High

High
High
voltage
voltage
voltage
circuit
circuit
circuit
breakers.
breakers.
breakers.
High voltage circuit breakers.
High voltage circuit breakers.
High voltage circuit breakers.
Mirsad Kapetanovic

Mirsad Kapetanovic

Mirsad Kapetanovic

www.kema.com
www.kema.com
www.kema.com

Sarajevo, 2011

Mirsad
Mirsad
Mirsad
Kapetanovic
Kapetanovic
Kapetanovic

Price: 150.00 (BAM 296.35)

Publisher:

ETF Faculty of Electrotechnical Engineering, Sarajevo

Author:

Prof. dr. Mirsad Kapetanovi

Reviewers:

Prof. dr. Kemo Sokolija

Prof. dr. Mensur Hajro
Prof. dr. Ren Peter Paul Smeets

Chief Editor:

Prof. dr. Ren Peter Paul Smeets

Translation:

Maja Kapetanovi, M.Sc

Proofreading:

Scott Wilson

Cover design:

JTP Creative Marketing of KEMA JTP Branding & Marketing

DTP:

Mahir Sokolija

Copyright 2011 Author.

Telephone:
E-mail (for orders):

+ 387 61 194 987

[email protected]

All rights reserved. This work is protected under international copyright laws, treaties and
conventions. No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without the express written permission of the author.
Positions and opinions advanced in this book are those of the author and not necessarily
those of KEMA.
CIP Katalogizacija u publikaciji
Nacionalna i univerzitetska biblioteka
Bosne i Hercegovine, Sarajevo
621.316.542.027.3(075.8)
KAPETANOVI, Mirsad
High voltage circuit breakers / Mirsad Kapetanovi ; [translation Maja Kapetanovi].
Sarajevo : Faculty of Electrotechnical Engineering, 2011. 648 str. : ilustr. ; 25 cm
Izv. stv. nasl.: Visokonaponski prekidai.
Bibliografija: str. 623-641.
ISBN 978-9958-629-39-6
COBISS.BH-ID 18490886
Printed and bound in Bosnia and Herzegovina by BEMUST, Sarajevo

Mirsad Kapetanovi

High Voltage
Circuit Breakers.

Editorial Committee:
Ren Peter Paul Smeets (KEMA / Eindhoven University)
Lou van der Sluis (Delft University)
Piet Knol (KEMA)

MXLIX
MC

SA

UD

R AJEV

O E N SI
IE V

IO R U M

RA

I V E R SIT A

ST

IVERZITE

UN

UN

SA

Sarajevo, 2011

Table of Content.
Foreword________________________________________________ 13
Acknowledgment_ ________________________________________ 15

17
20
20
20
21
22
22
22
22
23
23
23
24
24
24
24
25
25

Electric Arc in Gases_ _______________________________

Basic Processes and Physical Characteristics of the Arc_________
2.1.1 Electron Emission Mechanisms from Metal Surfaces______
2.1.2 Carriers of Current in the Arc_ _____________________
2.1.3 Energy Balance on Contacts_______________________
2.1.4 Mechanisms of Contact Erosion_ ___________________
2.1.5 Experimental Results of Contact Erosion Studies_________
2.1.6 Classes of Contact Materials_______________________

27
29
33
36
37
39
42
48

Understanding Switching Devices________________________

1.1 The Purpose of Switching Devices_________________________

1.2 Definitions of Switching Devices_ _________________________

1.2.1 Disconnectors_________________________________

1.2.2 Earthing Switches_ _____________________________

1.2.3 High-speed Earthing Switches______________________

1.2.4 Switches _ ___________________________________

1.2.5 Make Switches________________________________

1.2.6 Contactors_ __________________________________

1.2.7 Fuses _ ___________________________________

1.2.8 Spark Gaps___________________________________

1.2.9 Surge Arresters________________________________

1.2.10 Fault Current Limiters_ __________________________

1.2.11 Starters _ ___________________________________

1.2.12 Switching Regulators____________________________

1.2.13 Electrical Relays_ ______________________________

1.2.14 Circuit Breakers________________________________

1.2.15 Disconnecting Circuit Breakers_____________________
The

2.1

High Voltage Circuit Breakers.

