geometry model includes edges or corners of structural objects.
Local refinement is based on a local fineness factor that can be specified for each
geometry entity. This factor gives an indication of the relative element size with respect to
the target element size as determined by the Element distribution parameter. By default,
the Fineness factor value is set to 1.0 for most geometry entities whereas this value is
0.5 for structural objects and loads. A Fineness factor value of 0.5 reduces the element
size to half the target element size. The fineness factor can be changed by selecting the
geometry entity and clicking on the Fineness factor in the Selection explorer. Values in
the range from 0.0625 to 8.0 are acceptable. Using a value larger than 1.0 coarsens the

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mesh locally.
To locally refine the mesh either click the Finer mesh button and select the
geometry entity (volume, surface, line or point) where a finer mesh is required or
right click the geometry entity and select the Finer mesh option from the appearing menu.
To locally coarsen the mesh click the Coarser mesh button and select the geometry
entity (volume, surface, line or point) where a coarser mesh is required or right click
the geometry entity and select the Finer mesh option from the appearing menu.
To reset the local refinement in a geometry entity right click it either in the draw area
or in Selection explorer and select the corresponding option from the appearing
menu.

Hint: In the Mesh mode, the colours indicating the material data sets are not
displayed. The whole model is shown in gray. However refined and
coarsened objects are displayed in green and yellow respectively.
» The more the object is refined, the lighter is the shadow of green it is
displayed.
» The more the object is coarsened, the lighter is the shadow of yellow it is
displayed.

7.1.3 ADVISED MESH GENERATION PRACTICE

3D finite element calculations are very time-consuming. The time consumption highly
depends on the number of elements used in the analysis. Moreover, when using a large
number of 3D elements, the model may be too large to fit in the computer's RAM. Hence,
care should be taken when generating 3D finite element meshes.
On the other hand, a certain number of elements is required to obtain sufficiently
accurate deformations. An even finer mesh is needed when accurate failure loads,
bearing capacities or structural forces are to be calculated. When judging the accuracy of
3D finite element meshes it must be taken into account that the 3D elements have
quadratic interpolation functions. Hence, they are more accurate than linear elements,
but not as accurate as the 15-node elements in 2D PLAXIS versions.
To perform efficient finite element calculations, a preliminary analysis can be performed
using a relatively coarse mesh, with a higher value of the relative element size factor in
the Mesh options window. This analysis can be used to check whether the model is large
enough and to see where stress concentrations and large deformation gradients occur.
This information should be used to create a more refined finite element model.

7.1.4 VIEW MESH

To view the mesh click the View mesh. The full three dimensional mesh
with structures will be displayed in the Connectivity plot in the Output program.
It is recommended to check the quality of the mesh by selecting the corresponding option
available in the Mesh menu of the Output program (Section 8.2.5).

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Hint: Although interface elements have a zero thickness, the interfaces in the
mesh are drawn with a certain thickness to show the connections between
soil elements, structural elements and interface elements. The scale factor
(Section 8.3.7) can be used to reduce the graphical thickness of the
interfaces.

7.1.5 SELECT POINTS FOR CURVES

When the mesh is generated points can be selected to display the results
in charts. Selection of points and generation of charts is described in Section 10.1.

7.2 DEFINING CALCULATION PHASES

Finite element calculations can be divided into several sequential calculation phases.
Each calculation phase corresponds to a particular loading or construction stage.
The construction stages can be defined in the Staged construction mode. The calculation
phases are listed in the Phases explorer.

7.2.1 PHASES EXPLORER

The phases defined in a project are displayed in the Phases explorer. The Phases
explorer is accessible in the Calculation modes. However, it is not editable in the Mesh
mode. The general layout is shown in Figure 7.3.

Figure 7.3 Phases explorer

Hint: Note that for a new project the initial phase is automatically added. It cannot
be deleted. More information on the initial phase is given in Section 7.3.1.

Toolbar
The buttons in the toolbar enable introducing new phases, removing phases and
accessing the Phases window where the settings of phases are defined.
To introduce a new calculation phase (a child phase), select a reference phase
(parent phase) in the list and click the Add phase button. A new phase is added

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under the parent phase.

To insert a new calculation phase before a selected one, click the Insert phase
button. The inserted phase will be the new parent phase for the phase selected
before the insertion, whereas the original parent phase will become the parent phase of
the inserted phase.
The user has to define the new settings for the inserted phase in a similar way as defining
a new phase at the end of the phase list. The phases have the settings of the parent
phase unless they are defined differently. In this case it is required that the next phase is
fully redefined, since the start conditions have changed. This may also have
consequences for the phases thereafter.
To delete a calculation phase, select it and click the Delete phase button. Before
deleting a phase it should be checked which of the subsequent phases refer to the
phase to be deleted. The parent of the deleted phase will be automatically the new parent
phase. Nevertheless, it is required that the modified phases are redefined, since the start
conditions have changed.
To define the phase settings either select the phase and click the Edit phase
button or double click the phase. The Phases window pops up (Section 7.2.3).
The Copy button enables copying to clipboard general information about the phase.
The properties of the phased considered to be general information are available in
the General subtree in the Phases window.
Besides the buttons available in the Phases explorer, the right mouse button menu can
be used to modify the phases in the mode (Figure 7.4).

Figure 7.4 Extended view of the right mouse menu of Phases explorer

Calculation state indication

The calculation state of a phase is indicated by the symbol at the beginning of each line
in the Phases explorer.
The phase is to be calculated.

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The phase is not to be calculated.

The phase was calculated. No error occurred during calculation.
The phase was calculated but an assumption is made by the
program enabling the continuation of the calculation. Information
is provided in the Log info for last calculation step box in the
Phases window.
The calculation failed. Information is provided in the Log info for
last calculation step box in the the Phases window.
The calculation failed, but the calculation of the child phases is
still possible. Information is provided in the Log info for last
calculation box in the Phases window.

Phase identification
The ID of the phases is displayed in the Phases explorer. The ID of the phase consist of
the caption and the name (part inside the square brackets). The name of the phases is
determined consecutively by the program and it can not be modified by the user. The
user may redefine the caption part of the ID of the phase in the Phases window (Section
7.7.1).

Calculation type indication

The Calculation type, the Loading type and the Pore pressure calculation type are
indicated by the corresponding icons next to the phase ID in the Phases explorer. More
information is given in Section 7.3, Section 7.4 and Section 7.5 respectively.

7.2.2 ORDER OF CALCULATION PHASES

The order of calculation phases is defined either by selecting the reference phase (parent
phase) first and then adding a phase, or selecting the reference phase in the Start from
phase drop-down menu in the Phases window. By default, the previous phase is selected
as parent phase. Note that a phase that appears later in the phases list cannot be
selected.

Special cases
In some special cases, the order of calculation phases is not straightforward. Examples
of some cases are:
• The Initial phase may be selected as reference if different loadings or loading
sequences are to be considered separately for the same project.
• For a certain situation, a load is increased until failure to determine the safety
margin. When continuing the construction process, the next phase should start from
the previous construction stage rather than from the failure situation.
• A third example where the phase ordering is not straightforward is in calculations
where safety analysis for intermediate construction stages is considered. The
calculation type in this case is Safety. In general, such a phase results in a state of
failure. When continuing the construction process, the next stage should start from

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the previous phase rather than from the results of the safety analysis. Alternatively,
safety analyses for the various construction stages can be performed at the end of
the calculation process. In that case, the reference phase selected in the Start from
phase drop-down menu should refer to the corresponding construction stage.

7.2.3 PHASES WINDOW

Each calculation involves a number of parameters that control the calculation process.
These parameters are listed and can be edited in the Phases window (Section 7.7). The
Phases window can be opened by double clicking a phase in the Phases explorer or
clicking the Edit phase button.
There are two possible views to display information in the Phases window. The view of
the phases window can be selected by clicking the icon next to the Copy button in the
Phases window. The icon will change according to the selected view.
The information in the Phases window is displayed in three separate panels (Figure
7.5). In the left panel the Phases explorer is displayed giving an overview of all the
phases in the model and the relation between them. The middle panel displays
information regarding the selected phase in the Model explorer. The right panel
displays log info for the last calculation of the selected phase and provides space to
write comments.

Figure 7.5 All panels view of the Phases window

The Spreadsheet view displays all the calculation information in a spreedsheet form
(Figure 7.6) to facilitate a comparison of parameters for different phases.

Figure 7.6 Spreadsheet view of the Phases window

In the Phases window, users need to select at least the Calculation type and the Loading

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type for each new phase. PLAXIS provides convenient default values for most calculation
control parameters, but the user can change these values. A description of the
calculation types and control parameters is given in the next section.

7.3 TYPES OF ANALYSIS

The first step in a PLAXIS analysis is defining a calculation type of a phase in the
Calculation type drop-down menu in the Phases window. The options available are K0
procedure and Gravity loading for the initial phase, and Plastic, Consolidation, Safety and
Dynamic for other phases.

7.3.1 INITIAL STRESS GENERATION

Many analysis problems in geotechnical engineering require the specification of a set of
initial stresses. The initial stresses in a soil body are influenced by the weight of the
material and the history of its formation. This stress state is usually characterised by an
initial vertical effective stress (σ 'v ,0 ). The initial horizontal effective stress σ 'h,0 is related
to the initial vertical effective stress by the coefficient of lateral earth pressure K0
(σ 'h,0 = K0 · σ 'v ,0 ).
In PLAXIS, initial stresses may be generated by using the K0 procedure or by using
Gravity loading. Note that these options are available in the Calculation type drop-down
menu only for the Initial phase. It is recommended to generate and inspect results from
initial stresses first before defining and executing other calculation phases.

Hint: As a rule, one should use the K0 procedure only in cases with a horizontal
surface and with all soil layers and phreatic levels parallel to the surface. For
all other cases, Gravity loading should be used.

Examples of non-horizontal surfaces, and non-horizontal weight stratifications are:

K0 procedure
K0 procedure is a special calculation method available in PLAXIS to define the
initial stresses for the model, taking into account the loading history of the soil. The
parameters required in the initial stresses development procedures are defined in the
Initial tabsheet of material data sets for soil and interfaces (Section 6.1.5).
Two K0 values can be specified, one for the x -direction and one for the y -direction.

K0,x = σ 'xx /σ 'zz K0,y = σ 'yy /σ 'zz

In practice, the value of K0 for a normally consolidated soil is often assumed to be related
to the friction angle by Jaky's empirical expression:

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K0 = 1 − sinϕ

In an over-consolidated soil, K0 would be expected to be larger than the value given by

this expression.
For the Mohr-Coulomb model, the default value K0 -value is based on Jaky's formula. For
the advanced models, (Hardening Soil model, Hardening Soil model with small-strain
stiffness, Soft Soil model, Soft Soil Creep model, Modified Cam-Clay model), the default
value is based on the K0nc parameter and is also influenced by the overconsolidation ratio
(OCR) or the pre-overburden pressure (POP) (see Section 6.1.5 and the Material Models
Manual for more information):
νur
K0nc POP − POP
νur − νur
K0,x = K0,y = K0nc OCR − (OCR − 1) +  1
0 

1 − νur σzz

Using very low or very high K0 -values in the K0 procedure may lead to stresses that
violate the Mohr-Coulomb failure condition. In this case PLAXIS automatically reduces
the lateral stresses such that the failure condition is obeyed. Hence, these stress points
are in a plastic state and are thus indicated as plastic points. Although the corrected
stress state obeys the failure condition, it may result in a stress field which is not in
equilibrium. It is generally preferable to generate an initial stress field that does not
contain Mohr-Coulomb plastic points.

Hint: The plot of plastic points may be viewed after the presentation of the initial
effective stresses in the Output program by selecting the Plastic points option
from the Stresses menu (see Section 9.3.7).

For a cohesionless material it can easily be shown that to avoid Mohr-Coulomb plasticity,
the value of K0 is bounded by:

1 − sin ϕ 1 + sin ϕ
< K0 <
1 + sin ϕ 1 − sin ϕ
When the K0 procedure is adopted, PLAXIS will generate vertical stresses that are in
equilibrium with the self-weight of the soil. Horizontal stresses, however, are calculated
from the specified value of K0 . Even if the value of K0 is chosen such that plasticity does
not occur, the K0 procedure does not ensure that the complete stress field is in
equilibrium. Full equilibrium is only obtained for a horizontal soil surface with any soil
layers parallel to this surface and a horizontal phreatic level. If the stress field requires
only small equilibrium corrections, then these may be carried out using the calculation
procedures described below. If the stresses are substantially out of equilibrium, then the
K0 procedure should be abandoned in favor of the Gravity loading procedure.
At the end of the K0 procedure, the full soil is weight activated. The soil weight can not be
changed in any other calculation phase.

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Gravity loading
Gravity loading is a type of Plastic calculation (Section 7.3.2), in which initial
stresses are generated based on the volumetric weight of the soil. If Gravity loading
is adopted, then the initial stresses are set up by applying the soil self-weight in the first
calculation phase. In this case, when using an elastic perfectly-plastic soil model such as
the Mohr-Coulomb model, the ratio of horizontal effective stress over vertical effective
stress, K0 , depends strongly on the assumed values of Poisson's ratio. It is important to
choose values of Poisson's ratio that give realistic values of K0 . If necessary, separate
material data sets may be used with Poisson's ratio adjusted to provide the proper
K0 -value during gravity loading. These sets may be changed by other material sets in
subsequent calculations (Section 7.9.6). For one-dimensional compression an elastic
computation will give:
ν
K0 =
(1 − ν)
If a value of K0 of 0.5 is required, for example, then it is necessary to specify a value of
Poisson's ratio of 0.333. As Poisson's ratio must be lower than 0.5, it is not
straightforward to generate K0 values larger than 1 using Gravity loading. If K0 values
larger than 1 are desired, it is necessary to simulate the loading history and use different
Poisson's ratio for loading and unloading or use the K0 procedure.
When advanced soil models are used, the resulting K0 -value after gravity loading
corresponds to the K0nc in the material data set.

Hint: To make sure that Gravity loading results in initial effective stresses in
situations where undrained materials are used, the parameter Ignore
undrained behaviour should be selected.
» Once the initial stresses have been set up using Gravity loading, the
displacements should be reset to zero at the start of the next calculation
phase. This removes the effect of the initial stress generation procedure on
the displacements developed during subsequent calculations, whereas the
stresses remain.

In some cases plastic points will be generated during the Gravity loading procedure. For
cohesionless soils in one-dimensional compression, for example, plastic Mohr-Coulomb
points will be generated unless the following inequality is satisfied:

1 − sin ϕ ν
< <1
1 + sin ϕ 1−ν

Results of initial stress generation

After the generation of initial stresses the plot of the initial effective stresses can be
inspected (Section 8.3.1). It is also useful to view the plot of plastic points.
Using K0 values that differ substantially from unity may sometimes lead to an initial stress
state that violates the Mohr-Coulomb criterion. If the plot of the plastic points shows many
red plastic points (Mohr-Coulomb points), the value of K0 should be chosen closer to 1.0.

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If there are a small number of plastic points, it is advisable to perform a plastic nil-step.
When using the Hardening Soil model and defining a normally consolidated initial stress
state (OCR = 1.0 and POP = 0.0), the plot of plastic points shows many hardening points.
Users need not be concerned about these plastic points as they just indicate a normally
consolidated stress state.

Groundwater flow only

This option allows pure groundwater flow calculations under saturated and unsaturated
conditions. This option can only be selected for the Inital phase. Note that selection of
this option effects the following phases as well. The calculation type for the following
phases will be automatically set to Groundwater flow only. The Calculation type option is
grayed out indicating that no change is possible. Note that it is not possible to define
Groundwater flow only phases if the Calculation type of the initial phase is not specified
as such.
When the Groundwater flow only option is selected for the initial phase only the Steady
state groundwater flow is available for Pore pressure calculation type.

Plastic nil-step
If the K0 procedure generates an initial stress field that is not in equilibrium or where
Mohr-Coulomb plastic points occur, then a plastic nil-step should be adopted. A plastic
nil-step is a plastic calculation step in which no additional load is applied (Section 7.3.7).
After this step has been completed, the stress field will be in equilibrium and all stresses
will obey the failure condition.
If the original K0 procedure generates a stress field that is far from equilibrium, then the
plastic nil-step may fail to converge. This happens, for example, when the K0 procedure
is applied to problems with very steep slopes. For these problems, the Gravity loading
procedure should be adopted.
It is important to ensure that displacements calculated during a plastic nil-step (if it is
applied immediately after generating the initial stresses) do not affect later calculations.
This is achieved by selecting the Reset displacements to zero parameter in the
subsequent calculation phase (Section 7.9).

7.3.2 PLASTIC CALCULATION

A Plastic calculation is used to carry out an elastic-plastic deformation analysis in
which it is not necessary to take the change of pore pressure with time into account.
If the Updated mesh parameter has not been selected, the calculation is performed
according to the small deformation theory. The stiffness matrix in a normal plastic
calculation is based on the original undeformed geometry. This type of calculation is
appropriate in most practical geotechnical applications.
Although a time interval can be specified, a plastic calculation does not take time effects
into account, except when the Soft Soil Creep model is used (see Material Models
Manual). Considering the quick loading of saturated clay-type soils, a Plastic calculation
may be used for the limiting case of fully undrained behaviour using the Undrained (A),
Undrained (B) or Undrained (C) option in the material data sets. On the other hand,
performing a fully drained analysis can assess the settlements on the long term. This will

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give a reasonably accurate prediction of the final situation, although the precise loading
history is not followed and the process of consolidation is not dealt with explicitly.
An elastic-plastic deformation analysis where undrained behaviour (Undrained (A) or
Undrained (B)) is temporarily ignored can be defined by checking the Ignore undr.
behaviour (A, B) parameter. In this case the stiffness of water is not taken into account.
Note that Ignore undrained behaviour does not affect materials of which the drainage
type is set to Undrained (C).
When changing the geometry configuration (Section 7.9) it is also possible (for each
calculation phase) to redefine the water boundary conditions and recalculate the pore
pressures (Section 7.8). For more details on theoretical formulations of a plastic
calculation reference should be made to the Scientific Manual.
In a Plastic calculation loading can be defined in the sense of changing the load
combination, stress state, weight, strength or stiffness of elements, activated by
changing the load and geometry configuration or pore pressure distribution by means of
Staged construction. In this case, the total load level that is to be reached at the end of
the calculation phase is defined by specifying a new geometry and load configuration,
and/or pore pressure distribution, in the Staged construction mode (Section 7.9).
The options for Pore pressure calculation type for a Plastic phase are:
• Phreatic
• Use pressures form previous phase
• Steady state groundwater flow
More information on Pore pressure calculation type is given in Section 7.5.

7.3.3 CONSOLIDATION CALCULATION

A Consolidation calculation is usually conducted when it is necessary to analyse the
development and dissipation of excess pore pressures in a saturated clay-type soil
as a function of time. PLAXIS allows for true elastic-plastic consolidation analysis. In
general, consolidation analysis without additional loading is performed after an undrained
plastic calculation. It is also possible to apply loads during a consolidation analysis.
However, care should be taken when a failure situation is approached, since the iteration
process may not converge in such a situation.
A consolidation analysis requires additional boundary conditions on excess pore
pressures (Section 7.8).

Hint: In PLAXIS, pore pressures are divided into steady-state pore pressures and
excess pore pressures. Steady state pore pressures are generated
according to the water conditions assigned to the soil layers for each phase,
whereas excess pore pressures are calculated as a result of undrained soil
behaviour (Undrained (A) or Undrained (B)) or consolidation. A Consolidation
calculation in PLAXIS only affects the excess pore pressures.
» A Consolidation calculation does not affect Undrained (C) materials.

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In a Consolidation analysis, the following options are available:

Consolidation and simultaneous loading in the sense of changing the load
combination, stress state, weight, strength or stiffness of elements, activated by
changing the load and geometry configuration by means of Staged construction. It is
necessary to specify a value for the Time interval parameter, which has in this case
the meaning of the total consolidation period applied in the current calculation
phase. The applied first time increment is based on the First time step parameter in
the Numerical control parameters subtree. The Staged construction option should
also be selected if it is desired to allow for a certain consolidation period without
additional loading.
Consolidation without additional loading, until all excess pore pressures have
decreased below a certain minimum value, specified by the Minimum pore
pressures parameter. By default, the Minimum pore pressures is set to 1 stress unit,
but this value may be changed by the user. Please note that the Minimum pore
pressures parameter is an absolute value, which applies to pressure as well as
tensile stress. The input of a Time interval is not applicable in this case, since it
cannot be determined beforehand how much time is needed to fulfill the minimum
pore pressure requirement. The applied first time increment is based on the First
time step parameter in the Numerical control parameters subtree.
Consolidation without additional loading, until a desired degree of consolidation,
specified by the |P-stop| parameter, is reached. By default, |P-stop| parameter is set
to 90.0 %, but this value may be changed by the user. The input of a Time interval is
not applicable in this case, since it cannot be determined beforehand how much
time is needed to fulfill the degree of consolidation requirement.The applied first
time increment is based on the First time step parameter in the Numerical control
parameters subtree.

7.3.4 FULLY COUPLED FLOW-DEFORMATION ANALYSIS

A Fully coupled flow-deformation analysis is conducted when it is necessary
to analyse the simultaneous development of deformations and pore pressures in
saturated and partially saturated soils as a result of time-dependent changes of the
hydraulic boundary conditions. Examples where a fully coupled flow-deformation analysis
may be required include draw down of the reservoir level behind a dam, embankment
dams subjected to tidal waves and partially drained excavation and dewatering of a
building site. In contrast to a consolidation analysis, which primarily affects the excess
pore pressures, a fully coupled flow-deformation analysis directly operates on the total
pore water pressures, i.e. the sum of steady-state and excess pore pressures. Still, in
order to be consistent with other calculation types, steady-state pore pressures are
calculated based on the hydraulic conditions at the end of the calculation phase, which
enables the back-calculation of excess pore pressures from the total pore water
pressures.
In principle, a fully coupled flow-deformation analysis takes into account unsaturated soil
behaviour and suction in the unsaturated zone above the phreatic level. However,
positive pore stresses in the unsaturated zone may be restricted by using the option
Ignore suction.

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Hint: It is not possible to use Updated mesh in a fully coupled flow-deformation

analysis.

7.3.5 SAFETY CALCULATION (PHI/C REDUCTION)

The Safety calculation type is an option available in PLAXIS to compute global
safety factors. This option can be selected as a separate Calculation type in the
General tabsheet.
In the Safety approach the strength parameters tan ϕ and c of the soil are successively
reduced until failure of the structure occurs. The dilatancy angle ψ is, in principle, not
affected by the phi/c reduction procedure. However, the dilatancy angle can never be
larger than the friction angle. When the friction angle ϕ has reduced so much that it
becomes equal to the (given) dilatancy angle, any further reduction of the friction angle
will lead to the same reduction of the dilatancy angle. The strength of interfaces, if used,
is reduced in the same way. The strength of structural objects like plates and anchors is
not influenced by a Safety (phi/c reduction) calculation.
The total multiplier ΣMsf is used to define the value of the soil strength parameters at a
given stage in the analysis:
tan ϕinput cinput su,input
ΣMsf = = =
tan ϕreduced creduced su,reduced
where the strength parameters with the subscript 'input' refer to the properties entered in
the material sets and parameters with the subscript 'reduced' refer to the reduced values
used in the analysis. ΣMsf is set to 1.0 at the start of a calculation to set all material
strengths to their input values.
A Safety calculation is performed using the Load advancement number of steps
procedure (Section 7.6.3). The incremental multiplier Msf is used to specify the increment
of the strength reduction of the first calculation step. This increment is by default set to
0.1, which is generally found to be a good starting value. The strength parameters are
successively reduced automatically until all Additional steps have been performed. By
default, the number of additional steps is set to 100, but a larger value up to 10000 may
be given here, if necessary. It must always be checked whether the final step has resulted
in a fully developed failure mechanism. If that is the case, the factor of safety is given by:

available strength
SF = = value of ΣMsf at failure
strength at failure
The ΣMsf -value of a particular calculation step can be found in the Calculation
information window displayed as the corresponding option is selected in the Project
menu of the Output program. It is also recommended to view the development of ΣMsf
for the whole calculation using the Curves option (Chapter 10.2). In this way it can be
checked whether a constant value is obtained while the deformation is continuing; in
other words: whether a failure mechanism has fully developed. If a failure mechanism
has not fully developed, then the calculation must be repeated with a larger number of
additional steps.
To capture the failure of the structure accurately, the use of Arc-length control parameter

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is required. The use of a Tolerated error of no more than 1% is also required. Both
requirements are complied with when using the default iteration parameters (Section
7.7.3).

Hint: When performing Safety calculation without Arc-length control, the reduction
factor ΣMsf cannot go down and an overestimation of safety factor can occur.

When using Safety calculation in combination with advanced soil models, these models
will actually behave as a standard Mohr-Coulomb model, since stress-dependent
stiffness behaviour and hardening effects are excluded from the analysis. In that case,
the stiffness is calculated at the beginning of the calculation phase based on the starting
stresses and kept constant until the calculation phase is completed. Note that when using
the Modified Cam-Clay model the strength is not reduced at all since this model does not
have a cohesion or friction angle as model parameter.

Hint: In case of the Jointed Rock model the strength on all the planes will be
reduced by ΣMsf.
» Strength in the Modified Cam-Clay model is not reduced in Safety analysis.
» When using Safety analysis in combination with user-defined soil models,
none of the parameters of these models will be reduced.

The Safety approach resembles the method of calculating safety factors as

conventionally adopted in slip-circle analysis. For a more detailed description of the
method of Safety you are referred to Brinkgreve & Bakker (1991).
In a Safety calculation the following options are available:
A Safety analysis is performed by reducing the soil and interface strength
parameters until a target value of the total multiplier ΣMsf is reached. The program
first will try to find a safe value (Phase ΣMsf ) then it will recalculate the last step
before passing the target and will do a last step to reach the target.
A Safety analysis is performed by reducing the soil and interface strength
parameters incrementally. The default increment of the strength reduction of the first
calculation step, Msf is 0.1 but this value may be changed by the user.

Strength factorization in the Hoek-Brown model

When using the Hoek-Brown model to describe the behaviour of a rock section, the
Safety calculation procedure is slightly modified, since the failure contour is not described
by the Mohr-Coulomb criterion anymore. In order to have an equivalent definition of a
safety factor as for the Mohr-Coulomb model, the Hoek-Brown yield function is
reformulated to include the strength reduction factor ΣMsf for safety analyses:

fHB = σ '1 − σ '3 + f red (σ '3 )

with

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−σ '3
 
f σci a
f red = = mb +s
η η σci
and
 v   
u
u 1
− 1 f '2
 u X 
2
 u 
1 X
   u Msf 
η=  Msf 2 − f ' t1 + + f '
u 
 
2 2 − f ' 2 

 

where

−σ '3
 
∂f
f' = = −amb mb + s a−1
∂σ '3 σci
More details and a derivation of the above equations can be found in Benz, Schwab,
Vermeer & Kauther (2007).

Updated mesh
The geometry of the model considered in a Safety calculation depends on whether the
Updated mesh option is selected or not in the parent phase. If the mesh is updated, the
resulting geometry at the end of the parent phase will be considered in the safety
calculations.
During a safety calculation the mesh is not updated at the beginning of each load step
even if the Updated mesh option is selected for the Safety phase.

7.3.6 DYNAMIC CALCULATION

The Dynamic option should be selected when it is necessary to consider
stress waves and vibrations in the soil. With PLAXIS 3D it is possible to perform a
dynamic analysis after a series of plastic calculations.

Hint: It is not possible to use updated mesh in a dynamic analysis.

The applied dynamic load is the product of the input value of the defined dynamic load
and the corresponding dynamic load multiplier.
Besides the activation of the dynamic load or dynamic prescribed displacement,
absorbent (viscous) boundary conditions can be defined for a Dynamic calculation. For a
more detailed description of the boundary conditions see Section 7.9.9.

Free vibration analysis

The possible vibrations of a system that occur when an existing static load is released
can be analysed by performing a free vibration analysis. A free vibration analysis can be
performed in a Dynamic calculation type. To perform a free vibration analysis the active

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static external load in a previous calculation needs to be deactivated.

Hint: Note that steady-state pore pressures in a Dynamic calculation are always
taken from the steady-state pore pressures generated in the parent phase
(see Section 7.5.1).
» It is possible to calculate excess pore pressures in undrained soil layers in a
dynamic analysis. However, the accuracy at which pore pressures are
generated depends on the capabilities of the soil models being used.

In a Dynamic calculation loading can be defined in the sense of applying

a predefined combination of external loads as dynamic forces using dynamic
multipliers activated in the Staged construction mode.

7.3.7 PLASTIC NIL-STEP

A plastic calculation may also be used to carry out a so-called plastic nil-step. A plastic
nil-step is a plastic calculation phase in which no additional loading is applied. Each new
phase introduced in the Phases explorer is initially a plastic nil-step, until the calculation
type, geometry or load configuration is changed. It may sometimes be required to solve
large out-of-balance forces and to restore equilibrium. Such a situation can occur after a
calculation phase in which large loadings were activated (for example gravity loading) or if
the K0 procedure generates an initial stress field that is not in equilibrium or where plastic
points occur. After this step has been completed, the stress field will be in equilibrium and
all stresses will obey the failure condition. In this case no changes should be made to the
geometry configuration or to the water conditions. If necessary, such a calculation can be
performed with a reduced Tolerated error to increase the accuracy of the equilibrium
stress field.
If the original K0 procedure generates a stress field that is far from equilibrium, then the
plastic nil-step may fail to converge. This happens, for example, when the K0 procedure
is applied to problems with very steep slopes. For these problems the Gravity loading
procedure should be adopted instead.
It is important to ensure that displacements calculated during a plastic nil-step (if it is
used applied immediately after generating the initial stresses) do not affect later
calculations. This may be achieved by using the Reset displacements to zero option in
the subsequent calculation phase (Section 7.9).
The Staged construction loading type is used to perform plastic nil-steps
to solve existing out-of-balance forces. No changes in the geometry, load level, load
configuration and water pressure distribution should be made.

7.3.8 UPDATED MESH ANALYSIS

In conventional finite element analysis, the influence of the geometry change of the mesh
on the equilibrium conditions is neglected. This is usually a good approximation when the
deformations are relatively small as is the case for most engineering structures. However,
there are circumstances under which it is necessary to take this influence into account.
Typical applications where updated mesh analyses may be necessary include the

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analysis of reinforced soil structures, the analysis of large offshore footing collapse
problems and the study of problems where soils are soft and large deformations occur.
When large deformation theory is included in a finite element program some special
features need to be considered. Firstly it is necessary to include additional terms in the
structure stiffness matrix to model the effects of large structural distortions on the finite
element equations.
Secondly, it is necessary to include a procedure to model correctly the stress changes
that occur when finite material rotations occur. This particular feature of large
displacement theory is usually dealt with by adopting a definition of stress rate that
includes rotation rate terms. Several stress rate definitions have been proposed by
researchers working in this field although none of these are wholly satisfactory. In
PLAXIS the co-rotational rate of Kirchhoff stress (otherwise known as the Hill stress rate)
is adopted. This stress rate would be expected to give accurate results provided that the
shear strains do not become excessive.
Thirdly, it is necessary to update the finite element mesh as the calculation proceeds.
This is done automatically within PLAXIS when the Updated mesh option is selected.
It should be clear from the descriptions given above that the updated mesh procedures
used in PLAXIS involve considerably more than simply updating nodal coordinates as the
calculation proceeds. These calculation procedures are in fact based on an approach
known as an Updated Lagrangian formulation (Bathe, 1982). Implementation of this
formulation within PLAXIS is based on the use of various advanced techniques that are
beyond the scope of this manual (van Langen, 1991).
The three basic types of calculations (Plastic, Consolidation and Safety) can optionally
be performed as an Updated mesh analysis, taking into account the effects of large
deformations. Therefore, the Updated mesh parameter should be selected. The
Updated mesh option cannot be used in a fully coupled flow-deformation analysis or a
dynamic calculation.
Please note that an updated mesh calculation cannot be followed by a 'normal'
calculation. Reversely, a normal calculation can be followed by an updated mesh
calculation, provided that the option Reset displacements to zero is used (Section 7.9).
It should be noted that an updated mesh analysis takes much more time and is less
robust than a normal calculation. Hence, this option should only be used in special cases.

Hint: Note that water conditions at the mesh boundary and pore pressures in
stress points are not updated as the mesh is updated.

Distributed loads
Distributed loads on deformed boundaries are taken into account as if those boundaries
were not deformed. This is to avoid that the total force involved does not change when
the boundary stretches or shrinks. This also applies to axisymmetric applications where
the radius changes as a result of deformation.

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Calculation procedures
In order to carry out an updated mesh analysis the Updated mesh checkbox in the
Deformation control parameters subtree in the Phases window should be selected
(Section 7.9).
Updated mesh calculations are carried out using iteration procedures similar to the
conventional calculation options (Plastic or Consolidation) as described in preceding
sections. Therefore an updated mesh analysis uses the same parameters. However,
because of the large deformation effect, the stiffness matrix is always updated at the
beginning of a load step. Due to this procedure and to the additional terms and more
complex formulations, the iterative procedure in an updated mesh analysis is
considerably slower than that for conventional calculations.

Safety calculations
The geometry of the model considered in a Safety calculation depends on whether the
Updated mesh option is selected or not in the parent phase. If the mesh is updated, the
resulting geometry at the end of the parent phase will be considered in the safety
calculations.
During a safety calculation the mesh is not updated at the beginning of each load step
even if the Updated mesh option is selected for the Safety phase.

Practical considerations
Updated mesh analysis tends to require more computer time than an equivalent,
conventional calculation. It is recommended, therefore, that when a new project is under
study a conventional calculation is carried out before an updated mesh analysis is
attempted.
It is not possible to give simple guidelines that may be used to indicate when an updated
mesh analysis is necessary and where a conventional analysis is sufficient. One simple
approach would be to inspect the deformed mesh at the end of a conventional calculation
using the Deformed mesh option in the Output program. If the geometry changes are
large (on a real scale!) then significant importance of geometric effects might be
suspected. In this case the calculation should be repeated using the updated mesh
option. It cannot definitely be decided from the general magnitudes of the deformations
obtained from a conventional plasticity calculation whether geometric effects are
important or not. If the user is in any doubt about whether updated mesh analysis is
necessary then the issue can only be resolved by carrying out the updated mesh analysis
and comparing the results with the equivalent conventional analysis.
In general, it is not appropriate to use an updated mesh calculation for gravity loading to
set up the initial stress field. Displacements resulting from gravity loading are physically
meaningless and should therefore be reset to zero. Resetting displacements to zero is
not possible after an updated mesh analysis. Hence, gravity loading should be applied in
a normal plastic calculation.
Changing from a 'normal' plastic calculation or consolidation analysis to an updated mesh
analysis is only valid when displacements are reset to zero, because a series of updated
mesh analyses must start from an undeformed geometry. Changing from an updated
mesh calculation to a 'normal' plastic calculation or consolidation analysis is not valid,

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because then all large deformation effects will be disregarded.

By default, the loading type of most types of calculation is set to Staged construction. In
this PLAXIS specific feature it is possible to change the geometry and load configuration
by deactivating or reactivating loads, structural objects or soil volumes. An overview of
the available options is given below.

7.4 LOADING TYPE

The loading type is specified in the Loading input drop-down menu in the Phases window.
Only one of the described loading types can be activated in any single calculation phase.
The available loading types depend on the selected type of calculation.

Hint: Note that the Loading type drop-down menu is NOT available for
Groundwater flow only calculation type.

7.4.1 STAGED CONSTRUCTION

The Staged construction loading type enables the user to specify a new state that is
to be reached at the end of the calculation phase. The water pressure distribution,
the geometry, the input values of loads and the load configuration in the Water conditions
and Staged construction mode can be modified. The Staged construction option may
also be used to perform plastic nil-steps to solve existing out-of-balance forces. In this
case, no changes in the geometry, load level, load configuration and water pressure
distribution should be made.
Before specifying the construction stage, the Time interval of the calculation phase
should be considered. The Time interval is expressed in the unit of time. A non-zero
value is only relevant in the case of a Consolidation analysis or if a time-dependent soil
model (such as Soft Soil Creep model) is used.
Since staged construction is performed using the Load advancement ultimate level
procedure (Section 7.6.2), it is controlled by a total multiplier (ΣMstage). This multiplier
starts at zero and is expected to reach the ultimate level of 1.0 at the end of the
calculation phase. Note that the maximum number of additional steps as defined by the
Max steps parameter will not be reached if ΣMstage criterion is met before.
In some special situations, however, it might be necessary to split the staged construction
process into more than one calculation phase and to specify an intermediate value of
ΣMstage. This can be done by assigning a value lower than 1.0 to the ΣMstage
parameter in the General subtree in the Phases window which is only available for a
Plastic calculation. However, care must be taken with an ultimate level smaller than 1.0,
since this is associated with a resulting out-of-balance force. Such calculations must
always be followed by another staged construction calculation.
Without specifying a value for ΣMstage, the program always assumes an ultimate level
of ΣMstage = 1.0. Before starting any other type of calculation the ΣMstage parameter
must first have reached the value 1.0. This can be verified in the Reached values subtree
in the Phases window (Section 7.19).

