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UNIT - I

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THEORY OF METAL CUTTING

UNIT - I

THEORY OF METAL CUTTING

INTRODUCTION
In an industry, metal components are made into different shapes and dimensions by using various
metal working processes.
Metal working processes are classified into two major groups. They are:
Non-cutting shaping or chips less or metal forming process - forging, rolling, pressing, etc.
Cutting shaping or metal cutting or chip forming process - turning, drilling, milling, etc.

1.1

MATERIAL REMOVAL PROCESSES

Definition of machining
Machining is an essential process of finishing by which work pieces are produced to the desired
dimensions and surface finish by gradually removing the excess material from the preformed blank in
the form of chips with the help of cutting tool(s) moved past the work surface(s).

1.2
1.2.1

Principle of machining
Fig. 1.1 typically illustrates the basic principle of machining. A metal rod of irregular shape, size
and surface is converted into a finished product of desired dimension and surface finish by machining by
proper relative motions of the tool-work pair.

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1.2.2

Fig. 1.2 Requirements for machining

Fig. 1.1 Principle of machining (Turning)

1.2.3

Purpose of machining
Most of the engineering components such as gears, bearings, clutches, tools, screws and nuts etc.
need dimensional and form accuracy and good surface finish for serving their purposes. Preforming like
casting, forging etc. generally cannot provide the desired accuracy and finish. For that such preformed
parts, called blanks, need semi-finishing and finishing and it is done by machining and grinding.
Grinding is also basically a machining process.
Machining to high accuracy and finish essentially enables a product:
Fulfill its functional requirements.
Improve its performance.
Prolong its service.
1.2.4

Requirements of machining
The essential basic requirements for machining a work are schematically illustrated in Fig. 1.2.

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The blank and the cutting tool are properly mounted (in fixtures) and moved in a powerful device
called machine tool enabling gradual removal of layer of material from the work surface resulting in its
desired dimensions and surface finish. Additionally some environment called cutting fluid is generally
used to ease machining by cooling and lubrication.

TYPES OF MACHINE TOOLS

Definition of machine tool
A machine tool is a non-portable power operated and reasonably valued device or system of
devices in which energy is expended to produce jobs of desired size, shape and surface finish by
removing excess material from the preformed blanks in the form of chips with the help of cutting tools
moved past the work surface(s).

1.3
1.3.1

Basic functions of machine tools

Machine tools basically produce geometrical surfaces like flat, cylindrical or any contour on the
preformed blanks by machining work with the help of cutting tools.
The physical functions of a machine tool in machining are:
Firmly holding the blank and the tool.
Transmit motions to the tool and the blank.
Provide power to the tool-work pair for the machining action.
Control of the machining parameters, i.e., speed, feed and depth of cut.

1.3.2

Classification of machine tools

Number of types of machine tools gradually increased till mid 20th century and after that started
decreasing based on group technology.
However, machine tools are broadly classified as follows:
According to direction of major axis:
Horizontal
- center lathe, horizontal boring machine etc.
Vertical
- vertical lathe, vertical axis milling machine etc.
Inclined
- special (e.g. for transfer machines).
According to purpose of use:
General purpose
- e.g. center lathes, milling machines, drilling, machines etc.
Single purpose
- e.g. facing lathe, roll turning lathe etc.
Special purpose
- for mass production.
According to degree of automation:
Non-automatic
- e.g. center lathes, drilling machines etc.
Semi-automatic
- capstan lathe, turret lathe, hobbing machine etc.
Automatic
- e.g., single spindle automatic lathe, swiss type automatic lathe, CNC
milling machine etc.
According to size:
Heavy duty - e.g., heavy duty lathes (e.g. 55 kW), boring mills, planning machine,
horizontal boring machine etc.
Medium duty - e.g., lathes - 3.7 ~ 11 kW, column drilling machines, milling machines etc.
Small duty
- e.g., table top lathes, drilling machines, milling machines.
Micro duty
- e.g., micro-drilling machine etc.
According to blank type:
Bar type (lathes).
Chucking type (lathes).
Housing type.

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1.3.3

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THEORY OF METAL CUTTING

According to precision:
Ordinary
- e.g., automatic lathes.
High precision
- e.g., Swiss type automatic lathes.
According to number of spindles:
Single spindle
- center lathes, capstan lathes, milling machines etc.
Multi spindle
- multi spindle (2 to 8) lathes, gang drilling machines etc.
According to type of automation:
Fixed automation
- e.g., single spindle and multi spindle lathes.
Flexible automation - e.g., CNC milling machine.
According to configuration:
Stand alone type
- most of the conventional machine tools.
Machining system (more versatile) - e.g., transfer machine, machining center, FMS etc.

UNIT - I

Specification of machine tools

A machine tool may have a large number of various features and characteristics. But only some
specific salient features are used for specifying a machine tool. All the manufacturers, traders and users
must know how machine tools are specified.
The methods of specification of some basic machine tools are as follows:
Centre lathe:
Maximum diameter and length of the jobs that can be accommodated.
Power of the main drive (motor).
Range of spindle speeds and range of feeds.
Space occupied by the machine.
Shaper:
Length, breadth and depth of the bed.
Maximum axial travel of the bed and vertical travel of the bed / tool.
Maximum length of the stroke (of the ram / tool).
Range of number of strokes per minute.
Range of table feed.
Power of the main drive.
Space occupied by the machine.
Drilling machine (column type):
Maximum drill size (diameter) that can be used.
Size and taper of the hole in the spindle.
Range of spindle speeds.
Range of feeds.
Power of the main drive.
Range of the axial travel of the spindle / bed.
Floor space occupied by the machine.
Milling machine (knee type and with arbor):
Type; ordinary or swiveling bed type.
Size of the work table.
Range of travels of the table in X - Y - Z directions.
Arbor size (diameter).
Power of the main drive.
Range of spindle speed.
Range of table feeds in X - Y - Z directions.
Floor space occupied.

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1.3.4

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THEORY OF METAL CUTTING

Types of cutting tools
Cutting tools may be classified according to the number of major cutting edges (points) involved
as follows:
Single point:
e.g., turning tools, shaping, planning and slotting tools and boring tools.
Double (two) point: e.g., drills.
Multipoint (more than two): e.g., milling cutters, broaching tools, hobs, gear shaping cutters etc.

1.4
1.4.1

Geometry of single point cutting (turning) tools

Both material and geometry of the cutting tools play very important roles on their performances
in achieving effectiveness, efficiency and overall economy of machining.

1.4.2

1.4.2.1 Concept of rake and clearance angles of cutting tools

The word tool geometry is basically referred to some specific angles or slope of the salient faces
and edges of the tools at their cutting point. Rake angle and clearance angle are the most significant for
all the cutting tools. The concept of rake angle and clearance angle will be clear from some simple
operations shown in Fig. 1.3.

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Fig. 1.3 Rake and clearance angles of cutting tools

Definition
Rake angle (): Angle of inclination of rake surface from reference plane.
Clearance angle (): Angle of inclination of clearance or flank surface from the finished surface.
Rake angle is provided for ease of chip flow and overall machining. Rake angle may be positive,
or negative or even zero as shown in Fig. 1.4 (a, b and c).

(a) Positive rake

(b) Zero rake
(c) Negative rake
Fig. 1.4 Three possible types of rake angles
Relative advantages of such rake angles are:
Positive rake - helps reduce cutting force and thus cutting power requirement.
Zero rake - to simplify design and manufacture of the form tools.
Negative rake - to increase edge-strength and life of the tool.
Clearance angle is essentially provided to avoid rubbing of the tool (flank) with the machined
surface which causes loss of energy and damages of both the tool and the job surface. Hence, clearance
angle is a must and must be positive (30 ~ 150) depending upon tool-work materials and type of the
machining operations like turning, drilling, boring etc.

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UNIT - I

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THEORY OF METAL CUTTING

1.4.2.2 Systems of description of tool geometry

Tool-in-Hand System - where only the salient features of the cutting tool point are identified or
visualized as shown in Fig. 1.5 (a). There is no quantitative information, i.e., value of the angles.
Machine Reference System ASA system.
Tool Reference System
Orthogonal Rake System
- ORS.
Normal Rake System
- NRS.
Work Reference System
WRS.

1.4.2.3 Description of tool geometry in Machine Reference System

This system is also called as ASA system; ASA stands for American Standards Association.
Geometry of a cutting tool refers mainly to its several angles or slopes of its salient working surfaces and
cutting edges. Those angles are expressed with respect to some planes of reference.
In Machine Reference System (ASA), the three planes of reference and the coordinates are
chosen based on the configuration and axes of the machine tool concerned. The planes and axes used for
expressing tool geometry in ASA system for turning operation are shown in Fig. 1.5 (b).

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Fig 1.5 (a) Basic features of single point

Fig. 1.5 (b) Planes and axes of reference
cutting (turning) tool
in ASA system
The planes of reference and the coordinates used in ASA system for tool geometry are:
R - X - Y and Xm - Ym - Zm; where,
R = Reference plane; plane perpendicular to the velocity vector. Shown in Fig. 1.5 (b).
X = Machine longitudinal plane; plane perpendicular to R and taken in the direction of
assumed longitudinal feed.
Y = Machine transverse plane; plane perpendicular to both R and X. [This plane is taken in
the direction of assumed cross feed]
The axes Xm, Ym and Zm are in the direction of longitudinal feed, cross feed and cutting velocity
(vector) respectively. The main geometrical features and angles of single point tools in ASA systems and
their definitions will be clear from Fig. 1.6.

Fig. 1.6 Tool angles in ASA system

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Definition of:
Shank:
The portion of the tool bit which is not ground to form cutting edges and is rectangular in
cross section. [Fig. 1.5 (a)]
Face:
The surface against which the chip slides upward. [Fig. 1.5 (a)]
Flank:
The surface which face the work piece. There are two flank surfaces in a single point
cutting tool. One is principal flank and the other is auxiliary flank. [Fig. 1.5 (a)]
Heel:
The lowest portion of the side cutting edges. [Fig. 1.5 (a)]
Nose radius: The conjunction of the side cutting edge and end cutting edge. It provides strengthening
of the tool nose and better surface finish. [Fig. 1.5 (a)]
Base:
The underside of the shank. [Fig. 1.5 (a)]

Designation of tool geometry

The geometry of a single point tool is designated or specified by a series of values of the salient
angles and nose radius arranged in a definite sequence as follows:
Designation (Signature) of tool geometry in ASA System - y, x, y, x, e, s, r (in inch)
Example: A tool having 7, 8, 6, 7, 5, 6, 0.1 as designation (Signature) in ASA system will have
the following angles and nose radius.
Back rack angle
=
70
Side rake angle
=
80
Back clearance angle
=
60
Side clearance angle
=
70
End cutting edge angle
=
50
Side cutting edge angle
=
60
Nose radius
=
0.1 inch

1.4.3

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Rake angles: [Fig. 1.6]

x = Side rake angle (axial rake): angle of inclination of the rake surface from the reference plane
(R) and measured on machine reference plane, X.
y = Back rake angle: angle of inclination of the rake surface from the reference plane and
measured on machine transverse plane, Y.
Clearance angles: [Fig. 1.6]
x = Side clearance angle (Side relief angle): angle of inclination of the principal flank from the
machined surface (or CV) and measured on X plane.
y = Back clearance angle (End relief angle): same as x but measured on Y plane.
Cutting angles: [Fig. 1.6]
s = Side cutting edge angle (Approach angle): angle between the principal cutting edge (its
projection on R) and Y and measured on R.
e = End cutting edge angle: angle between the end cutting edge (its projection on R) from X
and measured on R.

1.4.4 Types of metal cutting processes

The metal cutting process is mainly classified into two types. They are:
Orthogonal cutting process (Two - dimensional cutting) - The cutting edge or face of the tool
is 900 to the line of action or path of the tool or to the cutting velocity vector. This cutting
involves only two forces and this makes the analysis simpler.
Oblique cutting process (Three - dimensional cutting)
- The cutting edge or face of the tool
0
is inclined at an angle less than 90 to the line of action or path of the tool or to the cutting
velocity vector. Its analysis is more difficult of its three dimensions.

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THEORY OF METAL CUTTING

1.4.4.1 Orthogonal and oblique cutting

It is appears from the diagram shown in Fig. 1.7 (a and b) that while turning ductile material by a
sharp tool, the continuous chip would flow over the tools rake surface and in the direction apparently
perpendicular to the principal cutting edge, i.e., along orthogonal plane which is normal to the cutting
plane containing the principal cutting edge. But practically, the chip may not flow along the orthogonal
plane for several factors like presence of inclination angle, , etc.
The role of inclination angle, on the direction of chip flow is schematically shown in Fig. 1.8
which visualizes that:
When = 00, the chip flows along orthogonal plane, i.e, c = 00.
When 00, the chip flow is deviated from o and c = where c is chip flow deviation (from
o) angle.

Fig. 1.7 (b) Ideal direction of chip flow in turning

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Fig. 1.7 (a) Setup of orthogonal and oblique cutting

Fig. 1.8 Role of inclination angle, on chip flow direction

Orthogonal cutting: When chip flows along orthogonal plane, o, i.e., c = 00.
Oblique cutting:
When chip flow deviates from orthogonal plane, i.e. c 00.
But practically c may be zero even if = 00 and c may not be exactly equal to even if 00.
Because there is some other (than ) factors also may cause chip flow deviation.
1.4.4.2 Pure orthogonal cutting
This refers to chip flow along o and = 900 as typically shown in Fig. 1.9. Where a pipe like job
of uniform thickness is turned (reduced in length) in a center lathe by a turning tool of geometry; = 00
and = 900 resulting chip flow along o which is also x in this case.

Fig. 1.9 Pure orthogonal cutting (pipe turning)

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CHIP FORMATION
Mechanism of chip formation
Machining is a semi-finishing or finishing process essentially done to impart required or
stipulated dimensional and form accuracy and surface finish to enable the product to:
Fulfill its basic functional requirements.
Provide better or improved performance.
Render long service life.
Machining is a process of gradual removal of excess material from the preformed blanks in the form of
chips. The form of the chips is an important index of machining because it directly or indirectly
indicates:
Nature and behavior of the work material under machining condition.
Specific energy requirement (amount of energy required to remove unit volume of work
material) in machining work.
Nature and degree of interaction at the chip-tool interfaces.
The form of machined chips depends mainly upon:
Work material.
Material and geometry of the cutting tool.
Levels of cutting velocity and feed and also to some extent on depth of cut.
Machining environment or cutting fluid that affects temperature and friction at the chip-tool and
work-tool interfaces.
Knowledge of basic mechanism(s) of chip formation helps to understand the characteristics of chips and
to attain favorable chip forms.

1.5
1.5.1

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1.5.1.1 Mechanism of chip formation in machining ductile materials

During continuous machining the uncut layer of the work material just ahead of the cutting tool
(edge) is subjected to almost all sided compression as indicated in Fig. 1.10.

Fig. 1.10 Compression of work material (layer) ahead of the tool tip
The force exerted by the tool on the chip arises out of the normal force, N and frictional force, F
as indicated in Fig. 1.10. Due to such compression, shear stress develops, within that compressed region,
in different magnitude, in different directions and rapidly increases in magnitude. Whenever and
wherever the value of the shear stress reaches or exceeds the shear strength of that work material in the
deformation region, yielding or slip takes place resulting shear deformation in that region and the plane
of maximum shear stress. But the forces causing the shear stresses in the region of the chip quickly
diminishes and finally disappears while that region moves along the tool rake surface towards and then
goes beyond the point of chip-tool engagement.
As a result the slip or shear stops propagating long before total separation takes place. In the
mean time the succeeding portion of the chip starts undergoing compression followed by yielding and
shear. This phenomenon repeats rapidly resulting in formation and removal of chips in thin layer by
layer. This phenomenon has been explained in a simple way by Piispannen*1 using a card analogy as
shown in Fig. 1.11 (a).

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UNIT - I

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(a) Shifting of the postcards by partial sliding against each other (b) Chip formation by shear in lamella
Fig. 1.11 Piispannen model of card analogy to explain chip formation in machining ductile materials
In actual machining chips also, such serrations are visible at their upper surface as indicated in
Fig. 1.11 (b). The lower surface becomes smooth due to further plastic deformation due to intensive
rubbing with the tool at high pressure and temperature. The pattern of shear deformation by lamellar
sliding, indicated in the model, can also be seen in actual chips by proper mounting, etching and
polishing the side surface of the machining chip and observing under microscope.
The pattern and extent of total deformation of the chips due to the primary and the secondary
shear deformations of the chips ahead and along the tool face, as indicated in Fig. 1.12, depend upon:
Work material.
Tool; material and geometry.
The machining speed (VC) and feed (so).
Cutting fluid application.

Fig. 1.12 Primary and secondary deformation zones in the chip

The overall deformation process causing chip formation is quite complex and hence needs
thorough experimental studies for clear understanding the phenomena and its dependence on the
affecting parameters. The feasible and popular experimental methods*2 for this purpose are:
Study of deformation of rectangular or circular grids marked on side surface as shown in
Fig. 1.13 (a and b).
Microscopic study of chips frozen by drop tool or quick stop apparatus.
Study of running chips by high speed camera fitted with low magnification microscope.
It has been established by several analytical and experimental methods including circular grid
deformation that though the chips are initially compressed ahead of the tool tip, the final deformation is
accomplished mostly by shear in machining ductile materials. However, machining of ductile materials
generally produces flat, curved or coiled continuous chips.

(a) Rectangular grids

(b) Circular grids
Fig. 1.13 Pattern of grid deformation during chip formation

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1.5.1.2 Mechanism of chip formation in machining brittle materials

The basic two mechanisms involved in chip formation are:
Yielding - generally for ductile materials.
Brittle fracture - generally for brittle materials.
During machining, first a small crack develops at the tool tip as shown in Fig. 1.14 due to
wedging action of the cutting edge. At the sharp crack-tip stress concentration takes place. In case of
ductile materials immediately yielding takes place at the crack-tip and reduces the effect of stress
concentration and prevents its propagation as crack. But in case of brittle materials the initiated crack
quickly propagates, under stressing action, and total separation takes place from the parent work piece
through the minimum resistance path as indicated in Fig. 1.14.

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Fig. 1.14 Development and propagation of crack causing chip separation.

Machining of brittle material produces discontinuous chips and mostly of irregular size and
shape. The process of forming such chips is schematically shown in Fig. 1.15 (a, b, c, d and e).

(a) Separation (b) Swelling (c) Further swelling (d) Separation (e) Swelling again
Fig. 1.15 Schematic view of chip formation in machining brittle materials

1.5.2 Chip thickness ratio

Geometry and characteristics of chip forms
The geometry of the chips being formed at the cutting zone follow a particular pattern especially
in machining ductile materials. The major sections of the engineering materials being machined are
ductile in nature; even some semi-ductile or semi-brittle materials behave ductile under the compressive
forces at the cutting zone during machining.
The pattern and degree of deformation during chip formation are quantitatively assessed and
expressed by some factors, the values of which indicate about the forces and energy required for a
particular machining work.
Chip reduction coefficient or cutting ratio
The usual geometrical features of formation of continuous chips are schematically shown in
Fig. 1.16. The chip thickness (a2) usually becomes larger than the uncut chip thickness (a1). The reason
can be attributed to:
Compression of the chip ahead of the tool.
Frictional resistance to chip flow.
Lamellar sliding according to Piispannen.

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UNIT - I

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Fig. 1.16 Geometrical features of continuous chip formation.

The significant geometrical parameters involved in chip formation are shown in Fig. 1.16 and
those parameters are defined (in respect of straight turning) as:
t = depth of cut (mm) - perpendicular penetration of the cutting tool tip in work surface.
f = feed (mm/rev) - axial travel of the tool per revolution of the job.
b1 = width (mm) of chip before cut.
b2 = width (mm) of chip after cut.
a1 = thickness (mm) of uncut layer (or chip before cut).
a2 = chip thickness (mm) - thickness of chip after cut.
A1 = cross section (area, mm2) of chip before cut.
The degree of thickening of the chip is expressed by
rc = a2 / a1 > 1.00
(since a2 > a1)
1.1
where, rc = chip reduction coefficient.
a1= f sin
1.2
where = principal cutting edge angle.
Larger value of rc means more thickening i.e., more effort in terms of forces or energy required to
accomplish the machining work. Therefore it is always desirable to reduce a2 or rc without sacrificing
productivity, i.e. metal removal rate (MRR).
Chip thickening is also often expressed by the reciprocal of rc as,
1 / rc = r = a1 / a2
1.3
where r = cutting ratio.
The value of chip reduction coefficient, rc (and hence cutting ratio) depends mainly upon
Tool rake angle,
Chip-tool interaction, mainly friction,
*3
Roughly in the following way,

rc = (for orthogonal cutting)

and are in radians.