2.1.6.1 High-conductivity Metals and Alloys___________

2.1.6.2 Chemically Resistant Metals and Alloys_________

2.1.6.3 Refractory Metals________________________

2.1.6.4 Sintered Materials_ ______________________

2.1.7 Properties of Contact Materials_____________________

2.2 The Direct-Current Arc_________________________________

2.2.1 Volt-Ampere Characteristics of Gas-Discharges_ ________

2.2.2 DC Arc-Quenching______________________________

2.3 The Alternating-Current Arc_ ____________________________

2.3.1 Volt-Ampere Characteristics of AC Arcs_______________

2.3.2 Thermal and Dielectric Breakdown Regions_ ___________

2.3.3 Arc-conductivity, Power and Energy Dissipation in the Arc Column__

48
51
52
52
52
56
56
58
62
62
64
66

69
71
72
75
76
83
85
89
90
92
92
96

Arc Modeling__________________________________________

3.1 P-T (or Black-Box) Arc Models____________________________

3.1.1 Mayr and Cassie Equations________________________

3.1.2 General Form of Dynamic Arc Equation_ ______________

3.1.3 Survey on Arc Models and Related Parameters__________

3.1.4 Practical Application of P-T Arc Models_ ______________

3.1.5 Evaluation of Arc Parameters_ _____________________

3.1.6 Numerical Treatment____________________________

3.1.7 Validity Check_________________________________

3.1.8 Current Zero Measurement________________________

3.1.8.1 Current Measurement_____________________

3.1.8.2 Voltage Measurement_____________________

3.1.8.3 Processing Raw Measured Data

into Arc Current and Arc Voltage______________

3.1.8.4 Performance of a Current Measurement System___

3.2 Physical Arc Models___________________________________

3.2.1 General System of Equations of Physical Arc Models______

3.2.2 Simplified Physical Arc Model with Enthalpy Flow_ _______

3.2.2.1 Additional Assumptions____________________

3.2.2.2 System of Equations______________________

3.2.2.3 Thermodynamic Characteristics of SF6 Plasma ___

3.2.2.4 Time Dependency of Arc Current_ ____________

3.2.2.5 Determining the Cross-Section and Arc Voltage___

3.2.2.6 Determination of the Pressure Distribution

Along the Arc Axis_ ______________________

96
98
100
102
105
105
106
109
110
110
112

Table of Content.