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Hint: The Staged construction loading type is available for Plastic, Consolidation
and Dynamic calculations.

7.4.2 MINIMUM PORE PRESSURE

The Minimum pore pressure option in the Loading input drop-down menu is
a criterion for terminating a consolidation analysis. The calculation stops when the
maximum absolute excess pore pressure is below the prescribed value of |P-stop|. Note
that the maximum number of the additional steps as defined by the Max steps parameter
will not be reached if the |P-stop| criterion is met before. For example, when the maximum
excess pore pressure has reached a certain value during the application of load, the user
can make sure that the consolidation process is continued until all nodal values of excess
pore pressure are less than |P-stop|, provided the value of Max steps is sufficient.

Hint: The Minimum pore pressure loading type is available for Consolidation
calculations.

7.4.3 DEGREE OF CONSOLIDATION

The option Degree of consolidation is an alternative criterion for terminating a
consolidation analysis. The calculation stops when the degree of consolidation, as
defines herein, is below the value of Degree of consolidation. The degree of
consolidation is an important indication of the consolidation state. Strictly, the degree of
consolidation, U , is defined in terms of the proportion of the final settlement although the
term is often used to describe the proportion of pore pressures that have dissipated to at
least (100-U )% of their values immediately after loading. The Degree of consolidation
option may be used to specify the final degree of consolidation in any analysis.
In this case the Minimum pore pressure parameter (see above) is set to a value as
defined by the maximum excess pore pressure in the previous phase and the defined
Degree of consolidation (U ):

Minimum pore pressure = (100 − U)Pmax

where Pmax is the maximum excess pore pressure reached in the previous phase which
can be found in the the Reached values subtree in the Phases window (Section 7.19).
The calculation stops when the maximum absolute excess pore pressure is below this
calculated value of Minimum pore pressure. Note that the maximum number of additional
steps as defined by the parameter Max steps will not be reached if the Minimum pore
pressure criterion is met before.

Hint: The Degree of consolidation loading type is available for Consolidation

calculations.

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7.4.4 TARGET SUMMSF

Reduction of the soil and interface strength towards a target value of the
total multiplier ΣMsf . The program first performs a full safety analysis until failure
(Section 7.4.5) and then it recalculates the last step before the target value of ΣMsf in
order to reach the target exactly.

7.4.5 INCREMENTAL MULTIPLIERS

The Incremental multipliers loading type enables the user to perform a Safety
analysis using the Load advancement number of steps procedure (Section 7.6.3).
The incremental multiplier Msf is used to specify the increment of the strength reduction
of the first calculation step. This increment is by default set to 0.1, which is generally
found to be a good starting value. The strength parameters are successively reduced
automatically until the value assigned to the Max steps parameter has been reached. By
default, the maximum number of steps is set to 100, but a larger value up to 1000 may be
given here, if necessary. It must always be checked whether the final step has resulted in
a fully developed failure mechanism. If that is the case, the factor of safety is given by:

available strength X
SF = = value of Msf at failure
strength at failure
The ΣMsf -value of a particular calculation step can be found in the Calculation
Information window of the Output program. It is also recommended to view the
development of ΣMsf for the whole calculation using the Curves option (Chapter 10). In
this way it can be checked whether a constant value is obtained while the deformation is
continuing; in other words: whether a failure mechanism has fully developed. If a failure
mechanism has not fully developed, then the calculation must be repeated with a larger
number of additional steps.

Hint: The Incremental multipliers loading type is available for Safety calculations.

7.5 WATER PRESSURE CALCULATION

Water pressure can be 'external' water pressure (i.e. 'water load' on model boundaries) or
'internal' water pressure, which is known as pore water pressure. Pore water pressure is
included in what is denoted in PLAXIS as active pore pressure. Active pore pressure is
composed of steady-state pore pressure and excess pore pressure, and may also include
suction (positive pore water stress). In general, the steady-state component of water
pressure (both the 'external' and 'internal' part) is considered to be input data and
supposed to be known at the beginning of a deformation analysis, whereas excess pore
pressure is the result of undrained loading or consolidation. This section deals with the
calculation of steady-state water pressure as input for a deformation analysis, which can
be generated according to the options available in the Phases window.

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7.5.1 CALCULATION TYPE

Phreatic
The steady-state water pressure calculation by Phreatic is based on the input of a Global
water level (Section 7.5.2) and the water conditions of the clusters (Section 4.3.2). This
generation is quick and straightforward. The following quantities are calculated as input
for a deformation analysis:
• 'External' water pressures (i.e. 'water loads') on external model boundaries are
calculated on the basis of the Global water level.
• Steady-state pore pressures in active clusters are calculated on the basis of the
water conditions as defined for the corresponding clusters. If it is desired to exclude
pore pressures from certain clusters, the Dry option should be used (Section 7.8.2)
or the cluster should be Non-porous (Section 6.1.1).
• Steady-state pore pressures in inactive clusters are calculated on the basis of the
water conditions as defined for the corresponding clusters, which forms the basis for
the calculation of 'external' water pressures on boundaries between active and
inactive clusters.
Steady-state pore pressure may include suction in the unsaturated zone above the
phreatic surface. If it is desired to exclude suction from the steady-state pore pressure as
input for a deformations analysis, the option Ignore suction may be used.

Groundwater flow (steady-state)

The steady-state water pressure calculation by Steady state groundwater flow is based
on the input of hydraulic boundary conditions (Section 5.7 and Section 7.8.4). It also
requires the input of a non-zero permeability, in the material datasets for soil and
interfaces. This generation is more time-consuming and the result is not always
straightforward. The following quantities are calculated and are considered as input for a
deformation analysis:
• The global water level. The 'internal' part of the global water level, is calculated as
the level where the steady-state pore pressure is zero, whereas the 'external' part (if
applicable) is calculated from the groundwater heads that are higher than the
external model boundaries.
• 'External' water pressure (i.e. 'water load') on external model boundaries is
calculated on the basis of the Global water level.
• Steady-state pore pressures in active clusters are calculated on the basis of the
groundwater flow calculation. If it is desired to exclude pore pressures from certain
clusters, the Dry option should be used (Section 7.8.2) or the cluster should be
Non-porous (Section 6.1.1).
• Steady-state pore pressures in inactive clusters are interpolated (or extrapolated) on
the basis of the water pressures at the boundaries between active and inactive
clusters, as obtained from the groundwater flow calculation. These pressures also
form the basis for the calculation of the 'external' water pressure on such boundaries.
• If the Global water level is used to define the hydraulic boundary conditions
(groundwater head), the global water level will be replaced by the results of the
groundwater flow calculation. In general, this will result in the same’'external' part of

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the global water level, but the 'internal (phreatic) ' part will most likely change.

Hint: If no surface groundwater flow boundary conditions are defined, the hydraulic
boundary conditions for a steady-state groundwater flow calculation are
taken from the Global water level, which means a prescribed hydraulic head
below the water level and seepage above.
» The Steady state groundwater flow option is available for K0 procedure,
Gravity loading, Groundwater flow only, Plastic and Consolidation calculation
types.

Steady-state pore pressure may include suction in the unsaturated zone above the
phreatic surface. If it is desired to exclude suction from the steady-state pore pressure, as
input for a deformation analysis, the option Ignore suction may be used.

Groundwater flow (transient)

This option is available if it is intended to perform ONLY groundwater flow calculations, to
be indicated by selecting Groundwater flow only for the Calculation type. A transient
groundwater flow calculation is based on the input of (time-dependent) hydraulic
boundary conditions (Section 5.7.4) and water levels (Section 7.8.1) A transient
groundwater flow calculation requires a non-zero time interval. Moreover, it requires the
input of a non-zero permeability in the material datasets for soils and interfaces and the
selection of an appropriate flow model to describe the behaviour in the unsaturated zone
(Section 6.1.3).

Use pressures from previous phase

If the steady-state water pressure does not change compared to its parent phase, the
option Use pressures from previous phase can be used to indicate that the calculation
kernel should use the water pressures of the previous step (phase) as input for the
current deformation analysis. This option should NOT be used if clusters change from
active to inactive or vice versa. In that case the water pressures need to be generated
using one of the other options.

7.5.2 GLOBAL WATER LEVEL

The Global water level can be used to generate a simple hydrostatic pore pressure
distribution (Phreatic calculation type) for the full geometry. The global water level is by
default assigned to all clusters in the geometry.
The Global water level can also be used to create boundary conditions for the
groundwater head in the case that pore pressures are calculated on the basis of a
Groundwater flow calculation or Fully coupled flow-deformation analysis.
The Global water level for a selected phase can be specified in the Water subtree under
the Model conditions in the Model explorer. The drop-down menu displays the available
water levels in the model (Borehole water levels or User water levels). More information
on water levels is given in Section 7.8.1.

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7.6 LOAD STEPPING PROCEDURES

When soil plasticity is involved in a finite element calculation the equations become
non-linear, which means that the problem needs to be solved in a series of calculation
steps. An important part of the non-linear solution procedure is the choice of step size
and the solution algorithm to be used.
During each calculation step, the equilibrium errors in the solution are successively
reduced using a series of iterations. The iteration procedure is based on an accelerated
initial stress method. If the calculation step is of a suitable size then the number of
iterations required for equilibrium will be relatively small, usually around ten.
If the step size is too small, then many steps are required to reach the desired load level
and computer time will be excessive. On the other hand, if the step size is too large then
the number of iterations required for equilibrium may become excessive or the solution
procedure may even diverge.
PLAXIS has an automatic load stepping procedure for the solution of non-linear plasticity
problems. Users do not need to worry about the proper selection of load steps and
numerical procedures, since the program will automatically use the most appropriate
procedure to guarantee optimum performance. The parameters for the load stepping
procedures are available in the Numerical control parameters subtree in the Phases
window (Figure 7.7).

Figure 7.7 Numerical control parameters subtree in the Phases window

The automatic load stepping procedure is controlled by a number of calculation control

parameters (Section 7.7.3). There is a convenient default setting for most control
parameters, which strikes a balance between robustness, accuracy and efficiency. For
each calculation phase, the user can influence the automatic solution procedures by
manually adjusting the control parameters in the Numerical control parameters subtree
in the the Phases window. In this way it is possible to have a stricter control over step
sizes and accuracy. Before proceeding to the description of the calculation control
parameters, a detailed description is given of the solution procedures themselves.

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7.6.1 AUTOMATIC STEP SIZE PROCEDURE

For each calculation phase the user specifies the new state or the total load that is to be
applied at the end of this phase. The calculation program will compare the new situation
(at the end of this phase) with the previous situation (at the end of the phase where it
starts from) and will solve the difference during the current calculation phase by applying
multiple load steps. In fact, the program will try to reach equilibrium for the new situation
in the final load step of the current phase.
The size of the first load step in a calculation phase is automatically determined by
performing trial calculations, taking into account the Tolerated error (Section 7.7.3).
When a new load step is applied (first step or later steps), a series of iterations is carried
out to reach equilibrium. There are three possible outcomes of this particular process.
These outcomes are:
Case 1: The solution reaches equilibrium within a number of iterations that is less than
the Desired minimum control parameter. By default, the Desired minimum number of
iterations is 6, but this value may be changed in the Iterative procedure group box of the
Numerical control parameters subtree in the Phases window (Section 7.7.3). If fewer
iterations than the desired minimum are required to reach the equilibrium state then the
calculation step is assumed to be too small. In this case, the size of the load increment is
multiplied by two and further iterations are applied to reach equilibrium.
Case 2: The solution fails to converge within a Desired maximum number of iterations.
By default, the Desired maximum number of iterations is 15, but this value may be
changed in the Iterative procedure group box of the Numerical control parameters
subtree in the Phases window. (Section 7.7.3). If the solution fails to converge within the
desired maximum number of iterations then the calculation step is assumed to be too
large. In this case, the size of the load increment is reduced by a factor of two and the
iteration procedure is continued.
Case 3: The number of required iterations lies between the Desired minimum number of
iterations and the Desired maximum number of iterations in which case the size of the
load increment is assumed to be satisfactory. After the iterations are complete, the next
calculation step begins. The initial size of this calculation step is made equal to the size
of the previous successful step.
If the outcome corresponds to either case 1 or case 2 then the process of increasing or
reducing the step size continues until case 3 is achieved.

7.6.2 LOAD ADVANCEMENT - ULTIMATE LEVEL

This automatic step size procedure is used for calculation phases where a certain 'state'
or load level (the 'ultimate state' or 'ultimate level') has to be reached, as in the case for a
Plastic calculation where the Undrained A and Undrained B behaviours are ignored. The
procedure terminates the calculation when the specified state or load level is reached or
when soil failure is detected. By default, the Max steps parameter is set to 250, but this
parameter does not play an important role, since in most cases the calculation stops
before the maximum number of steps is reached.
An important property of this calculation procedure is that the user specifies the state or
the values of the total load that is to be applied. The size of the first load step is obtained
automatically using one of the two following methods:

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• PLAXIS performs a trial calculation step and determines a suitable step size on the
basis of this trial.
• PLAXIS sets the initial load step size to be equal to the final load step size of any
previous calculation.
The first method is generally adopted. The second method would only be used if the
loading applied during the current load step is similar to that applied during the previous
load step, for example if the number of load steps applied in the previous calculation
proved to be insufficient.
In subsequent steps, the automatic load stepping procedures are adopted (Section
7.6.1). If at the end of the calculation, the defined state or load level has been reached,
the calculation is considered to be successful. A successful calculation is indicated by a
check mark in a green circle in the Phases explorer and the Phases window.
If the defined state or load level has NOT been reached, the calculation is considered to
have failed. A failed calculation is indicated by a cross mark in a red circle in the Phases
explorer or the Phases window. A message describing the error is given in the Log info
for the last calculation box in the Phases window:
Prescribed ultimate state not reached; Soil body collapses: A collapse load has
been reached. In this case, the total specified load has not been applied. Collapse is
assumed when the applied load reduces in magnitude in X successive calculation steps
(where X is the maximum number of unloading steps; see Section 7.7.3) and the current
stiffness parameter CSP is less than 0.015 (see Section 7.10.8 for the definition of CSP).
It is also possible that the problem is failing but due to switched-off arc-length control, the
program is not allowed to take negative step sizes. The user should check the output of
the last step and judge whether the project is failing or not. In case of failure,
recalculating the project with a higher Additional steps parameter is useless.
Prescribed ultimate state not reached; load advancement procedure fails. Try
manual control: The load advancement procedure is unable to further increase the
applied load, but the current stiffness parameter CSP is larger than 0.015. In this case
the total load specified has not been applied. The user can now attempt to rerun the
calculation with slight changes to the iterative parameters in Numerical control
parameters subtree in the the Phases window, in particular turning off the Arc-length
control type parameter.
Prescribed ultimate state not reached; Not enough load steps: The maximum
specified number of additional load steps have been applied. In this case, it is likely that
the calculation stops before the total specified load has been applied. It is advised to
recalculate the phase with an increased value of Max steps.
Cancelled by user: This occurs when the calculation process is terminated by clicking
Stop in the Active tasks window.
Prescribed ultimate state not reached; Numerical error: A numerical error has
occurred. In this case, the total specified load has not been applied. There may be
different causes for a numerical error. Most likely, it is related to an input error. Careful
inspection of the input data, the finite element mesh and the defined calculation phase is
suggested.
Severe divergence: This is detected when the global error is increasing and has
reached huge values. This error, for example, can be caused by very small time steps in

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a consolidation phase. The program scales down the step size when the tolerated error
cannot be reached, resulting in small time steps. One of the reasons can be that a failure
situation is reached. As for consolidation the arc-length procedure is not used, the
program cannot really detect failure.
File xxxx not found: Such a message appears when a file that ought to exist does not
exist.
Messages may indicate errors related to the iterative solution algorithm or the matrix
condition. In the case of 'floating' elements (insufficient boundary conditions), one could
get a message indicating that the matrix is nearly singular. Checking and improving the
defined calculation phase usually solves the problem.
Another problem related to the solution process can occur due to insufficient direct
computer memory (RAM). In such cases, the iterative solver cannot store the minimum
amount of data necessary to have sufficient accuracy. As a result, the iteration process
converges very slowly, or does not reach the accuracy condition. To solve this problem,
either the problem size should be reduced, or internal memory capacity should be
increased.

7.6.3 LOAD ADVANCEMENT - NUMBER OF STEPS

This automatic step size procedure always performs the number of steps specified in
Additional steps and is, in general, used for calculation phases where a complete failure
mechanism should be developed during the analysis. This algorithm is therefore used in
Safety analysis.
The size of the first step is determined by the incremental multiplier as defined for the
particular calculation phase. For Safety calculations the Loading type parameter is
Incremental multipliers and the default increment is Msf = 0.1. This value may be
changed in the General subtree of the Phases window. In subsequent steps, the
automatic load stepping procedures are adopted (Section 7.6.1).
If at the end of the calculation the value assigned to the Additional steps parameter has
been reached, the calculation is considered to be successful. A successful calculation is
indicated by a tick mark in a green circle in the Phases explorer or the Phases window.
If the value assigned to the Additional steps parameter has NOT been reached, the
calculation is considered to have failed. A failed calculation is indicated by a cross mark
in a red circle in the Phases explorer or the Phases window. A message describing the
error is given in the Log info for last calculation box in the Phases window.
Cancelled by user: This occurs when the calculation process is terminated by clicking
Stop in the Active tasks window.
Apart from cancellation by the user, a load advancement calculation will proceed until the
number of additional steps defined in the Additional steps parameter have been applied.
In contrast to the Ultimate level procedure the calculation will not stop when failure is
reached.

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7.6.4 AUTOMATIC TIME STEPPING (CONSOLIDATION OR FULLY COUPLED

ANALYSIS)
When the Calculation type is set to Consolidation, the Automatic time stepping procedure
is used. This procedure will automatically choose appropriate time steps for a
consolidation analysis. When the calculation runs smoothly, resulting in very few
iterations per step, then the program will choose a larger time step. When the calculation
uses many iterations due to an increasing amount of plasticity, then the program will take
smaller time steps.
The first time step in a consolidation analysis or a fully coupled analysis is generally
based on the First time step parameter. This parameter is, by default, based on the
advised minimum time step (overall critical time step) as described in Section 7.7.3. The
First time step parameter can be changed in the Numerical control parameters subtree in
the Phases window when the Use default iter parameters checkbox is not selected.
However, care should be taken with time steps that are smaller than the advised
minimum time step.
During a Consolidation calculation or a Fully coupled analysis, arc-length control is
always inactive.

7.6.5 AUTOMATIC TIME STEPPING (DYNAMICS)

When the Calculation type is set to Dynamic, the Newmark time integration scheme is
used in which the time step is constant and equal to the critical time step during the whole
analysis. The proper critical time step for dynamic analyses is calculated based on
material property, element size and time history functions (see Section 7.18 for more
information). The critical time steps is calculated based on the values assigned to
Additional steps, Number of sub-steps and Dynamic time interval. To be able to change
the critical time step, the user needs to change the number of sub-steps.
During a dynamic calculation, arc-length control is always inactive.

7.7 CALCULATION CONTROL PARAMETERS

The control parameters of a particular calculation phase and the corresponding solution
procedure can be defined in the Phases window.

7.7.1 GENERAL PHASE PARAMETERS

The general properties of a phase can be defined in the General subtree in the Phases
window (Figure 7.8).

Phase identification
The ID of the phase consist of the caption and the name (in square brackets). The name
of the phases is determined consecutively by the program and it can not be modified by
the user. The user may redefine the caption of the phase in the Phases window.

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Figure 7.8 General subtree in the Phases window

Calculation type
The calculation type of the selected phase can be defined in the corresponding
drop-down menu in the Phases window. The options available are:
K0 procedure
Gravity loading
Plastic
Consolidation
Fully coupled analysis
Safety
Dynamic
A description of the different analysis types available in PLAXIS is given in Section 7.3.

Loading type
The options available for the Loading type parameter are:
Staged construction
Incremental multipliers
Target SumMsf
Minimum pore pressure
Degree of consolidation
A description of the different loading types available in PLAXIS is given in Section 7.4.

Σ Mweight
ΣMweight is the total multiplier for the material weight. For ΣMweight = 1, the material
weight as specified by the unit weights in the material data sets is applied. In general,
ΣMweight remains at its default value of 1, but there are situations in which ΣMweight may
be changed:
• In the case of modelling simplified soil tests by means of finite element models, self
weight of the material may be disregarded since the stresses are dominated by

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external loads rather than material weight. This can either be achieved by using zero
unit weights in the material data set or by using ΣMweight = 0 during the calculations.
• In the case of over-consolidated material in situations where the K0 procedure
cannot be used (for example slopes and non-horizontal ground surfaces), gravity
loading can be used in the initial phase with an increased value of ΣMweight equal to
the over-consolidation ratio. In this way, the pre-consolidation stress is properly
initialised, at least when using advanced soil models. In the subsequent phase,
ΣMweight should be set back to 1.0 in order to have realistic initial soil stresses whilst
the pre-consolidation stress (in advanced models) will memorize the
over-consolidated stress level.
• In the case of modelling a centrifuge test, ΣMweight may be used to simulate the
increased amount of gravity. Hence, in order to simulate a centrifuge test at 100 g,
ΣMweight should be set to 100.

Time interval
A non-zero value for the time-related parameters is only relevant when a transient
groundwater flow calculation, a consolidation analysis, a fully coupled flow-deformation
analysis or a dynamic analysis is performed or when using time-dependent material
models (such as the Soft Soil Creep model).
Time interval To define the total time period considered in the current
calculation phase, expressed in the unit of time as defined in the
Project properties window.
Dynamic time interval To define the total time period considered in the current dynamic
calculation phase, expressed in seconds [s].
A dynamic analysis uses a different time parameter than other types of calculations. The
time parameter in a dynamic analysis is the Dynamic time, which is always expressed in
seconds [s], regardless of the unit of time as specified in the Project properties window.
In a series of calculation phases in which some of them are dynamic, the Dynamic time is
only increased in the dynamic phases (even non-successive), while the Dynamic time is
kept constant in other types of calculations (whether before, in-between or after the
dynamic phases).
The Dynamic time is not affected by the regular time parameter. Reversely, the regular
time parameter includes the Dynamic time.

7.7.2 DEFORMATION CONTROL PARAMETERS

Figure 7.9 Deformation control parameters subtree in the Phases window

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Ignore undrained behaviour

Ignore undrained behaviour excludes temporarily the effects of undrained behaviour in
situations where undrained material data sets (Undrained (A) or Undrained (B)) are used.
The selection of this option is associated with the selection of the Plastic calculation type.
When the option is selected, the stiffness of water is not taken into account. As a result,
all undrained material clusters (except for Undrained (C) materials) become temporarily
drained. Existing excess pore pressures that were previously generated will remain, but
no new excess pore pressures will be generated in that particular calculation phase.
Gravity loading of undrained materials will result in unrealistic excess pore pressures.
Stresses due to the self-weight of the soil, for example, are based on a long-term process
in which the development of excess pore pressures is irrelevant. The Ignore undrained
behaviour option enables the user to specify the material type from the beginning as
undrained for the main loading stages and to ignore the undrained behaviour during the
Gravity loading stage, at least for data sets defined as Undrained A or Undrained B.

Hint: The Ignore undrained behaviour option is not available for a Consolidation
analysis or a Fully coupled flow-deformation analysis, since these calculation
types do not consider the Drainage type as specified in the material data
sets, but use the material permeability instead.

Reset displacements to zero

This option should be selected when irrelevant displacements of previous calculation
steps are to be disregarded at the beginning of the current calculation phase, so that the
new calculation starts from a zero displacement field. For example, deformations due to
gravity loading are physically meaningless. Hence, this option may be chosen after
Gravity loading to remove these displacements. If the option is not selected, the
incremental displacements occurring in the current calculation phase will be added to
those of the previous phase. The selection of the Reset displacements to zero option
does not influence the stress field. However, when using the HS small model, it will reset
the strain history tensor. As a result, any further straining will initially involve small-strain
stiffness.
The use of the Reset displacements to zero option may not be used in a sequence of
calculations where the Updated mesh option is used. However, if an Updated mesh
analysis starts from a calculation where the Updated mesh option is not used, then the
Reset displacements to zero option MUST be used in this Updated mesh analysis.

Reset state variables

This option should be selected when the values of the state parameters in advanced soil
models, as reached at the end of the previous phase are to be disregarded. As a result,
the soil will behave as 'virgin' soil. The reset parameters are given in Table 7.1.

Updated mesh
This option must be selected when the calculation should be performed as a large
deformation analysis according the Updated Lagrange formulation. For a more detailed

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Table 7.1 The material models and the corresponding reset parameters

Material model Parameter

Soft soil, Soft soil creep, Modified Cam-Clay, pp reset to current effective stress
Hardening soil, Hardening soil small-strain state
Hardening soil small-strain Strain history tensor reset to zero
Hardening soil, Hardening soil small-strain Mobilised shear reset to current
effective stress state

information see Section 7.3.8.

Ignore suction
When steady-state pore pressures are generated by the phreatic level option or by a
groundwater flow calculation, tensile pore water stresses (suction) will be generated
above the phreatic level. Although suction is a realistic phenomenon, the use of suction in
a deformation analysis may lead to an increased shear strength when effective strength
parameters are used for the soil. In order to avoid this, suction can be cut off by selecting
the Ignore suction option. Note that the Ignore suction option does not affect the excess
pore pressures generated in undrained soil layers, except in the case of a fully coupled
flow-deformation analysis. The default setting is such that Ignore suction is selected.
When Ignore suction is selected, soil below the phreatic level is considered to behave
fully saturated, whereas soil above the phreatic level is considered to behave as dry soil,
although excess pore pressures may still occur here. Positive values of steady-state pore
stresses will be set to zero. However, any excess pore pressure above the phreatic level,
both positive and negative, will be taken into account. This requires the effective degree
of saturation, Seff , to be set to 1 (except in the case of a fully coupled flow-deformation
analysis. Hence, positive excess pore stresses will always be taken into account to their
full extent until the cavitation cut-off is reached, except in the case of a fully coupled
flow-deformation analysis.
When Ignore suction is NOT selected, suction is allowed and included in the pore water
stresses (both steady state and excess pore stresses). In this case the effective degree
of saturation, Seff , determines the proportion of the suction that is included in the active
pore stresses. This depends on the soil-water retention curve as defined in the material
data set of the soil layer.

Cavitation cut-off
In case of unloading of undrained materials (undrained A or B) tensile excess pore
stresses may be generated. These excess pore stresses might give rise to tensile pore
water stresses. In case the cavitation cut-off option is activated, excess pore pressures
are limited so that the tensile pore water stress is never larger than the cavitation stress.
By default, the cavitation cut-off option is not activated. If it is activated, the default
cavitation stress is 100 kN/m2 . The Cavitation cut-off option is not available for a fully
coupled flow-deformation analysis.

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Figure 7.10 Numerical control parameters subtree in the Phases window

7.7.3 NUMERICAL CONTROL PARAMETERS

Solver type
In PLAXIS the assembly and solution of sparse linear equation systems is carried out by
solvers. The available solvers are:
Picos (multicore iterative)
It stands for Plaxis Iterative Concurrent Solver. Picos is an
efficient iterative solver that solves the system of equations in
parallel on multi-core processors. It is generally the fastest way
to perform calculations.
Pardiso (multicore direct)
It stands for Parallel Sparse Direct Solver. Pardiso is a direct
solver that solves the system of equations in parallel on
multi-core processors. It is generally the most robust way to
solve equations, but it has also the highest memory consumption
(Schank & Gärtner (2006) and Schank, Wächter & Hagemann
(2007)).
Classic (single core iterative)
This is the iterative solver that has been used in previous
PLAXIS 3D versions. It solves the system of equations using
only a single core on the processor.

Max cores to use

The number of cores to be used by the solvers in the calculation process can be defined
in the Numerical control parameters subtree of the Phases window. Note that the option
of using more than two cores is a PLAXIS VIP feature. The Max cores to use parameter
has no effect when the Classic solver is used.

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Max number of steps stored

This parameter defines the number of steps to be stored in a calculation phase. In
general the final output step contains the most relevant result of the calculation phase,
whereas intermediate steps are less important. The final step of a calculation phase is
always saved.
When Max number of steps stored is larger than one, then also the first step is saved
plus (when >2) a selection of available intermediate steps, such that the intervals
between the step numbers are more or less equally divided.
If a calculation phase does not finish successfully then all calculation steps are retained,
regardless of the defined value. This enables a stepwise evaluation of the cause of the
problem.

Iterative procedure control parameters

The iterative procedures, in particular the load advancement procedures, are influenced
by some control parameters. These parameters can be set in the Numerical control
parameters subtree in the Phases window. PLAXIS has an option to adopt a default
iterative procedure, which in most cases leads to a good performance. Users who are not
familiar with the influence of the control parameters on the iterative procedures are
advised to select the Use default iter parameters.
In some situations, however, it might be desired or even necessary to change the
standard setting. In this case the user should deselect the Use default iter parameters
and change the desired parameters. A description of the parameters is given below.

Max steps
This parameter specifies the maximum number of calculation steps (load steps) that are
performed in a particular calculation phase.
If Plastic, Consolidation or Fully coupled flow-deformation is selected as the calculation
type, then the number of additional steps should be set to an integer number
representing the required number of steps for this calculation phase. In this case the
defined value is an upper bound to the actual number of steps that will be executed. In
general, it is desired that such a calculation is completed within the defined number of
steps and stops when either the prescribed ultimate state is reached or the soil body
collapses. If such a calculation reaches the maximum number of steps, it usually means
that the ultimate level has not been reached. By default, the Max steps parameter is set
to 250, but this number can be changed within the range 1 to 10000.
If Safety or Dynamic is selected as the calculation type, then the number of additional
steps is always exactly executed. In general, it is desired that such a calculation is
completed within the defined number of steps and stops when either the prescribed
ultimate state is reached or the soil body collapses. If such a calculation reaches the
maximum number of steps, it usually means that the ultimate level has not been reached.
By default, the Max steps parameter is set to 100 for Safety and 250 for Dynamic
calculations which is generally sufficient to complete the calculation phase. However, this
number may be changed within the range 1 to 10000.

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Time step determination

This parameter determines how the time step parameter is calculated in a Consolidation,
a Fully coupled flow-deformation or a Dynamic analysis. The user can select either the
automatic procedure or specify the parameters manually.

First time step

The First time step is the increment of time used in the first step of a consolidation
analysis (Section 7.6.4). By default, the first time step is equal to the overall critical time
step. The overall critical time step is calculated based on the material properties and the
geometry of the model. For a more detailed description refer to Section 4.4 of the
Scientific Manual.
To retrieve the value suggested by the program click the cell next to the First time step
parameter. The value is displayed when the Retrieve button is clicked. The value is used
when the Apply button is clicked and the Time step determination parameter is
automatically changed to Manual (Figure 7.11).

Figure 7.11 Dialog box displaying the retrieved value for the First time step parameter

Sub steps in Dynamic calculation

The time step used in a Dynamic calculation is constant and equal to δt = ∆t / (m · n),
where ∆t is the duration of the dynamic loading (Dynamic time interval), m is the value of
Max steps and n is the value of the Number of sub steps parameter. The result of the
multiplication of the Max steps number (m) and the Number of sub steps number (n)
gives the total number of steps to be used in the time discretization. It is important to
define a proper number of steps such that the dynamic signal used in dynamic loading is
properly covered.
The Max steps parameter specifies the number of the steps that are stored which can be
used in plots in the Output program. A higher value of the Max steps parameter provides
more detailed plots and animations, however the processing time required by the Output
program is increased as well.
In general the total number of steps, which is the product of the values defined for the
Max steps and Number of sub steps parameters, should be the same as the total number
of data points used in the dynamic calculation. If the Time step determination is set to
default, PLAXIS automatically calculates the proper number of steps and sub steps
based on the material, mesh and number of data points in all active time history function
(dynamic multipliers). When the default option is not selected, the number of steps will
not be automatically calculated inside the kernel. In this case if the automatic option is

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used for the Number of sub steps, this parameter is automatically calculated in the kernel.
To be able to see and change these two parameters, the user has the possibility to
retrieve them by pressing the Retrieve button. By pressing the Apply button, these values
will be applied and will be used by kernel without any change. It should be noted that
PLAXIS always tries to find the closest number of steps to the Max steps that the user
specifies (in case of using the default option, the number of steps will be the closest
number to 250 as shown in Figure 7.12).

Figure 7.12 Dialog box displaying the retrieved value for the Number of sub steps parameter

Tolerated error
In any non-linear analysis where a finite number of calculation steps are used there will
be some drift from the exact solution, as shown in Figure 7.13. The purpose of a solution
algorithm is to ensure that the equilibrium errors, both locally and globally, remain within
acceptable bounds (Section 7.10.8). The error limits adopted in PLAXIS are linked
closely to the specified value of the Tolerated error.
Within each step, the calculation program continues to carry out iterations until the
calculated errors are smaller than the specified value. If the tolerated error is set to a high
value then the calculation will be relatively quick but may be inaccurate. If a low tolerated
error is adopted then computer time may become excessive. In general, the standard
setting of 0.01 is suitable for most calculations.

numerical solution
load

exact solution

displacement
Figure 7.13 Computed solution versus exact solution

If a calculation gives failure loads that tend to reduce unexpectedly with increasing

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Hint: Be careful when using a tolerated error larger than the default value of 0.01,
as this may give inaccurate results which are not in equilibrium.

displacement, then this is a possible indication of excessive drift of the finite element
results from the exact solution. In these cases, the calculation should be repeated using
a lower value of the tolerated error. For further details of the error checking procedures
used in PLAXIS see Section 7.10.8.
Most Validation & Verification examples have been performed with a tolerated error lower
than the default settings.

Maximum unloading steps

This value gives the number of steps that PLAXIS allows before declaring that the soil
body has collapsed. The default value is 5. However, sometimes, in the case of a
changing mechanism the load level may temporarily decrease in order to pick up another
mechanism after which the load can still increase. For example in uplift problems there is
a calculation stage when the top soil structure exhibits buckling behaviour (that lasts
longer than 5 steps), which results in a small unloading. This small unloading is not a
collapse of the whole model, as the final loading finally grows above the previous levels.
Hence, the user might decide to set this value to a higher number and later judge on the
presence of collapse based on the loading curve.

Max load fraction in one step

This value controls the size of the load step in staged construction. Since this is a
fraction, it determines what maximum part of the stage can be solved in one step. For
instance, a value of 0.5 (default) means that the applied load or unbalance will be solved
at least in 1/0.5 = 2 steps. More steps are possible if convergence is slow, but not less.
The user might want to use small values (like 0.02 to force at least 50 steps) in order to
observe the kinetics of the deformation process, prevent divergence in case of high
nonlinearity or in combination with Gradual Error reduction.

Over-relaxation factor
To reduce the number of iterations needed for convergence, PLAXIS makes use of an
over-relaxation procedure as indicated in Figure 7.14. Over-relaxation is a deliberate
over-estimation of the equilibrium error under the assumption that by just solving the
exact unbalance, the next iteration is still far from equilibrium. The purpose of this is to
reduce the number of the iterations in order to speed up the calculation. The parameter
that controls the degree of over-relaxation is the over-relaxation factor. The theoretical
upper bound value is 2.0, but this value should never be used. For low soil friction angles,
for example ϕ < 20◦ , an over-relaxation factor of about 1.5 tends to optimise the iterative
procedure. If the problem contains soil with higher friction angles, however, then a lower
value may be required. The standard setting of 1.2 is acceptable in most calculations.