1.4

The simple but very significant expression 1.4 clearly depicts that the value of rc can be desirably
reduced by
Using tool having larger positive rake.
Reducing friction by using lubricant.
The role of rake angle and friction at the chip-tool interface on chip reduction coefficient are
also schematically shown in Fig. 1.17.

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Fig. 1.17 Role of rake angle and friction on

Fig. 1.18 Shear plane and shear angle in
chip reduction coefficient
chip formation
Chip reduction coefficient, rc is generally assessed and expressed by the ratio of the chip
thickness, after cut (a2) and before cut (a1) as in equation 1.1. But rc can also be expressed or assessed by
the ratio of:
Total length of the chip before cut (L1) and after cut (L2).
Cutting velocity, VC and chip velocity, Vf.
Considering total volume of chip produced in a given time,
a1b1L1 = a2b2L2
1.5
The width of chip, b generally does not change significantly during machining unless there is
side flow for some adverse situation. Therefore assuming, b1=b2 in equation 1.5, rc comes up to be,
rc = a2 / a1 = L1 / L2
1.6
Again considering unchanged material flow (volume) ratio, Q
Q = (a1b1)VC = (a2b2)Vf
1.7
Taking b1=b2,
rc = a2 / a1 = VC / Vf
1.8
Equation 5.8 reveals that the chip velocity, Vf will be lesser than the cutting velocity, VC and the
ratio is equal to the cutting ratio, r = 1 / rc

Shear angle
It has been observed that during machining, particularly ductile materials, the chip sharply
changes its direction of flow (relative to the tool) from the direction of the cutting velocity, VC to that
along the tool rake surface after thickening by shear deformation or slip or lamellar sliding along a plane.
This plane is called shear plane and is schematically shown in Fig. 1.18.

Shear plane
Shear plane is the plane of separation of work material layer in the form of chip from the parent
body due to shear along that plane.
Shear angle
Angle of inclination of the shear plane from the direction of cutting velocity as shown in
Fig. 1.18.
The value of shear angle, denoted by (taken in orthogonal plane) depends upon:
Chip thickness before cut and after cut i.e. rc.
Rake angle, (in orthogonal plane).
From Fig. 1.18,
dividing a2 by a1
AC = a2 = OA cos( ) and AB = a1 = OA sin
a2 / a1 = rc = cos( ) / sin
1.9
or
tan = cos / rc sin
1.10

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Replacing chip reduction coefficient, rc by cutting ratio, r, the equation 1.10 changes to,
tan = rcos / 1 rsin
1.11
Equation 1.10 depicts that with the increase in rc, shear angle decreases and vice-versa. It is also
evident from equation 1.10 as well as equation 1.4 that shear angle increases both directly and indirectly
with the increase in tool rake angle. Increase in shear angle means more favorable machining condition
requiring lesser specific energy.

Cutting strain
The magnitude of strain, that develops along the shear plane due to machining action, is called
cutting strain (shear). The relationship of this cutting strain, with the governing parameters can be
derived from Fig. 1.19.

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Fig. 1.19 Cutting strain in machining

Due to presence of the tool as an obstruction the layer 1 has been shifted to position 2 by sliding
along the shear plane. From Fig. 1.19,
or
= PN + NM / ON
Cutting strain (average), = s / Y = PM / ON
= PN / ON + NM / ON or
= cot + tan( )
1.12

1.5.3 Built-up-Edge (BUE) formation

Causes of formation
In machining ductile metals like steels with long chip-tool contact length, lot of stress and
temperature develops in the secondary deformation zone at the chip-tool interface. Under such high
stress and temperature in between two clean surfaces of metals, strong bonding may locally take place
due to adhesion similar to welding. Such bonding will be encouraged and accelerated if the chip tool
materials have mutual affinity or solubility.
The weldment starts forming as an embryo at the most favorable location and thus gradually
grows as schematically shown in Fig. 1.20.

Fig. 1.20 Scheme of built-up-edge formation

With the growth of the BUE, the force, F (shown in Fig. 1.20) also gradually increases due to
wedging action of the tool tip along with the BUE formed on it. Whenever the force, F exceeds the
bonding force of the BUE, the BUE is broken or sheared off and taken away by the flowing chip. Then
again BUE starts forming and growing. This goes on repeatedly.

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Characteristics of BUE
Built-up-edges are characterized by its shape, size and bond strength, which depend upon:
Work tool materials.
Stress and temperature, i.e., cutting velocity and feed.
Cutting fluid application governing cooling and lubrication.
BUE may develop basically in three different shapes as schematically shown in Fig. 1.21 (a, b and c).

Fig. 1.22 Overgrowing and

overflowing of BUE
causing surface roughness
In machining too soft and ductile metals by tools like high speed steel or uncoated carbide the
BUE may grow larger and overflow towards the finished surface through the flank as shown in
Fig. 1.22. While the major part of the detached BUE goes away along the flowing chip, a small part of
the BUE may remain stuck on the machined surface and spoils the surface finish. BUE formation needs
certain level of temperature at the interface depending upon the mutual affinity of the work-tool
materials. With the increase in VC and so the cutting temperature rises and favors BUE formation.
But if VC is raised too high beyond certain limit, BUE will be squashed out by the flowing chip
before the BUE grows. Fig. 1.23 shows schematically the role of increasing VC and so on BUE
formation (size). But sometime the BUE may adhere so strongly that it remains strongly bonded at the
tool tip and does not break or shear off even after reasonably long time of machining. Such harmful
situation occurs in case of certain tool-work materials and at speed-feed conditions which strongly favor
adhesion and welding.

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(a) Positive wedge

(b) Negative wedge
(c) Flat type
Fig. 1.21 Different forms of built-up-edge.

Fig. 1.23 Role of cutting velocity and feed on BUE formation

Effects of BUE formation
Formation of BUE causes several harmful effects, such as:
It unfavorably changes the rake angle at the tool tip causing increase in cutting forces and power
consumption.
Repeated formation and dislodgement of the BUE causes fluctuation in cutting forces and thus
induces vibration which is harmful for the tool, job and the machine tool.
Surface finish gets deteriorated.
May reduce tool life by accelerating tool-wear at its rake surface by adhesion and flaking
occasionally, formation of thin flat type stable BUE may reduce tool wear at the rake face.

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1.5.4

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THEORY OF METAL CUTTING

Types of chips
Different types of chips of various shape, size, colour etc. are produced by machining depending

upon:
Type of cut, i.e., continuous (turning, boring etc.) or intermittent cut (milling).
Work material (brittle or ductile etc.).
Cutting tool geometry (rake, cutting angles etc.).
Levels of the cutting velocity and feed (low, medium or high).
Cutting fluid (type of fluid and method of application).
The basic major types of chips and the conditions generally under which such types of chips form are
given below:

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Continuous chips without BUE

When the cutting tool moves towards the work piece, there occurs a plastic deformation of the
work piece and the metal is separated without any discontinuity and it moves like a ribbon. The chip
moves along the face of the tool. This mostly occurs while cutting a ductile material. It is desirable to
have smaller chip thickness and higher cutting speed in order to get continuous chips. Lesser power is
consumed while continuous chips are produced. Total life is also mortised in this process. The formation
of continuous chips is schematically shown in Fig. 1.24.

Fig. 1.24 Formation of continuous chips

Fig. 1.25 Formation of discontinuous chips
The following condition favors the formation of continuous chips without BUE chips:
Work material - ductile.
Cutting velocity - high.
Feed - low.
Rake angle - positive and large.
Cutting fluid - both cooling and lubricating.

Discontinuous chips
This is also called as segmental chips. This mostly occurs while cutting brittle material such as
cast iron or low ductile materials. Instead of shearing the metal as it happens in the previous process, the
metal is being fractured like segments of fragments and they pass over the tool faces. Tool life can also
be more in this process. Power consumption as in the previous case is also low. The formation of
continuous chips is schematically shown in Fig. 1.25.
The following condition favors the formation of discontinuous chips:
Of irregular size and shape: - work material - brittle like grey cast iron.
Of regular size and shape: - work material ductile but hard and work hardenable.
Feed rate - large.
Tool rake - negative.
Cutting fluid - absent or inadequate.

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Continuous chips with BUE

When cutting a ductile metal, the compression of the metal is followed by the high heat at tool
face. This in turns enables part of the removed metal to be welded into the tool. This is known as built up
edge, a very hardened layer of work material attached to the tool face, which tends to act as a cutting
edge itself replacing the real cutting tool edge.
The built-up edge tends to grow until it reaches a critical size (~0.3 mm) and then passes off with
the chip, leaving small fragments on the machining surface. Chip will break free and cutting forces are
smaller, but the effect is a rough machined surface. The built-up edge disappears at high cutting speeds.
The weld metal is work hardened or strain hardened. While the cutting process is continued,
some of built up edge may be combined with the chip and pass along the tool face. Some of the built up
edge may be permanently fixed on the tool face. This produces a rough surface finish and the tool life
may be reduced. The formation of continuous chips with BUE is schematically shown in Fig. 1.26.

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Fig. 1.26 Formation of continuous chips with BUE

The following condition favors the formation of continuous chips with BUE chips:
Work material - ductile.
Cutting velocity - low (~0.5 m/s,).
Small or negative rake angles.
Feed - medium or large.
Cutting fluid - inadequate or absent.
Often in machining ductile metals at high speed, the chips are deliberately broken into small segments of
regular size and shape by using chip breakers mainly for convenience and reduction of chip-tool contact
length.

1.5.5 Chip breakers

1.5.5.1 Need and purpose of chip-breaking
Continuous machining like turning of ductile metals, unlike brittle metals like grey cast iron,
produce continuous chips, which leads to their handling and disposal problems. The problems become
acute when ductile but strong metals like steels are machined at high cutting velocity for high MRR by
flat rake face type carbide or ceramic inserts. The sharp edged hot continuous chip that comes out at
very high speed:
Becomes dangerous to the operator and the other people working in the vicinity.
May impair the finished surface by entangling with the rotating job.
Creates difficulties in chip disposal.
Therefore it is essentially needed to break such continuous chips into small regular pieces for:
Safety of the working people.
Prevention of damage of the product.
Easy collection and disposal of chips.
Chip breaking is done in proper way also for the additional purpose of improving machinability by
reducing the chip-tool contact area, cutting forces and crater wear of the cutting tool.

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1.5.5.2 Principles of chip-breaking

In respect of convenience and safety, closed coil type chips of short length and coma shaped
broken-to-half turn chips are ideal in machining of ductile metals and alloys at high speed.
The principles and methods of chip breaking are generally classified as follows:
Self chip breaking - This is accomplished without using a separate chip-breaker either as an
attachment or an additional geometrical modification of the tool.
Forced chip breaking - This is accomplished by additional tool geometrical features or devices.

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a) Self breaking of chips

Ductile chips usually become curled or tend to curl (like clock spring) even in machining by tools
with flat rake surface due to unequal speed of flow of the chip at its free and generated (rubbed) surfaces
and unequal temperature and cooling rate at those two surfaces. With the increase in cutting velocity and
rake angle (positive) the radius of curvature increases, which is more dangerous.
In case of oblique cutting due to presence of inclination angle, restricted cutting effect etc. the
curled chips deviate laterally resulting helical coiling of the chips. The curled chips may self break:
By natural fracturing of the strain hardened outgoing chip after sufficient cooling and spring back
as indicated in Fig. 1.27 (a). This kind of chip breaking is generally observed under the condition
close to that which favors formation of jointed or segmented chips.
By striking against the cutting surface of the job, as shown in Fig. 1.27 (b), mostly under pure
orthogonal cutting.
By striking against the tool flank after each half to full turn as indicated in Fig. 1.27 (c).

(a) Natural (b) Striking on job (c) Striking at tool flank

Fig. 1.27 Principles of self breaking of chips
The possibility and pattern of self chip-breaking depend upon the work material, tool material
and tool geometry (, , and r), levels of the process parameters (VC and fo) and the machining
environment (cutting fluid application) which are generally selected keeping in view the overall
machinability.

b) Forced chip-breaking
The hot continuous chip becomes hard and brittle at a distance from its origin due to work
hardening and cooling. If the running chip does not become enough curled and work hardened, it may
not break. In that case the running chip is forced to bend or closely curl so that it breaks into pieces at
regular intervals. Such broken chips are of regular size and shape depending upon the configuration of
the chip breaker. Chip breakers are basically of two types:
In-built type.
Clamped or attachment type.
In-built breakers are in the form of step or groove at the rake surface near the cutting edges of the tools.
Such chip breakers are provided either:
After their manufacture - in case of HSS tools like drills, milling cutters, broaches etc and
brazed type carbide inserts.
During their manufacture by powder metallurgical process - e.g., throw away type inserts
of carbides, ceramics and cermets.

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The basic principle of forced chip breaking is schematically shown in Fig. 1.28. When the strain
hardened and brittle running chip strikes the heel, the cantilever chip gets forcibly bent and then breaks.

(a)

W = width, H = height, = shear angle

Fig. 1.28 Principle of forced chip breaking
Fig. 1.29 (a, b, c and d) schematically shows some commonly used step type chip breakers:
Parallel step.
Angular step; positive and negative type.
Parallel step with nose radius - for heavy cuts.

(d)

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(c)

(b)

Fig. 1.29 Step type in-built chip breaker (a) Parallel step
(b) Parallel and radiused (c) Positive angular (d) Negative angular
Fig. 1.30 (a and b) schematically shows some commonly used groove type in-built chip breakers:
Circular groove.
Tilted Vee groove.

(a) Circular groove (b) Tilted Vee groove

Fig. 1.30 Groove type in-built chip breaker
The unique characteristics of in-built chip breakers are:
The outer end of the step or groove acts as the heel that forcibly bends and fractures the running
chip.
Simple in configuration, easy manufacture and inexpensive.
The geometry of the chip-breaking features is fixed once made. (i.e., cannot be controlled)
Effective only for fixed range of speed and feed for any given tool-work combination.

(c) Clamped type chip-breaker

Clamped type chip breakers work basically in the principle of stepped type chip-breaker but have
the provision of varying the width of the step and / or the angle of the heel.
Fig. 1.31 (a, b and c) schematically shows three such chip breakers of common use:

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With fixed distance and angle of the additional strip - effective only for a limited domain of
parametric combination.
With variable width (W) only - little versatile.
With variable width (W), height (H) and angle () - quite versatile but less rugged and more
expensive.

(b)

(a)

(c)

(a) Fixed geometry (b) Variable width (c) Variable width and angle
Fig. 1.31 Clamped type chip breakers

(a)

(b)

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(d) Chip breakers in solid HSS tools

Despite advent of several modern cutting tool materials, HSS is still used for its excellent TRS
(transverse rupture strength) and toughness, formability, grindability and low cost. The cutting tools
made of solid HSS blanks, such as form tools, twist drills, slab milling cutters, broaches etc, are also
often used with suitable chip breakers for breaking the long or wide continuous chips.
The handling of wide and long chips often becomes difficult particularly while drilling large
diameter and deep holes. Grooves, either on the rake faces or on the flanks as shown in Fig. 1.32 help to
break the chips both along the length and breadth in drilling ductile metals. The locations of the grooves
are offset in the two cutting edges.

Fig. 1.32 Chip breaking grooves.

(a) Crisp design of chip-breaking drill

(b) US industrial design of chip-breaking drill
Fig. 1.33 Designs of chip-breaking drill
Fig. 1.33 (a and b) schematically shows another principle of chip-breaking when the drilling
chips are forced to tighter curling followed by breaking of the strain hardened chips into pieces.
Plain milling and end milling inherently produces discontinuous coma shaped chips of
favorably shorter length. But the chips become very wide while milling wide surfaces and may offer
problem of chip disposal. To reduce this problem, the milling cutters are provided with small peripheral
grooves on the cutting edges as shown in Fig. 1.34. Such in-built type chip breakers break the wide chips
into a number of chips of much shorter width. Similar groove type chip-breakers are also often provided
along the teeth of broaches, for breaking the chips to shorter width and ease of disposal.

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Fig. 1.34 Chip breaking grooves on a plain helical milling cutter

MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY - II

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(e) Dynamic chip breaker

Dynamic turning is a special technique, where the cutting tool is deliberately vibrated along the
direction of feed as indicated in Fig. 1.35 at suitable frequency and amplitude. Such additional
controlled tool oscillation caused by mechanical, hydraulic or electro-magnetic (solenoid) shaker
improves surface finish. This also reduces the cutting forces and enhances the tool life due to more
effective cooling and lubrication at the chip tool and work tool interfaces for intermittent break of the
tool-work contact. Such technique, if further slightly adjusted, can also help breaking the chips. When
the two surfaces of the chip will be waved by phase difference of about 900, the chip will either break
immediately or will come out in the form of bids, which will also break with slight bending or pressure
as indicated in Fig. 1.35. This technique of chip breaking can also be accomplished in dynamic drilling
and dynamic boring. Fig. 1.36 schematically shows another possible dynamic chip-breaking device
suitable for radially fed type lathe operations, e.g., facing, grooving and parting.

Fig 1.35 Self chip breaking in dynamic turning

Fig 1.36 Dynamic chip breaking in radial

operations in lathe

1.5.5.3 Overall effects of chip breaking

Favorable effects:
Safety of the operator(s) from the hot, sharp continuous chip flowing out at high speed.
Convenience of collection and disposal of chips.
A chance of damage of the finished surface by entangling or rubbing with the chip is eliminated.
More effective cutting fluid action due to shorter and varying chip tool contact length.
Unfavorable effects:
Chances of harmful vibration due to frequent chip breaking and hitting at the heel or flank of the
tool bit.
More heat and stress concentration near the sharp cutting edge and hence chances of its rapid
failure.
Surface finish may deteriorate.

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1.6
ORTHOGONAL METAL CUTTING
1.6.1 Benefit of knowing and purpose of determining cutting forces
The aspects of the cutting forces concerned:
Magnitude of the cutting forces and their components.
Directions and locations of action of those forces.
Pattern of the forces: static and / or dynamic.
Knowing or determination of the cutting forces facilitate or are required for:
Estimation of cutting power consumption, which also enables selection of the power source(s)
during design of the machine tools.
Structural design of the machine - fixture - tool system.
Evaluation of role of the various machining parameters (process - VC, fo, t, tool - material and
geometry, environment - cutting fluid) on cutting forces.
Study of behaviour and machinability characterization of the work materials.
Condition monitoring of the cutting tools and machine tools.
Cutting force components and their significances
The single point cutting tools being used for turning, shaping, planing, slotting, boring etc. are
characterized by having only one cutting force during machining. But that force is resolved into two or
three components for ease of analysis and exploitation. Fig. 1.37 visualizes how the single cutting force
in turning is resolved into three components along the three orthogonal directions; X, Y and Z.
The resolution of the force components in turning can be more conveniently understood from
their display in 2-D as shown in Fig. 1.38.

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1.6.2

Fig. 1.37 Cutting force R resolved into PX, PY and PZ Fig. 1.38 turning force resolved into PZ, PX and PY

The resultant cutting force, R is resolved as,

R = PZ + PXY
1.13
and
PXY = PX + PY
1.14
where, PX = PXY sin
1.15
and
PY = PXY cos
1.16
PZ - Tangential component taken in the direction of Zm axis.
PX - Axial component taken in the direction of longitudinal feed or Xm axis.
PY - Radial or transverse component taken along Ym axis.
In Fig. 1.37 and Fig. 1.38 the force components are shown to be acting on the tool. A similar set
of forces also act on the job at the cutting point but in opposite directions as indicated by PZ', PXY', PX'
and PY' in Fig. 1.38.

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Significance of PZ, PX and PY

PZ: Called the main or major component as it is the largest in magnitude. It is also called power
component as it being acting along and being multiplied by VC decides cutting power (PZ.VC)
consumption.
PY: May not be that large in magnitude but is responsible for causing dimensional inaccuracy and
vibration.
PX: It, even if larger than PY, is least harmful and hence least significant.

Merchants Circle Diagram and its use

In orthogonal cutting when the chip flows along the orthogonal plane, 0, the cutting force
(resultant) and its components PZ and PXY remain in the orthogonal plane. Fig. 1.39 is schematically
showing the forces acting on a piece of continuous chip coming out from the shear zone at a constant
speed. That chip is apparently in a state of equilibrium.