3.2.2.7 State Equation of SF6 Gas

in Stationary and Steady Flow Conditions_ ______

3.2.2.8 Expressions for Computation of Thermodynamic

Characteristics of SF6 Gas__________________

3.3 Computer Simulation of HV SF6 Circuit Breakers Operations_ _____

3.3.1 Computer Procedure_ ___________________________

3.3.2 Characteristic Quantities_ ________________________

3.3.3 Extinction Window______________________________

3.4 Other Tools for Arc Modeling_____________________________

3.4.1 Arc Diameter and Arc Temperature_ _________________

3.4.2 Arc Voltage in Gas and Vacuum_____________________

3.4.3 Cold Voltage Characteristic________________________

3.4.4 Limiting Curves________________________________

3.4.5 Chopping Number______________________________

3.4.6 Electrical Endurance of Circuit Breakers_______________

118

119
122
122
124
125
126
127
128
132
136
139
142

The Vacuum Arc________________________________________

4.1 Understanding the Vacuum Arc___________________________

4.1.1 Cathode and Anode Sheath________________________

4.1.2 The Diffuse and Constricted Vacuum Arc_ _____________

4.1.2.1 The Diffuse Arc_ ________________________

4.1.2.2 The Constricted Arc_ _____________________

4.2 Vacuum Arc Control by Magnetic Field______________________

4.2.1 The Radial Magnetic Field Principle__________________

4.2.2 The Axial Magnetic Field Principle___________________

155
157
158
160
161
164
165
166
168

173
178
179
183
187
189
190
194
196
196
201
206

Arc-Quenching Media___________________________________

5.1 Air_______________________________________________

5.1.1 Arc-Quenching by Arc Elongation in Air_ ______________

5.1.2 Arc-Quenching by Air-Magnetic Blowing_ _____________

5.1.3 Arc-Quenching by Compressed Air_ _________________

5.2 Mineral Oil_ ________________________________________

5.2.1 Arc-Quenching in Bulk-Oil Circuit Breakers ____________

5.2.2 Arc-Quenching in Minimum-Oil Circuit Breakers _ _______

5.3 Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6)________________________________

5.3.1 Physical Properties_ ____________________________

5.3.2 SF6 Decomposition Products_______________________

5.3.3 Environmental Effects of SF6_______________________

High Voltage Circuit Breakers.

5.3.3.1 Ozone Depletion_________________________

5.3.3.2 Greenhouse Effect_ ______________________

5.3.3.3 Ecotoxicology and Potential Effects on Health_ ___

5.3.4 SF6 Substitutes________________________________

5.4 SF6/N2 Mixtures______________________________________

5.5 Vacuum_ __________________________________________

5.5.1 Preserving High Vacuum__________________________

5.5.2 Use of Vacuum at Higher Voltages___________________

5.5.3 Contact Materials in Vacuum_______________________

206
208
213
214
216
219
224
225
227

Switching Duties and Transients__________________________

6.1 Types of Loads_ _____________________________________

6.1.1 Resistive Load_________________________________

6.1.2 Capacitive Load________________________________

6.1.3 Inductive Load_________________________________

6.1.3.1 Large Inductive Currents: Short circuits_________

6.1.3.2 Small Inductive Currents___________________

6.2 Short-circuit Currents__________________________________

6.2.1 Relation Between Short-circuit Current and Voltage_______

6.2.2 Percentage DC Component________________________

6.2.3 RMS and Peak Values of Asymmetrical Current__________

6.3 Transient Recovery Voltage (TRV)__________________________

6.3.1 Definition of TRV_______________________________

6.3.2 Single-Frequency TRV Waveform____________________

6.3.3 Double-Frequency TRV Waveform___________________

6.3.4 Two-Parameter Envelopes of TRV_ __________________

6.3.5 Four-Parameter Envelopes of TRV___________________

6.3.6 TRV in Circuits with Distributed Circuit Elements_________

6.3.7 IEEE/ANSI TRV Waveshapes_ ______________________

6.3.8 TRV in a Three-Phase Network_____________________

6.3.9 First-Pole-to-Clear Factor_________________________

6.3.10 Short-Line Fault TRV_ ___________________________

6.3.11 Initial Transient Recovery Voltage (ITRV)_______________

6.3.12 TRV, ITRV and SLF______________________________

6.3.14 Effect of Short-circuit Current Asymmetry on TRV________

6.3.15 Effect of Arc Voltage on TRV_______________________

6.3.16 Effect of Current Chopping on TRV___________________

6.3.17 Effect of Post-Arc Current on TRV___________________

6.3.18 Effect of Depression on TRV_______________________

233
235
236
237
238
239
241
242
243
244
246
250
250
252
253
254
256
257
260
262
265
266
274
276
281
285
286
286
287

Table of Content.