Maximum number of iterations

This value represents the maximum allowable number of iterations within any individual
calculation step. In general, the solution procedure will restrict the number of iterations

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load
load

over relaxation factor = 1 over relaxation factor > 1

displacement displacement
ation
Figure 7.14 Influence of over-relaxation

that take place. This parameter is required only to ensure that computer time does not
become excessive due to errors in the specification of the calculation. The standard
value of Maximum number of iterations is 60, but this number may be changed within the
range 1 to 100.
If the maximum allowable number of iterations is reached in the final step of a calculation
phase, then the final result may be inaccurate. If this is the case then the message
'Maximum iterations reached in final step' is displayed in the Log info for last calculation
box of the Phases window. Such a situation occasionally occurs when the solution
process does not converge. This may have various causes, but it mostly indicates an
input error.

Desired min and desired max number of iterations

PLAXIS makes use of an automatic step size algorithm (Section 7.6.1). This procedure is
controlled by the two parameters Desired min number of iterations and Desired max
number of iterations, specifying the desired minimum and maximum number of iterations
per step respectively. The default values of these parameters are 6 and 15 respectively,
but these numbers may be changed within the range 1 to 100. For details on the
automatic step size procedures see Section 7.6.1.
It is occasionally necessary for the user to adjust the values of the desired minimum and
maximum from their standard values. It is sometimes the case, for example, that the
automatic step size procedure generates steps that are too large to give a smooth
load-displacement curve. This is often the case where soils with very low friction angles
are modelled. To generate a smoother load-displacement response in these cases, the
calculations should be repeated with smaller values for these parameters, for example:

Desired minimum = 3 Desired maximum = 7

If the soil friction angles are relatively high, or if high-order soil models are used, then it
may be appropriate to increase the desired minimum and maximum from their standard
values to obtain a solution without the use of excessive computer time. In these cases
the following values are suggested:

Desired minimum = 8 Desired maximum = 20

In this case it is recommended to increase the Maximum iterations to 80.

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Arc-length control
The Arc-length control procedure is a method that is by default selected in PLAXIS to
obtain reliable collapse loads for load-controlled calculations. The iterative procedure
adopted when arc-length control is not used is shown in Figure 7.7.3 for the case where a
collapse load is being approached. In the case shown, the algorithm will not converge. If
arc-length control is adopted, however, the program will automatically evaluate the
portion of the external load that must be applied for collapse as shown in Figure 7.7.3.

load load
step 3 step 3 arc

step 2 step 2

step 1 step 1

displacement displacement
a. load control b. arc-length control
Figure 7.15 Influence of Arc-length control

Arc-length control is activated by selecting the corresponding check box in the Numerical
control parameters subtree. The arc-length control procedure should be used for
load-controlled calculations, but it may be deactivated, if desired, for
displacement-controlled calculations.
Setting the Arc-length control type parameter to Auto enables the procedure only when
the CSP (current stiffness parameter) is less than 0.5. In this way arc-length is only used
when the material exhibits significant plastic behaviour.

Use line search

This method aims to improve the convergence of non-linear problems in a relatively
inexpensive way. It can also be seen as an improvement on the over-relaxation method
that exists in PLAXIS. In its essence line search tries to scale the correction of the
solution increment that is calculated every iteration but the scaling parameter is not fixed
as in the over-relaxation method but calculated in a special way to bring the whole system
closer to equilibrium. In general, the usage of line search is advised for problems without
severe non-linearity, like serviceability calculations. On the other hand, critical state
calculations, like footing failure or embankment failure generally do not benefit from line
search with respect to calculation time.

Use gradual error reduction

Gradual error reduction is a simple numerical trick that aims to speed up the calculation
in case of very slow convergence, as it happens for non-associated plastic flow. It works
as follows: initially the tolerated error (the one that controls the convergence of the
nonlinear calculations) is increased 10-fold and then, by the end of the phase, it linearly
reduces to the error as defined by the Tolerated error parameters. Hence, when using
the default error of 0.01, the calculation will start with 0.1 and end with 0.01. The
rationale behind is that in case of non-associative plastic flow one can obtain an infinite

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number of alternative (but still correct) solutions with the same tight tolerance, but with,
for instance, different step size. Hence, is it not really necessary to enforce a tight
tolerance during the whole calculation, as a feasible solution is located in a certain band,
defined by all alternative paths. When the gradual error reduction procedure is enabled,
the solution does not follow one of the paths, but, possibly, jumps from one to another.
However, in the end of the calculation the error is forced to reduce to the levels, as
defined for the calculation phase.
Nonetheless, application of this procedure should be done with caution. If the initial
tolerated error is too high, hypothetically, the solution can switch to a path that is not even
connected to the current initial conditions (hence infeasible). One way to prevent this is to
use much smaller allowable Max load fraction in one step than the default value used in
PLAXIS. The maximum step size is 50% of the whole stage load. The user might
consider reducing the step size to something like 2% or less, hence requiring at least 50
steps (100% / 2%) to obtain the solution of the calculation phase.

Extrapolation
It is a numerical procedure, which is automatically used in PLAXIS if applicable, when a
certain loading that was applied in the previous calculation step is continued in the next
step. In this case, the displacement solution to the previous load increment can be used
as a first estimate of the solution to the new load increment. Although this first estimate is
generally not exact (because of the non-linear soil behaviour), the solution is usually
better than the solution according to the initial stress method (based on the use of the
elastic stiffness matrix) (Figure 7.16).
load

load

displacement displacement
a. without extrapolation b. with extrapolation
Figure 7.16 Difference between elastic prediction (a) and extrapolation from previous step (b)

After the first iteration, subsequent iterations are based on the elastic stiffness matrix, as
in the initial stress method (Zienkiewicz, 1977). Nevertheless, using Extrapolation the
total number of iterations needed to reach equilibrium is less than without extrapolation.
The extrapolation procedure is particularly useful when the soil is highly plastic.

7.7.4 WATER CONTROL PARAMETERS

Iterative procedure
Groundwater flow calculations are separate calculations which are run parallel to the
deformation analyses and therefore they can have different iterative options. For Steady
state groundwater flow analyses two extra iterative options are available, namely

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Figure 7.17 Water control parameters subtree in the Phases window

Tolerated error and Over-relaxation factor whereas for a Transient groundwater flow
analysis a higher number of parameters is required to tdefine the iterative procedure.

Max steps
This parameter specifies the maximum number of calculation steps that are performed in
a phase which Pore pressure calculation type is either Steady state groundwater flow or
Transient groundwater flow. By default, the Max steps parameter is set to 1000.

Tolerated error
Similar to the Tolerated error option in deformation analyses (Section 7.7.3), the
Tolerated error option in groundwater flow is used to check if the result is accurate
enough or not. In case of unsaturated groundwater flow, checking the local error (error
which occurs in few elements) is also needed. In this case, due to the fact that the
permeability can change significantly, it is possible to have isolated water in some
elements in unsaturated zones. The specified Tolerated error is used for checking both
global flow error and local errors. PLAXIS uses higher Tolerated error to check the local
flow errors (usually 10 times larger value). If both global and local errors are less than the
Tolerated error, the groundwater flow is terminated.

Over-relaxation factor
Since the unsaturated groundwater flow analyses may be highly non-linear, PLAXIS uses
an over-relaxation factor to speed up the steady state calculations and to decrease the
number of steps needed. This factor is by default 1.5. For confined flow analyses which
are linear a factor of 1 is enough. In case of highly non-linear analyses for which PLAXIS
needs more steps, higher values than 1.5 might result in faster convergence.

7.7.5 DYNAMIC CONTROL PARAMETERS

The parameters controlling a Dynamic analysis can be defined in the Dynamic control
parameters subtree in the Phases window.
The Newmark alpha and Beta parameters determine the numeric time-integration
according to the implicit Newmark scheme. In order to obtain an unconditionally stable
solution, these parameters must satisfy the following conditions:

Newmark β ≥ 0.5 and Newmark α ≥ 0.25(0.5 + β)2

For an average acceleration scheme you can use the standard settings (α = 0.25 and
β = 0.5). Using a higher β -value and corresponding α-value results in a damped
Newmark scheme (e.g. α = 0.3025 and β = 0.6).

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Figure 7.18 Dynamic control parameters subtree in the Phases window

7.7.6 REACHED VALUES

Figure 7.19 Reached values subtree in the Phases window

Reached total time It is the actual accumulated time at the end of a finished
calculation phase.
CSP - Relative stiffness It is the relative stiffness parameter calculated at the end of the
phase, which is a measure for the amount of plasticity that
occurs during the calculation (Section 7.10.8). A value of 1.0
means that the full model is elastic; a value close to zero
indicates that failure is approached.
Reached total force They are the component of the resulting reactions on the nodes
where non-zero prescribed displacement is applied.
Pmax - Reached max pp
It is the value of the maximum pore pressure that has been
actually reached at the end of a calculation phase. This value
corresponds to the maximum excess pore pressure for a
Consolidation analysis, the steady state pore pressure for a
groundwater flow analysis and the maximum active pore
pressure for a Fully coupled flow-deformation analysis.
ΣMstage - Reached phase proportion
It is an indication of the proportion of the unbalance solved in a
phase where the Staged construction loading type is applied
(Section 7.4.1).
ΣMweight - Reached material weight proportion
It is an indication of the total proportion of the material weight
applied in a calculation (Section 7.7.1). A reached value of 1.00
means that the specified weight of soil and structural materials is
fully applied.
ΣMsf - Reached safety factor
It is the resulting value of the ΣMsf parameter in a Safety phase
(Section 7.3.5).

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7.8 WATER CONDITIONS

PLAXIS is generally used for effective stress analysis in which total stresses are divided
into effective stresses, σ ', and active pore pressures, pactive .

σ = σ ' + pactive

Active pore pressure (pactive ) is defined as the effective saturation, Seff , times the pore
water pressure, pwater .

pactive = Seff · pwater

Pore water pressure differs from active pore pressure when the degree of saturation is
less than unity. PLAXIS can deal with saturated soil below the phreatic level, as well as
with partially saturated soil above the phreatic level. More details about partially saturated
soil behaviour are provided in Section 6.1.3.
In the pore water pressure a further division is made between steady state pore pressure,
psteady , and excess pore pressure, pexcess .

pwater = psteady + pexcess

Excess pore pressures are pore pressures that occur as a result of stress changes in
undrained materials. In this respect, changes in stress may be a result of loading,
unloading, a change in hydraulic conditions or consolidation. Hence, excess pore
pressures are a result of a deformation analysis. In a Plastic calculation, a Safety
analysis or a Dynamic analysis, excess pore pressures can occur in clusters for which the
Drainage type is set to Undrained A or Undrained B. In a Consolidation analysis and a
Fully coupled flow-deformation analysis, excess pore pressures can occur in any material
(except Non-porous materials), depending on the permeability as defined in the
corresponding material data set. In the case of a Fully coupled flow-deformation analysis,
excess pore pressure is calculated by subtracting the steady-state pore pressure, psteady ,
from the pore water pressure, pwater .
Steady-state pore pressures are pore pressures that represent a stable state. Since
steady-state pore pressures are not supposed to change during a deformation analysis,
they are considered input data. There are various ways to define and generate
steady-state pore pressures. The way to indicate how pore pressures are generated for a
particular calculation phase is indicated by means of the Pore pressure calculation type
parameter in the Phases window. In contrast to other deformation calculation types, a
Fully coupled flow-deformation analysis does not allow for the selection of the Pore
pressure calculation type, because in this case total pore water pressures, pwater , are
calculated together with displacements. To enable a division in steady-state pore
pressures and excess pore pressures, the steady-state pore pressures, psteady , are
automatically calculated on the basis of a preliminary steady-state groundwater flow
calculation using the hydraulic boundary conditions at the end of the calculation phase.
This enables the calculation and output of excess pore pressures, pexcess , in all steps:

pexcess = pwater − psteady

The definition of water conditions is needed to generate pore pressures in the soil and to

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generate external water pressures, if applicable. The definition of water conditions can be
divided into the creation of water levels and assigning water conditions to volume
clusters. These features will be described in more detail below.

7.8.1 WATER LEVELS

Water levels can either be generated according to the information specified in boreholes
(Section 4.3.2) or can be defined in the Water levels mode. A water level can be used to
generate external water pressures (for water levels outside the model) and to generate
pore pressures in soil layers. In the latter case the water level can act as a phreatic level
in partially saturated soil layers as well as a pressure head level in aquifer layers.
Water levels created in the model are grouped under the Water levels subtree in the
Attributes library in the Model explorer. Due to the global nature of the water levels, any
change to an existing water level in the model will affect it in all the phases. If a water
level in a time-dependent phase has the same geometry as previously defined but it
varies with time, a flow function needs to be assigned to it. Moreover, , it is required to
create a copy of a water level with the same geometry. To create a copy of a water leve,
right-click the existing water level in the Model explorer and select the Duplicate option in
the appearing menu (Figure 7.20). A copy of the water level is created. Now a flow
function can be created and assigned to this new water level. Note that copies of
Borehole water levels are listed as User water levels rather than Generated water levels.
No modifications, such as Time dependency is possible for Borehole water levels and
non-horizontal User water levels.

Figure 7.20 Copying water levels in Model explorer

The continuity of the flow functions assigned to water levels in consecutive phases can
be maintained by using the options available in the pop up menu displayed when the
water level is right-clicked. These options are:
Create the reached water level

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When this option is selected a new water level is created at the

position reached at the end of the previous phase. The location
of the water level will be constant in the current phase.
Create the reached water level and continue
When this option is selected a new water level is created at the
position reached at the end of the previous phase. The location
of the water level in the current phase will change from that point
on according to the flow function assigned to the original water
level in the previous phase. PLAXIS ensures the continuity of the
flow function, whereby the accumulated time from previous
phases is used as an offset to enter the flow function for the
current phase.

Borehole water levels

The easiest way to define a water level for the 3D model is in the Soil mode by specifying
a Head in the boreholes (Section 4.3.2). A single borehole can be used to create a
horizontal water surface that extends to the model boundaries. When multiple boreholes
are used, a non-horizontal water surface can be created by combining the heads in the
various boreholes. The water level defined in this way is termed a 'Borehole water level'.
This water level is, by default, used as the Global water level (see further). In principle, a
pore pressure distribution underneath this generated water level is hydrostatic. However,
a non-hydrostatic distribution in the soil may be specified in the Water tabsheet of the
Modify soil layers window, which may lead to additional generated water levels
representing the (virtual) level where the extrapolated pore pressure in a particular soil
layer is zero. For more details about this feature, see Section 4.3.2.

User water levels - Water levels mode

As an alternative to the Generated water levels, the user may define 'User water
levels' using the Create water level option, which is available in the Water levels
mode.
After selecting this option, a first water level point can be created by clicking in the 3D
model at a position where the water pressure is supposed to be zero. As a result, a
horizontal water level is created through this point, extending to the model boundaries. At
the same time, the Waterlevel points window appears with a table of the point
coordinates and a pressure increment with depth.

Figure 7.21 Waterlevel points window

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A non-horizontal water level can be created by defining more points in the geometry,
while the Create water level option is still active. The creation of water levels is basically
the same as the creation of surfaces (Section 5.2.4). If necessary, the point coordinates
or the pressure increment with depth (Pinc) may be changed in the table. Unlike
surfaces, user water levels can only be moved in vertical direction by dragging them with
the mouse. A new user water level may also be created by duplicating an existing water
level and modifying it afterwards. To duplicate an existing water level, right click it and
select Duplicate from the appearing menu. User water levels can be deleted by
right-clicking them and selecting the Delete option from the appearing menu.
Time dependancy can be specified for horizontal User water levels. The time dependent
behaviour can be specified by selecting the corresponding flow function.

Hint: The Borehole water levels cannot be deleted.

» A summarized description on the number of generated water levels for
different conditions is given in Appendix B.
» A time-dependent flow function cannot be assigned to water levels that are
non-horizontal.

7.8.2 ASSIGNING WATER CONDITIONS TO SOIL VOLUMES

Pore pressures in soil volumes are generated on the basis of the water conditions
assigned to these volumes. By default, the water conditions as defined in the Modify soil
layers window are assigned to all soil volume clusters. This could be the Global water
level, but (in case of non-hydrostatic pressures defined in the boreholes) it could also be
a different generated water level or one of the other water conditions as defined for soil
layers in Soil mode.
To change the water conditions in the calculation phase considered, volume objects have
to be selected and the desired option should be selected from the Waterconditions
feature in the Selection explorer. Similar options can be selected in the Model explorer or
from the right-hand mouse menu. A summary of all available options is given below:
Global level Water conditions defined by the Global water level (default).The
Global water level is defined in the General group in the Phases
window.
Custom level Another water level is selected to set the water conditions
Head A Head level is defined to set the water conditions
User-defined A reference level, reference pressure and pressure increment
with depth are defined to set the water conditions.
Interpolate Water pressures are linearly interpolated (in vertical direction)
between the volume cluster above and the volume cluster below.
Dry Set water pressures to zero.

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Global level
When the Global level option is selected, the pore pressure distribution in the soil layer is
generated according to the global water level of the phase considered. The resulting pore
pressure distribution in the soil layer is then hydrostatic. This does not mean that the pore
pressure distribution in the soil as a whole is hydrostatic, since other soil layers may have
other hydraulic conditions.

Custom level
When the Custom level option is selected in the Water conditions drop-down menu, a
further selection should be made from the list of available water levels (Borehole water
levels and User water levels). The resulting pore pressure distribution in the soil layer is
then hydrostatic.

Head
The Head option is a quick alternative for the generation of hydrostatic pore pressures
based on a horizontal water level. After selecting the Head option in the Water conditions
drop-down menu, a reference level (zref ) should be defined, indicating the level where the
pore pressure will be zero.

Hint: The multi-select option may be used to efficiently set water conditions for
multiple soil layers at once.
» When a non-horizontal water level is used to generate a hydrostatic pore
pressure distribution, this distribution may not be fully realistic, since in reality
a non-horizontal water level would be the result of a groundwater flow
process in which case the pore pressure distribution may be non-hydrostatic.

User-defined
If the pore pressure distribution is linear but not hydrostatic, the User-defined option
should be selected in the Water conditions drop-down menu. Subsequently, values for
the reference level (zref ), the reference pressure (pref ) and the pressure increment (pinc )
should be entered. Note that pressure is entered as a negative value.

Interpolate
It is possible to generate pore pressures in a soil volume based on the pore pressures of
the adjacent soil volumes (above and below) by selecting the Interpolate option in the
Condition drop-down menu. This option is, for example, used if a relatively impermeable
layer is located between two permeable layers with a different groundwater head. The
pore pressure distribution in the relatively impermeable layer will not be hydrostatic, so it
cannot be defined by means of a phreatic level.
On selecting the option Interpolate the pore pressure in that soil volume is interpolated
linearly in vertical direction, starting from the value at the bottom of the soil volume above
and ending at the value at the top of the soil volume below. The Interpolate option can be
used repetitively in two or more successive soil volumes (on top of each other). In the
case that a starting value for the vertical interpolation of the pore pressure cannot be

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found, then the starting point will be based on the Global water level.

Dry
In addition to the global water pressure distribution it is possible to remove water
pressures from individual groups of volumes in order to make them 'dry'. Deactivation of
water can be done independent from the soil itself. Hence, if the soil is deactivated and
the water level is above the excavation level, then there is still water in the excavated
area. If it is the user's intention to simulate a dry excavation, then the water must be
explicitly deactivated. Please note that the water pressure in adjacent soil volumes is not
affected and may need to be changed manually.

Hint: The Dry clusters behave as non-porous materials. As a result, neither initial
nor excess pore pressures is taken into account and flow is not possible
through the cluster.

7.8.3 WATER PRESSURE GENERATION AND PREVIEWING

Water pressures (i.e. pore pressures in finite element stress points and external water
loads) are calculated on the basis of the water conditions as defined for a calculation
phase as soon as the phase is previewed or when the calculation process is started.
It is recommended to preview the water pressures in order to check that
the generated pressures are satisfactory. This can be done by clicking the Preview
phase button in the side tool bar. After the water pressures have been generated and
written to data files, the Output program is started, showing the active mesh for the phase
considered. The various types of pore pressures can be previewed by selecting the
desired option from the Stress menu. The phreatic level or external water level can be
seen when the Phreatic level option is active in the Geometry menu. If the Loads option
is also active and the water level is outside the active mesh, external water pressures can
be seen.
Water pressures for phases that are selected for calculation are also generated at the
start of the calculation process, just before the execution the finite element calculation
itself. The results of the water pressure generation are also included in the output steps
with computational results, and can be viewed after the calculation has finished.

7.8.4 FLOW BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

The flow boundary conditions of a phase (at least which boundaries are 'open' and which
are 'closed') can be specified in the GroundwaterFlow subtree under Model conditions in
the Model explorer. Such boundary conditions are required for a groundwater flow
calculation, a consolidation analysis or a fully coupled flow-deformation analysis.
By default, all geometry boundaries except the Zmax boundary are closed. Internal
model boundaries that arise from the excavation (de-activation) of elements are always
'open' (draining). Inclined boundaries located at the upper part of the model, with an
angle of inclination less then or equal to 45◦ are set to Open when the Zmax boundary
open is selected.

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The prescribed groundwater head on external geometry boundaries is, by default,

derived from the position of the general phreatic level, at least when the general phreatic
level is outside the active geometry. Also internal geometry lines that have become
external boundaries due to a de-activation of soil clusters are considered to be external
geometry boundaries and are therefore treated similarly.
In a consolidation analysis the flow boundary conditions define where excess pore
pressures may dissipate through the model boundary, and hence, it affects the excess
pore pressures only. In a groundwater flow or fully coupled analysis the flow boundary
conditions define where pore water may flow into or out of the soil, and hence, it affects
the total pore pressures in these cases. In the latter case, additional conditions may be
required to define the hydraulic head at 'open' boundaries. By default, the hydraulic head
is implicitly defined by the Global water level, but this can be overwritten by using the
Create surface groundwater flow boundary conditions feature in the Structures mode
(Section 5.7.4). The parts of an 'open' boundary above the level defined by the hydraulic
head are considered to be 'seepage' boundaries whereas the parts below are assigned
the given hydraulic head as a boundary condition.

Boundary conditions-Phases
Besides the options described in Section 5.7.4 for surface groundwater flow boundary
conditions, two other options are available in Calculation modes. These options are:
Constant value from previous phase
The water level reached at the end of the previous phase will be
kept constant during the current phase.
Maintain function from previous phase
The water level in the current phase will continue to vary
according to the flow function assigned to the boundary in the
previous phase. The accumulated time from previous phases is
used as an offset to enter the flow function for the current phase.

7.8.5 PRECIPITATION
The Precipitation option can be used to specify a general vertical recharge or infiltration
(q ) due to weather conditions. This condition is applied at all boundaries that represent
the ground surface. This option can be selected in the Model conditions subtree in the
Model explorer (Figure 7.22).

Hint: Note that when both Precipitation and a surface groundwater flow boundary
conditions is created at the top boundary of the model, the condition specified
for the boundary condition is taken into account ignoring Precipitation.

The parameters used to define precipitation are:

q Recharge (infiltration), specified in the unit of length per unit of
time. Negative values can be used to model evaporation.
ψmax Maximum pore pressure head, relative to the elevation of the
boundary, specified in the unit of length (default 0.1 length units).

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Figure 7.22 The extended Precipitation subtree in the Model explorer

When the groundwater head increases above this level, the

infiltration discharge changes into the corresponding head to
simulate run off.
ψmin Minimum pore pressure head, relative to the elevation of the
boundary, specified in the unit of length (default -1.0 length
units). When the groundwater head decreases below this level,
the evaporation discharge changes into the corresponding head.
At horizontal ground surface boundaries, the full precipitation as specified by the value of
q is applied as a recharge. At inclined ground surface boundaries (slopes) under an
angle α with respect to the horizon, a recharge is applied perpendicular to the inclined
boundary with a magnitude qcos(α).
If the resulting pore pressure head at a certain point of a boundary where a positive
precipitation has been prescribed is increased such that it reaches the value y + ψmax
(i.e. the water level comes above the ground surface at a depth of ψmax ) then the water is
supposed to run-off. As a result, a constant head boundary condition equal to y + ψmax is
applied instead.
If the resulting pore pressure head at a certain point of a boundary where a negative
precipitation (evapotranspiration) has been prescribed is below a value y + ψmin (i.e. the
upper part of the ground has become unsaturated), then the evapotranspiration is
supposed to stop. As a result, a constant head boundary condition equal to y + ψmin is
applied instead.
For transient groundwater flow calculations and fully coupled flow-deformation analysis, a
variation of the precipitation in time can be specified resulting in time-dependent
boundary conditions. This can be done by selecting the Time dependent option in the
Precipitation subtree. The corresponding flow function describing the variation of the
discharge with time can be selected from the drop-down menu. More information on Flow

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functions is available in Section 5.8.

7.9 GEOMETRY CONFIGURATION - STAGED CONSTRUCTION MODE

In PLAXIS 3D, it is possible to change the geometry and load configuration by activating
or deactivating loads, soil volume clusters or structural objects created in the geometry
input for each calculation phase. The material data sets can be reassigned and the water
pressure distribution in the geometry can be changed as well.
Changes to the geometry configuration generally cause substantial out-of-balance forces.
These out-of-balance forces are stepwise applied to the finite element mesh using the
automatic load stepping procedures (Section 7.6.1).

7.9.1 CHANGING GEOMETRY CONFIGURATION

Loads, soil volume clusters or structural objects may be activated or deactivated to
simulate a process of construction or excavation in the Staged construction mode.
Hence, it is possible, for example, to first make an excavation with soil retaining walls,
then install a basement floor and subsequently constructing the building above. In this
way, the three-dimensional effects around the excavation can be analysed realistically.
To activate elements in a selected mode in Phases explorer, click the Activate
button and click the objects to be activated in the draw area. All the elements
assigned to the geometry selected after clicking Activate will be activated.
To deactivate elements in a selected mode in Phases explorer, click the Deactivate
button and click the objects to be deactivated in the draw area. All the elements
assigned to the geometry selected after clicking Deactivate will be deactivated.
The right mouse button menu or the Object explorers can be used in cases where not all
features should be deactivated. Note that in the right mouse button menu, besides the
geometry entity, the features assigned to it are listed as well. To deactivate a feature,
point that in the right mouse button menu and select the Deactivate option.
Entities and the features assigned to them can be activated or deactivated in Object
explorers by clicking on the square in front of them (Figure 7.23).

Figure 7.23 Selection explorers in Staged construction mode

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Not active object or group of objects.

Active object or group of objects.
Partly active group of objects.

Hint: The option to activate or deactivate objects should not be confused with the
option to show or hide objects. A hidden object (invisible) may still be active.
» The visibility of deactivated objects is defined in the Visibility tabsheet of the
Visualisation settings window (Section 3.5.3).

The activation or deactivation of soil volume clusters or structural objects or change of

properties can introduce substantial out-of-balance forces. These out-of-balance forces
are solved stepwise during the staged construction calculation process.

7.9.2 STAGED CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE IN CALCULATIONS

At the start of a calculation phase the information about active and inactive objects in the
geometry model is transformed into information on an element level. Hence, deactivating
a soil cluster results in 'switching off' the corresponding soil elements during calculation.
The following rules apply for elements that have been switched off:
• Properties, such as weight, stiffness and strength, are not taken into account.
• All stresses are set to zero.
• All inactive nodes will have zero displacements.
• Boundaries that arise from the removal of elements are automatically taken to be
free and permeable.
• As a soil cluster is deactivated, the Water conditions are maintained. The water
conditions of the deactivated soil cluster can be changed to model a dry excavation.
• External loads that act on a part of the geometry that is inactive will not be taken into
account.
For elements that have been inactive and that are (re)activated in a particular calculation,
the following rules apply:
• Stiffness and strength will be fully taken into account from the beginning (i.e. the first
step) of the calculation phase.
• Weight will, in principle, be fully taken into account from the beginning of the
calculation phase. However, in general, a large out-of-balance force will occur at the
beginning of a staged construction calculation. This out-of-balance force is stepwise
solved in subsequent calculation steps.
• The stresses will develop from zero.
• When a node becomes active, an initial displacement is estimated by stressless
pre-deforming the newly activated elements such that they fit within the deformed
mesh as obtained from the previous step. Further increments of displacements are
added to this initial value. As an example, one may consider the construction of a
block in several layers, allowing only for vertical displacements (one-dimensional

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compression). Starting with a single layer and adding one layer on top of the first will
give settlements of the top surface. If a third layer is subsequently added to the
second layer, it will be given an initial deformation corresponding to the settlements
of the surface.
The following rules apply for interfaces:
Deactivated interfaces The interfaces can be deactivated when modelling soil-structure
interaction is not desired. Nodes generated for interfaces in
mesh generation process are still there. They have stiff elastic
behaviour; fully permeable (Consolidation analysis).
Activated interfaces Elasto-plastic behaviour; fully impermeable (Consolidation
analysis).

7.9.3 CHANGING LOADS

During creation in the Geometry modes, a default value is given to a load which
represents a unit load. These load values may be changed in each calculation phase to
simulate changing loads in the various stages of construction. The change of loads can
introduce substantial out-of-balance forces. These out-of-balance forces are solved
during the staged construction calculation process.

7.9.4 DEFINITION OF CONNECTIONS

When structural elements are connected, by default they share all degrees of freedom
(rotations and translation degrees of freedom) in the connected node, which implies that
the connection is rigid.
In the Calculation modes it is possible to customize the connection between two plates or
between a plate and a beam by explicitly defining a Connection object. In this way it is
possible to define line hinges (between two plates) and point hinges (between a plate and
a beam), as well as dilation joints (displacement discontinuities) between two plates and
between a plate and a beam.
A connection consists of:
The Reference part (or the 'parent object')
This is the object to which another object (a 'child object') is
connected.
The Custom part (or the 'child object')
This is the object that is connected to the 'parent object'.
A connection requires the presence of interface elements (Section 5.6.7). Interfaces are
features that can only be assigned to surfaces. Interface elements are composed of pairs
of nodes in which the nodes in a pair have the same coordinates (Chapter 5 of the
Scientific Manual). This ensures that extra nodes are available for the extra degrees of
freedom that are associated with the creation of a hinge or dilation joint.
When an invalid connection is defined a warning message appears before calculating the
project (Figure 7.24). If a connection is defined on a node where no interface is
applied,the problem can be overcome by defining interfaces larger than the reference
plate, defining interfaces on both sides of the reference plate or by assigning interfaces to
both of the connected plates. Note that a Beam cannot be the Reference part of the

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connection as interface elements cannot be assigned to beams.

Figure 7.24 Warning regarding invalid connections

A connection is active when both parts are active in a calculation phase. Modifications
done in connections are valid for all the phases where the connection is active. It is not
possible to assign different properties to a connection in different phases.
If a connection has been defined, by default, the rotation degree of freedom of the 'child's'
node(s) involved in the connection is disconnected (free) from the corresponding degree
of freedom in the 'Parent's' node(s), whereas the translational degrees of freedom are
tied (fixed). This means that the default connection is a hinge. The user can modify a
connection by defining for each 'child' degree of freedom whether it is free or fixed.
Distinction is made between rotation around the first local axis and translation in the three
individual local directions. In order to define a dilation joint, at least one translational
degree of freedom should be set free.

Connection between two plates

To create a connection between two plates:
• Make sure that an interface as well as a plate is assigned to the surface
representing the Reference part in the connection.
• In the Staged construction mode select all plates involved in the connection.
• Right click the model and select the Create custom connection option from the
appearing menu. The newly created connection is indicated by a yellow line in the
model. The local axes of the connections are displayed if the Show local axes option
is selected in the Options menu. A new connection is listed in the Connections
subtree of the Model explorer (Figure 7.25).
• Right-click on the model and select the Create custom connection option from the
appearing menu.
To create a line hinge between two plates:
• Set the required option for rotation to Free.
To create a dilation joint between two plates:
• Set the required option for translation to Free.

Connection between a plate and a beam

To create a connection between a plate and a beam:
• Make sure that an interface as well as a plate is assigned to the surface

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Figure 7.25 Connections subtree displaying a plate-plate connection

Hint: The order of selection effects the part of the connection assigned to each
plate. The first selected plate will be assigned as the Custom part of the
connection whereas the second selected part will be assigned as the
Reference part of the connection.
» The role of the parts of the connection can be interchanged by right clicking
the connection in the Object explorer and selecting the Invert connected part
option from the appearing menu.
» The order of selection is not important in a plate-beam connection. In that
case the plate will always be the reference part of the connection.

representing the Reference part in the connection.

• In the Staged construction mode multi select the plate and the beam, the connection
between which is to be customized.
• Right click the model and select the Create custom connection option from the
appearing menu. The newly created connection is indicated by a yellow point in the
model. The local axes of the connections are displayed if the Show local axes option
is selected in the Options menu. A new connection is listed in the Connections
subtree of the Model explorer (Figure 7.26).
To create a point hinge between a plate and a beam:
• Set the required option for rotation to Free.
To create a dilation joint between a plate and a beam:
• Set the required option for translation to Free.

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Figure 7.26 Connections subtree displaying a plate-beam connection

7.9.5 CHANGING PRESCRIBED DISPLACEMENTS

During creation in the Geometry modes, a default value is given to a load which
represents a unit prescribed displacement. These load values may be changed in each
calculation phase to simulate changing prescribed displacements in the various stages of
construction. The change of prescribed displacements can introduce substantial
out-of-balance forces. These out-of-balance forces are solved during the staged
construction calculation process.

7.9.6 REASSIGNING MATERIAL DATA SETS

It is possible in a calculation phase to assign new material data sets to soil volume or
structural objects. This option may be used to simulate the change of material properties
with time during the various stages of construction. The option may also be used to
simulate soil improvement processes, e.g. removing poor quality soil and replacing it with
soil of a better quality.
The change of certain properties, for example when replacing peat by dense sand, can
introduce substantial out-of-balance forces due to a difference in unit weight. These
out-of-balance forces are solved during the staged construction calculation process.

7.9.7 APPLYING VOLUMETRIC STRAINS IN CLUSTERS

In addition to changing material properties for clusters, it is also possible to apply a
volumetric strain in individual soil clusters. This can be done by selecting the
corresponding soil volume and selecting the True option for Apply in the Model explorer

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or in the Selection explorer. Values can be defined for the three strain components in x -,
y - and z -direction and for volumetric strain. A positive value of the strain component
represents an expansion, whereas a negative value represents a shrinkage in that
direction.

7.9.8 PRESTRESSING OF ANCHORS

Prestressing of anchors can be activated in the Object explorer for a selected phase. By
default the Adjust prestress option is not selected. On selecting the Adjust prestress force
check box it is possible to enter a value for the prestress force (Fprestress ) in the
corresponding edit box. A prestress force should be given in the unit of force. Note that
tension is considered to be positive and compression is considered negative.
By default, in a calculation phase following a phase in which an anchor has been
prestressed the prestress setting is NOT continued but the anchor force is maintained. In
this way the existing anchor force is used as a start condition and will develop 'naturally'
based on changes of stresses and forces in the model. If you intend to again apply a
prestress force, this has to be done explicitly following the same procedure as described
above.
If a previously entered prestress force needs to be 'reset' to retain a standard active
anchor without prestressing but with existing anchor force, this should be done by
de-selecting the Adjust prestress parameter in the Object explorer. It is generally NOT
correct to set a prestress force to zero, since this will result in a zero anchor force.

7.9.9 MODEL CONDITIONS

The global boundary conditions for a selected phase can be defined in the Model
conditions subtree in the Model explorer. Note that user-defined conditions always prevail
over the ones defined in theModel conditions subtree.

Deformation
PLAXIS automatically imposes a set of general fixities to the boundaries of the geometry
model. These conditions are generated according to the following rules.
Soil volume:
• Vertical model boundaries with their normal in x -direction (i.e. parallel to the
yz -plane) are fixed in x -direction (ux = 0) and free in y - and z -direction.
• Vertical model boundaries with their normal in y -direction (i.e. parallel to the
xz -plane) are fixed in y -direction (uy = 0) and free in x - and z -direction.
• Vertical model boundaries with their normal neither in x - nor in y -direction are fixed
in x - and y -direction (ux = uy = 0) and free in z -direction.
• The model bottom boundary is fixed in all directions (ux = uy = uz = 0).
• The 'ground surface' is free in all directions.
Structures: Beams and plates that extend to the model boundary (xmin , xmax , ymin ,
ymax ) where at least one displacement direction is fixed obtain at least two fixed rotations
in the points at the boundary.
• At vertical model boundaries with a normal in x -direction: φy = φz = 0 (φx = free).

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• At vertical model boundaries with a normal in y -direction: φx = φz = 0 (φy = free).