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1.6.3

Fig 1.39 Development of Merchants

Fig. 1.40 Merchants Circle Diagram
circle diagram
with cutting forces
The forces in the chip segment are:
From job-side:
Ps - Shear force.
Pn - force normal to the shear force.
From the tool side:
R1 = R (in state of equilibrium)
where, R1 = F + N
N - Force normal to rake face.
F - Friction force at chip tool interface.
The resulting cutting force R or R1 can be resolved further as,
R1 = PZ + PXY
where, PZ - Force along the velocity vector.
PXY - force along orthogonal plane.
The circle(s) drawn taking R or R1 as diameter is called Merchants circle which contains all the
force components concerned as intercepts. The two circles with their forces are combined into one circle
having all the forces contained in that as shown by the diagram called Merchants Circle Diagram
(MCD) in Fig. 1.40.
The significance of the forces displayed in the Merchants Circle Diagram is:
Ps - The shear force essentially required to produce or separate the chip from the parent body by shear.
Pn - Inherently exists along with Ps.
F - Friction force at the chip tool interface.

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N - Force acting normal to the rake surface.

PZ = PXY PX + PY = main force or power component acting in the direction of cutting velocity.
The magnitude of PS provides the yield shear strength of the work material under the cutting
action. The values of F and the ratio of F and N indicate the nature and degree of interaction like friction
at the chip tool interface. The force components PX, PY, PZ are generally obtained by direct
measurement. Again PZ helps in determining cutting power and specific energy requirement. The force
components are also required to design the cutting tool and the machine tool.

1.6.4 Advantageous use of Merchants circle diagram

Proper use of MCD enables the followings:
Easy, quick and reasonably accurate determination of several other forces from a few known
forces involved in machining.
Friction at chip tool interface and dynamic yield shear strength can be easily determined.
Equations relating the different forces are easily developed.
Some limitations of use of MCD:
Merchants circle diagram (MCD) is only valid for orthogonal cutting.
By the ratio, F/N, the MCD gives apparent (not actual) coefficient of friction.
It is based on single shear plane theory.
Development of equations for estimation of cutting forces
The two basic methods of determination of cutting forces and their characteristics are:
(a) Analytical method: Enables estimation of cutting forces.
Characteristics:
Easy, quick and inexpensive.
Very approximate and average.
Effect of several factors like cutting velocity, cutting fluid action etc. are not revealed.
Unable to depict the dynamic characteristics of the forces.
(b) Experimental methods: Direct measurement.
Characteristics:
Quite accurate and provides true picture.
Can reveal effect of variation of any parameter on the forces.
Depicts both static and dynamic parts of the forces.
Needs measuring facilities, expertise and hence expensive.
The equations for analytical estimation of the salient cutting force components are conveniently
developed using Merchants Circle Diagram (MCD) when it is orthogonal cutting by any single point
cutting tool like, in turning, shaping, planing, boring etc.

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1.6.5

1.6.6 Development of mathematical expressions for cutting forces

Tangential or main component, PZ
This can be very conveniently done by using Merchants Circle Diagram, as shown in Fig. 1.40.
From the MCD shown in Fig. 1.40,
PZ = Rcos( )
1.17
Ps = Rcos( + )
1.18
Dividing Eqn. 1.17 by Eqn. 1.18,
1.19
PZ = Ps cos( ) / cos( + )
It was already shown that, Ps = t.f. s / sin
1.20
where, s - Dynamic yield shear strength of the work material.
Thus, PZ = t.f. s cos( ) / sin cos( + )
1.21

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For brittle work materials, like grey cast iron, usually, 2 + = 900 and s remains almost
unchanged.
Then for turning brittle material,
1.22
PZ = t.f. s cos(900 2) / sin cos(900 )
or
PZ = 2 t.f. s cot
1.23
Where, cot = rc tan
rc = a2 / a1 = a2 / f sin
It is difficult to measure chip thickness and evaluate the values of while machining brittle materials and
the value of s is roughly estimated from
s = 0.175 BHN
1.24
where, BHN - Brinnels Hardness number.
But most of the engineering materials are ductile in nature and even some semi-brittle materials
behave ductile under the cutting condition. The angle relationship reasonably accurately applicable for
ductile metals is
+ = 450
1.25
and the value of s is obtained from,
s = 0.186 BHN (approximate)
1.26
0.6
or
s = 0.74u (more suitable and accurate)
1.27
where, u - Ultimate tensile strength of the work material
- Cutting strain,
rc tan
- % elongation
Substituting Eqn. 1.25 in Eqn. 1.21,
PZ = t.f. s(cot + 1)
1.28
Again cot rc tan
So,
PZ = t.f.s(rc tan + 1)
1.29

Axial force, PX and transverse force, PY

From the MCD shown in Fig. 1.40,
PXY = PZ tan( )
Combining Eqn. 1.21 and Eqn. 1.30,
PXY = t.f.s sin( ) / sin cos( + )
Again, using the angle relationship + = 450, for ductile material
PXY = t.f.s(cot 1)
or
PXY = t.f.s(rc tan 1)
where, s = 0.74u0.6
or
s = 0.186 BHN
It is already known,
PX = PXYsin and PY = PXYcos
Therefore,
PX = t.f.s(rc tan 1)sin
and
PY = t.f.s(rc tan 1) cos

1.30
1.31
1.32
1.33

1.34
1.35

Friction force, F, normal force, N and apparent coefficient of friction a

From the MCD shown in Fig. 1.40,
F = PZ sin + PXY cos
1.36
and
N = PZ cos PXY sin
1.37
a = F / N = PZ sin + PXY cos / PZ cos PXY sin
1.38
or
a = PZ tan + PXY / PZ PXY tan
1.39
Therefore, if PZ and PXY are known or determined either analytically or experimentally the values
of F, N and a can be determined using equations only.

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Shear force Ps and Pn

From the MCD shown in Fig. 1.40,
Ps = PZ cos PXY sin
1.40
1.41
and
Pn = PZ sin + PXY cos
From Ps, the dynamic yield shear strength of the work material, s can be determined by using the
relation,
Ps = Ass
where, As = t.f / sin = Shear area
Therefore,
s = Ps sin / t.f
s = (PZ cos PXY sin)sin / t.f
1.42

1.6.7 Metal cutting theories

1.6.7.1 Earnst - Merchant theory
Earnst and Merchant have developed a relationship between the shear angle , the cutting rake
angle , and the angle of friction as follows:
2 + = C
where C is a machining constant for the work material dependent on the
rate of change of the shear strength of the metal with applied compressive stress, besides taking the
internal coefficient of friction into account.

1.6.7.2 Modified - Merchant theory

According to this theory the relation between the shear angle , the cutting rake angle , and the
angle of friction as follows:

= -+

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Shear will take place in a direction in which energy required for shearing is minimum.
Shear stress is maximum at the shear plane and it remains constant.

1.6.7.3 Lee and Shaffers theory

This theory analysis the process of orthogonal metal cutting by applying the theory of plasticity
for an ideal rigid plastic material. The principle assumptions are:
The work piece material ahead of the cutting tool behaves like an ideal plastic material.
The deformation of the metal occurs on a single shear plane.
This is a stress field within the produced chip which transmits the cutting force from the shear
plane to the tool face and therefore, the chip does not get hardened.
The chip separates from the parent material at the shear plane.
Based on this, they developed a slip line field for stress zone, in which no deformation would
occur even if it is stressed to its yield point. From this, they derived the following relationship.

= -+

1.6.8

Velocity relationship
The velocity relationships for orthogonal cutting are illustrated in fig. 2.7 where VC is the cutting
velocity, Vs is the velocity of shear and Vf is the velocity of chip flow up the tool face.
Vs = VC cos / cos( )
1.43
and
Vf = sin / cos( )
1.44
From equation
Vf = VC / rc
It can be inferred from the principle of kinematics that the relative velocity of two bodies (here
tool and the chip) is equal to the vector difference between their velocities relative to the reference body
(the workpiece). So, VC = Vs + Vf
1.45

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Metal removal rate

It is defined as the volume of metal removed in unit time. It is used to calculate the time required
to remove specified quantity of material from the work piece.
1.46
Metal removal rate (MRR) = t. f.VC
where, t - Depth of cut (mm), f - Feed (mm / rev) and VC - Cutting speed (mm / sec).
If the MRR is optimum, we can reduce the machining cost. To achieve this:
The cutting tool material should be proper.
Cutting tool should be properly ground.
Tool should be supported rigidly and therefore, there should be any vibration.
1.47
For turning operation, MRR = t.f.VC
For facing and spot milling operation, MRR = B.t.T
1.48
where B - Width of cut (mm) and T- Table travel (mm /sec).
For planing and shaping, MRR = t.f.L.S
1.49
where L - length of workpiece (mm) and S - Strokes per minute.

1.6.9

1.6.10 Evaluation of cutting power consumption and specific energy requirement

Cutting power consumption is a quite important issue and it should always be tried to be reduced
but without sacrificing MRR.
1.50
Cutting power consumption (PC) can be determined from, PC = PZ.VC + PX.Vf
where, Vf = feed velocity = Nf / 1000 m/min [N = rpm]
Since both PX and Vf, specially Vf are very small, PX.Vf can be neglected and then PC PZ.VC
1.51

CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS

Essential properties of cutting tool materials
The cutting tools need to be capable to meet the growing demands for higher productivity and
economy as well as to machine the exotic materials which are coming up with the rapid progress in
science and technology. The cutting tool material of the day and future essentially require the following
properties to resist or retard the phenomena leading to random or early tool failure:
High mechanical strength; compressive, tensile, and TRA.
Fracture toughness - high or at least adequate.
High hardness for abrasion resistance.
High hot hardness to resist plastic deformation and reduce wear rate at elevated temperature.
Chemical stability or inertness against work material, atmospheric gases and cutting fluids.
Resistance to adhesion and diffusion.
Thermal conductivity - low at the surface to resist incoming of heat and high at the core to
quickly dissipate the heat entered.
High heat resistance and stiffness.
Manufacturability, availability and low cost.

1.7
1.7.1

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Specific energy requirement (Us) which means amount of energy required to remove unit
volume of material, is an important machinability characteristics of the work material. Specific energy
requirement, Us, which should be tried to be reduced as far as possible, depends not only on the work
material but also the process of the machining, such as turning, drilling, grinding etc. and the machining
condition, i.e., VC, f, tool material and geometry and cutting fluid application.
Compared to turning, drilling requires higher specific energy for the same work-tool materials
and grinding requires very large amount of specific energy for adverse cutting edge geometry (large
negative rake). Specific energy, Us, is determined from,
Us = PZ.VC / MRR = PZ/ t.f
1.52

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THEORY OF METAL CUTTING

Needs and chronological development of cutting tool materials

With the progress of the industrial world it has been needed to continuously develop and improve
the cutting tool materials and geometry:
To meet the growing demands for high productivity, quality and economy of machining.
To enable effective and efficient machining of the exotic materials those are coming up with the
rapid and vast progress of science and technology.
For precision and ultra-precision machining.
For micro and even nano machining demanded by the day and future.
It is already stated that the capability and overall performance of the cutting tools depend upon:
The cutting tool materials.
The cutting tool geometry.
Proper selection and use of those tools.
The machining conditions and the environments.
Out of which the tool material plays the most vital role. The relative contribution of the cutting tool
materials on productivity, for instance, can be roughly assessed from Fig. 1.41.
The chronological development of cutting tool materials is briefly indicated in Fig. 1.42.

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1.7.2

Fig. 1.41 Productivity raised by cutting tool materials

Fig 1.42 Chronological development of cutting tool materials

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1.7.3

Characteristics and applications of cutting tool materials

a) High Speed Steel (HSS)

Advent of HSS in around 1905 made a break through at that time in the history of cutting tool
materials though got later superseded by many other novel tool materials like cemented carbides and
ceramics which could machine much faster than the HSS tools.
The basic composition of HSS is 18% W, 4% Cr, 1% V, 0.7% C and rest Fe. Such HSS tool
could machine (turn) mild steel jobs at speed only up to 20 ~ 30 m/min (which was quite substantial
those days)
However, HSS is still used as cutting tool material where:
The tool geometry and mechanics of chip formation are complex, such as helical twist drills,
reamers, gear shaping cutters, hobs, form tools, broaches etc.
Brittle tools like carbides, ceramics etc. are not suitable under shock loading.
The small scale industries cannot afford costlier tools.
The old or low powered small machine tools cannot accept high speed and feed.
The tool is to be used number of times by resharpening.
With time the effectiveness and efficiency of HSS (tools) and their application range were gradually
enhanced by improving its properties and surface condition through:
Refinement of microstructure.
Addition of large amount of cobalt and Vanadium to increase hot hardness and wear resistance
respectively.
Manufacture by powder metallurgical process.
Surface coating with heat and wear resistive materials like TiC, TiN, etc. by Chemical Vapour
Deposition (CVD) or Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD).
The commonly used grades of HSS are given in Table 1.1.

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Table 1.1 Compositions and types of popular high speed steels

Type

T-1

0.70

T-4

0.75

T-6

0.80

M-2

0.80

M-4

1.30

M - 15

1.55

64.7

M - 42
1.08
1.5
9.5
4
1.1
8
62.4
Addition of large amount of Co and V, refinement of microstructure and coating increased
strength and wear resistance and thus enhanced productivity and life of the HSS tools remarkably.
b) Stellite
This is a cast alloy of Co (40 to 50%), Cr (27 to 32%), W (14 to 19%) and C (2%). Stellite is
quite tough and more heat and wear resistive than the basic HSS (18 - 4 - 1) But such stellite as cutting
tool material became obsolete for its poor grindability and especially after the arrival of cemented
carbides.
c) Sintered Tungsten carbides
The advent of sintered carbides made another breakthrough in the history of cutting tool
materials.

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i) Straight or single carbide

First the straight or single carbide tools or inserts were powder metallurgically produced by
mixing, compacting and sintering 90 to 95% WC powder with cobalt. The hot, hard and wear resistant
WC grains are held by the binder Co which provides the necessary strength and toughness. Such tools
are suitable for machining grey cast iron, brass, bronze etc. which produce short discontinuous chips and
at cutting velocities two to three times of that possible for HSS tools.

ii) Composite carbides

The single carbide is not suitable for machining steels because of rapid growth of wear,
particularly crater wear, by diffusion of Co and carbon from the tool to the chip under the high stress and
temperature bulk (plastic) contact between the continuous chip and the tool surfaces.
For machining steels successfully, another type called composite carbide have been developed by
adding (8 to 20%) a gamma phase to WC and Co mix. The gamma phase is a mix of TiC, TiN, TaC, NiC
etc. which are more diffusion resistant than WC due to their more stability and less wettability by steel.

iii) Mixed carbides

Titanium carbide (TiC) is not only more stable but also much harder than WC. So for machining
ferritic steels causing intensive diffusion and adhesion wear a large quantity (5 to 25%) of TiC is added
with WC and Co to produce another grade called mixed carbide. But increase in TiC content reduces the
toughness of the tools. Therefore, for finishing with light cut but high speed, the harder grades
containing up to 25% TiC are used and for heavy roughing work at lower speeds lesser amount (5 to
10%) of TiC is suitable.

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Gradation of cemented carbides and their applications

The standards developed by ISO for grouping of carbide tools and their application ranges are
given in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2 Broad classifications of carbide tools
Colour Code

Application

Sky blue

For machining long chip forming common materials like plain carbon and
low alloy steels.

Yellow

For machining long or short chip forming ferrous materials like Stainless
steel.

Red

For machining short chipping, ferrous and non-ferrous material and nonmetals like Cast Iron, Brass etc.

ISO Code

K-group is suitable for machining short chip producing ferrous and non-ferrous metals and also
some non metals.
P-group is suitably used for machining long chipping ferrous metals i.e. plain carbon and low
alloy steels.
M-group is generally recommended for machining more difficult-to-machine materials like strain
hardening austenitic steel and manganese steel etc.
Each group again is divided into some subgroups like P10, P20 etc., as shown in Table 1.3
depending upon their properties and applications.

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Table 1.3 Detail grouping of cemented carbide tools

P50
K01
K10
K20

Turning, milling, medium speed with small chip section

Steel, steel castings, malleable

cast iron forming long chips
Steel and steel casting with
sand inclusions
Steel and steel castings of
medium or low tensile strength
Hard grey C.I., chilled casting,
Al. alloys with high silicon
Grey C.I. hardness > 220 HB.
Malleable C.I., Al. alloys
containing Si
Grey C.I. hardness up to 220
HB

K40

M10
M20

M30

M40

Steel, steel castings, malleable

cast iron

Soft grey C.I. Low tensile

strength steel

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K30

Precision and finish machining, high speed

Turning, threading and milling high speed, small chips

P40

Steel, Steel castings

Steel, steel castings

Turning, milling, low cutting speed, large chip section

Turning, planning, low cutting speed, large chip section
Operations requiring high toughness turning, planning,
shaping at low cutting speeds

P30

Process

Turning, precision turning and boring, milling, scraping

P20

Material

Turning, milling, boring, reaming, broaching, scraping

Turning, milling, broaching, requiring high toughness

ISO
App.
group
P01
P10

Turning, reaming under favourable conditions

Soft non-ferrous metals

Turning milling etc.

Steel, steel castings,

manganese steel, grey C.I.
Steel casting, austenitic steel,
manganese steel, spherodized
C.I., Malleable C.I.

Turning at medium or high cutting speed, medium chip

section
Turning, milling, medium cutting speed and medium
chip section

Steel, austenitic steel,

spherodized C.I. heat resisting
alloys

Turning, milling, planning, medium cutting speed,

medium or large chip section

Free cutting steel, low tensile

strength steel, brass and light
alloy

Turning, profile turning, especially in automatic

machines.

The smaller number refers to the operations which need more wear resistance and the larger
numbers to those requiring higher toughness for the tool.
d) Plain ceramics
Inherently high compressive strength, chemical stability and hot hardness of the ceramics led to
powder metallurgical production of indexable ceramic tool inserts since 1950. Table 1.4 shows the
advantages and limitations of alumina ceramics in contrast to sintered carbide. Alumina (Al2O3) is
preferred to silicon nitride (Si3N4) for higher hardness and chemical stability. Si3N4 is tougher but again
more difficult to process. The plain ceramic tools are brittle in nature and hence had limited applications.

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Table 1.4
.4 Cutting tool properties of alumina ceramics
Shortcoming

Very high hardness

Poor toughness

Very
ery high hot hardness

Poor
oor tensile strength

Chemical stability

Poor TRS

Antiwelding

Low
ow thermal conductivity

Less diffusivity

Less density

Advantages

High
igh abrasion resistance

Very
ery low thermal conductivity*
Very
ery low thermal expansion coefficient

High melting point

* Cutting tool should resist penetration of heat but should disperse the heat throughout the core.

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Basically three types of ceramic tool bits are available in the market:
mark
Plain alumina with traces of additives - these white or pink sintered inserts are cold pressed and
are used mainly for machining cast iron and similar materials at speeds 200 to 250 m/min.
m/min
Alumina; with
th or without additives - hot pressed, black colour, hard and strong - used for
machining steels and cast iron at VC = 150 to 250 m/min.
m/min
Carbide ceramic (Al2O3 + 30% TiC) cold or hot pressed, black colour, quite strong and enough
tough - used for machining hard cast irons and plain and alloy steels at 150 to 200 m/min.
The plain ceramic outperformed the existing tool materials in some application areas like high speed
machining of softer steels mainly for higher hot hardness as indicated in Fig. 1.43.
1.4

Fig. 1.43 Hot hardness of the different commonly used tool materials (Ref. Book by A. Bhattacharya)
However, the use of those brittle plain ceramic tools, until their strength and toughness could be
substantially improved since 1970, gradually decreased for being restricted to:
to
Uninterrupted machining of soft cast irons and steels only
Relatively high cutting velocity but only in a narrow range (200 ~ 300 m/min)
Requiring very rigid machine tools
Advent of coated carbide capable of machining
machining cast iron and steels at high velocity made the ceramics
almost obsolete.

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1.7.4 Development and applications of advanced tool materials

a) Coated carbides
The properties and performance of carbide tools could be substantially improved by:
Refining microstructure.
Manufacturing by casting - expensive and uncommon.
Surface coating - made remarkable contribution.
Thin but hard coating of single or multilayer of more stable and heat and wear resistive materials like
TiC, TiCN, TiOCN, TiN, Al2O3 etc on the tough carbide inserts (substrate) (Fig. 1.44) by processes like
chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD), Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD) etc at controlled pressure and
temperature enhanced MRR and overall machining economy remarkably enabling:
Reduction of cutting forces and power consumption.
Increase in tool life (by 200 to 500 %) for same VC or increase in VC (by 50 to 150 %) for same
tool life.
Improvement in product quality.
Effective and efficient machining of wide range of work materials.
Pollution control by less or no use of cutting fluid, through Reduction of abrasion, adhesion and diffusion wear.
Reduction of friction and BUE formation.
Heat resistance and reduction of thermal cracking and plastic deformation.

Fig. 1.44 Machining by coated carbide insert.