6.4 Transients During Switching of Capacitive Currents _ ___________

6.4.1 Capacitive Circuits______________________________

6.4.2 Example of Successful Capacitive Current Interruption_____

6.4.3 Example of Capacitive Current Interruption in Case of a Restrike___

6.4.4 Voltage Escalation by Successive Restrikes_ ___________

6.4.5 Chopping of Small Capacitive Currents_______________

6.4.6 The Influence of Circuit Breakers Characteristics

on the Switching of Capacitive Currents_______________

6.4.7 The Influence of Load and Source Side Impedances_ _____

6.4.8 Capacitive Current Interruption in Three-Phase Circuits____

6.4.9 Energization of Capacitor Banks_ ___________________

6.4.10 Energization and Re-Energization of Overhead Lines______

6.5 Transients During Switching of Small Inductive Currents_ ________

6.5.1 Chopping of Small Inductive Currents_ _______________

6.5.2 No-Load Transformer Switching_ ___________________

6.5.3 Shunt Reactor Switching_ ________________________

6.5.4 Reignition Phenomenon__________________________

6.5.5 Overvoltages During Shunt Reactor Switching___________

6.6 Non-Standardized Switching Duties________________________

6.6.1 Transformer and Series Reactor Limited Faults__________

6.6.1.1 Transformer Limited Faults_ ________________

6.6.1.2 Series Reactor Limited Faults________________

6.6.2 Short-circuit Currents Without Current Zeros_ __________

6.6.3 Evolving Fault Inductive Case_____________________

6.6.4 Evolving Fault Capacitive Case____________________

6.6.5 Parallel Switching of Short-circuit Currents_____________

6.7 Means of Protection Against Overvoltages_ __________________

6.7.1 Closing Resistors and Their Function_________________

6.7.2 Surge Arresters________________________________

6.7.2.1 Valve Type Surge Arresters_ ________________

6.7.2.2 Metal Oxide Surge Arresters_ _______________

288
288
289
292
293
294

295
298
299
301
304
306
307
308
310
313
316
321
321
321
324
325
329
330
331
334
336
338
339
340

Operating Principles and Designs of Circuit Breakers_________

7.1 Requirements of Circuit Breakers_ ________________________

7.2 Classification of Circuit Breakers__________________________

7.2.1 Oil Circuit Breakers_ ____________________________

7.2.2 Air Circuit Breakers_____________________________

7.2.3 SF6 Circuit Breakers_____________________________

345
347
348
354
358
362

High Voltage Circuit Breakers.

7.2.3.1 Double Pressure SF6 Circuit Breakers__________

7.2.3.2 Single-Pressure Puffer Type SF6 Circuit Breakers__

7.2.3.3 Self-Blast Single Pressure SF6 Circuit Breakers ___

7.2.3.4 Double Motion Principle_ __________________

7.2.3.5 Double Speed Principle____________________

7.2.3.6 SF6 Circuit Breakers with Magnetic Arc Rotation __

7.2.4 Vacuum Circuit Breakers_ ________________________

7.3 Operating Mechanisms_________________________________

7.3.1 Pneumatic Operating Mechanisms_ _________________

7.3.2 Hydraulic Operating Mechanisms_ __________________

7.3.3 Spring Operating Mechanisms_ ____________________

7.3.4 Electro-Magnetic Drives__________________________

7.3.5 Motor Drives__________________________________

7.4 Maintenance and Condition Monitoring of Circuit Breakers________

7.4.1 Choice of Monitored Parameters____________________

7.4.2 Interpretation of Characteristics Monitored_____________

365
365
373
379
384
387
388
394
397
399
401
403
405
406
409
412

Controlled Switching_ __________________________________

8.1 Principles of Controlled Switching_________________________

8.1.1 Controlled Opening_ ____________________________

8.1.2 Controlled Closing______________________________

8.2 Functional Requirements for Circuit Breakers_________________

8.2.1 Mechanical Characteristics________________________

8.2.2 Electrical Characteristics_ ________________________

8.3 Practical Applications of Controlled Switching_________________

8.3.1 Controlled Switching of Shunt Capacitor Banks__________

8.3.2 Controlled Switching of Unloaded Overhead Lines________

8.3.3 Controlled Switching of Shunt Reactors_______________

8.3.4 Controlled Switching of Unloaded Transformers__________

8.4 Reliability Aspects____________________________________

8.5 Benefits and Economic Aspects___________________________

415
418
419
420
421
421
423
425
426
429
430
432
436
439

443
445
449
449
452
455
457

Short-circuit and Switching Tests_________________________

9.1 High-Power Laboratories_ ______________________________

9.2 Direct and Indirect Tests________________________________

9.2.1 Direct Three-Phase Tests_________________________

9.2.2 Direct Single-Phase Tests_________________________

9.3 Synthetic Tests_ _____________________________________

9.3.1 Intervals During the Interrupting Process_ _____________

10

Table of Content.