• At vertical model edges and at the bottom boundary: φx = φy = φz = 0.
• At the 'ground surface' φx = φy = φz = free.

Hint: Note that the standard displacement fixities (Section 7.9.9) apply to soil
volumes and structures.
» User-defined prescribed displacements always prevail over the automatically
defined fixities. This means that if a prescribed surface displacement is
placed on the top surface and this surface displacement shares an edge with
the side surface of the model (e.g. in the modelling of a symmetrical smooth
footing), there will be no horizontal fixity on the shared edge. In this case,
add a line prescribed displacement along this edge and assign the proper
fixity conditions to it.

Dynamics
A viscous boundary is aimed to absorb the increments of stresses on the boundaries
caused by dynamic loading, that otherwise would be reflected inside the soil body. When
a Dynamic calculation is defined, the boundary conditions can be defined for the phase
by selecting the proper options displayed when the Dynamics subtree is expanded under
Model conditions in Model explorer (Figure 7.27).

Figure 7.27 Boundary conditions for Dynamic calculations

The Relaxation coefficients C1 and C2 are used to improve the wave absorption on the

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Hint: It is recommended to use at least viscous boundaries at the vertical model

boundaries (XMin, XMax, YMin, YMax)

viscous boundaries. C1 corrects the dissipation in the direction normal to the boundary
and C2 does this in the tangential direction. If the boundaries are subjected only to waves
that come in perpendicular to the boundary, relaxation is not necessary (C1 = C2 = 1).
When there are waves in arbitrary direction (which is normally the case), C2 has to be
adjusted to improve the absorption. The standard values are C1 = 1 and C2 = 1.

Groundwater flow boundary conditions

The flow boundary conditions of a phase (at least which boundaries are 'open' and which
are 'closed') can be specified in the GroundwaterFlow subtree under Model conditions in
the Model explorer (Figure 7.28).

Figure 7.28 Boundary conditions for groundwater flow

Such boundary conditions are required for a groundwater flow calculation, a consolidation
analysis or a fully coupled flow-deformation analysis. More information regarding the flow
boundary conditions is available in Section 7.8.4.

Precipitation
The Precipitation subtree in the Model explorer (Figure 7.29) can be used to specify a
general vertical recharge or infiltration (q) due to weather conditions. This condition is
applied at all boundaries that represent the ground surface. More information on
Precipitation is available in Section 7.8.5.

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Figure 7.29 The Precipitation subtree in the Model explorer

Water
The global water level in a calculation phase can be defined in the Water subtree (Figure
7.30). More information on Global water level is available in Section 7.8.2.

Figure 7.30 The Water subtree in the Model explorer

7.10 STARTING A CALCULATION

When a calculation phase has been defined, its calculation can be started.

7.10.1 PREVIEWING A CONSTRUCTION STAGE

When a construction stage is fully defined, a 3D view of the situation can be
presented by pressing the Preview button in the Calculation toolbar. This enables a

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direct visual check before the calculation is started. The active part of the 3D model is
presented in the Output program.
See Chapter 8 for more details on the inspection of 3D models in the Output program.
After the preview, press the Close button to return to the Calculation mode.

7.10.2 SELECTING POINTS FOR CURVES

After the project geometry is defined and the mesh is generated, some points may
be selected by the user for the generation of load-displacement curves or stress
paths by clicking the Select points for curves button.
Nodes should be selected to plot displacements, whereas stress points should be
selected to plot stresses and strains. Selection of points is described in detail in Section
10.1.

7.10.3 EXECUTION OF THE CALCULATION PROCESS

When calculation phases have been defined the calculation process can be executed.
Before starting the process, however, it is useful to check the list of calculation phases. In
principle, all calculation phases indicated with a blue arrow will be executed in the
calculation process. By default, when a new calculation phase is defined, it is
automatically selected for execution. If a calculation was successful it is indicated by a
green tick mark. A previously executed calculation phase is indicated by a red cross if the
calculation was not successful (Section 7.2).
To select or deselect a calculation phase for execution, double click the symbol in front of
the phase in the Phases explorer. Alternatively, right click the corresponding line and
select Mark for calculation or Unmark for calculation in the appearing menu.
The calculation process can be started by clicking the Calculate button in the
Staged construction mode. As a result, the program first performs a check on the
ordering and consistency of the calculation phases. In addition, the first calculation phase
to be executed is determined and all selected calculation phases in the list are
subsequently executed, provided that failure does not occur.
If the Stop button is pressed, the total specified load will not be applied. In the Phases
explorer, the phase is preceded by a red cross and in the Phases window, the following
message is displayed in the Log info box: Cancelled by user.

7.10.4 ABORTING A CALCULATION

If, for some reason, the user decides to abort a calculation, this can be done by pressing
the Stop button in the separate window that displays information about the iteration
process of the current calculation phase.
If the Stop button is pressed, the total specified load will not be applied. In the Phases
explorer the phase is preceded by a red cross and in the General tabsheet of the
Phases window the following message is displayed in the Log info box: Cancelled.
In addition to aborting a calculation permanently, it is also possible to abort the
calculation temporarily by clicking the Pause button. The calculation will be resumed after
clicking the Resume button.

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7.10.5 OUTPUT DURING CALCULATIONS

During a 3D finite element deformation analysis, information about the calculation
process is presented in a separate window (Figure 7.31). The phase being calculated is
indicated in the Phase tabs.

Figure 7.31 The Active tasks window

Hint: Parallel calculation is possible on multi-core computers when phases have

the same parent phase.

Kernel information
Start time The time indicating the start of the calculation is displayed.
Memory used The memory occupied by the calculation process is displayed.

Hint: A separate calculation kernel is available for 64-bit operating systems.

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Total multipliers at the end of the previous loading step

Indicates the portion of the defined load applied in the current
P
MloadA
phase. In PLAXIS 3D this value is always 1 since load is applied
as a staged construction process changing the input value of the
load rather than the multiplier.
Indicates the total proportion of the material weights applied in a
P
Mweight
calculation. Its value is 0 at the beginning of the calculation and
changes to 1.000, indicating that all the materials weight is
applied.
The value of this parameter is always 0 as PLAXIS 3D does not
P
Maccel
consider pseudo-static acceleration.
This parameter is related to the Safety analysis. It is defined as
P
Msf
the ratio of the original strength parameters and the reduced
strength parameters at a given stage of analysis. Its value is
1.000 at the beginning of an analysis. The increment of the
strength reduction of the first calculation step is described in
Section 7.3.5.
It gives the completed proportion of a plastic calculation. Its
P
Mstage
value is always 0 at the start of the calculation and it will be
1.000 at the end of a successful calculation. For other analysis
types (Consolidation and Safety) it is always 0.
Pexcess,max It represents the maximum excess pore pressure in the mesh,
expressed in the units of stress.
Pactive,max It represents the maximum active pore pressure in the mesh in
Fully coupled flow-deformation analysis, expressed in the units of
stress.
Psteady,max It represents the maximum steady state pore pressure in the
mesh, expressed in the units of stress. Psteady is only vailable in
the flow calculation tabsheet of the Active task window for all the
calculation types.
It indicates the proportion of the total volume of soil clusters in
P
Mvolume
the geometry model that is currently active. If all soil clusters are
active, then the value is 1.000.
Fx , Fy , These parameters indicate the reaction forces corresponding to
P P P
Fz
the non-zero prescribed displacements.
Stiffness The Stiffness parameter gives an indication of the amount of
plasticity that occurs in the calculation. The Stiffness is defined
as: Z
∆ε · ∆σ
Stiffness = e
∆εD ∆ε
When the solution is fully elastic, the Stiffness is equal to unity,
whereas at failure the stiffness approaches zero. The Stiffness is
used in determining the Global error. See Section 7.10.8 for
more details.
Time The current time within the specified time interval of the loading

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input for the calculated phase, defined in the Parameters

tabsheet of the Phases window.

Calculation progress
A small load-displacement curve for one of the pre-selected nodes for curves is shown in
the Calculation progress group box. By default, the curve is shown for the first selected
node. Curve for other pre-selected nodes is shown when the node is selected in the
drop-down menu. The presented graph may be used to roughly evaluate the progress of
the calculation.
Plastic analysis For a plastic analysis the development of the
P
Mstage
parameter is plotted against the displacement.
Consolidation analysis In case of a Consolidation analysis, the maximum excess pore
pressure, Pexcess,max is plotted against the logarithm of time.
Fully coupled flow-deformation analysis
In case of a Fully coupled flow-deformation analysis analysis, the
maximum active pore pressure, Pactive,max , is plotted against the
logarithm of time.
Safety analysis In case of Safety analysis, the development of Msf is plotted
P
against the displacement.
Dynamic analysis In case of Dynamic analysis, the displacement is plotted against
the dynamic time.
Groundwater flow (steady-state)
In case of Groundwater flow (steady-state), the maximum steady
pore pressure, Psteady,max , at steady state is plotted.
Groundwater flow (transient)
In case of Groundwater flow (transient), the maximum steady
pore pressure, Psteady,max , is plotted against the logarithm of
time.

Iteration process of current step

Current step Indicates the number of the current calculation step.
Iteration Indicates the number of the iterations in the current calculation
step.
Global error The value of this error is an indication of the global equilibrium
error within the calculation step. As the number of iterations
increases, its value tend to decrease. For further details on this
parameter see Section 7.10.8.
Max. local error in flow The value of this error is an indication of possible entrapment of
water in saturated regions in the current calculation step. The
tolerated value is 0.05.
Relative change in saturation
The value is an indication of variation of saturation degree in
consecutive calculation steps. The tolerated value is 0.1. When

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the relative change in saturation is higher than the tolerated

value, the time step is automatically decreased. When the
relative change in saturation is lower than the tolerated value, the
time step is automatically increased. Note that the values of the
time step are always in the range defined by Desired minimum
and Desired maximum parameters.
Relative change in relative permeability
The value is an indication of variation of relative permeability in
consecutive calculation steps. The tolerated value is 0.1. When
the relative change in relative permeability is higher than the
tolerate value, the time step is automatically decreased. When
the relative change in relative permeability is lower than the
tolerated value, the time step is automatically increased. Note
that the values of the time step are always in the range defined
by Desired minimum and Desired maximum parameters.
Max. step Indicates the last step number of the current calculation phase
according to the Additional steps defined in the Parameters
tabsheet in the Phases window.
Max. iterations The value of Maximum iteration steps for the calculated phase,
defined for the Iterative procedure in the Parameters tabsheet of
the Phases window.
Tolerance This value indicates the maximum global equilibrium error that is
allowed. The value of the tolerance corresponds to the value of
the Tolerated error in the settings for the iterative procedure. The
iteration process will at least continue as long as the Global error
is larger than the Tolerance. For details see Section 7.10.8.
Element The number of soil elements in the calculated phase.
Decomposition Progress of the decomposition of the phase being calculated.
Calc. time Indicates the calculation time of the current calculation step.

Plastic points in current step

Plastic stress points The total number of stress points in soil elements that are in
plastic state.
Plastic interface point The total number of stress points in interface elements that are in
plastic state.
Inaccurate This value indicates the number of plastic stress points in soil
elements and interface elements respectively, for which the local
error exceeds the tolerated error.
Tolerated This value indicates the maximum number of inaccurate stress
points in soil elements and interface elements respectively that
are allowed. The iteration process will at least continue as long
as the number of inaccurate points is larger than the tolerated
number.
Tension points A Tension point is a point that fails in tension. These points will

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develop when the Tension cut-off is used in any of the material

sets in the model. This parameter indicates the total number of
points that fail in tension.
Cap/Hardening points A Cap point occurs if the Hardening Soil model, HS small model
Soft Soil model or Soft Soil Creep model are used and the stress
state in a point is equivalent to the pre-consolidation stress, i.e.
the maximum stress level that has previously been reached
(OCR ≤ 1.0). A Hardening point occurs if the Hardening Soil
model or HS small model is used and the stress state in a point
corresponds to the maximum mobilised friction angle that has
previously been reached.
Apex points These are special plastic points where the allowable shear stress
is zero. The iterative procedure tends to become slow when the
number of plastic apex points is large. Apex points can be
avoided by selecting the Tension cut-off option in the material
datasets for soil and interfaces.

Calculation status
The calculation status indicates what part of the calculation process is currently being
executed. The following processes are indicated:
Reading data. . . Reading input data from the disk.
Renumbering. . . Optimising the node numbering and determining matrix
properties.
Profile. . . Determining the profile of the global stiffness matrix or
pre-conditioner.
Forming matrix. . . Forming the global stiffness matrix.
Forming pre-conditioner. . .
Forming the pre-conditioner for the iterative solution procedure.
Solving equations. . . Solving the global system of equations to obtain the
displacement increments.
Calculating stresses. . . Calculating the strain increments and constitutive stresses.
Reaction forces. . . Calculating the reaction forces and the out-of-balance force.
Writing data. . . Writing output data to disk.

Previewing of intermediate results during calculation

The Preview button in the Active tasks window enables previewing the results of the
intermediate calculation steps of the phase being calculated. The intermediate steps are
listed in the drop-down menu (Section 8.3.9) and the list is updated when the calculation
of new intermediate steps is complete.
The results of the intermediate calculation steps can be used in curves as well. When a
curve is created, the newly calculated steps can be included in the plot by using the
Regenerate button available in the Settings window (Section 10.5).

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Note that when the calculation of the phase is completed, a warning will appear indicating
that the intermediate results are no longer available. A more detailed description on how
to display the results of a calculated phase is given in Section 7.10.6.

7.10.6 SELECTING CALCULATION PHASES FOR OUTPUT

After the calculation process has finished, the Phases explorer and Phases windoware
updated. Calculation phases that have been successfully finished are indicated by a
√
green tick mark ( ), whereas phases that did not finish successfully are indicated by a
red cross (×). In addition, messages from the calculations are displayed in the Log info
box of the General tabsheet.
In the Phases explorer individual phases can be selected. When a calculation phase is
selected, the View results button can be clicked after which the results are presented in
the Output program.

7.10.7 ADJUSTMENT TO INPUT DATA IN BETWEEN CALCULATIONS

Care should be taken with the change of input data (in the Input program) in between
calculation phases. In general, this should not be done since it causes the input to cease
to be consistent with the calculation data. In most cases there are other ways to change
data in between calculation phases instead of changing the input data itself.

Modification of geometry
When the geometry is slightly modified (small relocation of objects, slight modification of
their geometry or deleting objects) in the Geometry modes, the model is automatically
regenerated in the Calculation modes. The projects should be re-meshed. Note that the
phases in the Phases explorer are marked for calculation automatically. The deleted
geometry entities will not be any more available in the calculation phases. However, the
program preserves the definition of the phases.
If significant changes in the geometry are made then all settings need to be redefined,
since PLAXIS is not able to properly regenerate the settings automatically.

Modification of feature properties

The properties assigned to soil layers or features in the Geometry modes are the default
properties for these in the calculation phases. When a property is changed (or modified)
in the Geometry modes, the program will automatically change this property in the
defined phases. However if the property is already redefined in a phase (it is not the
default any more), it will not be changed. The property as defined in the calculation
phase will remain valid.
When a property is modified in a reference phase in the Phase definition modes, it will
not be automatically modified in the following phases. The properties defined in the
reference phase can be copied by using the Regenerate option in the right mouse button
menu appearing when the feature is right clicked in the Object explorer. Regeneration
consists of two steps:
• Determining which properties in which phases should be reset
• Finding out what the new values should be and applying those values

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In the determination step by definition the properties of the target feature in the target
phase are included. The properties of the target feature are examined in all child phases
of the target. If the properties of target feature in a given child phase are identical to those
in target phase, those properties will be included in the regeneration, and the process will
repeat for all child phases of the child phase. Otherwise, the properties of target feature
in the child phase will not be included in the regeneration process.
When establishing the new values, the properties of target feature in the parent phase of
the target phase are examined. If the parent phase is the initial phase (which has no
previous phase), the properties as defined in the geometry will be taken as source. These
properties are then applied to everything that was selected in the determination process.
Note that the regeneration process is implicitly applied when switching from the
Geometry modes to the Calculation modes, in order to maintain staged model integrity
even if the geometry was modified. This procedure is mainly useful for quick propagation
of staged construction changes to child phases.

7.10.8 AUTOMATIC ERROR CHECKS

During each calculation step, the PLAXIS calculation kernel performs a series of
iterations to reduce the out-of-balance errors in the solution. To terminate this iterative
procedure when the errors are acceptable, it is necessary to establish the
out-of-equilibrium errors at any stage during the iterative process automatically.
Two separate error indicators are used for this purpose, based on the measure of either
the global equilibrium error or the local error. The values of both of these indicators must
be below predetermined limits for the iterative procedure to terminate. These two error
indicators and the associated error checking procedures are described below.

Global error check

The global error checking parameter used in the PLAXIS calculation kernel is related to
the sum of the magnitudes of the out-of-balance nodal forces. The term 'out-of-balance
nodal forces' refers to the difference between the external loads and the forces that are in
equilibrium with the current stresses. To obtain this parameter, the out-of-balance loads
are non-dimensionalised as shown below:

Σ kOut of balance nodal forcesk

Global error =
Σ kActive loadsk + CSP · kInactive loadsk
CSP is the current value of the Stiffness parameter, defined as:
∆ε · ∆σ
Z
Stiffness =
∆εD e ∆ε
which is a measure for the amount of plasticity that occurs during the calculation. See
Chapter 2.3 of the Material Models Manual for more information on the stiffness
parameters. When the solution is fully elastic, the Stiffness is equal to unity, whereas at
failure the Stiffness approaches zero. In the latter case the global error will be larger for
the same out of balance force. Hence, it will take more iterations to fulfill the tolerance.
This means that the solution becomes more accurate when more plasticity occurs.

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Local error check

Local errors refer to the errors at each individual stress point. To understand the local
error checking procedure used in PLAXIS it is necessary to consider the stress changes
that occur at a typical stress point during the iterative process. The variation of one of the
stress components during the iteration procedure is shown in Figure 7.32.

equilibrium stress

stress
B constitutive stress

strain
Figure 7.32 Equilibrium and constitutive stresses

At the end of each iteration, two important values of stress are calculated by PLAXIS. The
first of these, the 'equilibrium stress', is the stress calculated directly from the stiffness
matrix (e.g. point A in Figure 7.32). The second important stress, the 'constitutive stress',
is the value of stress on the material stress-strain curve at the same strain as the
equilibrium stress, i.e. point B in Figure 7.32.
The dashed line in Figure 7.32 indicates the path of the equilibrium stress. In general this
equilibrium stress path depends on the nature of the stress field and the applied loading.
For the case of a soil element obeying the Mohr-Coulomb criterion, the local error for the
particular stress point at the end of the iteration is defined:

kσ e - σ c k
Local error =
Tmax
In this equation the numerator is a norm of the difference between the equilibrium stress
tensor, σ e , and the constitutive stress tensor, σ c . This norm is defined by:
q
kσ e − σ c k =


e − σ c ) 2 + σ e − σ c 2 + (σ e − σ c ) 2 +
(σxx xx yy yy zz zz



e c 2
σxy − σxy + σyz e − σ c 2 + (σ e − σ c ) 2
yz zx zx

The denominator of the equation for the local error is the maximum value of the shear
stress as defined by the Coulomb failure criterion. In case of the Mohr-Coulomb model,
Tmax is defined as:

Tmax = max(½ (σ '3 − σ '1 ), c cos ϕ)

When the stress point is located in an interface element the following expression is used:

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q
(σne − σnc ) 2 + (τ e − τ c ) 2
Local error =
ci − σnc tan ϕi
where σn and τ represent the normal and shear stresses respectively in the interface. To
quantify the local accuracy, the concept of inaccurate plastic points is used. A plastic
point is defined to be inaccurate if the local error exceeds the value of the user specified
tolerated error (Section 7.7.3).

Termination of iterations
For PLAXIS to terminate the iterations in the current load step, all of the following three
error checks must be satisfied. For further details of these error-checking procedures,
see Vermeer & van Langen (1989).

Global error ≤ Tolerated error

No. of plastic soil points

No. of inaccurate soil points ≤ 3 +
10
No. of plastic interface points
No. of inaccurate interface points ≤ 3 +
10

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8 OUTPUT PROGRAM - GENERAL OVERVIEW

This icon represents the Output program. The main output quantities of a finite
element calculation are the displacements and the stresses. In addition, when a
finite element model involves structural elements, the structural forces in these elements
are calculated. An extensive range of facilities exists within the PLAXIS 3D Output
program to display the results of a finite element analysis. This chapter gives a
description of the features available in the program.
If the Output program is activated by running its executable file or by clicking the Output
program button in the Input program, the user has to select the model and the
appropriate calculation phase or step number for which the results are to be viewed
(Figure 8.1). More options on how to activate the Output are given in Section 8.3.1.

Figure 8.1 File requester of Output program

When a particular project is selected, the file requester displays the corresponding list of
calculation phases from which a further selection should be made. If it is desired to select
an intermediate calculation step, then a single mouse click should be given on the plus
icon (+) at the left of the desired phase. As a result, the calculation list expands a list with
all available step numbers for this phase, from which the desired step number can be
selected.

Hint: Please note that the number of the individual steps available depends on the
value assigned to Max steps saved in the Parameters tabsheet of the
Phases window.

Once an output step of a particular project has been opened, the combo box in the
toolbar will contain a list of available output steps, indicated by the step number and
corresponding phase number.

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8.1 LAYOUT OF THE OUTPUT PROGRAM

The layout of the Output program is shown in Figure 8.2:

Figure 8.2 Main window of the Output program

Title bar
The title bar gives information about the project name, the step number and the type of
information/results displayed.

Menu bar
The menu bar contains all output items and operations facilities of the Output program
(Section 8.2).

Toolbars
Buttons for different features in the Output program are located above and at the left side
of the plot area. A hint about the function of each tool is given as the cursor is located on
it.

Plot area
The calculation results are displayed in the Plot area. The results can be displayed in
graphical or tabular form. More information on how to handle the plot is given in Section
8.4.

Status bar
The status bar displays the locations of the cursor and the viewpoint and a hint about the
object in the model and their element numbers.

8.2 MENUS IN THE MENU BAR

The menu bar contains drop-down menus covering the options available in the Output
program. The main results from a finite element calculation are deformations and
stresses. Hence, these two aspects form the major part of the Output menu. When

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displaying a basic 3D geometry model, the menu consists of the File, View, Project,
Geometry, Mesh, Deformations, Stresses, Tools, Window and Help menus. Note that the
availability of the menus in the bar depends on the type of data that is presented on the
output form.

8.2.1 FILE MENU

Open project To open the output of an existing project.
Close active project To close all forms of the active project.
Close all projects To close all forms of all opened projects.
Work directory Set the default directory where PLAXIS 3D project files are
stored.
Export to file To export the information displayed, depending on the
information type, to a text file (for results in tables) or image file
(for plot).
Report generator To generate a report of the project.
Create animation Create an animation from selected output steps. The Create
animation window is presented.
Print To print the active output on a selected printer.
(List of recent projects) A list of the five most recent projects.
Exit To leave the output program.

8.2.2 VIEW MENU

Zoom out To restore to view before the most recent zoom action.
Reset view To restore the original plot.
Viewpoint To change the viewpoint of the 3D projection of the model. This
allows the input of a particular viewpoint or a selection from
several predefined viewpoints.
Save view To save the current view (image or table). The saved views can
be included in a report of the project.
Show saved views To open or delete saved views.
Scale To modify the scale factor of the presented quantity.
Legend settings To modify the range of values of the presented quantity in
contour line plots and plots with shadings.
Scan line To change the scan line for displaying contour line labels. A scan
line is only presented in cross sections and it is shown as the
Contour lines display option is selected to show the results. After
selection, the scan line must be drawn using the mouse. Press
the left mouse button at one end of the line; hold the mouse
button down and move the mouse to the other end. A contour
line label will appear at every intersection of the scan line with a
contour line.

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Use result smoothing To reduce the numerical noise resulting from the extrapolation of
the results obtained in stress points (e.g. stress, force) to nodes.
This option is available for plots and tables. Note that the option
is by default selected in plot presentation of the results.
Title To toggle the display of the title of the active plot in the caption.
Legend To toggle the display of the legend of contours or shadings.
Axes To toggle the display of the global x -, y - and z -axes in the active
plot (displayed in the lower right corner).
Local axes To toggle the display of the local 1-, 2- and 3-axes of the
structures. This option is only available when viewing structures.
Shrink To shrink the soil volumes in the model. This option is available
in the Model view.
Expand To expand the structures in the model. This option is available in
the Model view.
Explode To disassemble the components of the project geometry. This
option is available in the Model view.
Implode To assemble the components of the project geometry. This
option is available in the Model view.
Settings To set various graphical attributes, such as object and
background colours, symbol size, font size and diffuse shading.
Move cross section forward
To move the created cross section through the model enabling a
visual display of the results in the model. This option is available
in the Cross section view.
Move cross section backward
To move the created cross section through the model enabling a
visual display of the results in the model. This option is available
in the Cross section view.
Arrows To display the results as arrows.
Contour lines To display the results as contour lines.
Shadings To display the results as shadings.
Iso surfaces To display the results as iso-areas.
Node labels To display the results at nodes.
Stress point labels To display the results at stress points.
Deformation plane To display the deformed shape of cross sections, geogrids or
plates.
Distribution plane To project the results perpendicularly to the plane creating a
distribution plane for cross sections and plates.
Deformation To display the deformed shape for beams, embedded piles and
anchors.

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Distribution To project the results perpendicularly to the structure, creating a

distribution line for beams, embedded piles and anchors.
Principal directions To display the principal directions in each stress point of the soil
element.
Center principal directions
To display the principal directions of stresses and strains at the
center of each soil element.
Coloured principal directions
To display the principal directions in each stress point of the soil
element. Colours are used to distinguish the principal directions.
Coloured center principal directions
To display the principal directions of stresses and strains at the
center of each soil element. Colours are used to distinguish the
principal directions.

8.2.3 PROJECT MENU

Node fixities View the table of the node fixities.
Load information View the table of the active loads and bending moments in the
current step.
Water load information View the table of the external water loads on the geometry
boundaries in the current step.
Prescribed displacement information
View the table of the prescribed displacements in the current
step.
Virtual interface thickness
View the table of the virtual interface thickness.
Volume information View the boundaries of the soil volume, the total volume of soil
and the volume of each cluster in the project.
Material information (all load cases)
View the material data of all load cases.
Material information (current load case)
View the material data of the current load case.
General information View the general project information.
Calculation information View the calculation information of the presented step.
Calculation info per phase
View the calculation information for each calculation phase.
Calculation info per step
View the calculation information for each calculation step.
Step info View the step information of the presented step.
Structures per phase View the active structures per calculation phase.

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8.2.4 GEOMETRY MENU

Phreatic level Toggle the display of the phreatic level in the model. For phases
calculated in the Classical and Flow modes, the phreatic level
indicates the level of zero steady state water pressure. For
phases calculated in the Advanced mode, the phreatic level
indicates the level of the zero active water pressure.
Loads Toggle the display of the external loads in the model.
Fixities Toggle the display of the fixities in the model.
Prescribed displacements
Toggle the display of the prescribed displacements in the model.
Filter Filter the nodes displayed in the model according to a defined
criteria.

8.2.5 MESH MENU

Quality View the quality of the elements in the mesh defined as inner
sphere divided by the outer sphere of the soil element where an
ideal tetrahedral element is normalized at 1.0. The displayed
mesh elements in the model vary according to the quality value
selected as the yellow bar is dragged through the legend.
Quality table View the table of the quality of the soil elements according to
different criteria.
Volume View the distribution of the volume of the soil elements.
Volume table View the table of the distribution of the volume of the soil
elements.
Connectivity plot View the connectivity plot (Section 9.1).
Cluster borders Toggle the display of the cluster borders in the model.
Element contours Toggle the display of the element contours in the model.
Element deformation contours
Toggle the display of the deformed element contours in the
model.
Materials Toggle the display of the materials in the model.
Element numbers Toggle the display of the soil element numbers.
Material set numbers Toggle the display of the material set numbers in the soil
elements.
Structure material set numbers
Toggle the display of the material set numbers of the structural
elements.
Group numbering Toggle the display of the group numbers. Groups are created
according to the material sets and the assigned design
approaches.
Cluster numbers Toggle the display of the cluster numbers in the soil elements.

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Node numbers Toggle the display of the nodes in the model.

Stress point numbers Toggle the display of the stress points in the model.
Node numbers Toggle the display of the node numbers. Only possible when
nodes are displayed.
Stress point numbers Toggle the display of the stress point numbers. Only possible
when stress points are displayed.
Selection labels Toggle the display of the labels of the selected nodes or stress
points.

8.2.6 DEFORMATIONS MENU

The Deformations menu contains various options to visualise the deformations
(displacements, strains), the velocities and the accelerations (in the case of a dynamic
analysis) in the finite element model (Section 9.2). These quantities can be viewed for the
whole analysis (total values), for the last phase (phase values) or for the last calculation
step (incremental values). In principle, displacements are contained in the nodes of the
finite element mesh, so displacement related output is presented on the basis of the
nodes, whereas strains are usually presented in integration points (stress points).

8.2.7 STRESSES MENU

The Stresses menu contains various options to visualise the stress state and other state
parameters in the finite element model (Section 9.3). Stresses are contained in the
integration points of the finite elements mesh, so stress related output is presented on the
basis of the integration points (stress points).

8.2.8 FORCES MENU

The Forces menu contains various options to visualise the resulting forces in structural
elements (Section 9.4).

8.2.9 TOOLS MENU

Copy To copy the active output to the Windows clipboard .
Select points for curves To enable selection of nodes and stress points to be considered
in curves. All the nodes and stress points in the project are
displayed enabling selection by clicking on them. The Select
points window is activated, where the location of interest can be
defined and the appropriate nodes or stress points can be
selected form the list.
Mesh point selection To activate the Mesh selection window. This option is active
when the Select points for curves has been previously selected
and the Select points window is closed.
Curves manager To activate the Curves manager (Chapter 10).
Table To open a new form with a table of numerical values of the
presented quantity.

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Vertical cross section To select a user-defined vertical cross section with a distribution
of the presented quantity. The cross section is defined by
specifying two points in the corresponding window. To define the
cut line in the plot, press the left mouse button at one end of the
cross section; hold the mouse button down while moving the
mouse to the other end of the line; release the mouse button.
The cross section is presented on a new form.
Horizontal cross section To select a user-defined horizontal cross section with a
distribution of the presented quantity. The cross section must be
selected by defining the z -coordinate. The cross section is
presented on a new form.
Free cross section To select a user-defined cross section with a distribution of the
presented quantity. The cross section is defined by specifying
three points in the corresponding window. The cross section is
presented on a new form.
Line cross section To define a line on which the distribution of the presented
quantity is displayed. The line is defined by specifying two points
in the corresponding window. The results on the defined line are
presented on a new form.
Cross section curves To display a plot of the results along the line cross sections. The
values in the x-axis in the plot are the distances of the points
from the first point in the cross section.
Hint box To display a hint box with information in individual nodes or
stress points (if nodes or stress points are displayed).
Cross section points To display the points defining the cross section. These points are
displayed as greyed out in the Cross section points window.
Their location can not be modified. This option is valid only when
the Cross section view is active.
Distance measurement To measure the distance between two nodes in the model both
for the original mesh as well as the deformed mesh. This option
is valid in the Model view only when nodes and/or stress points
are displayed in the plot (Section 8.3.14).

8.2.10 WINDOW MENU

Project manager To view the projects and forms currently displayed in Output.
Duplicate model view To duplicate the active view.
Close window To close the active output form.
Cascade To cascade the displayed output forms.
Tile horizontally To tile horizontally the displayed output forms.
Tile vertically To tile vertically the displayed output forms.
(List of recent views) A list of the output forms.

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8.2.11 HELP MENU

Manuals To display the manuals.
Instruction movies To reach the PLAXIS TV website where instruction movies are
displayed.
http://www.plaxis.nl/ To reach the PLAXIS website.
Disclaimer The complete disclaimer text is displayed.
About Information about the program version and license are displayed.

8.3 TOOLS IN THE OUTPUT PROGRAM

Besides displaying the calculation results, the Output program provides tools to handle
the view and enable a better examination of the results. The buttons are grouped in the
toolbar below the menu bar and in the side tool bar. The tools and their functionality is
described in the following sections.

8.3.1 ACCESSING THE OUTPUT PROGRAM

All the results are displayed in the Output program. There are different ways to access
the Output program. Besides the option of activating the program as described at the
beginning of this chapter, the results can be displayed before or after the calculation of
the phases is completed.
The results that can be displayed before calculating the phases are:
The generated mesh The generated mesh can be displayed by clicking the View mesh
button in the Mesh mode in the Input program.
Phase preview The element configuration and pore pressure distribution in the
in the Phases explorer can be displayed by clicking the Preview
phase button in the Water levels and Staged construction modes
in the Input program.
Connectivity plot The Connectivity plot displays the distribution of the finite
elements in the mesh and the nodes and stress points available.
The Connectivity plot is displayed when the Select point for
curves button is selected in the Staged construction mode in the
Input program. A more detailed description is given in Section
9.1.
The calculation results of a project are displayed in the Output program by selecting a
calculated phase in the Phases explorer and clicking the View calculation results button
in the Staged construction mode in the Input program.
While the Output program is already active, the results of other projects
can be accessed either by clicking the Open project button or by selecting the
corresponding option in the File menu (Section 8.2.1).

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8.3.2 EXPORTING OUTPUT DATA

The PLAXIS 3D Output program enables exporting the displayed results such as plots or
values. This is possible by clicking the corresponding button in the toolbar.

Copy to clipboard
Data as displayed in output forms may be exported to other programs using
the Windows clipboard function. When clicking on the Copy to clipboard button, the
Copy window appears in which selections can be made of the various plot components
that are to be included in the copy (Figure 8.3).

Figure 8.3 Copy window

Print
Hardcopies of graphs and tables can be produced by sending the output to
an external printer. When the Print button is clicked or the corresponding option is
selected in the File menu, the Print window appears, in which various plot components
that are to be included in the hardcopy can be selected (Figure 8.4).

Figure 8.4 Print window

When pressing the Setup button, the standard printer setup window is presented in which
specific printer settings can be changed. When the Print button is clicked, the plot is send
to the printer. This process is fully carried out by the Windows® operating system.

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Hint: When the Copy to clipboard option or the Print option is used on a plot that
shows a zoomed part of the model, only the part that is currently visible will
be exported to the clipboard or the printer.

Export
Data in output forms may be exported to files. When the Export to file button is
clicked, the Export window appears. Note that a text scaling factor can be defined.

Figure 8.5 Export window

Instead of the PLAXIS logo in the frame, it is also possible to insert a company logo. This
logo has to be provided as a bitmap and can be selected in the Print window after
clicking on the logo.

8.3.3 CURVES MANAGER

Clicking the Curves manager button activates the Curves manager window where
curves can be generated to evaluate the results at specified locations in the model.
Selection of points of interest and the generation of curves is described in detail in
Chapter 10.

8.3.4 STORE THE VIEW FOR REPORTS

The views in the Output program can be saved to be used when reports
are generated by clicking on the Store the view for reports button. The Save view
window pops up as the button is clicked. Description can be given to the view in the Save
view window (Figure 8.6) which can be beneficial when the report is generated. Report
generation is described in detail in Section 8.6.

Figure 8.6 Save view window

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8.3.5 ZOOMING THE PLOT

It is possible to zoom in and out in the view of the plots by scrolling the mouse wheel.
Other options for zooming are available by clicking the corresponding buttons in the
toolbar.
As this feature is selected, the mouse can be dragged on the model to define a local
zooming rectangle. In the window, only the results in the defined rectangle will be
displayed.
Clicking the Zoom out button or selecting the corresponding option in the
View menu (Section 8.2.2) restores the view of before the most recent zoom action.
Clicking the Reset view or selecting the corresponding
option in the View menu (Section 8.2.2) button enables restoring the original plot.

8.3.6 RELOCATION AND REORIENTATION OF THE PLOT

The plot can be moved or rotated using the mouse. The default behaviour is selected by
clicking on either the Move button or the Rotate button. Holding down the <Ctrl> key
switches from Move to Rotate (or vice versa).
When this button is clicked, the plot will be relocated (moved) by clicking
on the plot area and dragging it while keeping the left mouse button pressed.
When this button is clicked, the model will be rotated by clicking
on the plot area and dragging it while keeping the left mouse button pressed.
The viewpoint changes as the model is moved or rotated. The location of the viewpoint
can be defined by selecting the Viewpoint option in the View menu (Section 8.2.2). When
the option is selected, the Viewpoint window pops up (Figure 8.7). A viewpoint can be set
by either defining it in the Viewpoint window, or by selecting one of the default viewpoint
options.