Fig. 1.45 Role of coating even after its wear and rupture

The contribution of the coating continues even after rupture of the coating as indicated in Fig. 1.45.
The cutting velocity range in machining mild steel could be enhanced from 120 ~ 150 m/min to
300 ~ 350 m/min by properly coating the suitable carbide inserts.
About 50% of the carbide tools being used at present are coated carbides which are obviously to
some extent costlier than the uncoated tools.
Different varieties of coated tools are available. The appropriate one is selected depending upon
the type of the cutting tool, work material and the desired productivity and product quality.
The properties and performances of coated inserts and tools are getting further improved by:
Refining the microstructure of the coating.
Multilayering (already up to 13 layers within 12 ~ 16 m).
Direct coating by TiN instead of TiC, if feasible.
Using better coating materials.
b) Cermets
These sintered hard inserts are made by combining cer from ceramics like TiC, TiN or TiCN
and met from metal (binder) like Ni, Ni-Co, Fe etc. Since around 1980, the modern cermets providing
much better performance are being made by TiCN which is consistently more wear resistant, less porous
and easier to make.

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The characteristic features of such cermets, in contrast to sintered tungsten carbides, are:
The grains are made of TiCN (in place of WC) and Ni or Ni-Co and Fe as binder (in place of Co)
Harder, more chemically stable and hence more wear resistant.
More brittle and less thermal shock resistant.
Wt% of binder metal varies from 10 to 20%.
Cutting edge sharpness is retained unlike in coated carbide inserts.
Can machine steels at higher cutting velocity than that used for tungsten carbide, even coated
carbides in case of light cuts.
Application wise, the modern TiCN based cermets with beveled or slightly rounded cutting edges are
suitable for finishing and semi-finishing of steels at higher speeds, stainless steels but are not suitable for
jerky interrupted machining and machining of aluminium and similar materials. Research and
development are still going on for further improvement in the properties and performance of cermets.

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c) Coronite
It is already mentioned earlier that the properties and performance of HSS tools could have been
sizably improved by refinement of microstructure, powder metallurgical process of making and surface
coating. Recently a unique tool material, namely Coronite has been developed for making the tools like
small and medium size drills and milling cutters etc. which were earlier essentially made of HSS.
Coronite is made basically by combining HSS for strength and toughness and tungsten carbides
for heat and wear resistance. Micro fine TiCN particles are uniformly dispersed into the matrix.
Unlike solid carbide, the coronite based tool is made of three layers:
The central HSS or spring steel core.
A layer of coronite of thickness around 15% of the tool diameter.
A thin (2 to 5 m) PVD coating of TiCN.
Such tools are not only more productive but also provide better product quality. The coronite tools made
by hot extrusion followed by PVD-coating of TiN or TiCN outperformed HSS tools in respect of cutting
forces, tool life and surface finish.

d) High Performance ceramics (HPC)

Ceramic tools as such are much superior to sintered carbides in respect of hot hardness, chemical
stability and resistance to heat and wear but lack in fracture toughness and strength as indicated in
Fig. 1.46.

Fig. 1.46 Comparison of important properties of ceramic and tungsten carbide tools

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Through last few years remarkable improvements in strength and toughness and hence overall
performance of ceramic tools could have been possible by several means which include:
Sinterability, microstructure, strength and toughness of Al2O3 ceramics were improved to some
extent by adding TiO2 and MgO.
Transformation toughening by adding appropriate amount of partially or fully stabilized zirconia
in Al2O3 powder.
Isostatic and hot isostatic pressing (HIP) - these are very effective but expensive route.
Introducing nitride ceramic (Si3N4) with proper sintering technique - this material is very tough
but prone to built-up-edge formation in machining steels.
Developing SIALON - deriving beneficial effects of Al2O3 and Si3N4.
Adding carbide like TiC (5 ~ 15%) in Al2O3 powder - to impart toughness and thermal
conductivity.
Reinforcing oxide or nitride ceramics by SiC whiskers, which enhanced strength, toughness and
life of the tool and thus productivity spectacularly. But manufacture and use of this unique tool
need especially careful handling.
Toughening Al2O3 ceramic by adding suitable metal like silver which also impart thermal
conductivity and self lubricating property; this novel and inexpensive tool is still in experimental
stage.
The enhanced qualities of the unique high performance ceramic tools, specially the whisker and zirconia
based types enabled them machine structural steels at speed even beyond 500 m/min and also
intermittent cutting at reasonably high speeds, feeds and depth of cut. Such tools are also found to
machine relatively harder and stronger steels quite effectively and economically.
The successful and commonly used high performance ceramic tools have been discussed here:
The HPC tools can be broadly classified into two groups as:
HPC Tools

Nitride Ceramics
Silicon Nitride
(i) Plain
(ii) SIALON
(iii) Whisker toughened

Oxide Ceramics
Alumina toughened by
(i) Zirconia
(ii) SiC whiskers
(iii) Metal (Silver, etc.)

Nitride based ceramic tools

i) Plain nitride ceramics tools
Compared to plain alumina ceramics, Nitride (Si3N4) ceramic tools exhibit more resistance to
fracturing by mechanical and thermal shocks due to higher bending strength, toughness and higher
conductivity. Hence such tool seems to be more suitable for rough and interrupted cutting of various
material excepting steels, which cause rapid diffusion wear and BUE formation. The fracture toughness
and wear resistance of nitride ceramic tools could be further increased by adding zirconia and coating the
finished tools with high hardness alumina and titanium compound.
Nitride ceramics cannot be easily compacted and sintered to high density. Sintering with the aid
of reaction bonding and hot pressing may reduce this problem to some extent.
ii) SIALON tools
Hot pressing and sintering of an appropriate mix of Al2O3 and Si3N4 powders yielded an
excellent composite ceramic tool called SIALON which are very hot hard, quite tough and wear
resistant.

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THEORY OF METAL CUTTING

These tools can machine steel and cast irons at high speeds (250 - 300 m/min). But machining of
steels by such tools at too high speeds reduces the tool life by rapid diffusion.

iii) SiC reinforced Nitride tools

The toughness, strength and thermal conductivity and hence the overall performance of nitride
ceramics could be increased remarkably by adding SiC whiskers or fibers in 5 - 25 volume %. The SiC
whiskers add fracture toughness mainly through crack bridging, crack deflection and fiber pull-out.
Such tools are very expensive but extremely suitable for high production machining of various
soft and hard materials even under interrupted cutting.

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iv) Zirconia (or partially stabilized Zirconia) toughened alumina (ZTA) ceramic
The enhanced strength, TRS and toughness have made these ZTAs more widely applicable and
more productive than plain ceramics and cermets in machining steels and cast irons. Fine powder of
partially stabilized zirconia (PSZ) is mixed in proportion of ten to twenty volume percentage with pure
alumina, then either cold pressed and sintered at 16000 C - 17000 C or hot isostatically pressed (HIP)
under suitable temperature and pressure. The phase transformation of metastable tetragonal zirconia
(t-Z) to monoclinic zirconia (m-Z) during cooling of the composite (Al2O3 + ZrO2) inserts after sintering
or HIP and during polishing and machining imparts the desired strength and fracture toughness through
volume expansion (3 - 5%) and induced shear strain (7%). The mechanisms of toughening effect of
zirconia in the basic alumina matrix are stress induced transformation toughening as indicated in
Fig. 1.47 and micro crack nucleation toughening.

Fig. 1.47 The method of crack shielding by a transformation zone

Their hardness has been raised further by proper control of particle size and sintering process.
Hot pressing and HIP raise the density, strength and hot hardness of ZTA tools but the process becomes
expensive and the tool performance degrades at lower cutting speeds. However such ceramic tools can
machine steel and cast iron at speed range of 150 - 500 m/min.
v) Alumina ceramic reinforced by SiC whiskers
The properties, performances and application range of alumina based ceramic tools have been
improved spectacularly through drastic increase in fracture toughness (2.5 times), TRS and bulk thermal
conductivity, without sacrificing hardness and wear resistance by mechanically reinforcing the brittle
alumina matrix with extremely strong and stiff silicon carbide whiskers. The randomly oriented, strong
and thermally conductive whiskers enhance the strength and toughness mainly by crack deflection and
crack-bridging and also by reducing the temperature gradient within the tool.
After optimization of the composition, processing and the tool geometry, such tools have been
found too effectively and efficiently machine wide range of materials, over wide speed range (250 - 600
m/min) even under large chip loads. But manufacturing of whiskers need very careful handling and
precise control and these tools are costlier than zirconia toughened ceramic tools.

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vi) Silver toughened alumina ceramic

Toughening of alumina with metal particle became an important topic since 1990 though its
possibility was reported in 1950s. Alumina-metal composites have been studied primarily using addition
of metals like aluminium, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, iron and silver. Compared to zirconia and
carbides, metals were found to provide more toughness in alumina ceramics. Again compared to other
metal-toughened ceramics, the silver-toughened ceramics can be manufactured by simpler and more
economical process routes like pressureless sintering and without atmosphere control.
All such potential characteristics of silver-toughened alumina ceramic have already been
exploited in making some salient parts of automobiles and similar items. Research is going on to develop
and use silver-toughened alumina for making cutting tools like turning inserts.. The toughening of the
alumina matrix by the addition of metal occurs mainly by crack deflection and crack bridging by the
metal grains as schematically shown in Fig. 1.48.

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Fig. 1.48 Toughening mechanism of alumina by metal dispersion

Addition of silver further helps by increasing thermal conductivity of the tool and self lubrication
by the traces of the silver that oozes out through the pores and reaches at the chip-tool interface. Such
HPC tools can suitably machine with large MRR and VC (250 - 400 m/min) and long tool life even under
light interrupted cutting like milling. Such tools also can machine steels at speed from quite low to very
high cutting velocities (200 to 500 m/min).

e) Cubic Boron Nitride

Next to diamond, cubic boron nitride is the hardest material presently available. Only in 1970
and onward CBN in the form of compacts has been introduced as cutting tools. It is made by bonding a
0.5 - 1 mm layer of polycrystalline cubic boron nitride to cobalt based carbide substrate at very high
temperature and pressure. It remains inert and retains high hardness and fracture toughness at elevated
machining speeds. It shows excellent performance in grinding any material of high hardness and
strength. The extreme hardness, toughness, chemical and thermal stability and wear resistance led to the
development of CBN cutting tool inserts for high material removal rate (MRR) as well as precision
machining imparting excellent surface integrity of the products. Such unique tools effectively and
beneficially used in machining wide range of work materials covering high carbon and alloy steels, nonferrous metals and alloys, exotic metals like Ni-hard, Inconel, Nimonic etc and many non-metallic
materials which are as such difficult to machine by conventional tools. It is firmly stable at temperatures
up to 14000 C. The operative speed range for CBN when machining grey cast iron is 300 ~ 400 m/min.
Speed ranges for other materials are as follows:
Hard cast iron (> 400 BHN): 80 - 300 m/min.
Superalloys (> 35 RC): 80 - 140 m/min.
Hardened steels (> 45 RC): 100 - 300 m/min.

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In addition to speed, the most important factor that affects performance of CBN inserts is the
preparation of cutting edge. It is best to use CBN tools with a honed or chamfered edge preparation,
especially for interrupted cuts. Like ceramics, CBN tools are also available only in the form of indexable
inserts. The only limitation of it is its high cost.

(f) Diamond Tools

Single stone, natural or synthetic, diamond crystals are used as tips/edge of cutting tools. Owing
to the extreme hardness and sharp edges, natural single crystal is used for many applications, particularly
where high accuracy and precision are required. Their important uses are:
Single point cutting tool tips and small drills for high speed machining of non-ferrous metals,
ceramics, plastics, composites, etc. and effective machining of difficult-to-machine materials.
Drill bits for mining, oil exploration, etc.
Tool for cutting and drilling in glasses, stones, ceramics, FRPs etc.
Wire drawing and extrusion dies.
Superabrasive wheels for critical grinding.
Limited supply, increasing demand, high cost and easy cleavage of natural diamond demanded a more
reliable source of diamond. It led to the invention and manufacture of artificial diamond grits by ultrahigh temperature and pressure synthesis process, which enables large scale manufacture of diamond with
some control over size, shape and friability of the diamond grits as desired for various applications.

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i) Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD)

The polycrystalline diamond (PCD) tools consist of a layer (0.5 to 1.5 mm) of fine grain size,
randomly oriented diamond particles sintered with a suitable binder (usually cobalt) and then
metallurgically bonded to a suitable substrate like cemented carbide or Si3N4 inserts. PCD exhibits
excellent wear resistance, hold sharp edge, generates little friction in the cut, provide high fracture
strength, and had good thermal conductivity. These properties contribute to PCD toolings long life in
conventional and high speed machining of soft, non-ferrous materials (aluminium, magnesium, copper
etc), advanced composites and metal-matrix composites, superalloys, and non-metallic materials.
PCD is particularly well suited for abrasive materials (i.e. drilling and reaming metal matrix
composites) where it provides 100 times the life of carbides. PCD is not usually recommended for
ferrous metals because of high solubility of diamond (carbon) in these materials at elevated temperature.
However, they can be used to machine some of these materials under special conditions; for example,
light cuts are being successfully made in grey cast iron. The main advantage of such PCD tool is the
greater toughness due to finer microstructure with random orientation of the grains and reduced
cleavage.
But such unique PCD also suffers from some limitations like:
High tool cost.
Presence of binder, cobalt, which reduces wear resistance and thermal stability.
Complex tool shapes like in-built chip breaker cannot be made.
Size restriction, particularly in making very small diameter tools.
The above mentioned limitations of polycrystalline diamond tools have been almost overcome by
developing Diamond coated tools.

ii) Diamond coated carbide tools

Since the invention of low pressure synthesis of diamond from gaseous phase, continuous effort
has been made to use thin film diamond in cutting tool field. These are normally used as thin (<50 m)
or thick (> 200 m) films of diamond synthesized by CVD method for cutting tools, dies, wear surfaces
and even abrasives for Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) and grinding.

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Thin film is directly deposited on the tool surface. Thick film (> 500 m) is grown on an easy
substrate and later brazed to the actual tool substrate and the primary substrate is removed by dissolving
it or by other means. Thick film diamond finds application in making inserts, drills, reamers, end mills,
routers.
CVD coating has been more popular than single diamond crystal and PCD mainly for:
Free from binder, higher hardness, resistance to heat and wear more than PCD and properties
close to natural diamond.
Highly pure, dense and free from single crystal cleavage.
Permits wider range of size and shape of tools and can be deposited on any shape of the tool
including rotary tools.
Relatively less expensive.
However, achieving improved and reliable performance of thin film CVD diamond coated tools;
(carbide, nitride, ceramic, SiC etc) in terms of longer tool life, dimensional accuracy and surface finish
of jobs essentially need:
Good bonding of the diamond layer.
Adequate properties of the film, e.g. wear resistance, micro-hardness, edge coverage, edge
sharpness and thickness uniformity.
Ability to provide work surface finish required for specific applications.
While CBN tools are feasible and viable for high speed machining of hard and strong steels and similar
materials, Diamond tools are extremely useful for machining stones, slates, glass, ceramics, composites,
FRPs and non ferrous metals specially which are sticky and BUE former such as pure aluminium and its
alloys. CBN and Diamond tools are also essentially used for ultra precision as well as micro and nano
machining.

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1.8
TOOL WEAR
1.8.1 Failure of cutting tools
Smooth, safe and economic machining necessitates:
Prevention of premature and terrible failure of the cutting tools.
Reduction of rate of wear of tool to prolong its life.
To accomplish the aforesaid objectives one should first know why and how the cutting tools fail. Cutting
tools generally fail by:
Mechanical breakage due to excessive forces and shocks. Such kind of tool failure is random and
catastrophic in nature and hence is extremely detrimental.
Quick dulling by plastic deformation due to intensive stresses and temperature. This type of
failure also occurs rapidly and is quite detrimental and unwanted.
Gradual wear of the cutting tool at its flanks and rake surface.
The first two modes of tool failure are very harmful not only for the tool but also for the job and the
machine tool. Hence these kinds of tool failure need to be prevented by using suitable tool materials and
geometry depending upon the work material and cutting condition.
But failure by gradual wear, which is inevitable, cannot be prevented but can be slowed down
only to enhance the service life of the tool. The cutting tool is withdrawn immediately after it fails or, if
possible, just before it totally fails. For that one must understand that the tool has failed or is going to fail
shortly.
It is understood or considered that the tool has failed or about to fail by one or more of the
following conditions:
(a) In R&D laboratories
Total breakage of the tool or tool tip(s).
Massive fracture at the cutting edge(s).

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THEORY OF METAL CUTTING

Excessive increase in cutting forces and/or vibration.

Average wear (flank or crater) reaches its specified limit(s).
(b) In machining industries
Excessive (beyond limit) current or power consumption.
Excessive vibration and/or abnormal sound (chatter).
Total breakage of the tool.
Dimensional deviation beyond tolerance.
Rapid worsening of surface finish.
Adverse chip formation.

Mechanisms and pattern (geometry) of cutting tool wear

For the purpose of controlling tool wear one must understand the various mechanisms of wear
that the cutting tool undergoes under different conditions.
The common mechanisms of cutting tool wear are:
(a) Mechanical wear
Thermally insensitive type; like abrasion, chipping and de-lamination.
Thermally sensitive type; like adhesion, fracturing, flaking etc.
Flank wear is a flat portion worn behind the cutting edge which eliminates some clearance or relief. It
takes place when machining brittle materials. Wear at the tool-chip interface occurs in the form of a
depression or crater. It is caused by the pressure of the chip as it slides up the face of the cutting tool.
Both flank and crater wear take place when feed is greater than 0.15 mm/rev at low or moderate speeds.

1.8.2

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(b) Thermo chemical wear

Macro-diffusion by mass dissolution.
Micro-diffusion by atomic migration.
In diffusion wear the material from the tool at its rubbing surfaces, particularly at the rake surface
gradually diffuses into the flowing chips either in bulk or atom by atom when the tool material has
chemical affinity or solid solubility towards the work material. The rate of such tool wears increases
with the increase in temperature at the cutting zone. This wear becomes predominant when the cutting
temperature becomes very high due to high cutting velocity and high strength of the work material.

(c) Chemical wear

Chemical wear, leading to damages like grooving wear may occur if the tool material is not
enough chemically stable against the work material and/or the atmospheric gases.
(d) Galvanic wear
Galvanic wear, based on electrochemical dissolution, seldom occurs when the work and tool
materials are electrically conductive, cutting zone temperature is high and the cutting fluid acts as an
electrolyte.
The usual pattern or geometry of wear of face milling inserts, turning tools and turning inserts
are typically shown in Fig. 1.49 (a, b, c and d).

Fig. 1.49 (a) Schematic view of wear pattern of face milling insert

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Fig. 1.49 (c) Photographic view of the

wear pattern of a turning tool insert

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Fig. 1.49 (b) Geometry and major features of

wear of turning tools

Fig. 1.49 (d) Different types of wears of turning tools

In addition to ultimate failure of the tool, the following effects are also caused by the growing tool-wear:
Increase in cutting forces and power consumption mainly due to the principal flank wear.
Increase in dimensional deviation and surface roughness mainly due to wear of the tool-tips and
auxiliary flank wear (Vs).
Odd sound and vibration.
Worsening surface integrity.
Mechanically weakening of the tool tip.
1.8.3 Measurement of tool wear
The various methods are:
By loss of tool material in volume or weight, in one life time - this method is crude and is
generally applicable for critical tools like grinding wheels.
By grooving and indentation method - in this approximate method wear depth is measured
indirectly by the difference in length of the groove or the indentation outside and inside the worn
area.
Using optical microscope fitted with micrometer - very common and effective method.
Using scanning electron microscope (SEM) - used generally, for detailed study; both qualitative
and quantitative.
Talysurf, especially for shallow crater wear.

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THEORY OF METAL CUTTING

1.9
TOOL LIFE
Definition:
Tool life generally indicates the amount of satisfactory performance or service rendered by a
fresh tool or a cutting point till it is declared failed. Tool life is defined in two ways:

(a) In R & D: Actual machining time (period) by which a fresh cutting tool (or point)
satisfactorily works after which it needs replacement or reconditioning. The modern tools hardly fail
prematurely or abruptly by mechanical breakage or rapid plastic deformation. Those fail mostly by
wearing process which systematically grows slowly with machining time. In that case, tool life means
the span of actual machining time by which a fresh tool can work before attaining the specified limit of
tool wear. Mostly tool life is decided by the machining time till flank wear, VB reaches 0.3 mm or crater
wear, KT reaches 0.15 mm.
(b) In industries or shop floor: The length of time of satisfactory service or amount of
acceptable output provided by a fresh tool prior to it is required to replace or recondition.