9.3.2 Intervals During the Making Process_ ________________

9.3.3 Types of Synthetic Test Methods____________________

9.3.3.1 Current Injection Methods__________________

9.3.3.2 Voltage Injection Methods__________________

9.3.3.3 Three-Phase Synthetic Test Methods_ _________

9.3.3.4 Synthetic Circuits for Testing UHV Breakers______

9.3.4 Arc Prolongation Circuit__________________________

9.3.5 Voltage of the Current Supply Circuit_________________

9.4 Examples of Short-circuit and Switching Tests_ _______________

9.4.1 Information to be Included in Test Documents___________

9.4.2 Short-Time Withstand Current and Peak Withstand Current Test___

9.4.3 Terminal Fault Tests_____________________________

9.4.3.1 Test Duty T10__________________________

9.4.3.2 Test Duty T30__________________________

9.4.3.3 Test Duty T60__________________________

9.4.3.4 Test Duty T100s_________________________

9.4.3.5 Test Duty T100a_________________________

9.4.4 Critical Current Test Duty_ ________________________

9.4.5 Single-Phase and Double-Earth Fault Tests_____________

9.4.6 Short-Line Fault Tests_ __________________________

9.4.6.1 Test Duty L90_ _________________________

9.4.6.2 Test Duty L75_ _________________________

9.4.6.3 Test Duty L60_ _________________________

9.4.7 Out-of-Phase Tests_ ____________________________

9.4.7.1 Test Duty OP1_ _________________________

9.4.7.2 Test Duty OP2_ _________________________

9.4.8 Capacitive Current Switching Tests_ _________________

9.4.8.1 Line-Charging Current Switching Tests_________

9.4.8.2 Cable-Charging Current Switching Tests________

9.4.8.3 Capacitor Bank Current Switching Tests_ _______

9.4.9 Inductive Load Switching Test______________________

9.4.10 Electrical Endurance Tests_ _______________________

9.4.11 Assessment of Condition After Test_ _________________

9.4.11.1 No-Load Operations______________________

9.4.11.2 Inspection_____________________________

459
460
461
465
467
468
473
474
475
478
480
483
484
488
491
495
511
521
521
524
525
538
541
541
541
542
548
550
552
558
559
571
575
575
575

10 Selection of High

voltage Circuit Breakers__________________ 579

10.1 Rated Characteristics Selection___________________________ 581

10.1.1 Rated Voltage_________________________________ 583

11

High Voltage Circuit Breakers.