Figure 8.7 Viewpoint window

8.3.7 SCALING THE DISPLAYED RESULTS

Whenever the results are indicated by length entities such as Arrows, Distribution,
Axis, etc. (Section 8.3.10), the Scale factor button can be used to receive a better
overview. When the button is clicked or the corresponding option in the View menu is

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selected, a window pops up (Figure 8.8) where the factor can be defined. Note that this
option is also available in the right mouse click pop-up menu.

Figure 8.8 Scale factor window

Hint: The default value of the Scale factor depends on the size of the model.
» The Scale factor may be used to increase or reduce the displayed (virtual)
thickness of interfaces in the Connectivity plot.

8.3.8 TABLES
The tabular form of the results given in the plot can be obtained by clicking on the
Table button or by selecting the corresponding option in the menu. Note that this
option is also available in the right mouse click pop-up menu.

Hint: The table of displacements may be used to view the global node numbers
and corresponding coordinates of individual elements.

Displaying of tables
By default, a table is presented in ascending order according to the global element
number and local node or stress point. However, a different ordering may be obtained by
clicking on the small triangle in the column header of the desired quantity on which the
ordering should be based. Another click on the same column header changes the
ordering from ascending to descending.
The options available in the right click pop-up menu are:
Select for curves To select the right clicked point in the table to be considered in
curves.
Align To align the text in the selected part of the table.
Decimal To display data in decimal representation.
Scientific To display data in scientific representation.

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Decimal digits To define the number of decimal digits displayed.

View factor To define a factor to the values in the table.
Copy To copy the selected values in the table.
Find value To find a value in the table.
Find soil element To find a soil element with a specified ID in the table when the
results are displayed for soil elements.
Find structural element To find a structural element with a specified ID in the table when
the results are displayed for structures.
Filter To filter the results in the table.

Hint: The values in the tables contain the most accurate information, whereas
information in plots can be influenced or be less accurate due to smoothing
or extrapolation of information from stress points to nodes.

8.3.9 SELECTION OF RESULTS

As the type of result is selected from the Deformations, Stresses or Structures menu, the
results are displayed either in plots or tables according to the selection made.
While the Output program is running, other steps of the project can be selected from the
drop-down menu in the toolbar. The button in front of the drop-down menu can be used
to toggle between the end results of phases, or individual output steps:
A list of the calculation phases and their final calculation steps is given. The results
at the end of the final calculation steps can be shown for each phase.
A list the saved calculation steps and the calculation phase they belong to is given.
The results of each calculation step can be shown.
In addition to the drop-down menu, the spinner at the right of the drop-down menu or
using the <Ctrl-Up> and <Ctrl-Down> keys will select the end results of the previous or
next calculation step or calculation phase.

8.3.10 DISPLAY TYPE OF RESULTS

The plot type options are located at the right of the drop-down menu:
The results are displayed as contours.
The results are displayed as shadings.
The results are displayed as iso-areas.
The results for Displacements can be displayed as arrows. Scaling of the results is
possible.
The results are displayed at each stress point of the soil elements. The length of
each line represents the magnitude of the principal quantity (stress or strain) and the
direction indicates the principal direction. Positive direction is indicated by arrows.
Scaling of the results is possible.

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The average results are displayed at the center of each soil element. The length of
each line represents the magnitude of the principal quantity (stress or strain) and the
direction indicates the principal direction. Positive direction is indicated by arrows.
Scaling of the results is possible.
The results are displayed in different colours at each stress point of the soil
elements. The length of each line represents the magnitude of the principal quantity
(stress or strain) and the direction indicates the principal direction. Positive direction
is indicated by arrows. Scaling of the results is possible.
The average results are displayed in different colours at the center of each soil
element. The length of each line represents the magnitude of the principal quantity
(stress or strain) and the direction indicates the principal direction. Positive direction
is indicated by arrows. Scaling of the results is possible.
The deformed shape of cross sections, geogrids or plates is displayed. Scaling of
the results is possible.
The distributions of the results in cross sections, plates, geogrids or interfaces is
displayed. Scaling of the results is possible.
The deformed shape of line structures (e.g. beam) is displayed. The relative
deformation is indicated by arrows. Scaling of the results is possible.
The distributions of the results in line structures (e.g. beam) is displayed. Scaling of
the results is possible.
The wireframe distributions of the results in line structures (e.g. beam) is displayed.
Scaling of the results is possible.
The Plastic points option shows the stress points that are in a plastic state,
displayed in a plot of the undeformed geometry (Section 9.3.7). Scaling of the
results is possible. When scaling is used, it is possible to pull the interfaces out of
the plates, however the stress points will remain at their physical locations.
The availability of the display type buttons in the toolbar can be toggled on/off by
selecting the corresponding options in the View menu.

8.3.11 SELECT STRUCTURES

By default, all the active structures and interfaces in the selected phase are displayed in
the plot. The disabled structures can be displayed by selecting the corresponding option
in the Geometry menu.

Hint: To quickly view structures inside the 3D model, the Materials option may be
deselected from the Geometry.

Output for structures and interfaces can be obtained by clicking the Select
structures button and then double clicking the desired object in the 3D model. As a
result, a new form is opened on which the selected object appears. At the same time the
menu changes to provide the particular type of output for the selected object.

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Another option of selecting structural elements in the output is by clicking on the

Select structures in a rectangle and drawing a rectangle in the model. As a result,
the structures in the rectangle will be selected.
To clear the selection, press <Esc>. Only structural elements of the same type can be
selected at the same time. For example, if a beam is selected, only other beams can be
added to the selection and no embedded piles, plates or geogrids.

8.3.12 PARTIAL GEOMETRY

To enable the inspection of certain internal parts of the geometry (for example individual
layers or volume clusters) it is possible to make other parts of the geometry invisible in
the Model explorer by clicking the button in front of them (Figure 8.9).

Figure 8.9 Model explorer in Output

Visible model components are indicated by an open eye, whereas invisible ones are
indicated by a closed eye. By clicking on the button, the view of the components
(individual and/or groups) can be toggled from being visible to being invisible and vice
versa. A group is expanded by clicking on the + sign in front of the group. Clusters that
have been set inactive in the framework of staged construction are always invisible and
cannot be made visible.

Hint: The cluster numbers are activated by selecting the Cluster numbers option in
the Mesh menu.

The information in the Model explorer can be narrowed according to the filtering criteria
specified at the corresponding cell.
The Model explorer can be fully expanded by selecting the Expand all in menu displayed
when the Model explorer is right-clicked. The displaying menu provides the option
Collapse all that reverts the effect of the Expand all option.
The Show all option will make all the object active in the selected phase visible. The Hide
all will revert the action.The Invert selection option will toggle all visible elements invisible
and all invisible elements visible. The Deselect all button will set all elements to invisible.

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On pressing the Close button the Partial geometry window is closed without further
changes.
Apart from the Model explorer, individual volume elements or entire clusters of volume
elements can be made invisible by holding down the <Ctrl> key, the <Shift> key or both
keys at the same time, respectively, while clicking on an element in the 3D model. These
elements can be visible again by clicking the corresponding check boxes in the Model
explorer.
Clicking the Hide soil button in the side bar menu enables hiding parts of the soil.
To hide soil elements, click the Hide soil button first and hold the <Ctrl> key pressed
while clicking on the soil elements. To hide soil clusters, click the Hide soil button first
and hold the <Shift> key pressed while clicking on the soil clusters.
Clicking on the Hide soil in the rectangle button enables hiding the soil
in the rectangle drawn in the model. The drawing order of the rectangle effects the
resulting hidden soil elements.
To hide only the soil elements that fall completely in the defined rectangle, first click the
Hide soil in the rectangle button. In the model, click at the point defining the upper left
corner of the rectangle, drag the mouse to the point defining the lower right corner of the
rectangle and click again.
To hide all the soil elements that are intersected by the defined rectangle, first click the
Hide soil in the rectangle button. In the model, click at the point defining the lower right
corner of the rectangle, drag the mouse to the point defining the upper left corner of the
rectangle and click again.

8.3.13 VIEWING RESULTS IN CROSS SECTIONS

To gain insight in the distribution of a certain quantity in the soil it is often useful to view
the distribution of that quantity in a particular cross section of the model. This option is
available in PLAXIS for all types of stresses and displacements in soil elements as well
as structural elements and interfaces. The user can define vertical, horizontal, arbitrary
and line cross sections.
The user may define vertical cross sections by clicking on the Vertical cross section
button in the toolbar or by selecting the corresponding option from the View menu.
Note that this option is also available in the right mouse click pop-up menu. Upon
selection of this option, the 3D model is presented in top view with the x -axis pointing to
the right and the y -axis pointing upwards. The cross section can now be specified
precisely by clicking on one end of the cross section line in the plot and moving the cursor
to the other end while holding down the mouse button. Cross sections exactly in x - or
y -direction may be drawn by holding down the <Shift> key on the keyboard while drawing
the cross section. Alternatively, both cross section coordinates can be entered precisely
in the Cross section points window that appears at the upper left hand corner.
In addition to the vertical cross section, the user may define horizontal
cross sections by clicking on the Horizontal cross section button in the toolbar or by
selecting the corresponding option from the View menu. Upon selection of this option,
the Cross section height window pops up in which the z -coordinate can be defined.
Free cross sections can be defined by clicking on the Free cross section button
in the toolbar or by selecting the corresponding option from the View menu. Upon

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selection of this option, the Cross section points window pops up in which the three cross
section coordinates can be defined.
A line cross section can be defined by clicking the Line cross section button in
the side button bar or by selecting the Line cross section option in the View menu.
Upon selection of this option, the Cross section points window pops up in which the two
cross section coordinates can be defined.
After the cross section has been selected, a new form is opened in which the distribution
of a quantity is presented on the indicated cross section. At the same time, the menu
changes to allow for the selection of all other quantities that may be viewed on the
indicated cross section.

Hint: The distribution of quantities in cross sections is obtained from interpolation

of nodal data, and may be less accurate than data presented in the 3D
model.

Multiple cross sections may be drawn in the same geometry. Each cross section will
appear in a different output form. To identify different cross sections, the end points of a
cross section are indicated with characters in alphabetical order. The points defining the
cross section can be viewed by selecting the Cross section points option in the Tools
menu.
In addition to the output quantities that are available for the 3D model, a cross section
allows for the display of cross section stresses, i.e. effective normal stresses σ 'N , total
normal stresses σN , vertical shear stresses τs and horizontal shear stresses τt .

Hint: It is possible to move a cross section in the direction of its normal while the
presentation of results is updated for the new location of the cross section.
• Using the <Ctrl–> and <Ctrl-+> keys will move the cross section 1/100
times the diagonal of the geometry model.
• Using the <Ctrl-Shift–> and <Ctrl-Shift-+> will move the cross section
1/1000 times the diagonal of the geometry model.

8.3.14 MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS

Distance measurement
The distance between two nodes in the model can be measured by either clicking
on the Distance measurement button or by selecting the Distance measurement
option in the Tools menu and by subsequently selecting the nodes in the model. The
Distance information window pops up displaying the information about the distance
(Figure 8.10).
The distance can be given according to the original node position or in deformed shape
(i.e. using shifted node positions according to their displacements).
A description of the information available in the table is given as follows:

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Figure 8.10 Distance information

Coordinates The Original and Deformed coordinates for the first node/stress
point and the second node/stress point.
∆x The Original and Deformed x-component of the distance
between the points.
∆y The Original and Deformed y-component of the distance
between the points.
∆z The Original and Deformed z-component of the distance
between the points.
Distance The Original (v) and Deformed (v') distance between the points.
Elongation Increase of the distance between the selected points before and
after deformation without considering the rotation of the line
between the two points.
|∆u| The change in the distance between the selected points before
and after deformation.

Hint: The computation of the Elongation depends on the type of calculation. If an

Updated mesh analysis is performed, Elongation is simply the difference in
length between the old and new vectors. Otherwise it is the projection of the
deformation vector onto the original vector.

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|∆u|perpendicular
∆u
=v
P'2 '- v
- P'1
P'2 Rotation
v'=

P'1 orientation x
Elongation

- P1
v = P2 P2

P1 x
orientation

Figure 8.11 Deformation measurement

Draw scanline
When the Contour lines option is selected for the plot in cross sections or plates, a
distribution of the values can be displayed by clicking on the Draw scanline button in
the side toolbar and drawing a line on the regions of interest. Note that this option is also
available in the right mouse click pop-up menu.

Hint box with node or stress point data

When nodes or stress points are displayed in the model using the corresponding
option in the Tools menu, it is possible to view data of these points in a hint box.
This can be done by clicking on the corresponding button in the side bar menu. If this
option is active and the mouse is moved over a node, the hint box shows the global node
number, the node coordinates and the current displacement components.
If the Hint box option is active and the mouse is moved over a stress point, the hint box
shows the global stress point number, the current Young's modulus E , the current
cohesion c , the current over-consolidation ratio OCR, the current principal stresses and a
sketch of Coulomb's envelope and Mohr's circles for that stress point.

Selecting nodes or stress points for curves

Nodes and stress points can be selected in the Output program by clicking
the Select nodes and stress points button in the side toolbar. Make sure the Nodes
and/or Stress points option has been selected in the Mesh menu. Nodes are generally
used to draw displacements whereas stress points are generally used to draw stresses or
strains.
Note that for the nodes and stress points selected after the calculation process
information is only valid for the saved calculation steps. For a more detailed description
see Section 10.1.

Interactive ruler
The result value at a specific location in a structure or cross section can be
displayed by clicking the Interactive ruler button in the side toolbar and by moving
the cursor to the point of interest. The current value (corresponding to the point on the
cross section line), a minimum value (based on the minimum value in the distribution),

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and a maximum value (based on the maximum value in the distribution) are shown along
the ruler. The Interactive ruler is available in the Structure and Cross section views.

8.4 DISPLAY AREA

The distribution of the results in the model is shown in the display area.

Figure 8.12 Display area

The presence of the legend, title bar, and axes in the draw area is arranged using the
options in the View menu (Section 8.2.2).

Hint: The icon in the title bar indicates the view in which the results are displayed.
A more detailed description on Views is given in Section 8.5.

8.4.1 LEGEND
The Legend is available for the display options where a variation in colour describes the
variation in the displayed result values. It is activated by selecting the corresponding
option in the View menu. When the Legend is double clicked, a window pops up, where
the scaling and the colouring can be defined (Figure 8.13). Note that this option is also
available in the right mouse click pop-up menu.
The distribution of values in the legend can be locked by clicking the Lock the
legend button. When the legend is locked, the value distribution will not change as
the <Ctrl>+<+> or <Ctrl>+<-> keys are used to move the cross section through the model.

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Figure 8.13 Legend settings window

8.4.2 MODIFYING THE DISPLAY SETTINGS

The view settings can be defined in the Settings window, that is activated when the
corresponding option in the View menu is selected. Note that this option is also available
in the right mouse click pop-up menu.
The visualization settings can be defined in the Visualization tabsheet of the Settings
window (Figure 8.14).

Figure 8.14 Visualization tabsheet of the Settings window

Symbol size To modify the size of the symbols in the display for nodes,
forces, etc.
Diffuse shading To make the appearance of the 3D model even more realistic,
the Diffuse shading option may be used. Using this option,
object surfaces that have the same colour by definition (such as
soil elements with the same material data set) appear 'brighter'
or 'darker', depending on their orientation with respect to the
viewer. Object surfaces appear most bright when the normal to
the surface points in the direction of the viewer. The surfaces
become darker the more the normal deviates from this direction.
The contrast can be set to the desired magnitude using the slide
bar.
Anti aliasing To select a convenient anti aliasing method from the options
available in the drop-down menu.
Rendering method To select a convenient rendering method from the options
available in the drop-down menu.
Display Toggle the display of the Cluster borders.

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The displaying colours can be arranged in the Colours tabsheet of the Settings window
(Figure 8.15).

Figure 8.15 Colours tabsheet of the Settings window

The function of the left and the middle mouse buttons can be defined in the Manipulation
tabsheet of the Settings window (Figure 8.16).

Figure 8.16 Manipulation tabsheet of the Settings window

The display of particular results can be toggled on/off in the Results tabsheet of the
Settings window (Figure 8.17).

Figure 8.17 Results tabsheet of the Settings window

The default visibility of Nodes, Stress points and Disabled structures can be toggled
on/off in the Default visibilities tabsheet of the Settings window (Figure 8.18).

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Figure 8.18 Default visibilities tabsheet of the Settings window

8.5 VIEWS IN OUTPUT

In the Output program the results are displayed in different views. The view type is
indicated by the corresponding icon in the title bar (Figure 8.12). The available views are:

8.5.1 MODEL VIEW

In the Model view
the results are displayed in the whole model. This is the default display of results.

8.5.2 STRUCTURES VIEW

When a structure (or multiple structures) is selected
and double clicked, the variation of the result is displayed in the Structures view.

8.5.3 CROSS SECTION VIEW

In the Line cross section view the results in the defined line cross
section are displayed.
In the Vertical cross section view the results in the defined
vertical cross section are displayed.
In the Horizontal cross section view the results in the defined
horizontal cross section are displayed.
In the Free cross section view the results in the defined free
cross section are displayed.

8.6 REPORT GENERATION

To document project input data and computational results, a Report Generator

facility is available in the PLAXIS Output program. The Report generator option can
be selected from the File menu. The data files for the report are generated in the
following eight steps.
Step 1: The report can be generated in a group of files or all the information can be
combined in a single file (a RTF, PDF or HTML document). The directory where the
report is stored should be defined (Figure 8.19).

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Figure 8.19 Report generator - Setup

Step 2: Select the phases for which results will be included in the report (Figure 8.20).

Figure 8.20 Report generator - Phases

Step 3: Select general information sets to be included in the report. Note that the
selection can be saved as a new set besides All and None sets (Figure 8.21).

Figure 8.21 Report generator - General information

Step 4: Select model view sets to be displayed in the report. Note that the selection can
be saved as a new set besides All and None sets (Figure 8.22).

Figure 8.22 Report generator - Model

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Step 5: Select structure view sets to be displayed in the report are selected. Note that the
selection can be saved as a new set besides All and None sets (Figure 8.23).

Figure 8.23 Report generator - Structures

Step 6: Select saved views to be included in the report (Figure 8.24). For more details on
saved views, see Section 8.3.4.

Figure 8.24 Report generator - Saved views

Step 7: Select generated charts to be included in the report (Figure 8.25).

Figure 8.25 Report generator - Charts

Step 8: A summary of the number of rows and the number of figures in the report is given
(Figure 8.26). The report is created as the Export button is clicked. A progress bar
appears displaying the number of the remaining rows and images.

Figure 8.26 Report generator - Results

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8.6.1 CONFIGURATION OF THE DOCUMENT

When the RTF, PDF or HTML document option is selected in the first step, after
completing the steps required to generate the report another window pops up (Figure
8.27) where the document type, name, the storage location and the display properties
such as page setup (for RTF and PDF documents), the table configuration and the type
and size of the used font can be defined.

Figure 8.27 Document properties

8.7 CREATING ANIMATIONS

The Create animation option is available in the View menu. If the option is
selected, the Create animation window appears (see Figure 8.28). The phases and
calculation steps to be included in the animations can be selected. Note that the
animation will include only available output steps. This depends on the Max. steps stored
parameter as defined for each phase in the Phases window. After selecting the phase(s),
click OK to start the process. The progress of this process is indicated in a separate
window.
If a large number of steps is to be included in the animation, the process may take some
minutes after which the animation is presented. The result is stored in an animation file
(*.AVI) in the project data directory.

Figure 8.28 Selection of phases from Create animation window

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9 RESULTS AVAILABLE IN OUTPUT PROGRAM

9.1 CONNECTIVITY PLOT

A Connectivity plot is a plot of the mesh in which the element connections are clearly
visualised. It is the result of the meshing process. It is available only in the representation
of spatial variation of the results. This plot is particularly of interest when interface
elements are included in the mesh. Interface elements are composed of pairs of nodes in
which the nodes in a pair have the same coordinates. In the Connectivity plot however,
the nodes in a pair are drawn with a certain distance in between so that it is made clear
how nodes are connected to adjacent elements. This option is available from the Mesh
menu.
In the Connectivity plot it can, for example, be seen that when an interface is present
between two soil elements, that the soil elements do not have common nodes and that
the connection is formed by the interface. In a situation where interfaces are placed
along both sides of a plate (Positive interface and Negative interface), the plate and the
adjacent soil elements do not have nodes in common. The connection between the plate
and the soil is formed by the interface. An example of Connectivity plot is given in Figure
9.1.

Figure 9.1 Example of the Connectivity plot

9.2 DEFORMATIONS

The Deformations menu contains various options to visualise the displacements and
strains in the finite element model. By default, the displayed quantities are scaled
automatically by a factor (1, 2 or 5) ·10n to give a diagram that may be read conveniently.
The scale factor may be changed by clicking the Scale factor button in the toolbar
or by selecting the Scale option from the View menu. The scale factor for strains

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refers to a reference value of strain that is drawn as a certain percentage of the geometry
dimensions. To be able to compare plots of different calculation phases or different
projects, the scale factors in the different plots must be made equal.

Elevation
The height of the soil volume is displayed when the Elevation option is selected in the
Deformations menu.

9.2.1 DEFORMED MESH

The Deformed mesh is a plot of the finite element model in the deformed shape. By
default, the deformations are scaled up to give a plot that may be read conveniently. If it
is desired to view the deformations on the true scale (i.e. the geometry scale), then the
Scale option (Section 8.3.7) may be used. The deformed mesh plot may be selected from
the Deformations menu.

9.2.2 TOTAL DISPLACEMENTS

The Total displacements option contains the different components of the accumulated
displacements at the end of the current calculation step, displayed on a plot of the
geometry. This option may be selected from the Deformations menu. A further selection
can be made among the total displacement vectors, |u |, and the individual total
displacement components, ux , uy and uz . The total displacements may be presented as
Arrows, Contour Lines, Iso surfaces or Shadings by clicking the appropriate button in the
toolbar (Section 8.3.10).

9.2.3 PHASE DISPLACEMENTS

The Phase Displacements option contains the different components of the accumulated
displacement increments in the whole calculation phase as calculated at the end of the
current calculation step, displayed on a plot of the geometry. In other words, the phase
displacements are the differential displacements between the end of the current
calculation phase and the end of the previous calculation phase. This option may be
selected from the Deformations menu.
A further selection can be made among the phase displacement vectors, |Pu |, and the
individual phase displacement components, Pux , Puy and Puz . The phase
displacements may be presented as Arrows, Contour lines, Iso surfaces or Shadings by
clicking the appropriate button in the toolbar (Section 8.3.10).

9.2.4 SUM PHASE DISPLACEMENTS

In Staged construction calculations elements that are switched from inactive to active are,
by default, pre-deformed such that the displacement field across the boundary between
the new elements and the existing elements is continuous. However, in some
applications, such as the staged construction of dams and embankments, this will lead to
the undesired situation that the top of the embankment shows the largest settlements
(Figure 9.2a) and is lower than what has been designed, because of the accumulated
settlements of the different construction layers. When the Sum phase displacements
option is selected, the pre-deformation of newly activated elements is ignored. In this

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way, the settlement of the last construction layer will be limited and the largest settlement
will most likely occur in the middle of the embankment, as expected. When plotting the
settlements in a vertical cross section through the embankment, the results are
somewhat discontinuous, but the overall settlement profile is more realistic than without
choosing this option (Figure 9.2b). The more construction layers are used, the smoother
the settlement profile is (Figure 9.2c).

a. b. c.
Figure 9.2 Settlement profile of an embankment on a stiff foundation layer: a. Phase displacement
results; b. Sum phase displacements results (5 construction layers); c. Sum phase
displacements results (10 construction layers)

Note that, if displacements are set to zero in intermediate phases, the Sum phase
displacements results may (at some point) be larger than the total displacements.

9.2.5 INCREMENTAL DISPLACEMENTS

The Incremental displacements option contains the different components of the
displacement increments as calculated for the current calculation step, displayed on a
plot of the geometry. This option may be selected from the Deformations menu. A further
selection can be made among the displacement increment vectors, |∆u |, and the
individual incremental displacement components, ∆ux , ∆uy and ∆uz . The displacement
increments may be presented as Arrows, Contour lines, Iso surfaces or Shadings by
clicking the appropriate button in the toolbar (Section 8.3.10). The contours of
displacement increment are particularly useful for the observation of localisation of
deformations within the soil when failure occurs.

9.2.6 VELOCITIES
The option Velocities contains the different components of the velocities at the end of the
current calculation step, displayed on a plot of the geometry. This option may be selected
from the Deformations menu. A further selection can be made among the velocity
vectors, |v |, and the individual velocity components, vx , vy and vz . The velocities may be
presented as Arrows, Contour lines, Iso surfaces or Shadings by clicking the appropriate
button in the toolbar (Section 8.3.10).

9.2.7 ACCELERATIONS
The option Accelerations contains the different components of the accelerations at the
end of the current calculation step, displayed on a plot of the geometry. This option may

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be selected from the Deformations menu. A further selection can be made among the
acceleration vectors, |a|, and the individual acceleration components, ax , ay and az . The
accelerations may be presented as Arrows, Contour lines, Iso surfaces or Shadings by
clicking the appropriate button in the toolbar (Section 8.3.10).

9.2.8 ACCELERATIONS IN 'G'

The option Accelerations in 'g' contains the different components of the accelerations at
the end of the current calculation step, displayed on a plot of the geometry as multiples of
the gravity acceleration. This option may be selected from the Deformations menu. A
further selection can be made among the acceleration vectors, |a('g ' )|, and the individual
acceleration components, ax ('g ' ), ay ('g ' ) and az ('g ' ). The accelerations may be
presented as Arrows, Contour lines, Iso surfaces or Shadings by clicking the appropriate
button in the toolbar (Section 8.3.10).

9.2.9 TOTAL CARTESIAN STRAINS

The Total cartesian strains option contains the different components of the accumulated
strains at the end of the current calculation step, displayed in a plot of the geometry. This
option may be selected from the Deformations menu. A further selection can be made
among the six individual Cartesian strain components xx , yy , zz , γxy , γyz and γzx . The
individual strain components may be presented as Contour lines, Iso surfaces or
Shadings by clicking the appropriate button in the toolbar (Section 8.3.10).

9.2.10 PHASE CARTESIAN STRAINS

The Phase cartesian strains option contains the different components of the accumulated
strain increments in the whole calculation phase as calculated at the end of the current
calculation step, displayed in a plot of the geometry. This option may be selected from the
Deformations menu. A further selection can be made among the six individual Cartesian
strain components Pxx , Pyy , Pzz , Pγxy , Pγyz and Pγzx .
The individual strain components may be presented as Contour lines, Iso surfaces or
Shadings by clicking the appropriate button in the toolbar (Section 8.3.10).

9.2.11 INCREMENTAL CARTESIAN STRAINS

The Incremental cartesian strains option contains the different components of the strain
increments as calculated for the current calculation step, displayed in a plot of the
geometry. This option may be selected from the Deformations menu. A further selection
can be made among the six individual Cartesian strain components ∆xx , ∆yy , ∆zz ,
∆γxy , ∆γyz and ∆γzx .
The individual strain components may be presented as Contour lines, Iso surfaces or
Shadings by clicking the appropriate button in the toolbar (Section 8.3.10).

9.2.12 TOTAL STRAINS

The Total strains option contains various strain measures based on the accumulated
strains in the geometry at the end of the current calculation step, displayed in a plot of the
geometry. This option may be selected from the Deformations menu. A further selection

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can be made among the principal strain directions, the individual principal strain
components 1 , 2 , 3 , (1 + 3 )/2, (1 - 3 )/2, the angle, the volumetric strain v , the
deviatoric strain γs and the void ratio e.
• Note that the principal strain components are arranged in algebraic order:

1 > 2 > 3

Hence, 1 is the largest compressive principal strain and 3 is the smallest

compressive principal strain.
• The volumetric strain is calculated as:
In normal calculations:

v = xx + yy + zz

In Updated mesh calculations:

v = xx + yy + zz + xx yy + xx zz + yy zz + xx yy zz
• The deviatoric strain is calculated as:
s       
2 v 2 v 2 v 2 1 2 2 + γ2


γs = xx − + yy − + zz − + γxy + γyz zx
3 3 3 3 2
• The void ratio is calculated as:

e = e0 + (1 + e0 )v

9.2.13 PHASE STRAINS

The Phase strains option contains various strain measures based on the accumulated
strain increments in the whole calculation phase as calculated at the end of the current
calculation step, displayed in a plot of the geometry. This option may be selected from the
Deformations menu. A further selection can be made among the volumetric strain (Pv )
and the deviatoric strain (Pγs ).

9.2.14 INCREMENTAL STRAINS

The Incremental strains option contains various strain measures based on the strain
increments as calculated for the current calculation step, displayed in a plot of the
geometry. This option may be selected from the Deformations menu. A further selection
can be made among the volumetric strain (∆v ) and the deviatoric strain (∆γs ).

9.3 STRESSES

Various options are available to visualize the stress state in the finite element model.

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Hint: By default, the stresses developed in non-porous materials are not displayed
in the plot. To display them select the Show stress for nonporous material
option in the Results tabsheet of the Settings window (Section 8.4.2).

9.3.1 CARTESIAN EFFECTIVE STRESSES

The Cartesian effective stresses are different components of the effective stress tensor
(i.e. the stresses in the soil skeleton). A further selection can be made among the six
individual Cartesian stress components σ 'xx , σ 'yy , σ 'zz , σxy , σyz and σzx .
Figure 9.3 shows the sign convention adopted for Cartesian stresses. Note that pressure
is considered to be negative.

σzz
z
σzy
σzx σyz
σxz
σyy
y σxy σyx
x σxx

Figure 9.3 Sign convention for stresses

9.3.2 CARTESIAN TOTAL STRESSES

The Cartesian total stresses are different components of the total stress tensor (i.e.
effective stresses + active pore pressures). A further selection can be made among the
six individual Cartesian stress components σxx , σyy , σzz , σxy , σyz and σzx . The latter
three quantities are equal to the corresponding ones in the Cartesian effective stress
option, but are repeated here for convenience (Section 9.3.1). The individual stress
components may be presented as Contour lines or Shadings by clicking the appropriate
button in the toolbar.

9.3.3 PRINCIPAL EFFECTIVE STRESSES

The Principal effective stresses are various stress measures based on the effective
stresses σ ' (i.e. the stresses in the soil skeleton). A further selection can be made among
the effective principal stresses, the individual principal effective stress components σ '1 ,
σ '2 , σ '3 , (σ '1 + σ '3 )/2, the mean effective stress p', the deviatoric stress q , the relative
shear stress τrel and the mobilised shear strength τmob .
Note that the effective stress components are arranged in algebraic order:

σ '1 ≤ σ '2 ≤ σ '3

Hence, σ '1 is the largest compressive (or smallest tension) principal stress and σ '3 is the
smallest compressive (or largest tension) principal stress.
The Mobilised shear strength τmob is the maximum value of shear stress (i.e. the radius
of the Mohr stress circle or half the maximum principal stress difference).

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The Relative shear stress τrel gives an indication of the proximity of the stress point to the
failure envelope, and is defined as:
τmob
τrel =
τmax
where τmax is the maximum value of shear stress for the case where the Mohr's circle is
expanded to touch the Coulomb failure envelope while keeping the center of Mohr's circle
constant.
σ1 ' + σ3 '
τmax = − sin ϕ + c cos ϕ
2

Hint: Particularly when the soil strength has been defined by means of effective
strength parameters (Undrained (A) it is useful to plot the mobilised shear
strength τmob in a vertical cross section and to check this against a known
shear strength profile.

When using the Hoek-Brown model to describe the behaviour of a rock section, the
definition of the maximum shear stress τmax is slightly modified. Starting from the
Hoek-Brown failure criterion:

fHB = σ '1 − σ '3 + f (σ '3 ) = 0 (9.1)

the maximum shear stress is defined by :

1 '3
f (σ '3 ) = σci mb −σ
 
τmax = f (σ '3 ) where σci + s
a
(9.2)
2
The relative shear stress is correspondingly defined by:

τmob |σ '1 − σ '3 |

τrel = = (9.3)
τmax f (σ '3 )

9.3.4 PRINCIPAL TOTAL STRESSES

The Principal total stresses are various stress measures based on the total stresses σ
(i.e. effective stresses + active pore pressures). A further selection can be made among
the principal total stress directions, the individual principal total stress components σ1 , σ2 ,
σ3 , (σ1 + σ3 )/2, (σ1 − σ3 )/2, the mean total stress p, the deviatoric stress q , the relative
shear stress τrel and the mobilised shear strength τmob . The latter three quantities are
equal to the corresponding ones in the Principal effective stress option, but are repeated
here for convenience (Section 9.3.3).
Note that the total stress components are arranged in algebraic order:

σ1 ≤ σ2 ≤ σ3

Hence, σ1 is the largest compressive (or the smallest tension) principal stress and σ3 is
the smallest compressive (or the largest tension) principal stress.

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9.3.5 STATE PARAMETERS

The State parameters are various additional quantities that relate to the state of the
material in the current calculation step, taking into account the stress history. A further
selection can be made among the User-Defined parameters (for user-defined soil
models; see Material Models Manual), the actual permeability, the strain histories
xx − v , yy − v , zz − v , xy , yz , zx , the secant shear modulus Gs , the ratio between
the actual shear modulus and the unloading reloading stiffness G/Gur , the equivalent
isotropic stress peq , the isotropic pre-consolidation stress pp , the isotropic
over-consolidation ratio OCR, the hardening parameter γ p , the actual stiffness Eur for
unloading and reloading, the actual Young's modulus E and the actual cohesion c,
depending on the soil models being used.
The actual permeability: The actual permeability (Permeabilityactual,x ,
Permeabilityactual,y , Permeabilityactual,z ) is the relative permeability times the saturated
permeability. This value depends on the degree of saturation according to the Van
Genuchten (or other) relationship as defined in the flow parameters of the material set.
This parameter is only available in calculations performed in the Advanced mode.
The strain history: The strain histories xx − v , yy − v , zz − v , xy , yz and zx are
only available in the HS small model.
The secant shear modulus Gs : The secant shear modulus Gs is only available in the
Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness. This option may be used to check the
actual secant shear modulusat the reference level, used in the current calculation step.
More information about this parameter can be found in Section 7.1 of the Material Models
Manual.
The ratio between the actual shear modulus and the unloading reloading stiffness
G/Gur : The ratio between the actual shear modulus G and the unloading reloading
stiffness Gur is only available in the Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness.
The equivalent isotropic stress peq : The equivalent isotropic stress peq is only
available in the Hardening Soil model, Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness,
Soft Soil model, Soft Soil Creep model and Modified Cam-Clay model. The equivalent
isotropic stress is defined as the intersection point between the stress contour (with
similar shape as the yield contour) through the current stress point and the isotropic
stress axis. Depending on the type of model being used it is defined as:
r
e2
q
peq = p2 + for the Hardening Soil model and HS small
α2 model
q2
peq = p' − 2 for the Soft Soil model, Soft Soil Creep model
M (p' − c cot ϕ) and Modified Cam-Clay model. For the Modified
Cam-Clay model, the cohesion c is defined as 0
kN/m2 .

The isotropic pre-consolidation stress pp : The isotropic pre-consolidation stress pp is

only available in the Hardening Soil model, Hardening Soil model with small-strain
stiffness, Soft Soil model, Soft Soil Creep model, Modified Cam-Clay model. The
isotropic pre-consolidation stress represents the maximum equivalent isotropic stress
level that a stress point has experienced up to the current load step.