Assessment of tool life

For R & D purposes, tool life is always assessed or expressed by span of machining time in
minutes, whereas, in industries besides machining time in minutes some other means are also used to
assess tool life, depending upon the situation, such as:
Number of pieces of work machined.
Total volume of material removed.
Total length of cut.
Taylors tool life equation
Wear and hence tool life of any tool for any work material is governed mainly by the level of the
machining parameters i.e., cutting velocity (VC), feed (f) and depth of cut (t). Cutting velocity affects
maximum and depth of cut minimum.
The usual pattern of growth of cutting tool wear (mainly VB), principle of assessing tool life and
its dependence on cutting velocity are schematically shown in Fig. 1.50.

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1.9.1

Fig. 1.50 Growth of flank wear and assessment of tool life

The tool life obviously decreases with the increase in cutting velocity keeping other conditions
unaltered as indicated in Fig. 1.51. If the tool lives, T1, T2, T3, T4 etc are plotted against the
corresponding cutting velocities, V1, V2, V3, V4 etc as shown in Fig. 1.51, a smooth curve like a
rectangular hyperbola is found to appear. When F. W. Taylor plotted the same figure taking both V and
T in log-scale, a more distinct linear relationship appeared as schematically shown in Fig. 1.52.

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Fig. 1.51 Cutting velocity - tool life relationship

MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY - II

Fig. 1.52 Cutting velocity - tool life on a log-log scale

With the slope, n and intercept, c, Taylor derived the simple equation as,

1.53
where, n is called, Taylors tool life exponent. The values of both n and c depend mainly upon
the tool-work materials and the cutting environment (cutting fluid application). The value of C depends
also on the limiting value of VB undertaken (i.e., 0.3 mm, 0.4 mm, 0.6 mm etc.).
Modified Taylors tool life equation
In Taylors tool life equation, only the effect of variation of cutting velocity, VC on tool life has
been considered. But practically, the variation in feed (f) and depth of cut (t) also play role on tool life to
some extent. Taking into account the effects of all those parameters, the Taylors tool life equation has
been modified as,
T = / . .
1.54
where, T = tool life in minutes, CT a constant depending mainly upon the tool - work materials
and the limiting value of VB undertaken. x, y and z exponents so called tool life exponents depending
upon the tool - work materials and the machining environment. Generally, x > y > z as VC affects tool
life maximum and t minimum. The values of the constants, CT, x, y and z are available in Machining
Data Handbooks or can be evaluated by machining tests.
1.9.3

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1.9.2

Effect of tool geometry on tool life

The tool life is also affected by tool geometry. The nose radius (R) tends to improve tool life and
is evident from the relation: . .
1.55
Effect of side cutting edge angle on tool life
The side cutting edge angle (s) may improve tool life under non-chatter conditions:
. ! "# $ % .&

1.9.4

1.56

1.9.5

Tool life in terms of metal removal

The volume of metal removal from the work piece between tool sharpening for definite depth of
cut, feed and cutting speed can be determined as follows. For example in case of turning:
Cutting speed VC = DN / 1000 m/min
1.57
where D - Diameter of work piece (mm).
N - Rotation speed of work piece (rpm).
Let
t - Depth of cut (mm).
f - Feed rate (mm/min).
ttf - Time of tool failure (min).
T - Tool life in 1 mm3 of metal removal.

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1.9.6 Factors affecting tool life

The life of the cutting tool is affected by the following factors:
Cutting speed.
Feed and depth of cut.
Tool geometry.
Tool material.
Cutting fluid.
Work piece material.
Rigidity of work, tool and machine.

1.58
1.59
1.60
1.61
1.62
1.63

Volume of metal removed per revolution = .D.t.f mm3

Volume of metal removed per minute = .D.t.f.N mm3
Volume of metal removed in ttf minute = .D.t.f.N.ttf mm3
Therefore, Volume of metal removed between tool grinds = .D.t.f.N.ttf mm3
T = .D.t.f.N.ttf mm3 = 1000.VC.t.f.ttf mm3
T = VC.t.f.ttf cm3

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1.9.7 Machinability
1.9.7.1 Concept, definition and criteria of judgement of machinability
The term; Machinability has been introduced for gradation of work materials with respect to
machining characteristics. But truly speaking, there is no unique or clear meaning of the term
machinability. People tried to describe Machinability in several ways such as:
It is generally applied to the machining properties of work material.
It refers to material (work) response to machining.
It is the ability of the work material to be machined.
It indicates how easily and fast a material can be machined.
But it has been agreed, in general, that it is difficult to clearly define and quantify Machinability. For
instance, saying material A is more machinable than material B may mean that compared to B:
A causes lesser tool wear or longer tool life.
A requires lesser cutting forces and power.
A provides better surface finish.
Attempts were made to measure or quantify machinability and it was done mostly in terms of:
Tool life which substantially influences productivity and economy in machining.
Magnitude of cutting forces which affects power consumption and dimensional accuracy.
Surface finish which plays role on performance and service life of the product.
Often cutting temperature and chip form are also considered for assessing machinability.
Machinability rating (MR) =

'())*+(, -+,./012123 40) 5-67 318123 9: ,12;4) 4--< <1+)

'())*+(, -+,./012123 40) '4.2*.6* ,)4.< 318123 9: ,12;4) 4--< <1+)

x 100

1.64

The free cutting steel, AISI - 1112, when machined (turned) at 100 fpm, provided 60 min of tool
life. If the work material to be tested provides 60 min of tool life at cutting velocity of 60 fpm (say), as
indicated in Fig. 1.53, under the same set of machining condition, then machinability (rating) of that
material would be,
9:
> 100 60 % or simply 60 (based on 100% for the standard material) or, simply the
MR = =::
value of the cutting velocity expressed in fpm at which a work material provides 60 min tool life was
directly considered as the MR of that work material. In this way the MR of some materials, for instance,
were evaluated as,

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Metal
MR
Ni
200
Br
300
Al
200
CI
70
Inconel
30
But usefulness and reliability of such practice faced several genuine doubts and questions:
Tool life cannot or should not be considered as the only criteria for judging machinability.
Under a given condition a material can yield different tool life even at a fixed speed (cutting
velocity); exact composition, microstructure, treatments etc. of that material may cause
significant difference in tool life.
The tool life - speed relationship of any material may substantially change with the variation in:
Material and geometry of the cutting tool.
Level of process parameters (Vc, f, t).
Machining environment (cutting fluid application).
Machine tool condition.

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Fig. 1.53 Machinability rating in terms of

Fig. 1.54 Role of cutting tool material
cutting velocity giving 60 min tool life
on machinability (tool life)
Keeping all such factors and limitations in view, Machinability can be tentatively defined as ability of
being machined and more reasonably as ease of machining.
Such ease of machining or machinability characteristics of any tool-work pair is to be judged by:
Magnitude of the cutting forces.
Tool wear or tool life.
Surface finish.
Magnitude of cutting temperature.
Chip forms.
Machinability will be considered desirably high when cutting forces, temperature, surface roughness and
tool wear are less, tool life is long and chips are ideally uniform and short enabling short chip-tool
contact length and less friction.
1.9.7.2 Role of the properties of the work material on machinability
The work material properties that generally govern machinability in varying extent are:
The basic nature - brittleness or ductility etc.
Microstructure.
Mechanical strength - fracture or yield.
Hardness and hot hardness, hot strength.
Work hardenability.
Thermal conductivity.
Chemical reactivity.
Stickiness / self lubricity.

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1.10 SURFACE FINISH

Generally, surface finish of any product depends on the following factors:
Cutting speed.
Feed.
Depth of cut.

Cutting speed
Better surface finish can be obtained at higher cutting speeds. Rough cutting takes place at lower
cutting speeds.
Feed

Surface finish will not be good when coarse feed is applied. But better finish can be obtained in
fine feeds.

Depth of cut
Lighter cuts provide good surface finish to the work piece. If depth of cut increases during
machining, the quality of surface finish will reduce.
Therefore, higher cutting speeds, fine feeds and low depth of cuts or applied to ensure good
surface finish. Usually, it is done in finishing cuts. But, lower cutting speeds, coarse feeds and heavier
depth of cuts are applied in rough cutting operations.

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1.11 CUTTING FLUIDS

1.11.1 Purposes and application of cutting fluid
The basic purposes of cutting fluid application are:
Cooling of the job and the tool to reduce the detrimental effects of cutting temperature on the job
and the tool.
Lubrication at the chip - tool interface and the tool flanks to reduce cutting forces and friction
and thus the amount of heat generation.
Cleaning the machining zone by washing away the chip - particles and debris which, if present,
spoils the finished surface and accelerates damage of the cutting edges.
Protection of the nascent finished surface - a thin layer of the cutting fluid sticks to the machined
surface and thus prevents its harmful contamination by the gases like SO2, O2, H2S, and NXOY
present in the atmosphere.
However, the main aim of application of cutting fluid is to improve machinability through reduction of
cutting forces and temperature, improvement by surface integrity and enhancement of tool life.
1.11.2 Essential properties of cutting fluids
To enable the cutting fluid fulfill its functional requirements without harming the Machine Fixture - Tool - Work (M-F-T-W) system and the operators, the cutting fluid should possess the
following properties:
For cooling:
High specific heat, thermal conductivity and film coefficient for heat transfer.
Spreading and wetting ability.
For lubrication:
High lubricity without gumming and foaming.
Wetting and spreading.
High film boiling point.
Friction reduction at extreme pressure (EP) and temperature.

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Chemical stability, non-corrosive to the materials of the M-F-T-W system.

Less volatile and high flash point.
High resistance to bacterial growth.
Odourless and also preferably colourless.
Non toxic in both liquid and gaseous stage.
Easily available and low cost.

MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY - II

Fig. 1.56 Apportionment of plastic and elastic

contact zone with increase in cutting velocity
The cutting fluid cannot penetrate or reach the plastic contact zone but enters in the elastic
contact zone by capillary effect. With the increase in cutting velocity, the fraction of plastic contact zone
gradually increases and covers almost the entire chip-tool contact zone as indicated in Fig. 1.56.
Therefore, at high speed machining, the cutting fluid becomes unable to lubricate and cools the tool and
the job only by bulk external cooling.
The chemicals like chloride, phosphate or sulphide present in the cutting fluid chemically reacts
with the work material at the chip under surface under high pressure and temperature and forms a thin
layer of the reaction product. The low shear strength of that reaction layer helps in reducing friction.
To form such solid lubricating layer under high pressure and temperature some extreme pressure
additive (EPA) is deliberately added in reasonable amount in the mineral oil or soluble oil.
For extreme pressure, chloride, phosphate or sulphide type EPA is used depending upon the
working temperature, i.e. moderate (2000 C ~ 3500 C), high (3500 C ~ 5000 C) and very high (5000 C ~
8000 C) respectively.

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Fig. 1.55 Cutting fluid action in machining

1.11.3 Principles of cutting fluid action

The chip-tool contact zone is usually comprised of two parts; plastic or bulk contact zone and
elastic contact zone as indicated in Fig. 1.55.

1.11.4 Types of cutting fluids and their application

Generally, cutting fluids are employed in liquid form but occasionally also employed in gaseous
form. Only for lubricating purpose, often solid lubricants are also employed in machining and grinding.
The cutting fluids, which are commonly used, are:
Air blast or compressed air only
Machining of some materials like grey cast iron become inconvenient or difficult if any cutting
fluid is employed in liquid form. In such case only air blast is recommended for cooling and cleaning.

Solid or semi-solid lubricant

Paste, waxes, soaps, graphite, Moly-disulphide (MoS2) may also often be used, either applied
directly to the workpiece or as an impregnant in the tool to reduce friction and thus cutting forces,
temperature and tool wear.

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Water

For its good wetting and spreading properties and very high specific heat, water is considered as
the best coolant and hence employed where cooling is most urgent.

Soluble oil
Water acts as the best coolant but does not lubricate. Besides, use of only water may impair the
machine-fixture-tool-work system by rusting. So oil containing some emulsifying agent and additive like
EPA, together called cutting compound, is mixed with water in a suitable ratio ( 1 ~ 2 in 20 ~ 50).
This milk like white emulsion, called soluble oil, is very common and widely used in machining
and grinding.

Cutting oils
Cutting oils are generally compounds of mineral oil to which are added desired type and amount
of vegetable, animal or marine oils for improving spreading, wetting and lubricating properties. As and
when required some EP additive is also mixed to reduce friction, adhesion and BUE formation in heavy
cuts.

Chemical fluids
These are occasionally used fluids which are water based where some organic and or inorganic
materials are dissolved in water to enable desired cutting fluid action.
There are two types of such cutting fluid:
Chemically inactive type - high cooling, anti-rusting and wetting but less lubricating.
Active (surface) type - moderate cooling and lubricating.

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Cryogenic cutting fluid

Extremely cold (cryogenic) fluids (often in the form of gases) like liquid CO2 or N2 are used in
some special cases for effective cooling without creating much environmental pollution and health
hazards.

1.11.5 Methods of application of cutting fluid

The effectiveness and expense of cutting fluid application significantly depend also on how it is
applied in respect of flow rate and direction of application. In machining, depending upon the
requirement and facilities available, cutting fluids are generally employed in the following ways (flow):
Drop-by-drop under gravity.
Flood under gravity.
In the form of liquid jet(s).
Mist (atomized oil) with compressed air.
Z-Z method - centrifugal through the grinding wheels (pores) as indicated in Fig. 1.57.

Fig 1.57 Z-Z method of cutting fluid application in grinding

Fig. 1.58 Application of cutting fluid

at high pressure through the hole in the tool

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The direction of application also significantly governs the effectiveness of the cutting fluid in
respect of reaching at or near the chip-tool and work-tool interfaces. Depending upon the requirement
and accessibility the cutting fluid is applied from top or side(s). In operations like deep hole drilling the
pressurized fluid is often sent through the axial or inner spiral hole(s) of the drill.
For effective cooling and lubrication in high speed machining of ductile metals having wide and
plastic chip-tool contact, cutting fluid may be pushed at high pressure to the chip-tool interface through
hole(s) in the cutting tool, as schematically shown in Fig. 1.58.

1.11.6 Selection of cutting fluid

The benefits of application of cutting fluid largely depend upon proper selection of the type of
the cutting fluid depending upon the work material, tool material and the machining condition. As for
example, for high speed machining of not-difficult-to-machine materials greater cooling type fluids are
preferred and for low speed machining of both conventional and difficult-to-machine materials greater
lubricating type fluid is preferred.
Selection of cutting fluids for machining some common engineering materials and operations are
presented as follows:

Grey cast iron:

Generally dry for its self lubricating property.
Air blast for cooling and flushing chips.
Soluble oil for cooling and flushing chips in high speed machining and grinding.

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Steels:
If machined by HSS tools, sol. Oil (1: 20 ~30) for low carbon and alloy steels and neat oil with
EPA for heavy cuts.
If machined by carbide tools thinner sol. Oil for low strength steel, thicker sol. Oil ( 1:10 ~ 20)
for stronger steels and straight sulphurised oil for heavy and low speed cuts and EP cutting oil for
high alloy steel.
Often steels are machined dry by carbide tools for preventing thermal shocks.

Aluminium and its alloys:

Preferably machined dry.
Light but oily soluble oil.
Straight neat oil or kerosene oil for stringent cuts.
Copper and its alloys:
Water based fluids are generally used.
Oil with or without inactive EPA for tougher grades of Cu-alloy.
Stainless steels and Heat resistant alloys:
High performance soluble oil or neat oil with high concentration with chlorinated EP additive.
The brittle ceramics and cermets should be used either under dry condition or light neat oil in
case of fine finishing.
Grinding at high speed needs cooling (1: 50 ~ 100) soluble oil. For finish grinding of metals and
alloys low viscosity neat oil is also used.

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CENTRE LATHE AND SPECIAL PURPOSE LATHES

UNIT - II

CENTRE LATHE AND SPECIAL PURPOSE LATHES

CENTRE LATHE
Lathe is the oldest machine tool invented, starting with the Egyptian tree lathes. It is the father of
all machine tools. Its main function is to remove material from a work piece to produce the required
shape and size. This is accomplished by holding the work piece securely and rigidly on the machine and
then turning it against the cutting tool which will remove material from the work piece in the form of
chips. It is used to machine cylindrical parts. Generally single point cutting tool is used. In the year 1797
Henry Maudslay, an Englishman, designed the first screw cutting lathe which is the forerunner of the
present day high speed, heavy duty production lathe.

2.1

Classification of lathes
Lathes are very versatile of wide use and are classified according to several aspects:
According to configuration:
Horizontal
- Most common for ergonomic conveniences.
Vertical
- Occupies less floor space, only some large lathes are of this type.
According to purpose of use:
General purpose
- Very versatile where almost all possible types of operations are carried
out on wide ranges of size, shape and materials of jobs; e.g.: centre lathes.
Single purpose
- Only one (occasionally two) type of operation is done on limited ranges
of size and material of jobs; e.g.: facing lathe, roll turning lathe etc.
Special purpose
- Where a definite number and type of operations are done repeatedly over
long time on a specific type of blank; e.g.: capstan lathe, turret lathe, gear blanking lathe etc.
According to size or capacity:
Small (low duty)
- In such light duty lathes (up to 1.1 kW), only small and medium
size jobs of generally soft and easily machinable materials are machined.
Medium (medium duty)
- These lathes of power nearly up to 11 kW are most versatile and
commonly used.
Large (heavy duty)
Mini or micro lathe
- These are tiny table-top lathes used for extremely small size jobs
and precision work; e.g.: Swiss type automatic lathe.
According to configuration of the jobs being handled:
Bar type
- Slender rod like jobs being held in collets.
Chucking type
- Disc type jobs being held in chucks.
Housing type
- Odd shape jobs, being held in face plate.
According to precision:
Ordinary
Precision (lathes) - These sophisticated lathes meant for high accuracy and finish and are
relatively more expensive.
According to number of spindles:
Single spindle
- Common.
Multi-spindle (2, 4, 6 or 8 spindles) - Such uncommon lathes are suitably used for fast and mass
production of small size and simple shaped jobs.
According to type of automation:
Fixed automation
- Conventional; e.g.: single spindle automat & Swiss type automatic lathe
Flexible automation - Modern; e.g.: CNC lathe, turning centre etc.

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According to degree of automation:

Non-automatic - Almost all the handling operations are done manually; e.g.: centre lathes.
Semi-automatic - Nearly half of the handling operations, irrespective of the processing
operations, are done automatically and rest manually; e.g.: copying lathe, relieving lathe etc.
Automatic
- Almost all the handling operations (and obviously all the processing operations)
are done automatically; e.g.: single spindle automat, Swiss type automatic lathe, etc.
CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES
Major parts of a centre lathe
Amongst the various types of lathes, centre lathes are the most versatile and commonly used.
Fig. 2.1 shows the basic configuration of a center lathe. The major parts are:

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2.2
2.2.1

Fig. 2.1 Schematic view of a center lathe

Headstock
It holds the spindle and through that power and rotation are transmitted to the job
at different speeds. Various work holding attachments such as three jaw chucks, collets, and centres can
be held in the spindle. The spindle is driven by an electric motor through a system of belt drives and gear
trains. Spindle rotational speed is controlled by varying the geometry of the drive train.

Tailstock
The tailstock can be used to support the end of the work piece with a center, to
support longer blanks or to hold tools for drilling, reaming, threading, or cutting tapers. It can be
adjusted in position along the ways to accommodate different length work pieces. The tailstock barrel
can be fed along the axis of rotation with the tailstock hand wheel.
Bed
Headstock is fixed and tailstock is clamped on it. Tailstock has a provision to slide
and facilitate operations at different locations. The bed is fixed on columns and the carriage travels on it.
Carriage
It is supported on the lathe bed-ways and can move in a direction parallel to the
lathe axis. The carriage is used for giving various movements to the tool by hand and by power. It carries
saddle, cross-slide, compound rest, tool post and apron.
Saddle
It carries the cross slide, compound rest and tool post. It is an
H-shaped casting fitted over the bed. It moves alone to guide ways.
Cross-slide
It carries the compound rest and tool post. It is mounted on the top
of the saddle. It can be moved by hand or may be given power feed through apron mechanism.

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Compound rest
It is mounted on the cross slide. It carries a circular base called
swivel plate which is graduated in degrees. It is used during taper turning to set the tool for angular cuts.
The upper part known as compound slide can be moved by means of a hand wheel.
Tool post
It is fitted over the compound rest. The tool is clamped in it.
Apron
Lower part of the carriage is termed as the apron. It is attached to
the saddle and hangs in front of the bed. It contains gears, clutches and levers for moving the carriage by
a hand wheel or power feed.

Feed mechanism
The movement of the tool relative to the work piece is termed as feed. The lathe
tool can be given three types of feed, namely, longitudinal, cross and angular.
When the tool moves parallel to the axis of the lathe, the movement is called longitudinal feed.
This is achieved by moving the carriage.
When the tool moves perpendicular to the axis of the lathe, the movement is called cross feed.
This is achieved by moving the cross slide.
When the tool moves at an angle to the axis of the lathe, the movement is called angular feed.
This is achieved by moving the compound slide, after swiveling it at an angle to the lathe axis.