10.1.2 Rated Insulation Level_ __________________________

10.1.3 Rated Frequency_______________________________

10.1.4 Rated Normal Current_ __________________________

10.1.5 Rated Short-Time Withstand Current_________________

10.1.6 Rated Peak Withstand Current_ ____________________

10.1.7 Rated Duration of Short Circuit_____________________

10.1.8 Rated Short-circuit Making Current__________________

10.1.9 Rated Short-circuit Breaking Current_________________

10.1.10 TRV Related to the Rated Short-circuit Breaking Current_ __

10.1.11 Rated Characteristics for Short-Line Faults_____________

10.1.12 Rated Characteristics for Out-of-Phase_ ______________

10.1.13 Rated Operating Sequence________________________

10.1.14 Rated Time Quantities_ __________________________

10.1.15 Rated Supply Voltage and Frequency of Auxiliary

and Control Circuits_____________________________

10.1.16 Mechanical Endurance (Class M1 and M2) _ ___________

10.1.17 Restrike Performance and

Capacitive Current Switching Ratings (Class C1 and C2) ___

10.1.18 Inductive Load Current Switching Ratings______________

10.1.19 Electrical Endurance (Class E1 and E2) _______________

10.2 Selection of Service Conditions___________________________

10.2.1 Normal Service Conditions________________________

10.2.1.1 Normal Service Conditions for Indoor Installation___

10.2.1.2 Normal Service Conditions for Outdoor Installation___

10.2.2 Special Service Conditions________________________

10.2.2.1 Altitude_______________________________

10.2.2.2 Pollution_ _____________________________

10.2.2.3 Ambient Temperature_____________________

10.2.2.4 Air Humidity____________________________

10.2.2.5 Ice_ _________________________________

10.2.2.6 Wind_________________________________

10.2.2.7 Earthquake_ ___________________________

10.3 Selection of the Circuit Breaker Type_______________________

584
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589
592
592
593
593
594
596
601
602
603
603

605
606

607
608
610
611
612
612
613
613
614
616
617
617
618
618
618
619

References________________________________________________ 623
Epilogue __________________________________________________ 643
List of Abbreviations________________________________________ 647

12

Foreword.
In 2003, Prof. Mirsad Kapetanovi presented his book Visokonaponski Prekidai
(High voltage circuit breakers in the Bosnian language) to the international experts
from CIGRE Study Committee A3 (High Voltage Equipment) at its meeting in Sarajevo.
For almost 35 years, Prof. Kapetanovi has been active in the research, development
and testing of high voltage circuit breakers for Energoinvest, Sarajevo and belongs to
the inner circle of passionate circuit breaking devotees.
I was immediately struck by the depth and detailed coverage of all aspects of breaking and switching, even without mastering the Bosnian language.
In 2008, KEMA invited Prof. Kapetanovi to prepare an updated and expanded edition
of this work, in English. An editorial committee, consisting of Prof. Lou van der Sluis
(Delft University), Mr. P. Knol (KEMA) and I (KEMA) supervised the process.
This work gives an overview of the present state of the art of circuit breaking: covering its history, the relevant physics of the switching arc, the effects of switching in
power systems, the technology and last but not least, testing.
In addition, many of KEMAs proprietary test techniques and methods of presenting
test results in reports are described in this edition.
Regularly relying on KEMA for certification and research tests for his designs, Prof.
Kapetanovi's team has a relationship with KEMA that has been built over decades.
We learned to appreciate intense discussions on many occasions; questioning at
length many well-established principles in testing, e.g. the equivalence of synthetic
and direct testing. Prof. Kapetanovi was eager to adapt new technologies offered
by KEMA, e.g. the current zero technology, to verify the models used in the design of
breakers. As a professor at the Faculty of Electrical Engineering of the University of
Sarajevo, he is disseminating this knowledge to his students and with this book, to a
much larger audience.
Testing is solidly built upon the three pillars: standards, competent specialists and
adequate test-facilities. Only through this support can testing provide quality verification of component performance.

13

High Voltage Circuit Breakers.

As the world market leader in the field of testing and certification of high voltage
equipment, KEMA has strived to maintain this firm position since 1927.
The goal of this book is to make the reader aware that high voltage circuit breakers
are not plug and play devices, and that each specific application has its specialties.
Guidance through this extended field of technology is the true mission of the author,
the editorial committee and KEMA.
Prof. dr. Ren Smeets
KEMA T&D Testing Services
Arnhem
October 31, 2010

14

High
High
High
voltage
voltage
voltage
circuit
circuit
circuit
breakers.
breakers.
breakers.
High voltage circuit breakers.
High voltage circuit breakers.
High voltage circuit breakers.
Mirsad Kapetanovic

Mirsad Kapetanovic

Mirsad Kapetanovic

www.kema.com
www.kema.com
www.kema.com

Sarajevo, 2011

Mirsad
Mirsad
Mirsad
Kapetanovic
Kapetanovic
Kapetanovic