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The isotropic over-consolidation ratio OCR : The isotropic over-consolidation ratio

OCR is only available in the Hardening Soil model, Hardening Soil model with
small-strain stiffness, Soft Soil model, Soft Soil Creep model, Modified Cam-Clay model.
The isotropic over-consolidation ratio is the ratio between the isotropic pre-consolidation
stress pp and the equivalent isotropic stress peq .
The hardening parameter γ p : The hardening parameter γ p is only available for the
Hardening Soil model and Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness. This option
may be used to check the actual hardening during the current calculation step.
The actual Young's modulus E : The actual Young's modulus E is the unconstrained
elastic stiffness modulus as used during the current calculation step. This option is only
available in the Linear Elastic model and Mohr-Coulomb model.
When the Linear Elastic model or the Mohr-Coulomb model is utilised with an increasing
stiffness with depth (Eincrement > 0), this option may be used to check the actual stiffness
profile used in the calculation. Note that in the Linear Elastic model and the
Mohr-Coulomb model the stiffness is NOT stress-dependent.
The actual stiffness Eur for unloading and reloading: The actual Young's modulus
Eur for unloading and reloading is the unconstrained elastic stiffness modulus as used
during the current calculation step. This option is only available in the Hardening Soil
model, Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness, Soft Soil model, Soft Soil Creep
model, Modified Cam-Clay model.
The stiffness Eur depends on the stress level. In models with stress-dependency of
stress, the actual stiffness Eur is calculated on the basis of the stresses at the beginning
of the current step. The option may be used to check the actual stress-dependent
stiffness used in the current calculation step.
The actual cohesion c : The actual cohesion c is the cohesive strength as used during
the current calculation step. This option is only available in the Mohr-Coulomb model,
Hardening Soil model, Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness, Soft Soil model
and Soft Soil Creep model.
When the Mohr-Coulomb model, Hardening Soil model or the Hardening Soil model with
small-strain stiffness is utilised with an increasing cohesive strength with depth
(cincrement > 0), this option may be used to check the actual cohesive strength profile
used in the calculation.

9.3.6 PORE PRESSURES

Pore pressures are the quantities that relate to the stress in the pores of the material. The
pores in soil are usually filled with a mixture of water and air. In most cases, stresses and
pore pressures in the soil are negative (pressure). However, due to capillary action or
undrained unloading, pore pressures may become positive (tension), which is denoted as
suction.
PLAXIS distinguishes between different types of pore pressures and related quantities. It
is important to understand the differences between these quantities in order to properly
interpret the results from a PLAXIS calculation.
Total stresses are divided into effective stresses, σ ', and active pore pressures, pactive .

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σ = σ ' + pactive

Active pore pressures are defined as the effective saturation, Seff , times the pore water
pressures, pw .

pactive = Seff · pw

Pore water pressure differs from active pore pressure when the degree of saturation is
less than unity, which is usually the case above the phreatic level. Below the phreatic
level pactive and pw are generally equal.
As an alternative to the pore water pressure, pw , the groundwater head, h, can be viewed:
pw
h=z−
γw
where z is the vertical coordinate and γw is the unit weight of water. In the pore water
pressure a further distinction is made between steady state pore pressure, psteady , and
excess pore pressure, pexcess .

pw = psteady + pexcess

where steady-state pore pressure is the steady-state or long term part of pore pressure,
which is supposed to be input data for a deformation analysis.
Excess pore pressure is the result from undrained behaviour (Undrained (A) or (B), or
low-permeable materials), and is affected by stress changes due to loading or unloading,
a (sudden) change in hydraulic conditions and consolidation.
Below an overview is given of the various pore pressure related quantities that are
available in the Stresses menu of the PLAXIS Output program. Most quantities can be
presented as Contour lines, Shadings or Iso surfaces. Although pore pressures do not
have principal directions, the Principal stresses presentation can be useful to view pore
pressures inside the model. In that case the colour of the lines represents the magnitude
of the pore pressure and the directions coincide with the x-, y- and z-axis.
Groundwater head: The groundwater head is an alternative quantity for the pore water
pressure, equivalent to the top level of a free water column.
Active pore pressure: The part of total stress in the pores of the soil. In saturated soil,
active pore pressure is equal to the pore water pressure. In unsaturated soil, active pore
pressure is the effective saturation times the pore water pressure.
Pore water pressure: The water pressure in the pores of the soil consisting of
steady-state pore pressure and excess pore pressure. In most cases, pore water
pressure is negative (pressure). However, due to capillary action or undrained unloading,
pore water pressure may become positive (suction).
Steady-state pore pressures: Long-term part of pore water pressure which is
supposed to be input data for a deformation analysis. Steady-state pore pressure is the
result of a direct pore pressure generation based on phreatic levels and cluster-related
pore pressure definition, or the result of a steady-state groundwater flow calculation. In
the case of a fully coupled flow-deformation analysis, steady-state pore pressure is
calculated from a steady-state groundwater flow calculation using the hydraulic boundary

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conditions at the end of the calculation phase. When the option Ignore suction has been
used, the steady-state pore pressure only includes negative values.
Excess pore pressure: Instationary part of pore water pressure that is a result of
undrained behaviour (Undrained (A) or (B), or low-permeable materials), affected by
stress changes due to loading or unloading, a (sudden) change in hydraulic conditions
and consolidation. In the case of a fully coupled flow-deformation analysis, excess pore
pressure is the difference between the calculated pore water pressure and the
steady-state pore pressure. The latter is calculated from a steady-state groundwater flow
calculation using the hydraulic boundary conditions at the end of the calculation phase.
Excess pore pressure may show positive values (suction) as a result of undrained
unloading, even when the option Ignore suction has been selected.
Extreme excess pore pressure: Maximum and minimum values of excess pore
pressure over the whole calculation phase up to the selected calculation step.
Change in pore pressure per phase: The change in active pore pressure from the
beginning of a phase up to the selected calculation step.
Suction: Any positive value (tension) in the pore water pressure. Suction can be a result
of capillary action (included in the steady-state pore pressure if the option Ignore suction
has NOT been used) or undrained unloading (included in the excess pore pressure).
Effective suction: Any positive value (tension) in the active pore pressure. When
multiplied by the tangent of the friction angle, the effective suction gives a kind of’'artificial
cohesion' in the soil.

9.3.7 PLASTIC POINTS

The Plastic points option shows the stress points that are in a plastic state,
displayed in a plot of the undeformed geometry. Plastic points can be shown in the
3D mesh or in the elements around a cross section. The plastic stress points are
indicated by small symbols that can have different shapes and colours, depending on the
type of plasticity that has occurred:
• A red cube (Failure point) indicates that the stresses lie on the surface of the failure
envelope.
• A white cube (Tension cut-off point) indicates that the tension cut-off criterion was
applied.
• A blue upside-down pyramid (Cap point) represents a state of normal consolidation
(primary compression) where the preconsolidation stress is equivalent to the actual
stress state. The latter type of plastic points only occurs if the Hardening Soil model,
the Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness, the Soft Soil model, Soft Soil
Creep model or Modified Cam-Clay model is used.
• A brown diamond (Cap+Hardening point) represents points that are on the shear
hardening and cap hardening envelope. Such plastic points can only occur in the
Hardening Soil model or the HS small model.
• A green pyramid (Hardening point) represents points on the shear hardening
envelope. Such plastic points can only occur in the Hardening Soil model or the HS
small model.

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The failure points are particularly useful to check whether the size of the mesh is
sufficient. If the zone of plasticity reaches a mesh boundary (excluding the symmetry
plane in a symmetric model) then this suggests that the size of the mesh may be too
small. In this case the calculation should be repeated with a larger model.

Figure 9.4 Plastic points window

When Plastic points is selected in the Stresses menu the Plastic points dialog is shown
(Figure 9.4). Here the user can select which types of plastic points are displayed. When
the Stress points option is selected, all other stress points are indicated by a purple
diamond shape (). For details of the use of advanced soil models, the user is referred to
the Material Models Manual.
By default both accurate and inaccurate plastic points are displayed in the model. Only
the inaccurate plastic points are displayed as the corresponding check box is selected in
the Plastic points window. Inaccurate plastic points are points where the local error is
larger then the tolerated error (Section 7.10.8).

Hint: The Plastic point history option in the Stresses menu enables displaying in
the model all the points that have been plastic in any step in the calculation
history (depending on the specified criteria, Failure, Tension cut-off, etc.)
generated up to the current calculation phase.

9.3.8 FIXED END ANCHORS

When Fixed end anchors is selected in the Stresses menu a table appears displaying the
fixed end anchors available in the model, their location, the resulting axial force, the
rotation angle and the equivalent length.

9.3.9 NODE TO NODE ANCHORS

When Node to node anchors is selected in the Stresses menu a table appears displaying
the node to node anchors available in the model, the location of the nodes and the
resulting axial forces.

9.3.10 WELLS
When Wells is selected in the Stresses menu a table appears displaying the wells
available in the model, the nodes representing the well and their location, the discharge
of the well and the defined minimum groundwater head.

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9.3.11 DRAINS
When Drains is selected in the Stresses menu a table appears displaying the drains
available in the model, the nodes representing the drain and their location, the total
discharge and the defined groundwater head of the drain.

9.4 STRUCTURES AND INTERFACES

By default, structures (i.e. anchors, beams, embedded piles, geogrids and plates) and
interfaces are displayed in the geometry. Otherwise, these objects may be displayed by
selecting the Structures or Interfaces option from the Geometry menu. To quickly view
structures inside the 3D model, the Materials option may be deselected from the
Geometry menu.
Output for structures and interfaces can be obtained by clicking the Select
structures button and then double clicking the desired object in the 3D model. As a
result, a new form is opened on which the selected object appears. At the same time the
menu changes to provide the particular type of output for the selected object.
All objects of the same type with the same local coordinate system are automatically
selected. When multiple objects or multiple groups of objects of the same type need to
be selected, the <Shift> key should be used while selecting the objects. The last object to
be included in the plot should then be double clicked. When all objects of the same type
are to be selected, select one of the objects while pressing <Ctrl-A> simultaneously. If it
is desired to select one or more individual elements from a group, the <Ctrl> key should
be used while selecting the desired element.
Another option of selecting structural elements in the output is by clicking the Drag
a window to select structures button and drawing a rectangle in the model. As a
results, the structures in the rectangle will be selected.

9.4.1 DEFORMATION IN STRUCTURES AND INTERFACES

The deformation options for the structural elements are given in the Deformations menu.
The user may select the Total displacements, the Phase displacements or the
Incremental displacements (Section 9.2). For each item a further selection can be made
among the displacement vectors |u |, and the individual total displacement components,
ux , uy and uz .
The deformation options in the direction of local axis of the structures are available as
well. The user may select the Total local displacements, the Phase local displacements
or the Incremental local displacements. For each item a further selection can be made
among the individual displacement components u1 , u2 and u3 .
The Rotation option is available for Plates and Beams displaying the total rotation
(Rotation) and the phase rotation (∆Rotation) of the selected plates with respect to the
global axes.
Options such as Relative total displacements, Relative phase displacements and Relative
increments are available for interfaces. Relative displacements are differential
displacements between node pairs. These options may be used to view if plastic
shearing has occurred in the interface.

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9.4.2 RESULTING FORCES IN BEAMS

When a beam is displayed, the options Axial force N, Shear force Q12 , Shear force Q13 ,
Bending moment M2 and Bending moment M3 are available from the Forces menu. Note
that positive axial forces refer to tension whereas negative forces refer to compression
(Figure 9.5). The sign of bending moments and shear forces depend on the beam's local
system of axes (Figure 9.6a).

Figure 9.5 Sign convention for axial forces in beams and plates

The Structure axes option from the View menu may be used to display the beam's local
system of axes (1,2,3). The first direction is always the axial direction. The second and
third axis are always perpendicular to the beam axis.
The Axial force N is the force in the first (axial) direction (Figure 9.6b). An axial force is
positive when it generates tensile stresses, as indicated in Figure 9.5.

3
N ε Q12 Q13
13 2 13 13
a. Local Axes b. Axial force N c. Shear force Q12 d. Shear force Q13
Figure 9.6 Positive axial force and shear forces in beams

1
1

3
3

2
2

I3 M3 κ3 I2 M2 κ2
κ3
a. Bending moment M3 b. Bending moment M2
Figure 9.7 Positive bending moments in beams

The Shear force Q12 is the shear force over the second beam axis (Figure 9.6c), whereas

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the Shear force Q13 is the shear force over the third beam axis (Figure 9.6d).
The Bending moment M3 is the bending moment due to bending around the third axis
(Figure 9.7a), whereas the Bending moment M2 is the bending moment due to bending
around the second axis (Figure 9.7b).

9.4.3 RESULTING FORCES IN PLATES

When a plate is displayed, axial forces N1 and N2 , shear forces Q12 , Q23 and Q13 and
moments M11 , M22 and M12 are available from the Forces menu. These forces represent
the actual forces at the end of the calculation step.
Note that axial forces are positive when they generate tensile stresses, as indicated in
Figure 9.5. The sign of bending moments and shear forces depend on the plate's local
system of axes.
The Structure axes option from the View menu may be used to display the plate's local
system of axes (1,2,3). The first and second direction lie in the plane of the plate whereas
the third direction is perpendicular to the plate.
The Axial force N1 is the axial force in the first direction (Figure 9.8b). The Axial force N2
is the axial force in the second direction (Figure 9.8c).
The Shear force Q12 is the in-plane shear force (Figure 9.9a). The Shear force Q13 is the
shear force perpendicular to the plate over the first direction (Figure 9.9b), whereas the
Shear force Q23 is the shear force perpendicular to the plate over the second direction
(Figure 9.9c).
The Bending moment M11 is the bending moment due to bending over the second axis
(around the second axis) (Figure 9.10b). The Bending moment M22 is the bending
moment due to bending over the first axis (around the first axis) (Figure 9.10c).
The Torsion moment M12 is the moment according to transverse shear forces (Figure
9.10a).

2 3

ε2 ε2 N1 E1 ε1 N2 E2 ε2
a. Local plate directions b. Axial force N1 c. Axial force N2
Figure 9.8 Positive axial forces in plates and geogrids

9.4.4 RESULTING FORCES IN GEOGRIDS

When a geogrid is displayed, the options Axial force N1 and Axial force N2 are available
from the Forces menu (Figure 9.8). Forces in geogrids are always positive (tension).

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23 Q12 G12 γ12 23 Q13 G13 γ13 Q23 G23 γ23

a. Shear force Q12 b. Shear force Q13 c. Shear force Q23
Figure 9.9 Positive shear forces in plates

22 M12 κ12 22 M κ13 M22 κ22

a. Torsion moment M12 b. Bending moment M11 c. Bending moment M22
Figure 9.10 Positive bending moments in plates

Compressive forces are not allowed in these elements.

9.4.5 RESULTING FORCES IN EMBEDDED PILES

When an embedded pile is displayed, the options Axial force N, Shear force Q12 , Shear
force Q13 , Bending moment M2 , Bending moment M3 , Skin force Tskin (in axial pile
direction) and lateral forces T2 and T3 are available from the Forces menu. The latter
three options relate to the pile-soil interaction (see below). For a detailed description of
structural forces in the embedded pile elements see Section 9.4.2.

Hint: The Axes option from the View menu may be used to display the pile's local
system of axes (1,2,3). The first direction is always the axial direction. The
second direction is perpendicular to the pile axis with a component in the
global x-direction and the third direction is also perpendicular to the pile with
a component in the global z-direction.

The pile-soil interaction forces are obtained from the special interface that is
automatically applied between the embedded beam elements and the surrounding soil
volume elements. The Skin force Tskin , expressed in the unit of force per unit of pile
length, is the force related to the relative displacement in the pile's first direction (axial
direction). This force is limited by the skin resistance as defined in the embedded pile
material data set (Section 6.7).

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The interaction force T2 relates to the relative displacement perpendicular to the pile in
the pile's second direction whereas the interaction force T3 relates to the relative
displacement perpendicular to the pile in the pile's third direction. These quantities are
expressed in the unit of force per unit of pile length. Note that T2 and T3 are not limited.
In fact, when these forces become very large, plasticity will occur outside the elastic zone
in the surrounding soil volume elements.
The maximum shear stress Tmax is the limit defined for the material dataset. The relative
shear stress Trel gives an indication of the proximity of the stress point to the failure
envelope.
The pile foot force Ffoot , expressed in the unit of force, is obtained from the relative
displacement in the axial pile direction between the foot or tip of the pile and the
surrounding soil. The foot force is shown in the plot of the Axial force N. The foot force is
limited by the base resistance as defined in the embedded pile material data set (Section
6.7).

9.4.6 RESULTING FORCE IN ANCHORS

Output for anchors (fixed-end anchors as well as node-to-node anchors) involves only the
anchor force expressed in the unit of force on the anchor (on the nodes in node-to-node
anchor). The anchor force appears in a table after double clicking the anchor in the
model. The program displays the values of the historical maximum and minimum forces
in all subsequent calculation phases in node-to-node anchors.

9.4.7 RESULTING STRESSES IN INTERFACES

Interface elements are formed by node pairs, i.e. two nodes at each node position: one
at the 'soil' side and one at the 'structure' side or the other 'soil' side. Interfaces can be
visualised by activating the corresponding option in the Geometry menu. Output for
interfaces can be obtained by double clicking on the interface elements in the 3D model.
The output for interfaces comprises deformations (Section 9.4.1) and stresses.
When an interface is displayed, the options Effective σ 'N , Total σN , Shear τ1 , Shear τ2 ,
Relative Shear τrel , steady-state pore pressure psteady , excess pore pressure pexcess ,
active pore pressure pactive , pore water pressures pw , effective degree of saturation Seff ,
suction, effective suction, Groundwater head and Plastic points are available from the
Interface stresses menu. The effective normal stress is the effective stress perpendicular
to the interface. Note that pressure is considered to be negative. The relative shear
stress τ rel gives an indication of the proximity of the stress point to the failure envelope,
and is defined as:
q
τ12 + τ22
τrel =
τmax
where τmax is the maximum value of shear stress according to the Coulomb failure
envelope for the current value of the effective normal stress.

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The development of quantities over multiple calculation steps at a specified location in

the model can be viewed using the Curve manager facility. This facility allows for the
generation of load-displacement curves, force-displacement curves, stress-paths, strain
paths, stress-strain curves and time-related curves.

10.1 SELECTING POINTS FOR CURVES

The location in the model where the variation of results through calculation steps is to be
analyzed is specified by selecting nodes or stress points in the model. The selection of
points should be done preferably before but may also be done after calculating the
project.
In order to specify points to be considered in curves, the Select points for curves
option should be selected. In the Input program, this button is available in the side
toolbar of the Mesh and Staged construction modes. Selecting this option will open the
Output program displaying the Connectivity plot and the Select points window.
Nodes and stress points can be selected in the Output program either by clicking the
Select points for curves button in the side toolbar or by selecting the corresponding option
in the Tools menu. More information on selecting procedure is given in Section 10.1.1.
It is important to consider the differences in selecting the points before or after starting
the calculation process. A more detailed description is given in Section 10.1.2 and
Section 10.1.3.

10.1.1 MESH POINT SELECTION

Nodes and stress points can directly be selected by clicking them in the 3D model. Make
sure that the Nodes and/or Stress points option has been selected in the Mesh menu.
The amount of visible nodes and stress points can be decreased using the Partial
geometry option in the Geometry menu or by clicking the Hide soil button in the
side toolbar.
In the Select points window (Figure 10.2), the coordinates of the location of interest can
be specified. The program lists the number of the nearest node and stress points at the
lower part of the window when the Search closest button is clicked. The nodes and
stress points can be selected by defining their ID as well. The displayed nodes or stress
points are selected as the corresponding button at the right of the cell is checked. The
selections are listed in the upper part of the window.
Selected nodes can be deselected by selecting the point in the list and pressing Delete or
by clicking the point in the model.

Hint: When the Select points for curves option is selected but the Select points
window is closed, it can be displayed by selecting the Mesh point selection
option in the Tools menu.

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Figure 10.1 Select points window

If the finite element mesh is regenerated (after being refined or modified), the position of
nodes and stress points will change. As a result, previously selected nodes and stress
points may appear in completely different positions. Therefore nodes and stress points
should be reselected after regeneration of the mesh.

10.1.2 PRE-CALCULATION POINTS

After the calculation phases have been defined and before the calculation process is
started, some points may be selected by the user for the generation of load-displacement
curves or stress paths. During the calculation, information for these selected points for all
the calculation steps is stored in a separate file. The precalculation points provide more
detailed curves.

Hint: Pre-calculation points provide detailed information related to stress and strain
at those points. However information about structural forces and state
parameters is not provided.

10.1.3 POST-CALCULATION POINTS

When the calculations are started without the selection of nodes and stress points for
curves, the user will be prompted to select such points. The user can then decide to
select points or, alternatively, to start the calculations without pre-selected points. In this
case, it is still possible to generate load-displacement curves or stress-strain curves after
the calculation, but such curves may be less detailed.
When a node or stress point is selected after calculating the project, only the information
for the saved calculation steps is available. For more detailed curves the value of the Max
number of steps stored should be increased.

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The information available for selected points (nodes or stress point) depends on the view
in which they have been selected in the Output program.
The points selected in the Model view, can be used to generate curves related to
displacements, stresses, strains and state parameters in soil elements. The Model
view is the default view in the Output program.
The points selected in the Structure view, can be used to generate curves related
to resulting structural forces. The points should be selected after selecting the
structure first (Section 8.3.11). The Structure view is displayed when structures are
selected and double clicked.

Hint: The type of the active view is indicated by the corresponding icon under the
plot.

10.2 GENERATING CURVES

To generate curves, the Curves manager option should be selected from the Tools
menu or the corresponding button in the toolbar should be clicked. As a result, the
Curves manager window appears with three tabsheets named Charts, Curve points and
Select points.
The Charts tabsheet contains the saved charts that were previously generated for the
current project. The Curve points tabsheet gives an overview of the nodes and stress
points that were selected for the generation of curves, with an indication of their
coordinates. The list includes the points selected before the calculation (pre-calc) as well
as the points selected after the calculation (post-calc) (Figure 10.2). For points that are
part of a structure further information is given in the list about the type of structure and
the corresponding structure element number.The Select points window is described in
Section 10.1.1
As a next step to generate curves, the New button should be pressed while the Charts
tabsheet is active. As a result, the Curve generation window appears, as presented in
Figure 10.3.
Two similar groups with various items are shown, one for the x -axis and one for the
y -axis of the curve. The x -axis corresponds to the horizontal axis and the y -axis
corresponds to the vertical axis. For each axis, a combination of selections should be
made to define which quantity is plotted on that axis. First, for each axis a selection
should be made whether the data to be shown is related to the general project (Project)
or a particular selected node or stress point. The tree in the Curve generation window will
then show all quantities which are available depending for this type of data. The tree can
be expanded by clicking the + sign in front of a group. The Invert sign option may be
selected to multiply all values of the x -quantity or the y -quantity by -1. When both
quantities have been defined and the OK button is pressed, the curve is generated and
presented in a chart window.
The combination of the step-dependent values of the x -quantity and the y -quantity forms
the points of the curve to be plotted. The number of curve points corresponds to the
available calculation step numbers plus one. The first curve point (corresponding to step

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Figure 10.2 Select points window

0) is numbered as 1.

Figure 10.3 Curve generation window

Hint: When curves are generated from points selected after the calculation, only
information of saved steps can be considered. The number of the saved
steps for each calculation phase is defined by the Maximum number of steps
stored option in the Parameters tabsheet of the Phases window (Section
7.7.3).
» All the calculation results are available for the pre-selected points.

10.2.1 LOAD-DISPLACEMENT CURVES

Load-displacement curves can be used to visualise the relationship between the applied
loading and the resulting displacement of a certain point in the geometry. In general, the
x -axis relates to the displacement of a particular node (Deformations), and the y -axis
contains data relating to load level. The latter is related with the value of ΣMstage in the
following way: Applied load = Total load applied in previous phase + ΣMstage · (Total

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load applied in current phase - Total load applied in previous phase). Also other types of
curves can be generated.
The selection of Displacement must be completed with the selection of a node in the
drop-down menu and the selection of a displacement component in the Deformations
subtree. The type of displacement can be either the length of the displacement vector
(|u |) or one of the individual displacement components (ux , uy or uz ). The displacements
are expressed in the unit of length, as specified in the Project properties window of the
Input program.
To define a multiplier on the y -axis, first the Project option should be selected as the
activation of a load system is not related to a particular point in the geometry. The
selection must be completed with the selection of the desired load system, represented
by the corresponding multiplier in the Multiplier subtree. Note that the 'load' is not
expressed in units of stress or force but in a multiplier value without unit. To obtain the
actual load, the presented value should be multiplied by the input load as specified by
means of staged construction.
Another quantity that can be presented in a curve is the Pore pressure. This quantity is
available for selected nodes as well as stress points. In the Pore pressures subtree of the
Stresses tree pactive , psteady or pexcess can be selected. Pore pressures are expressed in
the unit of stress.
When non-zero prescribed displacements are activated in a calculation, the reaction
forces against the prescribed displacements in the x - and y -direction are calculated and
stored as output parameters. These force components can also be used in the
load-displacement curves by selecting the option Project and then selecting one of the
forces in the Forces subtree.

10.2.2 FORCE-DISPLACEMENT CURVES

Force-displacement curves can be used to visualise the relationship between the
development of a structural force quantity and a displacement component of a certain
point in the geometry. A structural force quantity can only be selected for nodes being
selected after the calculation. In general, the x -axis relates to the displacement of a
particular node (Displacement), and the y -axis relates to the corresponding structural
force of a node of a structural element.
To define a displacement on the x -axis, first the desired node should be selected. The
selection must be completed with the selection of the type of displacement. This
displacement can be either the length of the displacement vector (|u |) or one of the
individual displacement components (ux , uy or uz ). The displacements are expressed in
the unit of length, as specified in the Project properties window of the Input program.
To define a structural force on the y -axis, first the desired node of the structural element
should be selected. The selection of Structural force must be completed with the
selection of type of force. Depending on the type of structural element, a selection can be
made among axial forces N , shear forces Q or bending moments M . In case of
interfaces, a selection can be made among the interface stresses (Section 9.4).

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10.2.3 DISPLACEMENT-TIME OR FORCE-TIME CURVES

Displacement-time or force-time curves can be useful to interpret the results of
calculations in which the time-dependent behaviour of the soil plays an important role
(e.g. consolidation and creep). In this case, the Time option is generally selected for the
x -axis, and the y -axis contains data for a displacement component or structural force
quantity of a particular node. The selection of Time requires the Project option to be
selected. Time is expressed in the unit of time, as specified in the Project properties
window of the Input program.
Instead of selecting time for the horizontal axis, it is also possible to select the calculation
step number (Step). This may also give useful curves for time independent calculations.
When interpreting such a curve it should be noted that during the calculation the step size
might change as a result of the automatic load stepping procedures.

10.2.4 STRESS AND STRAIN DIAGRAMS

Stress and strain diagrams can be used to visualise the development of stresses (stress
paths) or strains (strain paths) or the stress-strain behaviour of the soil in a particular
stress point. These types of curves are useful to analyse the local behaviour of the soil.
Stress-strain diagrams represent the idealised behaviour of the soil according to the
selected soil model. Since soil behaviour is stress-dependent and soil models do not take
all aspects of stress-dependency into account, stress paths are useful to validate
previously selected model parameters.
First a stress point should be selected before the desired quantity can be selected in the
Stress or Strain tree. The selection must be completed with the selection of the type of
stress or strain. As a stress quantity all scalar quantities available in the Stresses menu
can be selected (Section 9.3). However, the State parameters option is only available for
stress points selected after the calculation Section 10.1.3). As a strain quantity all scalar
strain quantities available in the Deformations menu can be selected (Section 9.2).
See the Scientific Manual for a definition of the stress and strain components. The phrase
'in absolute sense' in the description of the principal components is added because, in
general, the normal stress and strain components are negative (compression is negative).
Stress components are expressed in the units of stress; strains are dimensionless. A
definition of the stress and strain components is given in the Material Models Manual.

10.2.5 CURVES IN DYNAMIC CALCULATIONS

The Curve generation window differs when dynamic calculations are executed in the
project. The normal tabsheet is similar to the tabsheet when no dynamic calculations are
performed. However the Dynamic time option is available in the tree when Project is
selected in the axis parameter drop down menu. When a point is selected, the Velocities,
Accelerations and Acceleration ('g') options are available under Deformation (Figure
10.4).
The PSA spectrum may be generated in the corresponding tabsheet (Figure 10.5) by
defining the values of damping ratio (Zeta) and the maximum time period (End time).
Note that a PSA plot should be created for one dynamic phase at a time.

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Figure 10.4 Options available in Normal tabsheet for dynamic calculations

Figure 10.5 Pseudo-spectral acceleration response spectrum generation

The Amplification tabsheet enables obtaining the plot which shows the ratio of the
acceleration response of any point (Top) to the acceleration response of another point
(Bottom) which is preferably the point where input load is applied (Figure 10.6). This
gives the magnification of the response at one point with respect to given excitation.

Figure 10.6 Amplification spectrum generation

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Transformation of curves from time to frequency domain

Once a time curve has been generated, it is possible to transform this curve into a
frequency spectrum using the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). This can be done in the
Chart tabsheet of the Settings window (Figure 10.7).
For curves created in the Normal and Amplifications tabsheets of the Curve generation
window, you can select the option Use frequency representation (spectrum) and one of
the three types of spectrum (Standard frequency (Hz), Angular frequency (rad/s) or Wave
period(s)). Upon clicking on the OK button the existing time curve will be transformed
into a spectrum. The original curve can be reconstructed by de-selecting the frequency
representation in the Chart tabsheet .

Figure 10.7 Fast Fourier Transform

For the curves created in the PSA tabsheet of the Curve generation window, the
Displacement response factor can be selected (Figure 10.8), to display the variation of
displacement with frequency.

Hint: The Settings window is displayed by right clicking the chart and selecting the
corresponding option in the appearing menu or by selecting the option in the
Format menu.

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Figure 10.8 Displacement response factor option available for PSA curves

10.3 FORMATTING CURVES

Once a curve has been generated, a new chart window is opened in which the generated
curve is presented. The quantities used to generate the curve are plotted along the x -
and y -axis. By default, a legend is presented at the right hand side of the chart. For all
curves in a chart, the legend contains the Curve title, which is automatically generated
with the curve. An example of the curves in Output program is given in Figure 10.9.

Figure 10.9 Curves in Output program

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10.3.1 MENUS FOR CURVES

The menus in menu bar when curves are displayed vary slightly from the ones in the
Output nu bar when curves are displayed vary slightly from the ones in the Output
program. A description of the menus and the options available in them is given as follows.

File menu
The File menu is basically the same with the one available in the Output program. For a
more detailed description see Section 8.2.1.

Edit menu
Note that Edit menu is only available when the curves are displayed. The options
available can be used to include curves in the current chart. These options are:
Copy To export the chart to other programs using the Windows
clipboard function. This feature is described in detail in Section
8.3.2.
Add curve from current project
To add a new curve to the active chart from the current project.
Add curve from another project
To add a new curve to the active chart from another project.
Add curve from clipboard
To add a new curve to the active chart from clipboard.

Hint: The added curves are redefined using the data from either the current
project, another project or clipboard. It is not possible to mount a generated
curve to the current chart.
» It is possible to add a curve to the active chart using the Add curve option in
the corresponding option in the right mouse click pop-up menu.

View menu
The display of the results in the window is arranged using the options available in the
View menu. These options are:
Reset view To reset a zoomed view.

Hint: For a more detailed view of particular regions in curves, press the left mouse
button at a corner of the zoom area; hold the mouse button down and move
the mouse to the opposite corner of the zoom area; then release the button.
The program will zoom into the selected area. The zoom option may be used
repetitively.
The zoomed view can be reset by clicking the corresponding button in the
toolbar as well.

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Table To display the data series in a table. More information on tables

is given in the Section 8.3.8.
Legend To toggle the display of the legend in the chart.
Legend in chart To locate the legend in the chart.
Value indication To toggle the display of information about the points in the curves
when the mouse pointer is located on them.

Format menu
The Format menu contains the Settings option, selecting which displays the
corresponding window where the layout of the chart and curves can be modified.

Window and Help menus

These menus contain the same options as defined in Section 8.2.10 and Section 8.2.11.

10.3.2 EDITING CURVE DATA IN TABLE

In contrast to the general Output program, the Curves part allows for editing of the table
by the user using the options in the menu appearing as the table is right clicked.
Delete rows To delete selected rows in the table.
Update chart To update chart according to the modifications made in the table.
Align To align the text in the selected part of the table.
Decimal To display data in decimal representation.
Scientific To display data in scientific representation.
Decimal digits To define the number of decimal digits displayed.
View factor To define a factor to the values in the table.
Copy To copy the selected values in the table.
Find value To find a value in the table.
Filter To filter the results in the table.

10.3.3 VALUE INDICATION

If the Value indication option in the View menu is active and the mouse is moved over a
data point in a curve, the hint box shows the precise value of the x - and y -quantities at
that point. In addition, it shows the curve point number and the step and phase numbers
corresponding with that curve point.

10.4 FORMATTING OPTIONS

The layout and presentation of charts can be modified by clicking the Settings
button available in the toolbar or by selecting the corresponding option in the
Format menu. Alternatively, the Settings option can be selected from the Format menu of
the right mouse button menu. As a result, the Settings window will appear. Distinction is

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made between the chart settings displayed on the first tabsheet and the curve settings
displayed on a separate tabsheet for each curve. The options available in the Chart
tabsheet can be used to customize the frame and axes of the chart (Section 10.4.1). The
options available in the tabsheets of the curves can be used to customize the plot
(Section 10.4.2).
If the correct settings are defined, the OK button may be pressed to activate the settings
and to close the window. Alternatively, the Apply button may be pressed to activate the
settings, keeping the Settings window active. The changes to the settings can be ignored
by pressing the Cancel button.

10.4.1 CHART SETTINGS

The Settings window contains a tabsheet with options to customise the layout and
presentations of the chart (see Figure 10.10).

Figure 10.10 Chart settings tabsheet

Titles By default, a title is given to the x -axis and the y -axis, based on
the quantity that is selected for the curve generation. However,
this title may be changed in the Title edit boxes of the
corresponding axis group. In addition, a title may be given to the
full chart, which can be entered in the Chart name edit box. This
title should not be confused with the Curve title as described in
above.
Scaling of x- and y-axis By default, the range of values indicated on the x - and y -axis is
scaled automatically, but the user can select the Manual option
and enter the desired range in the Minimum and Maximum edit
boxes. As a result, data outside this range will not appear in the

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plot. In addition, it is possible to plot the x - and/or y -axis on a

logarithmic scale using the Logarithmic check box. The use of a
logarithmic scale is only valid if the full range of values along an
axis is strictly positive.
Grid Grid lines can be added to the plot by selecting items Horizontal
grid or Vertical grid. The grid lines may be customised by means
of the Style and Colour options.
Orthonormal axes The option Orthonormal axes can be used to ensure that the
scale used for the x -axis and the y -axis is the same. This option
is particularly useful when values of similar quantities are plotted
on the x -axis and y -axis, for example when making diagrams of
different displacement components.
Exchange axes The option Exchange axes can be used to interchange the
x -axis and the y -axis and their corresponding quantities. As a
result of this setting, the x -axis will become the vertical axis and
the y -axis will become the horizontal axis.
Flip horizontal or vertical
Selecting the option Flip horizontal or Flip vertical will
respectively reverse the horizontal or the vertical axis.

10.4.2 CURVE SETTINGS

Figure 10.11 Curve settings tabsheet

The Settings window contains for each of the curves in the current chart a tabsheet with
the same options (Figure 10.11).

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Title A default title is given to any curve during its generation. This
title may be changed in the Curve title edit box. When a legend
is presented for the active chart in the main window, the Curve
title appears in the legend.
Show curve When multiple curves are present within one chart, it may be
useful to hide temporarily one or more curves to focus attention
on the others. The Show curve option may be deselected for this
purpose.
Phases The Phases button may be used to select for which calculation
phases the curve has to be generated. This option is useful
when not all calculation phases should be included in the curve.
Fitting To draw a smooth curve, the user can select the Fitting item.
When doing so, the type of fitting can be selected from the Type
combo box. The Spline fitting generally gives the most
satisfactory results, but, as an alternative, a curve can be fitted to
a polynomial using the least squares method.
Line and marker presentation
Various options are available to customise the appearance of the
curve lines and markers.
Arrow buttons The arrow buttons can be used to change the order of the curves
in the legend.
Regenerate The Regenerate button may be used to regenerate a previously
generated curve to comply with new data (Section 10.5).
Add curve The Add curve button may be used to add new curves to the
current chart (Section 10.6).
Delete When multiple curves are present within one chart, the Delete
button may be used to erase a curve.