Feed rod
The feed rod is a long shaft, used to move the carriage or cross-slide for turning,
facing, boring and all other operations except thread cutting. Power is transmitted from the lathe spindle
to the apron gears through the feed rod via a large number of gears.

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Lead screw
The lead screw is long threaded shaft used as a master screw and brought into
operation only when threads have to cut. In all other times the lead screw is disengaged from the gear
box and remains stationary. The rotation of the lead screw is used to traverse the tool along the work to
produce screw. The half nut makes the carriage to engage or disengage the lead screw.
Kinematic system and working principle of a centre lathe
Fig. 2.2 schematically shows the kinematic system of a 12 speed centre lathe.

2.2.2

Fig. 2.2 Kinematic system of a 12 speed centre lathe

For machining in machine tools the job and the cutting tool need to be moved relative to each
other. The tool-work motions are:
Formative motions: - cutting motion, feed motion.
Auxiliary motions: - indexing motion, relieving motion.

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Cutting motion is attained by rotating the job and feed motion is attained by linear travel
of the tool either axially for longitudinal feed or radially for cross feed.
It is noted, in general, from Fig. 2.2. The job gets rotation (and power) from the motor through the beltpulley, clutch and then the speed gear box which splits the input speed into a number (here 12) of speeds
by operating the cluster gears.
The cutting tool derives its automatic feed motion(s) from the rotation of the spindle via the gear
quadrant, feed gear box and then the apron mechanism where the rotation of the feed rod is transmitted:
Either to the pinion which being rolled along the rack provides the longitudinal feed.
Or to the screw of the cross slide for cross or transverse feed.
While cutting screw threads the half nuts are engaged with the rotating lead screw to positively
cause travel of the carriage and hence the tool parallel to the lathe bed i.e., job axis.
The feed-rate for both turning and threading is varied as needed by operating the Norton gear and
the Meander drive systems existing in the feed gear box (FGB). The range of feeds can be augmented by
changing the gear ratio in the gear quadrant connecting the FGB with the spindle.
As and when required, the tailstock is shifted along the lathe bed by operating the clamping bolt
and the tailstock quill is moved forward or backward or is kept locked in the desired location. The
versatility or working range of the centre lathes is augmented by using several special attachments.

In lathes:

2.2.3 Headstock driving mechanisms

There are two types of headstock driving mechanisms as follows:
1. Back geared headstock.
2. All geared headstock.

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2.2.3.1 Back geared headstock

Back gear arrangement is used for reducing the spindle speed, which is necessary for thread
cutting and knurling. The back gear arrangement is shown in Fig.2.3.

Fig. 2.3 Back gear arrangement

There is one stepped cone pulley in the lathe spindle. This pulley can freely rotate on the spindle.
A pinion gear P1 is connected to small end of the cone pulley. P1 will rotate when cone pulley rotates.
Bull gear G1 is keyed to lathe spindle such that the spindle will rotate when Gear G1 rotates. Speed
changes can be obtained by changing the flat belt on the steps. A bull gear G1 may be locked or unlocked
with this cone pulley by a lock pin.
There are two back gears B1 and B2 on a back shaft. It is operated by means of hand lever L; back
gears B1 and B2 can be engaged or disengaged with G1 and P1. For getting direct speed, back gear is not
engaged. The step cone pulley is locked with the main spindle by using the lock pin. The flat belt is
changed for different steps. Thus three or four ranges of speed can be obtained directly.

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For getting slow or indirect speeds, back gear is engaged by lever L and lock pin is disengaged.
Now, power will flow from P1 to B1. B1 to B2 (same shaft), B2 to G1 to spindle. As gear B1 is larger than
P1, the speed will further be reduced at B1. B1 and B2 will have the same speeds. The speed will further
be reduced at G1 because gear G1 is larger than B2. So, the speed of spindle is reduced by engaging the
back gear.

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2.2.3.2 All geared headstock

All geared headstock is commonly used in modern lathes because of the following advantages:
It gives wider range of spindle speeds.
It is more efficient and compact than cone pulley mechanism.
Power available at the tool is almost constant for all spindle speeds.
Belt shifting is eliminated.
The vibration of the spindle is reduced.
More power can be transmitted.
The all geared headstock is shown in Fig 2.4.

Fig. 2.4 All geared headstock

The power from the constant speed motor is delivered to the spindle through a belt drive. Speed
changing is made by levers. The different spindle speeds are obtained by shifting the levers into different
positions to obtain different gear combinations. This mechanism has a splined spindle, intermediate shaft
and a splined shaft. The splined shaft receives power from motor through a belt drive.
This shaft has 3 gears namely G1, G2 and G3. These gears can be shifted with the help of lever
along the shaft. Gears G4, G5 and G6 are mounted on intermediate shaft and cannot be moved axially.
Gears G7, G8 and G9 are mounted on splined headstock spindle and can be moved axially be levers.
Gears G1, G2 and G3 can be meshed with the gears G4, G5 and G6 individually. Similarly, gears G7, G8,
G9 can be meshed with gear G4, G5 and G6 individually. Thus, it provides nine different speeds.
2.2.4

Feed mechanisms
The feed mechanism is used to transmit power from the spindle to the carriage. Therefore, it
converts rotary motion of the spindle into linear motion of the carriage. The feed can be given either by
hand or automatically. For automatic feeding, the following feed mechanisms are used:
Tumbler gear reversing mechanism.
Quick-change gearbox.
Tumbler gear quick-change gearbox.
Apron mechanism.
Bevel gear feed reversing mechanism.

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2.2.4.1 Tumbler gear reversing mechanism

Tumbler gear mechanism is used to change the direction of lead screw and feed rod. By engaging
tumbler gear, the carriage can be moved along the lathe axis in either direction during thread cutting or
automatic machining. Fig. 2.5 shows the schematic arrangement of tumbler gear reversing mechanism.

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Fig. 2.5 Tumbler gear reversing mechanism

The tumbler gear unit has two pinions (A and B) of same size and is mounted on a bracket. The
bracket is pivoted at a point and can be moved up and down by a lever L. The bracket may be placed in
three positions i.e., upward, downward and neutral. Gear C is a spindle gear attached to the lathe
spindle. Gear D is the stud gear. The stud gear is connected to the lead screw gear through a set of
intermediate gears.
When the lever is shifted upward position, the gear A is engaged with spindle gear C and the
power is transmitted through C-A-D-E-F. During this position, lead screw will rotate in the same
direction as spindle rotates (i.e. both anticlockwise). Now, the carriage moves towards the headstock.
When the lever is shifted downward, the gear B is engaged with spindle gear C and the power is
transmitted through C-B-A-D-E-F. Hence, the lead screw will rotate in the opposite direction of the
spindle. Now, the carriage moves towards tailstock.
When the bracket is in neutral position, the engagement of tumbler gears is disconnected with the
spindle gear. Hence, there is no power transmission to lead screw.

2.2.4.2 Quick-change gear box

Quick-change gearbox is used to get various power feeds in the lathe. Fig. 2.6 shows the
schematic arrangement of quick-change gear box.

Fig. 2.6 quick-change gear box

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Power from the lathe spindle is transmitted to feed shaft through tumbler gear, change gear train
and quick-change gearbox. Shaft A (Cone gear shaft) contains 9 different sizes of gears keyed with it.
Shaft B (Sliding gear shaft) has a gear and it receives 9 different speeds from shaft A by the use of
sliding gear. Shaft B is connected to shaft C (Driven shaft) through 4 cone years. Therefore, Shaft C can
get 9 X 4 = 36 different speeds. The shaft C is connected to lead screw by a clutch and feed rod by a gear
train. Lead screw is used for thread cutting and feed rod is used for automatic feeds.

2.2.4.3 Tumbler gear quick-change gear box

The different speed of the driving shaft is obtained by a tumbler gear and cone gear arrangement.
Fig. 2.7 shows the schematic arrangement of tumbler gear quick-change gear box.

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Fig. 2.7 Tumbler gear quick-change gearbox

It is simpler than quick-change gearbox. A tumbler gear and a sliding gear are attached to the
bracket as shown in Fig. 2.7. Driving shaft has a cone gear made up of different sizes of gears. The
sliding gear is keyed to the driven shaft which is connected by the lead screw or feed rod. The sliding
gear can be made to slide and engaged at any desired position. By sliding the sliding gear to various
positions and engaging the tumbler gear, various speeds can be obtained.

2.2.4.4 Apron mechanism

Fig. 2.8 shows the schematic arrangement of apron mechanism.

Fig. 2.8 Apron mechanism

Lead screw and feed rod is getting power from spindle gear through tumbler gears. Power is
transmitted from feed rod to the worm wheel through gears A, B, C, D and worm.

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A splined shaft is attached with worm wheel. The splined shaft is always engaged with the gears
F and G which are keyed to the feed check shaft. A knob E is fitted with feed check shaft. Feed check
knob E can be placed in three positions such as neutral, push-in and pull-out.
When the feed check knob E is in neutral position, power is not transmitted either to cross feed
screw or to the carriage since gears F and G have no connection with H and K. Therefore, hand feed is
given as follows. When the longitudinal feed hand wheel rotates, pinion I will also be rotated through I
and H. pinion I will move on rack for taking longitudinal feed. For getting cross feed, cross slide screw
will be rotated by using cross slide hand wheel.
When the feed check knob E is push-in, rotating gear G will be engaged to H. then the power
will be transmitted to pinion I. pinion I will rotate on rack. So, automatic longitudinal feed takes place.
When the feed check knob E is pulled-out, the rotating gear F will be engaged to K. Hence, the power
will be transmitted to cross feed screws through L. This leads to automatic cross feed.
For thread cutting, half nut is engaged by half nut lever after putting knob E neutral position.
Half nut is firmly attached with the carriage. As the lead screw rotates, the carriage will automatically
move along the axis of the lathe. Both longitudinal and cross feed can be reversed by operating the
tumbler gear mechanism.

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2.2.4.5 Bevel gear feed reversing mechanism

The tumbler gear mechanism being a non-rigid construction cannot be used in a modern heavy
duty lathe. The clutch operated bevel gear feed reversing mechanism incorporated below the head stock
or in apron provides sufficient rigidity in construction. Fig. 2.9 shows the schematic arrangement of
bevel gear feed reversing mechanism.

Fig. 2.9 Bevel gear feed reversing mechanism

The motion is communicated from the spindle gear 2 to the gear on the stud shaft through the
intermediate gear. The bevel gear 8 is attached to the gear on the stud shaft and both of them can freely
rotate on shaft 7. The bevel gear 8 meshes with bevel gear 12 and 12 mesh with 10. 12, 10 and 8 are
having equal number of teeth. The bevel gear 10 can also rotate freely on shaft 7.
A clutch 11 is keyed to the shaft 7 by a feather key and may be shifted to left or right, by the
lever 9 to be engaged with the gear 8 or 10 or it remains in the neutral position. When the clutch engages
with bevel gear 8, gear 3 which is keyed to the shaft 7 and the lead screw, rotates in the same direction as
the gear 2. The direction of rotation is reversed when the clutch 11 engages with gear 10.

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2.2.5 Mounting of jobs in centre lathe

2.2.5.1 Without additional support from the tailstock
Chucks - 3 jaw self centering chuck or universal chuck and 4 jaw independent chuck
Fig. 2.10 (a and b) visualizes 3-jaw and 4-jaw chucks which are mounted at the spindle nose and
firmly hold the job in centre lathes. Premachined round bars are quickly and coaxially mounted
by simultaneously moving the three jaws radially by rotating the scroll (disc with radial threads)
by a key as can be seen in the diagram 2.10 (a)
The four jaw chucks, available in varying sizes, are generally used for essentially more strongly
holding non-circular bars like square, rectangular, hexagonal and even odder sectional jobs in addition to
cylindrical bars, both with and without premachining at the gripping portion. The jaws are moved
radially independently by rotating the corresponding screws which push the rack provided on the back
side of each jaw as can be seen in the diagram 2.10 (b).

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Fig. 2.10 (a) 3-jaw self centering chuck or universal chuck

Fig. 2.10 (b) 4-jaw independent chuck

Magnetic chuck
This is used for holding thin jobs. When the pressure of jaws is to be prevented, this chuck is
used. The chuck gets magnetic power from an electro-magnet. Only magnetic materials can be held on
this chuck. Fig. 2.11 shows the magnetic chuck.

Fig. 2.11 Magnetic chuck

Fig. 2.12 Face plate

Face plate
A face plate as shown in Fig. 2.12 consists of a circular disc bored out and threaded to fit the
nose of lathe spindle. This has radial, plain and T slots for holding work by bolts and clamps. Face plates
are used for holding work pieces which cannot be conveniently held between centres or by chucks.

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Fig. 2.13 (a) Angle plate

Angle plate
Angle plate is a cast iron plate that has two faces at right angles to each other. Holes and slots are
provided on both faces as shown in Fig. 2.13 (a). An angle plate is used along with the face plate when
holding eccentric or unsymmetrical jobs that are difficult to grip directly on the face plate as shown in
Fig. 2.13 (b).

Fig. 2.13 (b) Angle plate used along with face plate

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2.2.5.2 With additional support from the tailstock

Catch plate or driving plate
It is circular plate of steel or cast iron having a projected boss at its rear. The boss has a threaded
hole and it can be screwed to the nose of the headstock spindle. The driving is fitted to the plate. It is
used to drive the work piece through a carrier or dog when the work piece is held between the centres.
Fig. 2.14 shows the catch plate.

Fig. 2.14 Catch plate

Fig. 2.15 Types of carriers

Carriers or Dogs
It is used to transfer motion from the driving plate to the work piece held between centres. The
work piece is inserted into the hole of the dog and firmly secured in position by means of set screw.
The different types of carriers are shown in Fig 2. 15.

Mandrels
A mandrel is a device used for holding and rotating a hollow work piece that has been previously
drilled or bored. The work revolves with the mandrel which is mounted between two centres. The
mandrel should be true with accurate centre holes for machining outer surface of the work piece
concentric with its bore. To avoid distortion and wear it is made of high carbon steel.
The ends of a mandrel are slightly smaller in diameter and flattened to provide effective gripping
surface of the lathe dog set screw. The mandrel is rotated by the lathe dog and the catch plate and it
drives the work by friction. Different types of mandrels are employed according to specific
requirements. Fig. 2.16 shows the different types of mandrels in common use.
In-between centres (by catch plate and carriers)
Fig. 2.17 schematically shows how long slender rods are held in between the live centre fitted
into the headstock spindle and the dead centre fitted in the quill of the tailstock. The torque and rotation
are transmitted from the spindle to the job with the help of a lathe dog or catcher which is again driven
by a driving plate fitted at the spindle nose.

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Depending upon the situation or requirement, different types of centres are used at the tailstock
end as indicated in Fig. 2.18. A revolving centre is preferably used when desired to avoid sliding friction
between the job and the centre which also rotates along with the job.

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Fig. 2.16 Types of mandrels

Fig. 2.17 Work held between centres

Fig. 2.18 Types of centres

Ordinary centre:
It is used for general works.
Insert type centre:
In this the steel insert can be replaced instead of replacing the whole centre.
Half centre: It is similar to ordinary centre and used for facing bar ends without removal of the centre.
Pipe centre: It is used for supporting pipes and hollow end jobs.
Ball centre:
It has ball shaped end to minimize the wear and strain. It is suitable for taper turning.
Tipped centre: Hard alloy tip is brazed into steel shank. The hard tip has high wear resistant.
Revolving centre:
The ball and roller bearings are fitted into the housing to reduce friction and to
take up end thrust. This is used in tail stock for supporting heavy work revolving at a high speed.

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In-between chuck and centre

Heavy and reasonably long jobs of large diameter and requiring heavy cuts (cutting forces) are
essentially held strongly and rigidly in the chuck at headstock with support from the tailstock through a
revolving centre as can be seen in Fig. 2.19.

Fig. 2.19 Work held between chuck and revolving centre

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In-between headstock and tailstock with additional support of rest

To prevent deflection of the long slender jobs like feed rod, lead screw etc. due to sagging and
cutting forces during machining, some additional supports are provided as shown in Fig. 2.20. Such
additional support may be a steady rest which remains fixed at a suitable location or a follower rest
which moves along with the cutting tool during long straight turning without any steps in the jobs
diameter. Fig. 2.21 (a and b) shows the steady rest and follower rest.

Fig. 2.20 Slender job held with extra support by steady rest

Fig. 2.21 (a) Steady rest and (b) Follower rest

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2.2.6 Mounting of tools in centre lathe

Different types of tools, used in centre lathes, are usually mounted in the following ways:
HSS tools (shank type) in tool post.
HSS form tools and threading tools in tool post.
Carbide and ceramic inserts in tool holders.
Drills and reamers, if required, in tailstock.
Boring tools in tool post.
Fig. 2.22 (a and b) is typically showing mounting of shank type HSS single point tools in rotatable (only
one tool) and indexable (up to four tools) tool posts. Fig. 2.22 (c) typically shows how a circular form or
thread chasing HSS tool is fitted in the tool holder which is mounted in the tool post.

Fig. 2.22 Mounting of (a and b) shank type tools in tool post and (c) form tool in tool post

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Carbide, ceramic and cermet inserts of various size and shape are mechanically clamped in the
seat of rectangular sectioned steel bars which are mounted in the tool post. Fig. 2.23 (a, b, c and d)
shows the common methods of clamping such inserts. After wearing out of the cutting point, the insert is
indexed and after using all the corner tips the insert is thrown away.

Fig. 2.23 Mounting of tool inserts in tool holders by mechanical clamping

For originating axial hole in centre lathe, the drill bit is fitted into the tailstock which is slowly
moved forward against the rotating job as indicated in Fig. 2.24. Small straight shank drills are fitted in
a drill chuck whereas taper shank drill is fitted directly into the tailstock quill without or with a socket.

Fig. 2.24 Holding drill chuck and drill in tailstock

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Fig. 2.25 (a) Boring tool mounted in the tool post

Fig. 2.25 (b) Precision boring in centre lathe

CUTTING TOOLS
For general purpose work, a single point cutting tool is used in centre lathes. But for special
operations multi point tools may be used. Single point lathe tools are classified as follows:
According to the method of manufacturing the tool
Forged tool.
Tipped tool brazed to the carbon steel shank.
Tipped tool fastened mechanically to the carbon steel shank.
According to the method of holding the tool
Solid tool.
Tool bit inserted in the tool holder.
According to the method of using the tool
Turning tool, facing tool, forming tool, chamfering tool, finishing turning tool, round nose tool,
external threading tool, internal threading tool, boring tool, parting tool, knurling tool, etc.
According to the method of applying feed
Right hand tool.
Left hand tool.
Round nose tool.

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2.3

Often boring operation is done in centre lathe for enlarging and finishing holes by simple shank
type HSS boring tool. The tool is mounted on the tool post and moved axially forward, along with the
saddle, through the hole in the rotating job as shown in Fig. 2.25 (a). For precision boring in centre lathe,
the tool may be fitted in the tailstock quill supported by bush in the spindle as shown in Fig. 2.25 (b).

2.3.1 According to the method of manufacturing the tool

Forged tool
These tools are manufactured from high carbon steel or high speed steel. The required shape of
the tool is given by forging the end of a solid tool steel shank. The cutting edges are then ground to the
shape to provide necessary tool angles. Fig. 2.26 (a) shows a forged tool.

Fig. 2.26 (a) Forged tool (b) Furnace bracing of a tool tip (c) Induction brazing of a tool tip

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Tipped tool brazed to the carbon steel shank

Stellite and cemented carbide tool materials, in view of the very high cost, brittleness, and low
tensile strength, are used in the form of small tips. They are made to the various shapes to form different
types of tools and are attached permanently to the end of a carbon steel shank by a brazing operation.
High speed steel due to its high cost is also sometimes used in the form of tips brazed on carbon steel
shank. Fig. 2.26 (b and c) shows the furnace and induction brazing of a tool tip on carbon steel shank.

Fig. 2.27 Mechanically fastened tool tip

Tipped tool fastened mechanically to the carbon steel shank

To ensure rigidity that a brazed tool does not offer, tips are sometimes clamped at the end of a
tool shank by means of a clamp and bolt. Ceramic tips which are difficult to braze are clamped at the end
of a shank. Fig. 2.27 shows a mechanically fastened tipped tool.

Fig. 2.28 Tool holder and tool bit

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2.3.2 According to the method of holding the tool

Solid tool
Solid tools are made of high carbon steel forged and ground to the required shape. They are
mounted directly on the tool post of a lathe. Fig. 2.26 (a) shows a solid tool.