10.5 REGENERATION OF CURVES

If, for any reason, a calculation process is repeated or extended with new calculation
phases, it is generally desirable to update existing curves to comply with the new data.
This can be done by means of the Regenerate facility. This facility is available in the
Settings tabsheet (Figure 10.10), which can be opened by selecting the Settings option
from the Format menu. When clicking on the Regenerate button, the Curve generation
window appears, showing the existing setting for x - and y -axis. Pressing the OK button
is sufficient to regenerate the curve to include the new data. Another OK closes the
Settings window and displays the newly generated curve.
When multiple curves are used in one chart, the Regenerate facility should be used for
each curve individually. The Regenerate facility may also be used to change the quantity
that is plotted on the x - or y -axis.

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10.6 MULTIPLE CURVES IN ONE CHART

It is often useful to compare similar curves for different points in a geometry, or even in
different geometries or projects. Therefore PLAXIS allows for the generation of more
than one curve in the same chart. Once a single curve has been generated, the Add
curve options in the Edit menu can be used to generate a new curve in the current chart.
As an alternative, the Add curve option from the Settings window or from the right mouse
button menu can be used. Distinction is made between a new curve from the current
project, a new curve from another project or curves available on the clipboard.
The Add curve procedure is similar to the generation of a new curve (Section 10.2).
However, when it comes to the actual generation of the curve, the program imposes
some restrictions on the selection of data to be presented on the x - and the y -axis. This
is to ensure that the new data are consistent with the data of the existing curve.
When the Add curve option is used, the current chart is modified. In order to preserve the
current chart, a copy of it can be created by selecting it first in the list and then by clicking
the Copy button in the Curves manager window.

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11 REFERENCES

[1] Bathe, K.J. (1982). Finite element analysis in engineering analysis. Prentice-Hall,
New Jersey.
[2] Benz, T., Schwab, R., Vermeer, P.A., Kauther, R.A. (2007). A Hoek-Brown criterion
with intrinsic material strength factorization. Int. J. of Rock Mechanics and Mining
Sci., 45(2), 210–222.
[3] Brinkgreve, R.B.J., Bakker, H.L. (1991). Non-linear finite element analysis of safety
factors. In Proc. 7th Int. Conf. on Comp. Methods and Advances in Geomechanics.
Cairns, Australia, 1117–1122.
[4] Brinkgreve, R.B.J., Kappert, M.H., Bonnier, P.G. (2007). Hysteretic damping in
small-strain stiffness model.
[5] CUR (2004). Geotechnical exchange format for cpt-data. Technical report, CUR.
[6] Goodman, R.E., Taylor, R.L., Brekke, T.L. (1968). A model for mechanics of jointed
rock. Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, 94, 19–43.
[7] Schank, O., Gärtner, K. (2006). On fast factorization pivoting methods for symmetric
indefinite systems. Electronic Transactions on Numerical Analysis, 23, 158–179.
[8] Schank, O., Wächter, A., Hagemann, M. (2007). Matching−based preprocessing
algorithms to the solution of saddle−point problems in large−scale nonconvex
interior−point optimization. Computational Optimization and Applications, 36 (2-3),
321–341.
[9] van Langen, H. (1991). Numerical analysis of soil structure interaction. Ph.D.
thesis, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands.
[10] van Langen, H., Vermeer, P.A. (1991). Interface elements for singular plasticity
points. Int. J. Num. Analyt. Meth. in Geomech., 15, 301–315.
[11] Vermeer, P.A., van Langen, H. (1989). Soil collapse computations with finite
elements. In Ingenieur-Archive 59. 221–236.
[12] Zienkiewicz, O.C. (1977). The Finite Element Method. McGraw-Hill, London.

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 INDEX

INDEX

A output · 259
Cluster · 268
Accelerations · 284
Command
g · 284
line · 23
Anchor
prestressing · 239 Connections · 235
properties · 178 Connectivity plot · 258, 261
Arc-length control · 195 Copy object
Array array · 60
copy objects · 60 Copy to clipboard
Assigning data sets · 179 Input · 24
Automatic Output · 262
error checks · 250 Coulomb point · 191
step size · 207 Create animation · 255
stepsize · 220 Cross section
Avoid predeforming · 282 free · 260
horizontal · 260
B line · 260
Beams output · 270
output · 294 vertical · 260
Boundary conditions Curve
adjustments during calculation · 249 generation · 301
groundwater head · 229 regeneration · 312
submerged boundaries · 198 settings · 310
viscous · 240 Curves manager · 263
C D
Calculation Damping
abort · 243 Rayleigh · 115
Advanced mode · 194 Data sets
automatic step size · 220 assigning · 179
phase · 249 Default iterative procedure · 216
plastic · 192 deformation
staged construction · 201 control parameters · 212
type Deformations · 281
Consolidation · 193 Displacement
Dynamic · 197 incremental · 283
Gravity · 191 phase · 282
K0 procedure · 189 reset · 213
Plastic · 192 total · 282
Plastic nil-step · 192 Distributed load
Safety · 195 change · 235
Calculation steps Distributed prescribed displacement
max number of steps stored · 216 change · 238
max steps saved · 300 Drain
CamClay · 112 line · 94
CavitationCutoff · 214 surface · 95
Clipboard Drained behaviour · 113

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Drift correction · 80 Initial stress · 189

Dynamic Interface
Harmonic signal · 80 output · 293
import signal · 82 real interface thickness · 144
loading · 79 strength · 141
multipliers · 79 virtual thickness · 141
signal from table · 81
J
Dynamic analysis · 197
Jointed Rock · 112
E
K
Error
equilibrium · 218 K0 procedure · 189
global error · 245, 250 L
local error · 250
tolerated · 218 Line
Explode · 25 scan line · 255
Export Line load
Output · 263 change · 235
Extrapolation · 222 Line prescribed displacement
change · 238
F Line search · 221
Flip Load stepping · 206
horizontal · 311 Load-displacement · 303
vertical · 311 curves · 303
Flow Loading
signal from table · 102 Maximum load fraction in one step ·
Flow functions 219
import signal · 102 Maximum unloading steps · 219
Force Local refinement · 183
anchor · 177 M
prestressing · 239
Material
G model · 112
Geogrids · 167 Material data sets
Global error · 245, 250 anchors · 176
Gradual error reduction · 221 beams · 169
Gravity loading · 189 embedded piles · 171
geogrids · 167
H
plates · 164
Hardening Soil model · 112 reassigning · 238
Hardening Soil model with small-strain Maximum iterations · 220
stiffness · 112 Maximum number of iterations · 220
Mobilised shear strength · 286
I
Model · 18
Ignore undrained behaviour · 213 Mohr-Coulomb · 196
IgnoreSuction · 214 Msf · 195
Implode · 25 Mstage · 201
Incremental multiplier · 203
N
Initial phase
Groundwater flow only · 192 Nodes · 259

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 INDEX

numerical Soft Soil Creep model · 288

control parameters · 215 Soft Soil model · 112
Soil
O
dilatancy angle · 140
Output friction angle · 141
layout · 254 material properties · 109
menu bar · 254 saturated weight · 114
plot area · 254 undrained behaviour · 113
status bar · 254 Spline fitting · 312
title bar · 254 Staged construction
toolbar · 254 activating · 233
P deactivating · 233
State variables
Parameter reset · 213
Default iterative procedure · 216 Strains
Phases incremental Cartesian · 284
order · 187 phase Cartesian · 284
selection for output · 249 total Cartesian strains · 284
Plastic nil-step · 198 Stress
Plastic point inaccurate · 251
Coulomb point · 191 tensile · 294
inaccurate · 252 Stresses
Plates Cartesian effective · 286
output · 295 Cartesian total · 286
Point load principal effective · 286
change · 235 principal total · 287
Point prescribed displacement Structures
change · 238 output · 293
Pore pressure
excess · 198 T
Preview · 243 Tables
Print output · 265
Output · 262 Target SumMsf · 203
output · 255 Time
R unit of · 201
Tolerated error · 196
Real interface thickness · 144
Relative shear stress · 287 U
Report Undo · 24
Generation · 276 Undrained behaviour · 113
Store view · 263 UpdatedMesh · 213
Report generation · 276
V
Report generator · 255
Reset displacements · 213 Velocities · 283
Void ratio · 115
S
W
Safety · 187, 195
Scaling · 264 Water
Scan line · 255 conditions · 225
Sign convention · 294 Weight

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REFERENCE MANUAL

saturated weight · 114

Well · 94
Window
generation · 189
Z
Zoom · 25
Zoomin · 25

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APPENDIX A - THE FORMAT REQUIRED FOR THE FILES TO IMPORT CPT DATA

APPENDIX A - THE FORMAT REQUIRED FOR THE FILES TO IMPORT CPT DATA

A.1 ASCII FILES

The file must contain a small header specifying the contained data. If it is not available,
the field data cannot be recognized and the importing of the file will be aborted. The
header must be the first content in the file in order to prevent that arbitrary data of the file
is misinterpreted. The header must have the following format:
X[m] # optional comment
Y # optional comment
Z # optional comment
d[m] q f x x u # optional comment
# optional comment
X , Y and Z denote a number specifying the location and elevation of the starting point of
the CPT. Missing coordinates are set automatically to zero. Note that PLAXIS does not
use this information for modelling purposes.
Following the coordinate specification, specifiers for the column content must be
specified. The following specifiers are supported:
d penetration depth
q tip resistance
f sleeve friction
u pore pressure
x columns of data to be skipped
Except for the 'x' character, column specifiers can occur only once. If a column specifier
occurs more than once, the double specifier and all successive specifiers are skipped.
Units can be introduces inside square brackets next to the column specifier. Comments
can be added behind a '#'.
The first number containing a decimal separator determines whether European or
English settings are considered in a file.
• 1. or .23 or 1.23 or 1.23E-5 renders English format settings
• 1, or ,23 or 1,23 or 1,23E-5 renders European format settings
• 1E-5 or 125 assumes English format settings, the next number containing a decimal
separator decides on the format settings.
• Thousand separators are not recognized.

A.2 CPT FILES

The user can assign the extension *.cpt to a file. In this case the program will recognize
the content as CPT data. No header needs to be specified because the file extension
indicates its content. If no header is specified or its data is incomplete, the following
values are assumed:
• Missing coordinates are set to 0.0

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• A default header is assumed which considers the number of available columns. A

maximum of four columns is considered with specifiers 'd ', 'q ', 'f ' and 'u '. In case of
less columns, specifiers are skipped (either 'f ' and/or 'u '). If more than 4 columns
are found, the additional columns are skipped.
• At least 2 columns must be present.
• If no dimensions are specified, the default project dimensions are used.

A.3 UNIT CONVERSION

The program accepts only [m] as length unit. The conversion of the data units to the
project units shown in Table A.1 is possible for pressure.
Table A.1 Convertable units
Data unit Project unit
2
1 Pa 1 N/m
1 kPa 1000 N/m2 1 kN/m2
1 MPa 1 · 106 N/m2 1000kN/m2
2 6 2
1 N/mm 1 · 10 N/m 1000 kN/m2
1 kN/m2 1000 N/m2 1 kN/m2

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APPENDIX B - SUMMARY OF THE CREATION OF GENERAL WATER LEVELS

APPENDIX B - SUMMARY OF THE CREATION OF GENERAL WATER LEVELS

# of Head in # of Layer condition Number of Description

boreholes boreholes layers water levels
1 Value 1 Head 1 horizontal layer at the level
specified defined by Head
1 Value 1 Hydrostatic† 2 horizontal layer; 1 at the level
specified defined by Head; 1 at the
level resulting from ptop
1 Value 1 Interpolate 1 horizontal layer at the level
specified defined by Head
1 Value 1 Dry 1 horizontal layer at the level
specified defined by Head
1 Value 1 User-defined 2 horizontal layer; 1 at the level
specified defined by Head; 1 at the
level resulting from ptop and
pbottom
>1 Different 1 Head 1 (non-horizontal layer)
values per
borehole
>1 Different 1 Hydrostatic 2 (1 non-horizontal layer due to
values per specified heads; 1 horizontal
borehole layer due to the hydrostatic
condition of the soil layer)
>1 Different 1 Interpolate 1 (non-horizontal layer)
values per
borehole
>1 Different 1 Dry 1 (non-horizontal layer)
values per
borehole
>1 Different 1‡ User-defined 2 (1 non-horizontal layer due
values per to specified heads, the
borehole water level due to soil layer
condition can be either
horizontal or non-horizontal
depending on the defined
conditions)

† For hydrostatic cases, the situations different from the Head are considered. If the phreatic level in hydrostatic
conditions is equal to Head, no extra water level will be generated.
‡ The number of generated water levels for cases where more than one soil layer is available can be derived

accordingly.

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APPENDIX C - CONVENTIONAL AND UNSATURATED SOIL BEHAVIOUR IN PLAXIS

APPENDIX C - CONVENTIONAL AND UNSATURATED SOIL BEHAVIOUR IN PLAXIS

As of 2013, PLAXIS 3D can handle unsaturated soils. The unsaturated soil behaviour
and suction are taken into account using Bishop' s stress, whereas conventional
calculations (without suction) are performed using Terzaghi' s effective stress. The way to
distinguish between conventional calculations (without suction) and calculations in which
unsaturated soil behaviour is taken into account (with suction) is by means of the
calculation option Ignore suction. This option is available for all calculation types, i.e.
Plastic calculations, Safety analysis, Dynamic analysis, Consolidation analysis and Fully
coupled flow-deformation analysis.
Before defining the possibilities and limitations of both options, a definition is given of the
various stresses and related quantities involved. Note that compression is negative and
tension (or suction) are positive.

C.1 DEFINITION OF STRESSES AND RELATED QUANTITIES

Total stresses are divided into effective stresses and pore pressures. Pore pressures are
composed of steady-state pore pressures and excess pore pressures, including suction.
Since decades, PLAXIS uses the term 'active pore pressure' to denote the contribution of
the pore stresses in the total stresses. In the context of unsaturated soil behaviour, active
pore pressure is defined as:
Active pore pressure: pactive = Seff (psteady + pexcess ) = Seff pw
Pore water pressure: pwater = psteady + pexcess
Note that for fully saturated soil the 'active pore pressure' is equal to the 'pore water
pressure', but there is a clear difference in the unsaturated zone.
Steady-state pore pressure: psteady
• Input for a deformation analysis
• Direct generation based on phreatic levels and cluster-related pore pressure
distribution
• Or, calculated from steady-state groundwater flow calculation
Excess pore pressure: pexcess
• Result from undrained behaviour (Undrained (A) or (B)) and Kw /n from Table C.1
• Affected by loading, a (sudden) change in hydraulic conditions and consolidation.
• In the case of a fully coupled flow-deformation analysis, psteady is calculated from a
preliminary steady-state groundwater flow calculation using the hydraulic boundary
conditions at the end of the calculation phase. This enables the calculation and
output of pexcess for a fully coupled analysis in all steps. pexcess = pwater − psteady .
Effective degree of saturation: Seff = (S − Sres )/(Ssat − Sres )
Degree of saturation: S
Residual degree of saturation: Sres
Saturated degree of saturation: Ssat (usually 1.0)

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• There is a relationship between the (effective) degree of saturation (S or Seff ) and

the suction in the unsaturated zone, which depends on the selected soil-water
retention curve in the material data set. By default, the data set for 'fine sand' is
selected.
The term 'suction' is used to denote any positive value of pore water stress (pore water
tension):
Suction: Tension component in pwater : Suction = Max(pwater , 0)
• Suction could be a result of a positive component in psteady as well as pexcess , but it
is evaluated from the sum of both.
Effective suction: Suctioneff = Seff Suction
• When multiplied by the tangent of the friction angle, this quantity gives a kind of
'artificial cohesion' in the soil.
Effective stress: σ ' (stress in the soil skeleton)
Total stress: σ = σ ' + pactive
Terzaghi's effective stress: σ ' = σ − pactive
• Terzaghi's definition of effective stress applies to saturated soils.
Bishop' s stress: σ ' = σ − pa + χ(pa − pwater )
Atmospheric pressure: pa (100 kPa, but in PLAXIS taken as the zero reference level)
Matric suction coefficient: χ
In PLAXIS, pa is assumed to be 0 and χ is supposed to be equal to Seff , so Bishop' s
stress in PLAXIS:
σ ' = σ − Seff · (psteady + pexcess ) = σ − pactive
• When the soil reaches full saturation (Seff = 1), Bishop's stress coincides with
Terzaghi's effective stress.
• Using Bishop's effective stress as a basis for all calculations, distinction can still be
made between conventional calculations (fully saturated or dry materials) and
calculations in which unsaturated soil behaviour is taken into account.
• The aforementioned distinction can be made by ignoring suction or allowing suction.
In the following, the consequences of ignoring or allowing suction are described.

C.2 IGNORE SUCTION

When the calculation option Ignore suction is selected, soil below the phreatic level is
considered to be fully saturated (S = 1), whereas soil above the phreatic level is
considered to be ideally unsaturated (S = 0). The phreatic level itself is defined directly
by the user or calculated as a result of a groundwater flow calculation or a fully coupled
flow-deformation analysis. Positive steady-state pore stresses will be set to zero.
However, any excess pore pressure above and below the phreatic level, both positive and
negative, will be taken into account. This requires Seff to be set to 1, regardless of S , Sres
and Ssat .

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APPENDIX C - CONVENTIONAL AND UNSATURATED SOIL BEHAVIOUR IN PLAXIS

When selecting the calculation option Ignore suction, the following conditions apply:
• Any positive value of psteady is cut at 0.
• On or below the phreatic level (psteady ≤ 0)1 : S = 1; Sres = 0; Ssat = 1 > Seff = 1
• In drained and undrained (A,B) materials2 : Seff = 1 (over-rules previous value)
1. For a fully coupled flow-deformation analysis the position of the phreatic level is
based on pwater instead of psteady .
2. In contrast to other calculation types, Seff (representing χ) is NOT overruled in a fully
coupled flow-deformation analysis. Hence, Seff and pactive are 0 above the phreatic
level.
With this, the stresses and related quantities as defined previously fully apply. In
principle, all calculation types (Plastic, Consolidation, Fully coupled flow-deformation,
Dynamic, Safety) are available, but some specific features or combinations are not
available. Limitations are described below (see Section C.6).
Note that it is still possible to have suction (pore water tension) as a result of unloading in
Undrained (A,B) materials. Hence, the option Ignore suction will NOT ignore suction as a
result of excess pore tension.

C.3 ALLOW SUCTION (I.E. IGNORE SUCTION NOT SELECTED)

When the calculation option Ignore suction is NOT selected, suction is allowed and
included in the active pore pressure and pore water pressure. The saturation of the soil
depends on the soil-water retention curve as defined in the corresponding material data
sets.
With this, the stresses and related quantities as defined previously fully apply. In
principle, all calculation types (Plastic, Consolidation, Fully coupled flow-deformation,
Dynamic, Safety) are available, but some specific features or combinations are not
available. Limitations are described below (see Section C.6).

C.4 CAVITATION CUT-OFF

Positive pore stresses may also occur as a result of unloading in undrained materials.
However, there is a limit to the amount of positive pore stresses (pore water tension) that
can occur, which is the cavitation stress. This limit can be taken into account in PLAXIS
by selecting the Cavitation cut-off option and setting the cavitation stress. As a result, the
pore water pressure, pwater , cannot be higher than the cavitation stress, pcavitation . As
soon as the cavitation stress is reached, the excess pore pressure is manipulated:
At cavitation pexcess = pcavitation − psteady

C.5 UNIT WEIGHT OF SOIL

Although a proper definition of the unit weight of soil would involve the degree of
saturation, PLAXIS applies a unit weight based on the current position of the phreatic
level in all types of calculations.

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• On or below the phreatic level (psteady ≤ 0)1 : γ = γsat

• Above the phreatic level (psteady > 0)1 : γ = γunsat
1. For a fully coupled flow-deformation analysis the evaluation of the unit weight is
based on pwater instead of psteady . This means that during a fully coupled
flow-deformation analysis the position of the phreatic level and hence the material
weight can change.

C.6 POSSIBILITIES AND LIMITATIONS

There are limitations in the use of specific features in the various calculations types in
PLAXIS depending on whether suction is ignored or allowed. An overview of the
limitations is given below.

C.6.1 STEADY-STATE GROUNDWATER FLOW

• To generate steady-state pore pressures as input for Gravity loading, Plastic
calculation, Consolidation analysis or without deformation analysis.
Drainage type Zero pore pressures generated in soil clusters of the types
Undrained (C) and Non-porous.
Suction Possible when suction is allowed or in case of large excess
pore tension. Included in active pore pressures and pore
water pressures.
Cavitation cut-off Not applicable

The following warning will appear when starting the calculation:

Zero permeabilities in some soil Material set with zero permeability found, but not allowed in
clusters this type of calculation.

C.6.2 TRANSIENT GROUNDWATER FLOW

• To calculate time-dependent pore pressures without deformation analysis.
Drainage type Zero pore pressures generated in soil clusters of the types
Undrained (C) and Non-porous.
Suction Possible when suction is allowed or in case of large excess
pore tension. Included in active pore pressures and pore
water pressures.
Cavitation cut-off Not applicable

The following warning will appear when starting the calculation:

Zero permeability in some soil Material set with zero permeability found, but not allowed in
clusters this type of calculation.
Zero time interval Zero time interval.

Hint: Transient groundwater flow is ONLY possible in case of Groundwater flow

only calculation.

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APPENDIX C - CONVENTIONAL AND UNSATURATED SOIL BEHAVIOUR IN PLAXIS

C.6.3 K0-PROCEDURE
• Only possible as first (initial) calculation phase.
• Does not consider external loads; only material weight.
• Recommended for situations involving a horizontal ground surface and horizontal
soil layering without excavations or structures.
Drainage type No pore pressures generated in soil clusters of the types
Undrained (C) and Non-porous; no generation of excess
pore pressures
Steady-state groundwater flow Possible, but not recommended since non-hydrostatic pore
pressures may lead to non-equilibrium.
Transient groundwater flow Not possible
Suction Included in steady-state pore pressures when suction is
allowed
Cavitation cut-off Not possible, but also not relevant; undrained behaviour is
ignored
Updated mesh Not possible (deformations are not considered)
Updated water pressures Not possible (deformations are not considered)

C.6.4 GRAVITY LOADING

• Only possible as first (initial) calculation phase.
• Does not consider OCR or POP . Initial over-consolidation needs to be 'simulated'
using external loads (apply and remove in next phase) or increased ΣMweight
(reset to 1 in next phase).
Drainage type No pore pressures generated in soil clusters of the types
Undrained (C) and Non-porous. Ignore undrained behaviour
(A,B) automatically selected to avoid generation of initial
excess pore pressures
Steady-state groundwater flow Possible
Transient groundwater flow Not possible
Suction Included in steady-state pore pressures when suction is
allowed
Cavitation cut-off Not possible, but also not relevant; undrained behaviour is
ignored
Updated mesh Not possible
Updated water pressures Not possible

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C.6.5 PLASTIC CALCULATION

• Not possible as first (initial) calculation phase.
Drainage type No pore pressures generated in soil clusters of the types
Undrained (C) and Non-porous. Excess pore pressures
generated in soil clusters of the types Undrained (A) and
(B), except when using Ignore undrained behaviour (A,B)
Steady-state groundwater flow Possible (semi-coupled analysis). Note that in Undrained
(A,B) soil clusters a change in steady-state pore pressures
gives an opposite change in excess pore pressures.
Transient groundwater flow Not possible.
Suction Possible when suction is allowed or in case of large excess
pore tension. Included in active pore pressures and pore
water pressures.
Cavitation cut-off Possible
Updated mesh Possible when starting from initial phase or when parent
phase is also Updated mesh
Updated water pressures Possible when Updated mesh selected (only in 2D)

The following warning will appear when starting the calculation:

Pore pressures are changed and Note that a change in steady-state pore pressures will
undrained materials are present introduce extra excess pore pressures in Undrained (A,B)
while Ignore undrained behaviour materials
(A,B) is NOT selected

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APPENDIX C - CONVENTIONAL AND UNSATURATED SOIL BEHAVIOUR IN PLAXIS

C.6.6 SAFETY ANALYSIS

• Not possible as first (initial) calculation phase.
Drainage type No pore pressures generated in soil clusters of the types
Undrained (C) and Non-porous. Excess pore pressures
generated in soil clusters of the types Undrained (A) and
(B), except when using Ignore undrained behaviour (A,B)
Steady-state groundwater flow Not possible (steady-state pore pressures taken from parent
phase)
Transient groundwater flow Not possible (steady-state pore pressures taken from parent
phase)
Suction Possible when suction is allowed or in case of large excess
pore tension. Included in active pore pressures and pore
water pressures.
Cavitation cut-off Possible
Updated mesh Possible when parent phase is also Updated mesh. Note
that only deformations from the parent phase are considered
and that the mesh is not further updated during the Safety
analysis.
Updated water pressures Possible when Updated mesh selected. Note that only
updated water pressures from the parent phase are
considered and that water pressures are not further updated
during the Safety analysis.

The following warning will appear when starting the calculation:

Using Updated mesh Note that the mesh is NOT further updated during a Safety
analysis

C.6.7 CONSOLIDATION ANALYSIS

• Not possible as first (initial) calculation phase.
• Considers only consolidation of excess pore pressures.
• Requires non-zero permeabilities.
• Requires non-zero time interval.
Drainage type No consolidation in clusters of the type Non-porous; other
drainage types have no effect on consolidation; drainage
properties are defined by permeabilities, stiffness and time.
Steady-state groundwater flow Possible (redefines steady-state pore pressures). Note that
a change in steady- state pore pressures may initially lead
to an opposite change in excess pore pressures, depending
on the drainage properties.
Transient groundwater flow Not possible.

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Suction Possible when suction is allowed or in case of large excess

pore tension. Included in active pore pressures and pore
water pressures.
Cavitation cut-off Possible
Updated mesh Possible when parent phase is also Updated mesh
Updated water pressures Possible when Updated mesh selected.

The following warnings will appear when starting the calculation:

Steady-state pore pressures are Note that a change in steady-state pore pressures will
changed introduce extra excess pore pressures in Undrained (A,B)
materials
Zero time interval Zero time interval
Some permeability zero Zero permeability in some soil clusters

C.6.8 FULLY COUPLED FLOW-DEFORMATION ANALYSIS

• Not possible as first (initial) calculation phase.
• Considers full coupling between flow and deformation, i.e. 'consolidation' based on
total pore water pressures.
• Requires non-zero time interval
• Requires non-zero permeabilities
• Requires hydraulic boundary conditions (groundwater head, closed flow)
Drainage type No flow in clusters of the type Non-porous; other drainage
types have no effect on flow; drainage properties are defined
by permeabilities, stiffness and time.
Steady-state groundwater flow Not possible (groundwater flow is automatically included).
Steady-state pore pressures at the end of the phase are
automatically calculated based on the hydraulic boundary
conditions.
Transient groundwater flow Not possible (groundwater flow is automatically included).
Steady-state pore pressures at the end of the phase are
automatically calculated based on the hydraulic boundary
conditions.
Suction Possible when suction is allowed. Included in active pore
pressures and pore water pressures.
Cavitation cut-off Possible
Updated mesh Not possible. Note that parent phase should NOT be
Updated mesh
Updated water pressures Not possible.

The following warnings will appear when starting the calculation:

Zero time interval Zero time interval
Some permeability zero Zero permeability in some soil clusters

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APPENDIX C - CONVENTIONAL AND UNSATURATED SOIL BEHAVIOUR IN PLAXIS

C.6.9 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS

• Not possible as first (initial) calculation phase.
• Requires non-zero time interval.
Drainage type No pore pressures generated in soil clusters of the types
Undrained (C) and Non-porous. Excess pore pressures
generated in soil clusters of the types Undrained (A) and
(B), except when using Ignore undrained behaviour (A,B)
Steady-state groundwater flow Not possible (steady-state pore pressures taken from parent
phase)
Transient groundwater flow Not possible (steady-state pore pressures taken from parent
phase)
Suction Included in steady-state pore pressures when suction is
allowed
Cavitation cut-off Possible
Updated mesh Not possible.
Updated water pressures Not possible.

The following warnings will appear when starting the calculation:

Zero time interval Zero time interval

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 Table C.1 Bulk modulus of water in Deformation analysis
Type of Plastic Plastic (undrained) Consolidation Safety or Safety or dynamics
material (drained) dynamics (undrained)
(drained)
Kwsat Kwsat Kwsat
Undrained Kw = 0 = = Kw = 0 =
n  n  n 
(pwater ≤ 0)
  
2 · G 1 + νu − 1 + ν0 2 · G 1 + νu − 1 + ν0 2 · G 1 + νu − 1 + ν0
3 1 − 2νu 1 − 2ν0 3 1 − 2νu 1 − 2ν0 3 1 − 2νu 1 − 2ν0
Kwsat
Undrained Kw = 0 K unsat =
w = Kw = 0 K unsat =
w
n 
(pwater > 0) Kwsat Kair Kwsat Kair

2 · G 1 + νu − 1 + ν0
SKair + (1 − S)Kwsat 3 1 − 2νu 1 − 2ν0 SKair + (1 − S)Kwsat
Kwsat
Drained Kw = 0 Kw = 0 = Kw = 0 Kw = 0
n 
(pwater ≤ 0)

2 · G 1 + νu

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− 1 + ν0
3 1 − 2νu 1 − 2ν0
Kwsat
Drained Kw = 0 Kw = 0 = Kw = 0 Kw = 0
n 
(pwater > 0)

2 · G 1 + νu − 1 + ν0
REFERENCE MANUAL

3 1 − 2νu 1 − 2ν0
Cluster just Kw = 0 Kw = 0 Kw = Kwsat · 10−8 Not relevant Not relevant
been activated
Non-porous or Kw = 0 Kw = 0 Kw = 0 Kw = 0 Kw = 0
dry cluster
APPENDIX C - CONVENTIONAL AND UNSATURATED SOIL BEHAVIOUR IN PLAXIS

Table C.2 Bulk modulus of water in Flow analysis

Type of Steady-state Transient

material
Kwsat Kwsat
Undrained = =
n  n 
(pwater ≤ 0)
 
2 · G 1 + νu − 1 + ν0 2 · G 1 + νu − 1 + ν0
3 1 − 2νu 1 − 2ν0 3 1 − 2νu 1 − 2ν0
Kwsat Kwsat
Undrained = =
n  n 
(p| water > 0)
 
2 · G 1 + νu − 1 + ν0 2 · G 1 + νu − 1 + ν0
3 1 − 2νu 1 − 2ν0 3 1 − 2νu 1 − 2ν0
Kwsat Kwsat
Drained = =
n  n 
(pwater ≤ 0)
 
2 · G 1 + νu − 1 + ν0 2 · G 1 + νu − 1 + ν0
3 1 − 2νu 1 − 2ν0 3 1 − 2νu 1 − 2ν0
Kwsat Kwsat
Drained = =
n  n 
(pwater > 0)
 
2 · G 1 + νu − 1 + ν0 2 · G 1 + νu − 1 + ν0
3 1 − 2νu 1 − 2ν0 3 1 − 2νu 1 − 2ν0
Kwsat
Cluster just = Kw = Kwsat · 10−8
n 
been activated

2 · G 1 + νu − 1 + ν0
3 1 − 2νu 1 − 2ν0
Non-porous or Kw = 0 Kw = 0
dry cluster

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 APPENDIX D - SHORTCUTS INPUT PROGRAM

APPENDIX D - SHORTCUTS INPUT PROGRAM

Key Action
<Ctrl - A> Select all
<Ctrl - E> Explode
<Ctrl - L> Modify soil layers (only in Soil mode)
<Ctrl - M> Show materials
<Ctrl - N> New project
<Ctrl - O> Open project
<Ctrl - R> Snap to grid
<Ctrl - S> Save project
<Ctrl - Y> Redo
<Ctrl - Z> Undo
<Ctrl - F9> Run commands. This is a PLAXIS VIP feature
<Shift - Alt - C> Change soil colour intensity
<Shift - Ctrl - E> Implode
<Shift - Ctrl - S> Save project as
<Tab> Snap to object while drawing
<Delete> Delete selection
<F1> Manuals
<F10> Visualisation settings
<F12> Toggle the display in the Phases window

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 APPENDIX E - SHORTCUTS OUTPUT PROGRAM

APPENDIX E - SHORTCUTS OUTPUT PROGRAM

Table E.1 Keyboard shortcuts

Key Action View

<Ctrl - A> Select all structures of selected type Model, Structure, Cross section
<Ctrl - C> Copy All
<Ctrl - D> Display prescribed displacements All
<Ctrl - E> Explode Model
<Ctrl - F> Display fixities All
<Ctrl - H> Display phreatic level All
<Ctrl - I> Stress points All
<Ctrl - L> Display loads All
<Ctrl - M> Materials All
<Ctrl - N> Nodes All
<Ctrl - O> Open project All
<Ctrl - P> Print All
<Ctrl - R> Reset view All
<Ctrl - S> Save view All
<Ctrl - T> Table All
<Ctrl - W> Shrink Model
<Ctrl - F4> Close window All
<Ctrl - 0> Connectivity plot All
<Ctrl - 1> Deformed mesh All
<Ctrl - 2> Total displacements All
<Ctrl - 3> Incremental displacements All
<Ctrl - 4> Total strains All
<Ctrl - 5> Incremental strains All
<Ctrl - 6> Plastic points All
<Ctrl - 7> Pore pressures All
<Ctrl - => Move Cross section forward 1/100 of the model size Cross section
<Ctrl - -> Move Cross section backward 1/100 of the model size Cross section
<Ctrl - Alt - C> Change soil colour intensity Model, Cross section
<Ctrl - Shift - A> Show all soil elements Model
<Ctrl - Shift - M> Create animation Model, Cross section, Structure
<Ctrl - Shift - N> Hide all soil elements Model
<Ctrl - Shift - Enter> Goes to structure view with selected materials Model, Structure, Cross section
<Ctrl - Shift - +> Move Cross section 1/1000 of the model size Cross section
<Ctrl - Shift - -> Move Cross section 1/1000 of the model size Cross section
<Escape> Clear selected structures Model, Cross section, Structure
<Shift - Ctrl - E> Implode Model
<Shift - Ctrl - W> Expand Model
<F1> Manuals All
<F2> Curves manager All
<F10> Settings All

Table E.2 Table shortcuts

Key Action
<Ctrl - A> Select all
<Ctrl - F> Find value
<Ctrl - M> Jump to maximum value in column
<Ctrl - N> Jump to minimum value in column

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Table E.3 Mouse shortcuts

Key Action View

Wheel move Zoom in/out. All
Press Select structures - Click on Select small group the structure Model, Cross section, Structure - Resets current
structure belongs to.§ selection.
Press Select structures - <Shift> - Toggles selection of small group the Model, Cross section, Structure - Selection of other
Click on structure structure belongs to.¶ structure type will be cleared.
Press Select structures - <Ctrl> - Click Toggles selection of structure. Model, Cross section, Structure - Selection of other
on structure structure type will be cleared.
Press Select structures - <Alt> - Click Toggles selection of large group the Model, Cross section, Structure - Selection of other
on structure structure belongs to.k structure type will be cleared.
Press Hide soil - <Ctrl> - Click on soil Hides soil element. Model, Forces - Won’t work if structure is selected.
Press Hide soil - <Ctrl + Shift> - Click Hides soil cluster. Model, Forces - Won’t work if structure is selected.
on soil

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APPENDIX F - PYTHON HTTP REST API WRAPPER

The Python wrapper for the PLAXIS HTTP REST API hides the technicalities of dealing
with the HTTP communications behind a comfortable object-oriented wrapper.
Prerequisites:
• Install the latest Python 3.3.x release compatible with your system from
http://python.org/download/. The installer comes with a code editor called IDLE.
There are many alternative editors available which may be more to your liking, such
as PyScripter (https://code.google.com/p/pyscripter/). The rest of the document will
however assume IDLE as the editor of choice.
• At least a very rudimentary knowledge of the Python language is recommended, as
this document makes no attempt to teach it. Good resources for this purpose are:
• Dive Into Python 3 (http://www.diveintopython3.net/)
• After Hours Programming
(http://www.afterhoursprogramming.com/tutorial/Python/Overview/)
• Think Python: How to Think Like a Computer Scientist
(http://greenteapress.com/thinkpython/html/index.html)
• Your firewall must not block the PLAXIS application from accessing the internet, nor
must it block other applications (in particular the python.exe executable) from talking
to the remote scripting server embedded inside the PLAXIS application.

F.1 STARTING THE SCRIPTING SERVER

• Start your PLAXIS application.

• Start a new project.
• Go to the Expert menu and select the Configure remote scripting server option. The
corresponding window pops up (Figure F.1). Depending on your machine, the
window may look slightly different.