Tool bit inserted in the tool holder

A tool bit is a small piece of cutting material having a very short shank which is inserted in a
forged carbon steel tool holder and clamped in position by bolt or screw. A tool bit may be of solid type
or tipped one according to the type of the cutting tool material. Tool holders are made of different
designs according to the shape and purpose of the cutting tool. Fig. 2.28 illustrates a common type of
tool holder using high speed steel tool bit.
2.3.3

According to the method of using the tool

Fig. 2.29 shows the various tools used in centre lathe according to the method of using the tool.

Fig. 2.29 Various tools used in centre lathe according to the method of using the tool

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2.4
VARIOUS OPERATIONS
The machining operations generally carried out in centre lathe are:
Rough and finish turning - The operation of producing cylindrical surface.
Facing - Machining the end of the work piece to produce flat surface.
Centering - The operation of producing conical holes on both ends of the work piece.
Chamfering - The operation of beveling or turning a slope at the end of the work piece.
Shouldering - The operation of turning the shoulders of the stepped diameter work piece.
Grooving - The operation of reducing the diameter of the work piece over a narrow surface. It is
also called as recessing, undercutting or necking.
Axial drilling and reaming by holding the cutting tool in the tailstock barrel.
Taper turning by
- Offsetting the tailstock.
- Swiveling the compound slide.
- Using form tool with taper over short length.
- Using taper turning attachment if available.
- Combining longitudinal feed and cross feed, if feasible.
Boring (internal turning); straight and taper The operation of enlarging the diameter of a hole.
Forming; external and internal.
Cutting helical threads; external and internal.
Parting off - The operation of cutting the work piece into two halves.
Knurling - The operation of producing a diamond shaped pattern or impression on the surface.
In addition to the aforesaid regular machining operations, some more operations are also occasionally
done, if desired, in centre lathes by mounting suitable attachments available in the market. Some of those
common operations carried out in centre lathe are shown in Fig. 2.30.

Fig. 2.30 Some common machining operations carried out in a centre lathe

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TAPER TURING METHODS

A taper may be defined as a uniform change in the diameter of a work piece measured along its
length. Taper may be expressed in two ways:
Ratio of difference in diameter to the length.
In degrees of half the included angle.
Fig. 2.31 shows the details of a taper.
D - Large diameter of the taper.
d - Small diameter of the taper.
l - Length of tapered part.
- Half angle of taper.
Fig. 2.31 Details of a taper
Generally, taper is specified by the term conicity. Conicity is defined as the ratio of the difference in
diameters of the taper to its length. Conicity, K =

2.5

2.1

Taper turning is the operation of producing conical surface on the cylindrical work piece on lathe.
Taper turning by a form tool
Fig. 2.32 illustrates the method of turning taper by a form tool. A broad nose tool having straight
cutting edge is set on to the work at half taper angle, and is fed straight into the work to generate a
tapered surface. In this method the tool angle should be properly checked before use. This method is
limited to turn short length of taper only. This is due to the reason that the metal is removed by the entire
cutting edge will require excessive cutting pressure, which may distort the work due to vibration and
spoil the work surface.

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2.5.1

Fig. 2.32 Taper turning by a form tool

Fig. 2.33 Taper turning by swiveling the compound rest

Taper turning by swiveling the compound rest

Fig. 2.33 illustrates the method of turning taper by swiveling the compound rest. This method is
used to produce short and steep taper. In this method, work is held in a chuck and is rotated about the
lathe axis. The compound rest is swiveled to the required angle and clamped in position.

2.5.2

The angle is determined by using the formula, tan =

2.2

Then the tool is fed by the compound rest hand wheel. This method is used for producing both
internal and external taper. This method is limited to turn a short taper owing to the limited movement of
the compound rest. The compound rest may be swiveled at 450 on either side of the lathe axis enabling it
to turn a steep taper. The movement of the tool in this method being purely controlled by hand, this gives
a low production capacity and poorer surface finish.
2.5.3

Taper turning by offsetting the tailstock

Fig. 2.34 illustrates the method of turning taper by offsetting the tailstock. The principle of
turning taper by this method is to shift the axis of rotation of the work piece, at an angle to the lathe axis,
which is equal to half angle of the taper, and feeding the tool parallel to the lathe axis.

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This is done when the body of the tailstock is made to slide on its base towards or away from the
operator by a set over screw. The amount of set over being limited, this method is suitable for turning
small taper on long jobs. The main disadvantage of this method is that live and dead centres are not
equally stressed and the wear is not uniform. Moreover, the lathe carrier being set at an angle, the
angular velocity of the work is not constant.

Set over = L tan = L x

Fig. 2.34 Taper turning by offsetting the tailstock

The amount of set over required to machine a particular taper may be calculated as:
From the right angle triangle ABC in Fig.2.34;
BC =AB sin, where BC = set over
Set over = L sin
2.3
If the half angle of taper (), is very small, for all practical purposes, sin = tan
in mm.

2.4

Set over = L x

If the taper is turned on the entire length of the work piece, then l= L, and the equation (2.4) becomes:

2.5

being termed as the conicity or amount of taper, the formula (2.4) may be written in the following
Set over =

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form:

2.6

Taper turning by using taper turning attachment

Fig. 2.35 schematically shows a taper turning attachment. It consists of a bracket or frame which
is attached to the rear end of the lathe bed and supports a guide bar pivoted at the centre. The guide bar
having graduations in degrees may be swiveled on either side of the zero graduation and is set at the
desired angle with the lathe axis. When this attachment is used the cross slide is delinked from the saddle
by removing the binder screw. The rear end of the cross slide is then tightened with the guide block by
means of a bolt. When the longitudinal feed is engaged, the tool mounted on the cross slide will follow
the angular path, as the guide block will slide on the guide bar set at an angle to the lathe axis.
The required depth of cut is given by the compound slide which is placed at right angles to the
lathe axis. The guide bar must be set at half taper angle and the taper on the work must be converted in
degrees. The maximum angle through which the guide bar may be swiveled is 100 to 120 on either side of
the centre line. The angle of swiveling the guide bar can be determined from the equation 2.2.

2.5.4

The advantages of using a taper turning attachment are:

The alignment of live and dead centres being not disturbed; both straight and taper turning may
be performed on a work piece in one setting without much loss of time.
Once the taper is set, any length of work piece may be turned taper within its limit.
Very steep taper on a long work piece may be turned, which cannot be done by any other
method.
Accurate taper on a large number of work pieces may be turned.
Internal tapers can be turned with ease.

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Fig. 2.35 Taper turning attachment

Fig. 2.36 Taper turning by combining feed

Taper turning by combining longitudinal feed and cross feed

Fig. 2.36 illustrates the method of turning taper by combining longitudinal feed and cross feed.
This is a more specialized method of turning taper. In certain lathes both longitudinal and cross feeds
may be engaged simultaneously causing the tool to follow a diagonal path which is the resultant of the
magnitude of the two feeds. The direction of the resultant may be changed by varying the rate of feeds
by changing gears provided inside the apron.
THREAD CUTTING METHODS
Thread cutting is one of the most important operations performed in a centre lathe. It is possible
to cut both external and internal threads with the help of threading tools. There are a large number of
thread forms that can be machined in a centre lathe such as Whitworth, ACME, ISO metric, etc. The
principle of thread cutting is to produce a helical groove on a cylindrical or conical surface by feeding
the tool longitudinally when the job is revolved between centres or by a chuck (for external threads) and
by a chuck (for internal threads). The longitudinal feed should be equal to the pitch of the thread to be
cut per revolution of the workpiece.
The lead screw of the lathe has a definite pitch. The saddle receives its traversing motion through
the lead screw. Therefore a definite ratio between the longitudinal feed and rotation of the headstock
spindle should be found out so that the relative speeds of rotation of the work and the lead screw will
result in the cutting of a thread of the desired pitch. This is effect by change gears arranged between the
spindle and the lead screw or by the change gear mechanism or feed gear box used in a modern lathe.
Thread cutting on a centre lathe is a slow process, but it is the only process of producing square threads,
as other methods develop interference on the helix. Fig.2.37 illustrates the principle of thread cutting.

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2.5.5

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Fig. 2.37 Principles of thread cutting

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Change gear ratio

Centre lathes are equipped with a set of change gears. A typical set contains the following change
gears with number of teeth: 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 110, 120,
125 and 127. The change gear ratio (icg) must be transformed by multiplying numerator and denominator
by a suitable number, to obtain gears available in the change gear set.
The change gear ratio may result either in a Simple gear train or Compound gear train. In
modern lathes using quick change gears, the correct gear ratio for cutting a particular thread is quickly
obtained by simply shifting the levers in different positions which are given in the charts or instruction
plates supplied with the machine.

2.6.1

2.6.1.1 Calculation for change gear ratio

Metric thread on Metric lead screw
Calculation for change gear ratio for cutting metric thread on a centre lathe with a metric lead
screw is as follows;

2.7

Example 2.1: The pitch of the lead screw is 12 mm, and the pitch of the thread to be cut is 3 mm. For
this condition the change gear ratio is as follows;

= ! = ! " = #"

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Therefore the driver gear will have 20 teeth and the driven gear will have 80 teeth. This is effect
by simple gear train.
Example 2.2: The pitch of the lead screw is 6 mm, and the pitch of the thread to be cut is 1.25 mm. For
this condition the change gear ratio is as follows;
.%

.% !
&!

x& =

% "
! "

x & " =

%" "
!" "

Therefore the driver gears will have 50 teeth & 20 teeth and the driven gears will have 40 teeth &
120 teeth. This is effect by compound gear train.
Metric thread on British or English standard lead screw
Calculation for change gear ratio for cutting metric thread on a centre lathe with a British or
English standard lead screw may be carried out by introducing a translating gear of 127 teeth. If the lead
screw has n threads per inch and the thread to be cut has p mm pitch then;

(

Since pitch =
*

= %.! = %.! % =
(%

)

2.8

and 1 inch = 25.4 mm

Example 2.3: The lead screw has 4 threads per inch, and the pitch of the thread to be cut is 7 mm. For
this condition the change gear ratio is as follows;

)

%)!
)

!"
)

)"
)

)" "
) "

)" !"
) "

Therefore the driver gears will have 70 teeth & 40 teeth and the driven gears will have 127 teeth
& 20 teeth. This is effect by compound gear train.
British or English standard thread on English lead screw
Calculation for change gear ratio for cutting British or English standard thread on a centre lathe
with an English lead screw is as follows;

(
*

(
*

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Example 2.4: The lead screw has 4 threads per inch, and the screw thread to be cut has 26 threads per
inch. For this condition the change gear ratio is as follows;

(
*

(
*

!%
%

!
&

!%
& %

% "
" "

!%
"

" %"
&% ""

(&
(!

Therefore the driver gears will have 20 teeth & 50 teeth and the driven gears will have 65 teeth &
100 teeth. This is effect by compound gear train.

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2.6.2 Thread cutting procedure

1. The work piece should be rotated in anticlockwise direction when viewed from the tail stock end.
2. The excess material is removed from the workpiece to make its diameter equal to the major
diameter of the screw thread to be generated.
3. Change gears of correct size are fitted to the end of the bed between the spindle and the lead
screw.
4. The thread cutting tool is selected such that the shape or form of the cutting edge is of the same
form as the thread to be generated. In a metric thread, the included angle of the cutting edge
should be ground exactly 600.
5. A thread tool gauge or a centre gauge is used against the turned surface of the workpiece to check
the form of the cutting edge so that each face may be equally inclined to the centre line of the
workpiece. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.38.

Fig. 2.38 Checking of the cutting edge

Fig. 2.39 Mounting of the cutting tool
6. Then the tool is mounted in the tool post such that the top of the tool nose is horizontal and is in
line with the axis of rotation of the workpiece. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.39.
7. The speed of the spindle is reduced by to of the speed required for turning according to the
type of material being machined.
8. The tool is fed inward until it first scratches the surface of the workpiece. The graduated dial on
the cross slide is noted or set to zero. Then the split nut or half nut is engaged and the tool moves
along helical path over the desired length.
9. At the end of tool travel, it is quickly withdrawn by means of cross slide. The split nut is
disengaged and the carriage is returned to the starting position, for the next cut. These successive
cuts are continued until the thread reaches its desired depth (checked on the dial of cross slide).
10. For cutting left hand threads the carriage is moved from left to right (i.e. towards tail stock) and
for cutting right hand threads it is moved from right to left (i.e. towards headstock).

2.6.2.1 Depth of cut in thread cutting

The depth of first cut is usually 0.2 to 0.4 mm. This is gradually decreased for the successive cuts
until for the final finishing cut; it is usually 0.025 to 0.075 mm. The depth of cut is applied by advancing
the tool either radially (called as plunge cutting) or at an angle equal to half angle of the thread
(called as compound cutting) (300 incase of metric threads) by swiveling the compound rest. Fig. 2.40
schematically shows the method of applying plunge cut and compound cut.

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UNIT - II

Fig. 2.40 schematic view of the method of applying plunge cut and compound cut

Plunge cutting
In this the absence of side and back rake will not produce proper cutting
except on brass and cast iron. Cutting takes place along a longer length of the tool. This gives rise to
difficulties in machining in terms of higher cutting forces and consequently chattering. This result in
poor surface finish and lower tool life, thus this method is not generally preferred. This method is used
for taking very light finishing cuts and for cutting square, acme and worm threads.

Compound cutting
Compound cutting is superior to the plunge cutting as it:
Permits the tool to have a top rake.
Permits cutting to take place on one edge of the tool only.
Allows the chips to slide easily across the face of the tool without crowding.
Reduces cutting strain that acts on the tool.
Reduces the tendency to cause the tool to dig-in.
So compound cutting is more preferred compared with plunge cutting.

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2.6.2.2 Picking up the thread

Several cuts are necessary before the full depth of thread is reached. It is essential that the tool tip
should always follow the same thread profile generated in the first cut; otherwise the workpiece will be
spoiled. This is termed as picking up the thread. The different methods of picking up the thread are:

Reversing the machine

After the end of one cut the machine is reversed while keeping the half nut
permanently engaged and retaining the engagement between the tool and the workpiece. The spindle
reversal would bring the cutting tool to the starting point of the thread following the same path in
reverse. After giving a further depth of cut the spindle is again reversed and the thread cutting is
continued in the normal way. This is easy to work and is some what more time consuming due to the idle
time involved in stopping and reversing of the spindle at the end of each stroke.
Marking the lathe parts
The procedure is to mark the lead screw and its bracket, the large gear and
the head stock casting, and the starting position of the carriage on the lathe bed. The aim is to bring each
of the markings on the lead screw and gear opposite the markings on the stationary portions of the lathe,
and have the carriage at the starting position before attempting to engage the split nut.
Using a chasing dial
Fig. 2.41 shows the basic configuration of a chasing dial. This is also
called as thread indicator. This is a special attachment used in modern lathes for accurate picking up of
the thread. This dial indicates when to close the split or half nuts. This is mounted on the right end of the
apron. It consists of a vertical shaft with a worm gear engaged with the lead screw. The top of the
vertical shaft has a revolving dial marked with lines and numbers to indicate equal divisions of the
circumference. The dial turns with the lead screw so long the half nut is not engaged. If the half nut is
closed and the carriage moves along, the dial stands still.

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UNIT - II

Fig. 2.41 Thread chasing dial

As the dial turns, the graduations pass a fixed reference line. The half-nut is closed for all even
threads when any line on the dial coincides with the reference line. For all odd threads, the half-nut is
closed at any numbered line on the dial coincides with the reference line. The corresponding number is
determined from the charts. If the pitch of the thread to be cut is an exact multiple of the pitch of the lead
screw, the thread is called even thread; otherwise the thread is called odd thread.

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Thread chaser
A chaser is a multipoint threading tool having the same form and pitch of
the thread to be chased. An external thread chaser is shown in Fig. 2.42 (a). A chaser is used to finish a
partly cut thread to the size and shape required. Fig. 2.42 (b) shows finishing of a partly cut thread by a
thread chaser. Thread chasing is done at about of the speed of turning.

Fig. 2.42 (a) External thread chaser

Fig. 2.42 (b) Finishing of a partly cut thread

2.6.3 Other methods for cutting external threads

2.6.3.1 External thread cutting by dies
Machine screws, bolts or studs are quickly made by different types of dies which look and
apparently behave like nuts but made of hardened tool steel or HSS and having sharp internal cutting
edges. The dies are coaxially rotated around the premachined rod like blank with the help of handle, die
stock or die holder. First the proper die is selected according to the thread to be cut. A die holder is
selected and the die is inserted in the holder. Then the die holder with die is placed in the tail stock
spindle. The work piece is held in a chuck or a collet and rotated at a very slow speed. The tail stock is
turned in to cut the threads. The machine is stopped as soon as the correct length of the thread is
machined. The threads can also be cut by screwing the die (held in a die holder) on the work piece held
and rotated between centres.
Different types of dies used for cutting external threads are:
(a) Solid die: It is used for making threads of usually small pitch and diameter in one pass.
(b) Spring die: The die ring is provided with a slit, the width of the slit is adjustable by a screw to
enable elastically slight reduction in the bore and thus cut the thread in number of passes with
lesser force on hands.

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Fig. 2.43 Hand operated dies

(c) Split die: The die is made in two pieces, one fixed and one movable (adjustable) within the
cavity of the handle or wrench to enable cut relatively larger threads or fine threads on harder
blanks easily in number of passes, the die pieces can be replaced by another pair for cutting
different threads within small range of variation in size and pitch.
(d) Pipe die: Pipe threads of large diameter but smaller pitch are cut by manually rotating the
large wrench (stock) in which the die is fitted through a guide bush.
However the quality of the threads will depend upon the perfection of the dies and skill of the operator.
Fig. 2.43 shows the hand operated dies of common use.

Fig. 2.44 Thread cutting by rotating tool

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2.6.3.2 External thread cutting by rotating tools

Often it becomes necessary to machine large threads on one or very few pieces of heavy blanks
of irregular size and shape like heavy castings or forgings. In such cases, the blank is mounted on face
plate in a centre lathe with proper alignment. The deep and wide threads are produced by intermittent
cutting action by a rotating tool. A separate attachment carrying the rotating tool is mounted on the
saddle and fed as usual by the lead screw of the centre lathe. Fig. 2.44 schematically shows the
principles of thread cutting by rotating tool. The tool is rotated fast but the blank much slowly. This
intermittent cut enables more effective lubrication and cooling of the tool.
2.6.3.3 External thread cutting by milling cutters
This process gives quite fast production by using suitable thread milling cutters in centre lathes.
The milling attachment is mounted on the saddle of the lathe. Thread milling is of two types:

Long thread milling

Long and large diameter screws like machine lead screws are reasonably
accurately made by using a large disc type form milling cutter as illustrated in Fig. 2.45 (a).
Short thread milling
Threads of shorter length and fine pitch are machined at high production
rate by using a HSS milling cutter having a number of annular threads with axial grooves cut on it for
generating cutting edges. Each job requires only around 1.25 revolution of the blank and very short axial
(1.25 pitch) and radial (1.5 pitch) travel of the rotating tool. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.45 (b).

Fig. 2.45 (a) Long thread milling

Fig. 2.45 (b) Short thread milling

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2.6.3.4 External thread cutting on tapered surface

First the surface is turned taper to the required angle by any one of the taper turning methods.
The thread cutting tool is then set perpendicular to the lathe axis and not to the tapered surface. To
produce an accurate thread a taper turning attachment is used. This is swiveled to be the half taper angle.
The thread is finished in the usual manner. Fig. 2.46 shows the setup for thread cutting on a taper.

Internal thread cutting

The principle of cutting internal threads is shown in Fig. 2.47 (a). It is similar to that of an
external thread, the only difference being in the tool used. The tool is similar to a boring tool with
cutting edges ground to the shape conforming to the type of the thread to be cut. The hole is first bored
to the root diameter of the thread. For cutting metric thread, the compound slide is swiveled 300 towards
the headstock. The tool is fixed on the tool post or on the boring bar after setting it at right angles to the
lathe axis, using a thread gauge. The use of thread gauge is illustrated in Fig. 2.47 (b). The depth of cut
is given by the compound slide and the thread is finished in the usual manner.

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2.6.4

Fig. 2.46 Setup for thread cutting on a taper

Fig. 2.47 (a) Internal thread cutting operation

Fig. 2.47 (b) Setting of cutting edge

2.6.5 Other methods for cutting internal threads

2.6.5.1 Internal thread cutting by taps
Internal screw threads of usually small size are cut manually, if needed, in plates, blocks,
machine parts etc. by using taps which look and behave like a screw but made of tool steel or HSS and
have sharp cutting edges produced by axial grooving over the threads as shown in Fig. 2.48 (a). Three
taps namely, taper tap, second tap and bottoming tap are used consecutively after drilling a tap size hole
through which the taps are axially pushed helically with the help of a handle or wrench. Threads are
often tapped by manually rotating and feeding the taps through the drilled hole in the blank held in
centre lathe spindle as shown in Fig. 2.48 (b).