Figure F.1 Configure remote scripting server window

• Ensure you find an available port and then start the server. Information about ports
currently in use can be retrieved in a Windows Command Prompt, with the following

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commands (the second one may require administrator privileges):

netstat -a
netstat -ab

When using the remote scripting in an automated process, you can start the server
without manual interaction by launching your PLAXIS application with the AppServerPort
command line parameter. For example in order to start the server in PLAXIS 3D on port
21403:
c:\Program Files (x86)\Plaxis\PLAXIS 3D\Plaxis3DInput.exe --AppServerPort=21403

When the server is running, the main window of your PLAXIS application will reflect this
information:

F.2 CONNECTING TO A LOCALLY RUNNING SCRIPTING SERVER USING IDLE

• Start IDLE from the Windows Start menu. This will present you with a Python Shell.
• Define a variable indicating where your PLAXIS application is installed. For example:
>>> plaxis_path = r'c:\Program Files (x86)\Plaxis\PLAXIS 3D'

• Make sure to not include the trailing backslash. Note that the leading prompt ">>>"
is already present in the Python prompt, you do not have to type it yourself.
• Import the scripting library:
>>> import imp
>>> found_module = imp.find_module('plxscripting', [plaxis_path])
>>> plxscripting = imp.load_module('plxscripting', *found_module)
>>> from plxscripting.easy import *

• Connect to the PLAXIS application (21403 is the port number, substitute yours as
applicable):
>>> s, g = new_server('localhost', 21403)

The variable s is bound to an object representing the PLAXIS application. It is now

possible to control that from the interactive Python prompt.
• Start a new project as follows:
>>> s.new()

• You should get a reply: 'OK'. If instead an error is returned, check the following for
the PLAXIS application you are trying to control:
• Is the application running?
• Does its title bar indicate that the server is active?
• Is the server active on the port you have specified when calling new_server?
You can also try a different port.
• Is your firewall blocking communications to the application?

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F.3 CONNECTING TO A REMOTE PLAXIS APPLICATION

Connecting to a PLAXIS application running on a computer other than your own requires
you to know the name or IP address of that machine. The IP address can be found by
typing in a Windows command prompt the following:
ipconfig | find "IPv4"

The result will give a set of four numbers separated by dots. E.g.:
IPv4 Address. . . . . . . . . . . : 10.4.2.178

In order to connect to this machine from within the same network, you can simply replace
'localhost' in the boilerplate connection code with the IP address you found, such as
'10.4.2.178'. For example:
>>> s, g = new_server('10.4.2.178', 21403)

If you want to connect to the same machine over the internet, you will need to set up
appropriate port forwarding rules in your router. Note that opening up your computer to
access from the network or even the internet carries significant security risks - do so only
if you have considered these risks.

F.4 CONNECTING USING THE INTERACTIVE PYTHON INTERPRETER

• Double-click on the file interactive.py, which can be found in the plxscripting

subdirectory of your PLAXIS application. You will be asked for the address and port
to which to connect. This is the easiest and fastest way to connect, but you will have
limited editing facilities in the command window and no syntax highlighting.
PLAXIS Interactive Python Console $Revision: 11846 $
====================================================
Address (leave blank for localhost): localhost
Port number: 21403
------------------------------------
Connected to localhost on port 21403
Available variables:
s: the application server
g: the global environment
Example session:
>>> s.new()
>>> g.borehole(0, 0)
>>> g.soillayer(2)
------------------------------------
>>>

F.5 CREATING A SIMPLE PROJECT

All commands that are available in the PLAXIS command line are also available via the
Python wrapper. For more information, see the commands reference provided with your
PLAXIS application.
• Start by connecting from Python to PLAXIS 3D as described above.
• Execute the code displayed below. For the sake of completeness, the replies
returned by the different statements are included, but some of them are
session-specific and will be different for you. It is helpful while executing the Python
code to keep an eye on the command line in the PLAXIS application, in order to gain
an understanding of how Python code maps to commands. Keep also in mind that

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Python, unlike the PLAXIS command line, is case sensitive.

>>> s.new()
'OK'
>>> g.SoilContour.initializerectangular(0, 0, 10, 10)
'OK'
>>> g.borehole(0, 0)
<Borehole {BB449552-2ABF-408D-8293-897B5939D764}>
>>> g.soillayer(10)
<GeneratedSoilVolume {859D7DB5-585E-4452-8C38-E700C398EF9C}>
>>> material = g.soilmat()
>>> material.setproperties("SoilModel", 1, "gammaUnsat", 16,
"gammaSat", 20, "Gref", 10000)
'Edited SoilMat_1'
>>> g.Soils[0].Material = material
>>> g.gotostructures()
'OK'
>>> g.lineload((3, 5, 0), (7, 5, 0))
[<Point {AD9DB344-A82E-4ACD-93BB-A3C02369556B}>, <Point {9E140226-A968-46A1-
A2EA-5125EE83968F}>, <Line {F1E1AE01-C72A-44CD-A647-8EC39CA024D7}>, <LineLoad
{B3A5244F-3097-44CC-8E3E-2290AC4508B0}>]
>>> g.gotomesh()
'OK'
>>> g.mesh(0.2)
Generated 181 elements, 374 nodes
>>> g.gotostages()
'OK'
>>> phase1 = g.phase(g.Phases[0])
'OK'
>>> g.LineLoads[0].Active[phase1] = True
>>> g.calculate()
'OK'
>>> g.save(r'c:\data\scripting_sample')
'Project saved as: c:\\data\\scripting_sample.P3D'

• The command line history on the application side looks as follows:

0001> initializerectangular SoilContour 0 0 10 10
0002> borehole 0 0
0003> soillayer 10
0004> soilmat
0005> setproperties SoilMat_1 "SoilModel" 1 "gammaUnsat" 16
"gammaSat" 20 "Gref" 10000
0006> set Soil_1.Material SoilMat_1
0007> gotostructures
0008> lineload (3 5 0) (7 5 0)
0009> gotomesh
0010> mesh 0.2
0011> gotostages
0012> phase InitialPhase
0013> set LineLoad_1_1.Active Phase_1 True
0014> calculate
0015> save "c:\data\scripting_sample"

F.6 CREATING STANDALONE SCRIPTS

In the examples above, we have looked at possibilities for using the API interactively from
a Python prompt. While this is very useful for testing and finding out how things work,
soon you will need the ability to save code and run it again without having to retype it.
• In IDLE make a new text file (File > New Window).
• Start the file with the boilerplate code to get access to the remote scripting libraries
(change the path to fit your installation)
plaxis_path = r'c:\Program Files (x86)\Plaxis\PLAXIS 3D' # no trailing backslash!
import imp
found_module = imp.find_module('plxscripting', [plaxis_path])
plxscripting = imp.load_module('plxscripting', *found_module)

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from plxscripting.easy import *

After that, you can type the code, save and run it using Run > Run Module. A Python
script equivalent to the interactive session presented above looks as follows:
plaxis_path = r'c:\Program Files (x86)\Plaxis\PLAXIS 3D' # no trailing backslash!
import imp
found_module = imp.find_module('plxscripting', [plaxis_path])
plxscripting = imp.load_module('plxscripting', *found_module)
from plxscripting.easy import *

s, g = new_server('localhost', 21403)
s.new()

g.SoilContour.initializerectangular(0, 0, 10, 10)

g.borehole(0, 0)
g.soillayer(10)
material = s.plx_global.soilmat()
material.setproperties("SoilModel", 1, "gammaUnsat", 16,
"gammaSat", 20, "Gref", 10000)
g.Soils[0].Material = material

g.gotostructures()
g.lineload((3, 5, 0), (7, 5, 0))

g.gotomesh()
g.mesh(0.2)

g.gotostages()
phase1 = g.phase(g.Phases[0])
g.LineLoads[0].Active[phase1] = True
g.calculate()

g.save(r'c:\data\scripting_sample')

If you wish to reduce the boilerplate code required to get access to the plxscripting
module, see http://docs.python.org/3.3/using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONPATH.
However, if you have multiple versions/applications that support remote scripting, not all
of them may be compatible with one particular version of the remote scripting API.

F.7 DISABLING THE USER INTERFACE

For some projects the overhead of updating the user interface may slow down the
execution of the script quite significantly. If you want maximum execution speed, launch
your PLAXIS application with the command parameter --NO_CONTROLLERS. For example:
Plaxis3DInput.exe --AppServerPort=21403 --NO_CONTROLLERS

The downside of this approach is that you will be unable to monitor progress or diagnose
problems visually. Instead, you will have to:
1. Stop the running script
2. Save the current project
3. Restart the application and open the saved project

F.8 EXTERNAL MANIPULATIONS DURING SCRIPT EXECUTION

While using Python scripts to manipulate the state of your PLAXIS application, it is
technically possible to interact with the same application in other ways as well (e.g. by
changing a project manually, or firing commands separately in an interpreter while the

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main script is paused). This is very useful for troubleshooting.

In particular situations it may however lead to problems, in that internal data structures
built on the Python side have become obsolete due to actions outside of the script. The
main culprit is (re)opening a project while the script already has some internal
state/variables. Errors can look like this:
plxscripting.plx_scripting_exceptions.PlxScriptingError: Unsuccessful command:
GUID does not refer to object in registry: {F00F9FB0-B903-42BE-AE1F-
C7B8E200885D}

If you encounter such an error, simply stop the execution of your script and restart it.

F.8.1 SAMPLE APPLICATIONS

This section contains a few simple tasks that highlight different aspects of the Python
scripting wrapper. It is assumed PLAXIS 3D is running and the necessary connection
boilerplate code has been executed already.

Opening a project, removing all lines containing beams and saving again
s.open(r'c:\data\lines_with_beams.p3d')
lines = [b.Parent for b in g.Beams]
g.delete(*lines)
# alternatively (look at the difference in the command line):
# g.delete(lines)
g.save()

Reporting all points that are not used by lines and that have no features
points_in_lines = set()
for line in g.Lines[:]:
for point in line:
points_in_lines.add(point)
points = set(g.Points)
points_no_lines = points - points_in_lines
points_to_report = []
for p in points_no_lines:
if len(p.UserFeatures.value) == 0:
points_to_report.append(p)
for p in points_to_report:
print(p.Name)

Creating an array, storing the results and performing actions on the

diagonal
# Code will work in any project, as it operates only on its own
# local results, regardless of what else is present in the project.
g.gotostructures()
point = g.point(0, 0, 0)
added_points = g.arrayr(point, 6, (1, 0, 0), 6, (0, 1, 0), 6, (0, 0, 1))
diagonal_points = []
for p in added_points:
if abs(p.x - p.y) < 1E-4 and abs(p.x - p.z) < 1E-4:
diagonal_points.append(p)

g.pointload(diagonal_points)

Lengthening all the embedded piles in a model

# Code below can be used to quickly generate a test model
## res = g.embeddedpile((0, 0, 0), (0, 0, -15))
## line = [item for item in res if item._plx_type=='Line'][0]
## g.arrayr(line, 5, (1, 0, 0), 5, (0, 1, 0))

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def get_bottom_point(line):
first, second = line.First, line.Second
delta = second.z - first.z
if abs(delta) < 1E-4: # horizontal line
return None
if delta > 0: # Second point is higher -> move First down
return first
else: # First point is higher -> move Second down
return second

def lengthen_embedded_piles(extra_depth):
# start by selecting the lines which have embedded piles
pile_lines = [pile.Parent for pile in g.EmbeddedPiles[:]]

# we don't know whether the line is drawn top-to-bottom

# or bottom-to-top, so find out which point is lowest
points_to_move = []
for line in pile_lines:
bottom_point = get_bottom_point(line)
if bottom_point:
points_to_move.append(bottom_point)

g.move(points_to_move, (0, 0, -extra_depth))

lengthen_embedded_piles(2.5)

Making all plates in all phases have identical settings in staged

construction
refplate = g.Plates[0]
otherplates = g.Plates[1:]
for phase in g.Phases:
if refplate.Active[phase] is None: # phase not yet initialized
continue
for otherplate in otherplates:
otherplate.Material[phase] = refplate.Material[phase]
otherplate.Active[phase] = refplate.Active[phase]

Create point loads on all corner points of all polygon-plates

# Code below can be used to quickly generate a test model
## g.plate((2, 6, 0), (2, 4, 0), (5, 4, 0), (5, 6, 0))
## g.surface((6, 6, 0), (6, 4, 0), (9, 4, 0))
## g.plate((3, 2, 0), (3, 0, 0), (5, 1, 0))
## g.surface((6, 2, 0), (6, 1, 0), (8, 1, 0), (8, 2, 0))

for plate in g.Plates[:]:

parent = plate.Parent.value
if parent._plx_type != 'Polygon': # skip non-polygons
continue

points = [p for p in parent]

# point positions are relative to the polygon's position

ref_pos = [parent.x, parent.y, parent.z]
for relative_point in points:
g.pointload([ref_pos[i] + relative_point[i] for i in range(3)])

Create safety phase after every consolidation phase

# Code below can be used to quickly generate a test model
## g.borehole(0, 0)
## g.soillayer(2)
## g.gotostages()
## phase = g.Phases[0]
## for i in range(10): # ten new consecutive phases
## phase = g.phase(phase)
## if i%2 == 1: # alternating consolidation phases
## phase.DeformCalcType = phase.DeformCalcType.consolidation

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for phase in g.Phases[:]:

if phase.DeformCalcType == phase.DeformCalcType.consolidation:
newphase = g.phase(phase)
newphase.DeformCalcType = newphase.DeformCalcType.safety

Send an email using Gmail after calculations are finished

# A Gmail account is needed for this. Google Apps for Business accounts
# should work as well.
import smtplib
from email.mime.multipart import MIMEMultipart
from email.mime.text import MIMEText

def opensession_gmail(username, password):

# Courtesy of http://segfault.in/2010/12/sending-gmail-from-python/
# Other email providers may require a different way of connecting.
session = smtplib.SMTP('smtp.gmail.com', 587)
session.ehlo()
session.starttls()
session.ehlo()
session.login(username, password)
return session

def sendmail(smtp_session, sender_address,

to_address, subject, body):
msg = MIMEMultipart()
msg['From'] = sender_address
msg['To'] = to_address
msg['Subject'] = subject
part = MIMEText('text', 'plain')
part.set_payload(body)
msg.attach(part)
smtp_session.sendmail(sender_address, to_address, msg.as_string())

def report_phases_by_kind(target_report, phases,

kind, report_func):
if phases:
target_report.append(kind)
target_report.append('=' * len(kind))
for phase in phases:
target_report.append(report_func(phase))
target_report.append('')

def phase_to_string(phase):
return "{} [{}]".format(phase.Identification, phase.Name)

def phase_to_string_with_error_code(phase):
return "{} [{}]. LogInfo: {}".format(
phase.Identification, phase.Name, phase.LogInfo)

def report_phases(phases_list):
successful_phases = []
failed_phases = []
uncalculated_phases = []
for phase in phases_list:
if phase.ShouldCalculate:
uncalculated_phases.append(phase)
elif phase.LogInfo == '0':
successful_phases.append(phase)
else:
failed_phases.append(phase)
report_lines = []
report_phases_by_kind(report_lines, successful_phases,
'Successful', phase_to_string)
report_phases_by_kind(report_lines, failed_phases,
'Failed', phase_to_string_with_error_code)
report_phases_by_kind(report_lines, uncalculated_phases,
'Skipped', phase_to_string)

return '\n'.join(report_lines)

def calculate_with_report():

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phases_to_calculate = []

for phase in g.Phases[:]:

if phase.ShouldCalculate:
phases_to_calculate.append(phase)

res = g.calculate()
report = [
'Title: {}'.format(g.Project.Title),
'Location: {}'.format(g.Project.Filename),
'',
report_phases(phases_to_calculate),
'',
'Command feedback:',
res]

return '\n'.join(report)

message = calculate_with_report()

# change the account information below for your own account

username = '[email protected]'
password = 'abc123'
to_address = username # sending to ourselves, but can specify something else too

session = opensession_gmail(username, password)

sendmail(session, username, to_address,
'Plaxis calculation report',
message)

Executing commands specified in a file

# For debugging particular problems it may be interesting to execute
# commands directly (effectively bypassing the Python object wrapper)
# and parse feedback on demand. It may also have some performance
# benefits as the communication with the server is reduced. This way
# of communicating with the application also allows you to do your
# own error handling. The code below demonstrates several approaches
# to this task, examine the data that's printed out to better
# understand the differences.

# Code below can be used to quickly generate a test model

## from tempfile import NamedTemporaryFile
## import os
## f = NamedTemporaryFile(mode='w', delete=False)
## f.write('\n'.join(['bh 0 0', 'sl 2', 'beam 0 0 0 1 1 1']))
## filename = f.name

f = open(filename, 'r') # filename should be defined in advance

commands = [line.rstrip() for line in f.readlines()]
f.close()

# If you used the quickly generated test model, also enable

# the cleaning below:
## os.remove(filename)

# Run one command at a time and have the wrapper handle the response
# for you - not much extra control.
for command in commands:
print(s.call_and_handle_command(command))

# Run multiple commands at a time and have the wrapper handle

# the responses for you. There is less communication with the
# server than when executing one command at a time so it's
# potentially faster.
print(s.call_and_handle_commands(*commands))

# Run one command at a time and handle the response yourself. The
# response now consists of Python primitives representing the
# JSON communication rather than comfortable objects.
for command in commands:
print(s.call_commands(command))

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# Run multiple commands at a time and handle the responses yourself.

print(s.call_commands(*commands))

# call_commands will not lead to an exception in case of invalid

# commands, unlike the other method calls presented.
print(s.call_commands('this is an invalid command'))

Create a polar array of inclined piles

from math import radians, sin, cos

# input parameters
nr_piles = 4 # must be > 1
total_angle_deg = 180 # over which to distribute the piles, must be > 0 and <= 360
pile_length = 10
pile_inclination_deg = 15
array_center = (5, 5, 0)
array_radius = 10

# calculations
def rel_coords_to_absolute(rel_coords, radius, offset):
coords = [radius * coord for coord in rel_coords]
return [p[0] + p[1] for p in zip(coords, offset)]

if total_angle_deg == 360: # fencepost problem -> decrease angle

total_angle_deg = total_angle_deg / (nr_piles) * (nr_piles - 1)

pile_inclination_rad = radians(pile_inclination_deg)
array_bottom_radius = array_radius + \
pile_length * sin(pile_inclination_rad)
array_bottom_center = (array_center[0], array_center[1],
array_center[2] - pile_length * cos(pile_inclination_rad))
pile_coords = []
for i in range(nr_piles):
angle = radians(total_angle_deg * i / (nr_piles - 1))
rel_coords = [cos(angle), sin(angle), 0]
top_coords = rel_coords_to_absolute(
rel_coords, array_radius, array_center)
bottom_coords = rel_coords_to_absolute(
rel_coords, array_bottom_radius, array_bottom_center)
pile_coords.append((top_coords, bottom_coords))

for coords_pair in pile_coords:

g.embeddedpile(*coords_pair)

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APPENDIX G - HTTP REST API

G.1 OVERVIEW

PLAXIS provides a HTTP based API. This API allows a developer or user to do normal
PLAXIS tasks such as creating projects, firing regular commands as found on the existing
command line, performing meshing and calculations. In addition, unique representations
of Plaxis objects can be retrieved, kept, and then used in later operations, such as the
fetching of their properties and methods, as well as calling methods. This provides
additional flexibility and power to the existing command line.
There are several categories of actions that can be performed via the HTTP API. Each of
these have their own URL path, as follows:
/environment Start, close, recover or open projects
/commands Fire regular PLAXIS command line commands and fetch any
created objects
/members Fetch the members of objects
/propertyvalues Fetch the property values of objects
/namedobjects Fetch existing objects by their command line names
/list Fetch items from listable objects
/enumeration Fetch all possible values of enumeration objects

G.2 OBJECT REPRESENTATIONS

Resources which create or retrieve objects return representations of those objects. These
representations comprise a Globally Unique Identifier (GUID), a type name, and a flag
indicating whether the object is listable or not. The JSON structure for this representation
is as follows:
"guid": <string>
"islistable": <boolean>
"ownerguid": <string>
"type": <string>

The server can recognise and retrieve information about objects contained within the
PLAXIS project based on that object's GUID. This means that, for example, a particular
PLAXIS object can be created using the /commands resource, and then later the values
of that object's properties can be retrieved by sending that object's GUID in a request to
the /propertyvalues resource. The same GUID can be used in the creation of additional
objects by sending it in a request to the /commands resource. If the object is listable,
sending the guid as part of a request to the /list resource will enable access to the
object's properties by index, and so on. The ownerguid is only returned for objects that
are intrinsic properties. It is the guid of the owning object.

G.3 USING A WEB BROWSER TO ACCESS THE API

It is possible to perform a subset of the actions that are described below by using a
browser address bar. This can be useful for quickly viewing the data representations that

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are returned from the API.

There is a limitation to the complexity of queries that can be made in this mode, which
means that certain resources and actions are not possible. This includes the /list
resource, and also the querying of specific named properties in the /propertyvalues
resource (however it is still possible to query all properties for an object using a browser
address bar).
Each resource description below includes an example action using the address bar.

G.4 HTTP API RESOURCES

G.4.1 /environment
This resource is for managing projects. Creating, restoring, closing or opening a project
are permitted. If a project is opened, then a filename string is supplied for locating an
existing project locally, or otherwise becomes the name of a new project.
Note that it is not possible to save projects via this resource. Instead, fire a save
command using the /commands resource.
Method: POST

Data parameters
{
"action":
{
"name": *1 <string> from {"new", "open", "close", "restore"}*,
"filename": *1 <string>*
}
}

Data parameters example

{
"action":
{
"name": "open",
"filename": "my_plaxis_project.p3d"
}
}
{
"action":
{
"name": "close",
"filename": ""
}
}

Success responses
Code Reason
200 OK

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Error responses
Code Reason
404 STATUS NOT FOUND "Incorrect or unspecified action: [action-name]"
404 STATUS NOT FOUND "Incorrect or unspecified file name, or not a valid project: [filename]"
400 BAD REQUEST "Syntax of request could not be understood by the server."
415 UNSUPPORTED MEDIA TYPE "Unsupported content-encoding of [encoding type]"

Example JSON request

payload = {"action": {"name": "new", "filename": ""}}
headers = {"content-type": "application/json"}
response = requests.post("/environment", data=json.dumps(payload), headers=headers)

Example browser request

http://localhost:8001/environment?action.name=new
http://localhost:8001/environment?action.name=open&action.filename=my_plaxis_project.p3d

G.4.2 /commands
This resource allows all standard commands (see command reference pages) to be run
on an active PLAXIS project. Any objects created as the result of commands are
represented in the response.
The server can recognise and "translate" GUIDs that refer to existing objects, as part of
the command string. This means that it is possible to use GUIDs in the place of regular
command line names to refer to other objects. This is beneficial, because the names of
objects may be changed over the lifetime of a project (e.g. using the rename command),
but the GUID remains fixed.
For example, it is possible to create a line between two existing points by referring to the
GUIDs of those points in the command string of a request:
line <guid1> <guid2>

Note that a command that fails on the command line will not result in an error response
from the server. These are treated as successful requests to the API. The server
response indicates whether a command failed or not in the 'success' field. (See example
below.) Whether the command succeeded or not, the 'additionalinfo' field indicates the
response from that action as seen on the regular command line.
Method: POST

Data parameters
{
"action":
{
"commands":
[
*{1, ...}[<string>]*
]
}
}

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Data parameters example

{
"action":
{
"commands":
[
"point 1 2 3"
]
}
}
{
"action":
{
"commands":
[
"embeddedpile 4 4 4 {860C1FC5-BDE1-4887-98A2-8FE20B61FCD5}"
]
}
}
{
"action":
{
"commands":
[
"bad"
]
}
}

Success responses
Code Reason
200 OK

Data
{
"commands":
[
{
"feedback":
{
"extrainfo": "Added Point_1",
"returnedobjects":
[
{
"islistable": true,
"type": "Point",
"guid": "{860C1FC5-BDE1-4887-98A2-8FE20B61FCD5}"
}
],
"debuginfo": "",
"success": true,
"errorpos": -1
},
"command": "point 1 2 3"
}
]
}
{
"commands": [
{
"feedback": {
"extrainfo": "Added Point_3\r\nAdded Line_1\r\nAdded EmbeddedPile_1",
"returnedobjects": [
{
"islistable": true,
"type": "Point",

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"guid": "{92851C68-561A-4C21-9ACD-46F50905FD4E}"
},{
"islistable": true,
"type": "Line",
"guid": "{7DB7DF8E-1FE4-4624-A3D2-F682DB9C8F18}"
},{
"islistable": false,
"type": "EmbeddedPile",
"guid": "{A678F396-C8F3-41EE-9A8E-5798BB0B6054}"
}],
"debuginfo": "",
"success": true,
"errorpos": -1
},
"command": "embeddedpile 4 4 4 Point_1"
}]
}

Code Reason
200 OK

Data
{
"commands":
[
{
"feedback":
{
"extrainfo": "Command \"bad\" is not recognized as a global command.
Check the spelling or try specifying a target object.",
"debuginfo": "",
"success": false,
"errorpos": 1
},
"command": "bad"
}
]
}

Error responses
Code Reason
400 BAD REQUEST "Syntax of request could not be understood by the server."
404 STATUS NOT FOUND "Commands not specified"
405 METHOD NOT ALLOWED "No active project"
415 UNSUPPORTED MEDIA TYPE "Unsupported content-encoding of [encoding type]"

Example JSON request

payload = {"action": {"commands": ["point 1 2 3"]}
headers = {"content-type": "application/json"}
response = requests.post("/commands", data=json.dumps(payload), headers=headers)

Example browser request

http://localhost:8001/commands?action.commands=gotostages

G.4.3 /members
This resource fetches the members (properties and methods) of an existing object within
PLAXIS, identified by its GUID.

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Property members are represented as objects.The type names of these objects are
simplified in comparison to their type names within PLAXIS. This means that all 'Text'
subtypes for instance will be simply described as having a type of 'Text'. The same
principle applies to numerical, boolean, enumeration and object types.
Method members are represented as names only.
Method: POST

Data Parameters
{
"action":
{
"members":
[
*{1,...}[GUID string]*
]
}
}

Data Parameters example

{
"action":
{
"members":
[
"{68A2C1A7-924B-46C3-89DF-F597DAADC359}"
]
}
}
{
"action":
{
"members":
[
"bad"
]
}
}

Success responses
Code Reason
200 OK

Data
{
"queries": {
"{68A2C1A7-924B-46C3-89DF-F597DAADC359}": {
"extrainfo": "",
"success": true,
"properties": {
"z": {
"islistable": false,
"ownerguid": "{68A2C1A7-924B-46C3-89DF-F597DAADC359}",
"type": "Number",
"guid": "{5FCCF1CC-7576-4565-B931-DE54241EA21B}"
},
"y": {
"islistable": false,
"ownerguid": "{68A2C1A7-924B-46C3-89DF-F597DAADC359}",
"type": "Number",
"guid": "{D52CBED3-8C59-4967-A5BA-89ECE6E9BD94}"

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},
"x": {
"islistable": false,
"ownerguid": "{68A2C1A7-924B-46C3-89DF-F597DAADC359}",
"type": "Number",
"guid": "{25DA6A75-4F25-42F3-9654-3672A93FCE1F}"
},
"Name": {
"islistable": false,
"ownerguid": "{68A2C1A7-924B-46C3-89DF-F597DAADC359}",
"type": "Text",
"guid": "{A4209590-9487-4B98-9966-34A6A58DBE2D}"
},
"Comments": {
"islistable": false,
"ownerguid": "{68A2C1A7-924B-46C3-89DF-F597DAADC359}",
"type": "Text",
"guid": "{9430592C-7D5D-4735-B572-2B29C87FBF1F}"
}
},
"commands": [
"echo","__dump","commands","rename","set","info","__observers","setproperties","move","rotate","rotateline"],
"commandlinename": "Point_1"
}
}
}
{
"queries": {
"{0D04D0CB-86BF-4430-882C-FA56E45DF7AB}": {
"extrainfo": "GUID does not refer to object in registry: {0D04D0CB-86BF-4430-882C-FA56E45DF7AB}",
"success": false
}
}
}
{
"queries": {
"bad": {
"extrainfo": "Supplied string is not a valid GUID: bad",
"success": false
}
}
}

Error responses
Code Reason
400 BAD REQUEST "Syntax of request could not be understood by the server."
404 STATUS NOT FOUND "No GUIDs specified"
405 METHOD NOT ALLOWED "No active project"
415 UNSUPPORTED MEDIA TYPE "Unsupported content-encoding of [encoding type]"

Example JSON request

payload = {"action": {"members": ["{9C5875EE-ABA4-4DC2-9E81-1FF839215232}"]}
headers = {"content-type": "application/json"}
response = requests.post("/members", data=json.dumps(payload), headers=headers)

Example browser request

http://localhost:8001/members?action.members={0D04D0CB-86BF-4430-882C-FA56E45DF7AB}

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G.4.4 /propertyvalues
This resource provides the current values of particular properties of PLAXIS objects. If a
property is itself an object (such as the point properties of a line), then it is represented as
a full object. If a property is a primitive value type, then the relevant primitive value is
returned.
There are two ways of calling this resource. One is to supply just a guid of the owner
object, in which case all properties of this object are represented in the response. The
other way is to supply not just the owner guid, but also a property name and an optional
phase parameter. Such a structure is treated as a request for one single property. If that
property is staged, and the supplied phase guid is valid, then the value for that property
and phase is returned.
Method: POST

Data Parameters
{
"action":
{
"propertyvalues":
[*{1} GUID string*]
}
}
{
"action":
{
"propertyvalues":
{
"owner": *{1} GUID string*
("phaseguid: *{1} GUID string*)
}
}
}

Data Parameters example

{
"action":
{
"propertyvalues":
["{D4981EA8-EC07-471D-A8C3-7510B4F74F25}"]
}
}
{
"action":
{
"propertyvalues":
{
"owner": "{D4981EA8-EC07-471D-A8C3-7510B4F74F25}"
"propertyname": "Active"
"phaseguid": "{C3581EA8-FB07-5344-A8C3-569359320603}"
}
}

Success responses
{
"queries": {
"{D4981EA8-EC07-471D-A8C3-7510B4F74F25}": {
"extrainfo": "",
"success": true,
"properties": {
"Second": {

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"islistable": true,
"type": "Point",
"guid": "{A67959C9-C12D-41D6-8136-52C1E5711165}"
},
"Length": 6.92820323027551,
"First": {
"islistable": true,
"type": "Point",
"guid": "{4B889C3F-7F5C-4611-8D31-F4A39C71B11A}"
},
"AxisFunction": 0,
"Name": "Line_1",
"AxisVectorZ": 0,
"AxisVectorY": 0,
"AxisVectorX": 0,
"Comments": ""
}
}
}
}
{
"queries":
{
"{A10835D7-AE38-449C-BF67-6C9CE22705BD}":
{
"extrainfo": "",
"properties": {"Comments": ""},
"success": true
}
}
}

Error responses
Code Reason
400 BAD REQUEST "Syntax of request could not be understood by the server."
404 STATUS NOT FOUND "No GUIDs specified"
405 METHOD NOT ALLOWED "No active project"
415 UNSUPPORTED MEDIA TYPE "Unsupported content-encoding of [encoding type]"

Sample JSON request

payload = {"action": {"propertyvalues": ["{9C5875EE-ABA4-4DC2-9E81-1FF839215232}"]}
headers = {"content-type": "application/json"}
response = requests.post("/propertyvalues", data=json.dumps(payload), headers=headers)

Sample browser request

http://localhost:8001/propertyvalues?action.propertyvalues={0D04D0CB-86BF-4430-882C-FA56E45DF7AB}

G.4.5 /namedobjects
Supplies a representation of objects within PLAXIS which are identified by their
command line name. This is useful when accessing internal lists of objects within Plaxis
with known names, such as lists of particular user features or geometric objects. This
resource can also be used to retrieve unique representations of objects for which the
command line name is known, such as 'Point_1'.
Method: POST

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Data Parameters
Example Request:
{
"action":
{
"namedobjects":
[
"namedobjects": ["Points"]
]
}
}
{
"action":
{
"namedobjects":
[
"namedobjects": ["Beam_1"]
]
}
}

Success Responses
Code Reason
200 OK

Data
{
"namedobjects": {
"Points": {
"extrainfo": "",
"success": true,
"returnedobject": {
"islistable": true,
"type": "ModelGroup",
"guid": "{32871FF1-809C-470A-94B0-4B56B28BC67B}"
}
}
}
}

Code Reason
200 OK

Data
{
"namedobjects": {
"Beam_1": {
"extrainfo": "",
"success": true,
"returnedobject": {
"islistable": false,
"type": "Beam",
"guid": "{C0C4EDA6-DFF7-4593-A280-A1EC20D5EADD}"
}
}
}
}

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Error responses
Code Reason
400 BAD REQUEST "Syntax of request could not be understood by the server."
404 STATUS NOT FOUND "No object names specified"
405 METHOD NOT ALLOWED "No active project"
415 UNSUPPORTED MEDIA TYPE "Unsupported content-encoding of [encoding type]"

Sample browser request

http://localhost:8001/namedobjects?action.namedobjects=Lines
http://localhost:8001/namedobjects?action.namedobjects=Phases

G.4.6 /list
Provides the ability to perform read operations on lists within PLAXIS, such as getting
values at particular indices, finding the number of objects in the list, and filtering.
Method: POST

Data Parameters
Example Request:
{"action": {"listqueries": [{"guid": "{CF1DECEB-A28D-4609-B38C-8D3FF5E573A1}",
"method": "sublist",
"startindex": 0,
"stopindex": 1]}}

{"action": {"listqueries": [{"guid": "{CF1DECEB-A28D-4609-B38C-8D3FF5E573A1}",

"method": "count"]}}

{"action": {"listqueries": [{"guid": "{CF1DECEB-A28D-4609-B38C-8D3FF5E573A1}",

"method": "index",
"startindex": 0]}}

Success Responses
{"listqueries": [{"extrainfo": "",
"guid": "{CF1DECEB-A28D-4609-B38C-8D3FF5E573A1}",
"methodname": "sublist",
"outputdata": [{"guid": "{81A754C8-1393-48BA-AD6E-5F6953F9FBE7}",
"islistable": true,
"type": "Point"}],
"startindex": 0,
"stopindex": 1,
"success": true}]}

{"listqueries": [{"extrainfo": "",

"guid": "{CF1DECEB-A28D-4609-B38C-8D3FF5E573A1}",
"methodname": "count",
"outputdata": 5,
"success": true}]}

{"listqueries": [{"extrainfo": "",

"guid": "{CF1DECEB-A28D-4609-B38C-8D3FF5E573A1}",
"methodname": "index",
"outputdata": [{"guid": "{81B754C8-1353-48BA-AD6E-5A6953F9CBE5}",
"islistable": true,
"type": "Point"}],
"success": true}]}

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Error responses
Code Reason
400 BAD REQUEST "Syntax of request could not be understood by the server."
405 METHOD NOT ALLOWED "No active project"
415 UNSUPPORTED MEDIA TYPE "Unsupported content-encoding of [encoding type]"

Sample browser request

Not currently possible to call this resource via the browser address bar.

G.4.7 /enumeration
Provides a list of all possible enumeration values of one or more enumeration objects,
when supplied with their GUIDs.

Success Responses
Code Reason
200 OK

Data
{
"queries": {
"{31AFFD41-0EB4-4A67-94F4-298642E17507}": {
"extrainfo": "",
"success": true,
"enumvalues": {
"hinged": 1,
"free": 2,
"rigid": 0
}
}
}
}

Code Reason
200 OK

Data
{
"queries": {
"{0B4774CE-3307-4B86-B644-BFDE82CF3AAA}": {
"extrainfo": "GUID does not refer to object in registry:
{0B4774CE-3307-4B86-B644-BFDE82CF3AAA}",
"success": false
}
}
}

Code Reason
200 OK

Data
{
"queries": {
"{C896C54E-1CBA-4B0F-9987-E1FF57A9131E}": {

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"extrainfo": "Guid {C896C54E-1CBA-4B0F-9987-E1FF57A9131E} does not refer to

an enumeration intrinsic property type.",
"success": false
}
}
}

Error responses
Code Reason
400 BAD REQUEST "Syntax of request could not be understood by the server."
405 METHOD NOT ALLOWED "No active project"
415 UNSUPPORTED MEDIA TYPE "Unsupported content-encoding of [encoding type]"

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