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Different types of taps used for cutting internal threads are:

Straight solid taps:
Used for small jobs.
Taps with adjustable blades: Usually for large diameter jobs.
Taper or nut taps:
Used for cutting threads in nuts.
However the quality of the threads will depend upon the perfection of the taps and skill of the operator.

Fig. 2.48 (b) Hand operated tapping in centre lathe

Fig. 2.48 (a) Hand operated taps

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2.6.5.2 Internal thread cutting by milling cutters

The typical internal thread milling cutters are shown in Fig. 2.49. This cutter produces internal
threads very rapidly. The principle of operation is similar to that of an external short thread milling.

Fig. 2.49 Internal thread milling cutters

SPECIAL ATTACHMENTS
Each general purpose conventional machine tool is designed and used for a set of specific
machining work on jobs of limited range of shape and size. But often some unusual work also need
to be done in a specific machine tools, e.g. milling in a lathe, tapping in a drilling machine, gear teeth
cutting in shaping machine and so on. Under such conditions, some special devices or systems
are additionally used being mounted in the ordinary machine tools. Such additional special devices,
which augment the processing capability of any ordinary machine tool, are known as attachments.
Unlike accessories, attachments are not that inevitable and procured separately as and when required
and obviously on extra payment.

2.7

Conditions and places suitable for application of attachments in machine tools

With the rapid and vast advancement of science and technology, the manufacturing systems
including machine tools are becoming more and more versatile and productive on one hand for large lot
or mass production and also having flexible automation and high precision on the other hand required for
production of more critical components in pieces or small batches. With the increase of versatility and
precision (e.g., CNC machines) and the advent of dedicated high productive special purpose machines,
the need of use of special attachments is gradually decreasing rapidly.

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However, some attachments are occasionally still being used on non automatic general purpose
machine tools in some small and medium scale machining industries:
When and where machining facilities are very limited.
When production requirement is very small, may be few pieces.
Product changes frequently as per job order.
Repair work under maintenance, especially when spare parts are not available.
When CNC machine tools and even reasonable number of conventional machine tools cannot be
afforded.
Therefore, use of aforesaid attachments is restricted to manufacture of unusual jobs in small quantities
under limited facilities and at low cost.

Taper turning attachment

The construction and working principle of the taper turning attachment has been described in
Article 2.5.4, Page 66 and illustrated in Fig. 2.35.

2.7.2 Copy turning attachments

The two common types of copy turning attachments are:

2.7.1

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2.7.2.1 Mechanical copy turning attachment

A simple mechanical type copy turning attachment is schematically shown in Fig. 2.50. The
entire attachment is mounted on the saddle after removing the cross slide from that. The template
replicating the job-profile desired is clamped at a suitable position on the bed. The stylus is fitted in the
spring loaded tool slide and while travelling longitudinally along with saddle moves in transverse
direction according to the template profile enabling the cutting tool produce the same profile on the job
as indicated in the Fig. 2.50.

Fig. 2.50 Mechanical type copying attachment

Fig. 2.51 Hydraulic copying attachment

2.7.2.2 Hydraulic copy turning attachment

The mounting and working principle of hydraulic copying attachment for profile turning in
centre lathe are schematically shown in Fig. 2.51. Here also, the stylus moves along the template profile
to replicate it on the job. In mechanical system (Fig. 2.50) the heavy cutting force is transmitted at the tip
of the stylus, which causes vibration, large friction and faster wear and tear. Such problems are almost
absent in hydraulic copying, where the stylus works simply as a valve spool against a light spring and is
not affected by the cutting force. Hydraulic copying attachment is costlier than the mechanical type but
works much smoothly and accurately. The cutting tool is rigidly fixed on the cross slide which also acts
as a valve cum cylinder as shown in Fig 2.51.

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So long the stylus remains on a straight edge parallel to the lathe bed, the cylinder does not move
transversely and the tool causes straight turning. As soon as the stylus starts moving along a slope or
profile, i.e., in cross feed direction the ports open and the cylinder starts moving accordingly against the
piston fixed on the saddle. Again the movement of the cylinder i.e., the slide holding the tool, by same
amount travelled by the stylus, and closes the ports. Repeating of such quick incremental movements of
the tool, x and y result in the profile with little surface roughness.
Radius turning attachment
In this attachment, the cross slide is attached to the bed by means of a radius arm whose length is
equal to the radius of the spherical component to be produced. The radius arm couples any movement of
the cross slide or the carriage and hence the tool tip traces the radius R. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.52.

2.7.3

Fig. 2.52 Radius turning attachment

Spherical turning attachment

These simple attachments are used in centre lathes for machining spherical; both convex and
concave surfaces and similar surfaces. Fig. 2.53 schematically visualizes the usual setting and working
principle of such attachments. In Fig. 2.53 (a), the distance Ri can be set according to the radius of
curvature desired. In the type shown in Fig. 2.53 (b), the desired path of the tool tip is controlled by the
profile of the template which is pre-made as per the radius of curvature required. The saddle is
disconnected from the feed rod and the lead-screw. So when the cross slide is moved manually in
transverse direction, the tool moves axially freely being guided by the template only.

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2.7.4

Fig. 2.53 (a) Spherical turning without template

Fig. 2.53 (b) Spherical turning using template

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2.7.5 Milling attachment

For cutting grooves or keyways
Here, the work piece is held on the cross slide by using a
special attachment and the end milling cutter is held in the chuck. Then the feed is given by a vertical
slide provided on the special attachment. Fig. 2.54 (a) shows a typical end milling attachment.

For cutting multiple grooves and gear

The attachment has a milling head, comprising a motor, a
small gear box and a spindle to hold the milling cutter, mounted on the saddle after removing the cross
slide etc., as shown in Fig. 2.54 (b). The work piece is held stationary between centres. The feeding is
given by the carriage and vertical movement is given by the provision made on the attachment. Grooves
are made on the periphery of the work piece by rotating the work piece. For cutting gears, a universal
dividing head is fitted on the rear end of the headstock spindle to divide the work equally.

Fig. 2.54 (b) Milling attachment

Cylindrical grinding attachment

Grinding attachment is very similar to milling attachment. It has a bracket. It is mounted on the
cross slide. A grinding wheel attached to the bracket is driven by a separate motor. The work piece may
be held between centres or in a chuck. The grinding wheel is fed against the work piece. In this operation
both work piece and grinding wheel rotate. By using this attachment both the external and internal
grinding operation can be done. Fig. 2.55 Shows a typical grinding attachment used in centre lathe.

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2.7.6

Fig. 2.54 (a) End milling attachment

Fig. 2.55 Cylindrical grinding attachment

Fig. 2.56 Thread pitch correcting attachment

2.7.7

Thread pitch correcting attachment

While cutting screw thread in centre lathes by single point chasing tool, often the actual pitch, pa
deviates from the desired (or stipulated) pitch, ps by an error (say p) due to some kinematic error in
the lathe. Mathematically: ps pa = p
2.10

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Therefore for correct pitch, the error p need to be compensated and this may be done by a
simple differential mechanism, namely correcting bar attachment as schematically indicated in Fig. 2.56.
In equation 4.6.1:
pa = UC.L
2.11
p = ps.L tan() / (mZ)
2.12
where, UC
- Transmission ratio.
L
- Lead of the lead screw.
M
- Module of teeth.
Z
- No. of teeth of the gear fixed with the nut and is additionally rotated slightly by the
movement of the rack along the bar.
Such differential mechanism of this attachment can also be used for intentionally cutting
thread whose pitch will be essentially slightly more or less than the standard pitch, as it may be
required for making differential screws having threads of slightly different pitch at two different
locations of the screw.
Relieving attachment
The teeth of form relieved milling cutters like gear milling cutters, taps, hobs etc. are provided
with flank having Archimedean spiral curvature. Machining and grinding of such curved flanks of the
teeth need relieving motion to the tool (or wheel) as indicated in Fig. 2.57 (a). The attachment
schematically shown in Fig. 2.57 (b) is comprised of a spring loaded bracket which holds the cutting
tool and is radially reciprocated on the saddle by a plate cam driven by the feed rod as indicated.

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2.7.8

Fig. 2.57 Relieving attachment used in lathe

Super finishing attachment

Super finishing attachment used on a centre lathe is shown in Fig. 2.58 (a and b). Major parts
and operating elements of super finishing attachment are discussed below:
Support bar:
It is clamped into the tool holder of the lathe, and the super finishing attachment is
fastened to the round shaft. It can be turned into right position to the work piece and then fixed.
Stone guide:
The stone guide consists of an air cylinder with piston, to which the stone holder
is fastened. It is operated by the control valve. By actuating this valve, the stone moves against the work
piece. The stone guide is connected with the attachment by means of a dovetail guide, allowing
longitudinal adjustment and fastening in every position desired. The attachment can be provided with a
second stone guide to attain a double efficiency when machining larger work piece, or for finishing two
bearing sections at the same time.
Stone holder:
The stone holders are fastened in the position rod of the stone guide by means of
their spherical head part. The universal movability allows the stone to be set precisely in the work piece.
Stroke regulation valve:
This Valve is used for regulating the oscillation stroke. The stroke is
lengthened by turning the valve to the left and reduced by turning to the right up to its complete stop.

2.7.9

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Fig. 2.58 (a) Super finishing attachment

Fig. 2.58 (b) Super finishing attachment on a centre lathe

MACHINING TIME AND POWER ESTIMATION

Machining time
Cutting speed (V) =

+,
"""

2.8
2.8.1

Stroke value indicator:

The stone guide is provided with a scale showing two crossing straight
lines. The stroke value can be read off from the apparent intersection of this straight line.
Pressure gauge:
The gauge indicates the pressure applied to the piston of the stone guide. Stone
pressure = Gauge indication x Piston surface of stone guide.

m / min

2.13

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where, D Mean diameter of the work piece (mm).

N Rotational speed of the work piece (rpm).
The time (t) for a single pass is given by
t=

-
,

min

2.14

where, L Length of the work piece (mm).

Lo Over travel of the tool (mm).
f Feed rate (mm / rev).
The number of roughing passes (Pr) is given by

Pr =

. .

2.15

where, A Total machining allowance (mm).

Af Finish machining allowance (mm).
Dr Depth of cut in roughing (mm).
The number of finishing passes (Pf) is given by
.

Pf =

2.16

where, df depth of cut in finishing (mm).

2.8.2

Power estimation
Power is the product of cutting force and velocity. In machining process, force component is
nothing but the force in the direction of cutting speed. This only considered. Forces in the direction of
feed and depth are too small when compared to the force in the direction of cutting speed. So, these two
are insignificant. Force involved in orthogonal cutting is the force component in the direction of cutting
speed. E.g. turning, facing, parting-off operations, etc. so;
2.17
Power required (WC) = FC x V

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where, V Cutting speed (m/min) and FC Force in the direction of cutting speed (N).
Due to shear and friction, the total power is divided into two components. They are;
1. Power due to shear.
2. Power due to friction.
So, Total power = Power due to shear + Power due to friction
WC = Ws + Wf = [Fs x Vs] + [Ff x Vf]
2.18
where, Fs Force due to shear.
Vs Velocity of shear.
Ff Force due to friction.
Vf Velocity of friction.

Tool force dynamometers

To estimate power required for machining operations, the force has to be measured by a suitable
measuring instruments. Generally, cutting forces in cutting tool are measured in different ways such as:
Dynamometer, Ammeter, Wattmeter, Calorimeter, Thermocouple, etc. Among these, dynamometers
are generally used for measuring cutting forces. Especially, strain gauge dynamometers are used.
In this case, spring deflection is measured which is proportional to the cutting forces.

2.8.3

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2.8.3.1 Design requirements for Tool force Dynamometers

For consistently accurate and reliable measurement, the following requirements are considered
during design and construction of any tool force dynamometers:
Sensitivity: The dynamometer should be reasonably sensitive for precision measurement.
Rigidity: The dynamometer need to be quite rigid to withstand the forces without causing much
deflection which may affect the machining condition.
Cross Sensitivity: The dynamometer should be free from cross sensitivity such that one force
(say PZ) does not affect measurement of the other forces (say PX and PY).
Stability against humidity and temperature.
Quick time response.
High frequency response such that the readings are not affected by vibration within a reasonably
high range of frequency.
Consistency: The dynamometer should work desirably over a long period.

2.8.3.2 Construction and working principle of turning dynamometers

The dynamometers being commonly used nowadays for measuring machining forces
accurately and precisely (both static and dynamic characteristics) are either strain gauge type or
piezoelectric type. Strain gauge type dynamometers are inexpensive but less accurate and consistent,
whereas, the piezoelectric type are highly accurate, reliable and consistent but very expensive for
high material cost and rigid construction.
Turning dynamometers may be strain gauge or piezoelectric type and may be of one, two or three
dimensions capable to monitor all of PX, PY and PZ. For ease of manufacture and low cost, strain
gauge type turning dynamometers are widely used and preferably of 2D for simpler construction,
lower cost and ability to provide almost all the desired force values.
Design and construction of a strain gauge type 2D turning dynamometer is shown schematically
in Fig. 2.59 (a and b) and Fig. 2.59 (c) shows the photographic view. Two full bridges comprising four
live strain gauges are provided for PZ and PX channels which are connected with the strain
measuring bridge for detection and measurement of strain in terms of voltage which provides
the magnitude of the cutting forces through calibration. Fig. 2.59 (d) shows the photographic view
of a piezoelectric type 3D turning dynamometer.

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UNIT - II

Fig. 2.59 (a and b) Construction of a strain gauge type 2D turning dynamometer

SPECIAL PURPOSE LATHES

The centre lathe is a general purpose machine tool; it has a number of limitations that preclude it
to become a production machine tool. The main limitations of centre lathes are:
The setting time for the job in terms of holding the job is large.
Only one tool can be used in the normal course. Sometimes the conventional tool post can be
replaced by a square tool post with four tools.
The idle times involved in the setting and movement of tools between the cuts is large.
Precise movement of the tools to destined places is difficult to achieve if proper care is not taken
by the operator.
All these difficulties mean that the centre lathe cannot be used for production work in view of the low
production rate. The centre lathe is thus modified to improve the production rate. The various modified
lathes are capstan and turret lathes, semi automatics and automatics. Improvements are achieved
basically in the following areas:
Work holding methods.
Multiple tool availability.
Automatic feeding of the tools.
Automatic stopping of tools at precise locations.
Automatic control of the proper sequence of operations.

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2.9

Fig. 2.59 (c) Photographic view of a strain gauge type 2D turning dynamometer
Fig. 2.59 (d) Photographic view of a piezoelectric type 3D turning dynamometer

2.10

CAPSTAN AND TURRET LATHES

Capstan and turret lathes are production lathes used to manufacture any number of identical
pieces in the minimum time. These lathes are development of centre lathes. The capstan lathe was first
developed in the year 1860 by Pratt and Whitney of USA.
In contrast to centre lathes, capstan and turret lathes:
Are relatively costlier.
Are requires less skilled operator.
Possess an axially movable indexable turret (mostly hexagonal) in place of tailstock.

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Holds large number of cutting tools; up to four in indexable tool post on the front slide, one in the
rear slide and up to six in the turret (if hexagonal) as indicated in the schematic diagrams.
Are more productive for quick engagement and overlapped functioning of the tools in addition to
faster mounting and feeding of the job and rapid speed change.
Enable repetitive production of same job requiring less involvement, effort and attention of the
operator for pre-setting of work-speed and feed rate and length of travel of the cutting tools.
Are suitable and economically viable for batch production or small lot production.
Capable of taking multiple cuts and combined cuts at the same time.

2.10.1 Major parts of capstan and turret lathes

Capstan and turret lathes are very similar in construction, working, application and specification.
Fig. 2.60 schematically shows the basic configuration of a capstan lathe and Fig. 2.61 shows that of a
turret lathe. The major parts are:

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Fig. 2.60 Basic configuration of a Capstan lathe

Fig. 2.61 Basic configuration of a Turret lathe

Bed
The bed is a long box like casting provided with accurate guide ways upon
which the carriage and turret saddle are mounted. The bed is designed to ensure strength, rigidity and
permanency of alignment under heavy duty services.
Headstock
The head stock is a large casting located at the left hand end of the bed.
The headstock of capstan and turret lathes may be of the following types:
Step cone pulley driven headstock.
Direct electric motor driven headstock.
All geared headstock.
Pre-optive or pre-selective headstock.

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Step cone pulley driven headstock:

This is the simplest type of headstock and is
fitted with small capstan lathes where the lathe is engaged in machining small and almost constant
diameter of workpieces. Only three or four steps of pulley can cater to the needs of the machine. The
machine requires special countershaft unlike that of an engine lathe, where starting, stopping and
reversing of the machine spindle can be effected by simply pressing a foot pedal.

Electric motor driven headstock:

In this type of headstock the spindle of the
machine and the armature shaft of the motor are one and the same. Any speed variation or reversal is
effected by simply controlling the motor. Three of four speeds are available and the machine is suitable
for smaller diameter of workpieces rotated at high speeds.

All geared headstock:

On the larger lathes, the headstocks are
geared and different mechanisms are employed for speed changing by actuating levers. The speed
changing may be performed without stopping the machine.

Pre-optive or pre-selective headstock:

It is an all geared headstock with provisions
for rapid stopping, starting and speed changing for different operations by simply pushing a button or
pulling a lever. The required speed for next operation is selected beforehand and the speed changing
lever is placed at the selected position. After the first operation is complete, a button or a lever is simply
actuated and the spindle starts rotating at the selected speed required for the second operation without
stopping the machine. This novel mechanism is effect by the friction clutches.

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Cross slide and saddle

In small capstan lathes, hand operated cross slide and saddle are used.
They are clamped on the lathe bed at the required position. The larger capstan lathes and heavy duty
turret lathes are equipped with usually two designs of carriage.
Conventional type carriage.
Side hung type carriage.
Conventional type carriage
This type of carriage bridges the gap
between the front and rear bed ways and is equipped with four station type tool post at the front, and one
rear tool post at the back of the cross slide. This is simple in construction.

Side hung type carriage

The side-hung type carriage is generally
fitted with heavy duty turret lathes where the saddle rides on the top and bottom guide ways on the front
of the lathe bed. The design facilitates swinging of larger diameter of workpieces without being
interfered by the cross-slide. The saddle and the cross-slide may be fed longitudinally or crosswise by
hand or power. The longitudinal movement of each tool may be regulated by using stop bars or shafts set
against the stop fitted on the bed and carriage. The tools are mounted on the tool post and correct heights
are adjusted by using rocking or packing pieces.
Ram saddle
In a capstan lathe, the ram saddle bridges the gap between two bed ways,
and the top face is accurately machined to provide bearing surface for the ram or auxiliary slide. The
saddle may be adjusted on lathe bed ways and clamped at the desired position. The hexagonal turret is
mounted on the ram or auxiliary slide.
Turret saddle
In a turret lathe, the hexagonal turret is directly mounted on the top of the
turret saddle and any movement of the turret is effected by the movement of the saddle. The movement
of the turret may be effected by hand or power.

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Turret
The turret is a hexagonal-shaped tool holder intended for holding six or
more tools. Each face of the turret is accurately machined. Through the centre of each face accurately
bored holes are provided for accommodating shanks of different tool holders. The centre line of each
hole coincides with the axis of the lathe when aligned with the headstock spindle. In addition to these
holes, there are four tapped holes on each face of the turret for securing different tool holding
attachments. The photographic view of a hexagonal turret is shown in Fig. 2.62.

Fig. 2.62 Photographic view of a hexagonal turret

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2.10.2 Working principle of capstan and turret lathes

The work pieces are held in collets or chucks. In turret lathes, large work pieces are held by
means of jaw chucks. These chucks may be hydraulically or pneumatically operated. In a capstan lathe,
bar stock is held in collet chucks. A bar feeding mechanism is used for automatic feeding of bar stock.
At least eleven tools can be set at a time in turret and capstan lathes. Six tools are held on the turret
faces, four tools in front square tool post and one parting off tool at the rear tool post. While machining,
the turret head moves forward towards the job. After each operation, the turret head goes back. The
turret head is indexed automatically and the next tool comes into machining position. The indexing is
done by an indexing mechanism. The longitudinal movement of the turret corresponding to each of the
turret position can be controlled independently.
By holding different tools in the turret faces, the operations like drilling, boring, reaming, counter
boring, turning and threading can be done on the component. Four tools held on the front tool post are
used for different operations like necking, chamfering, form turning and knurling. The parting off tool in
the rear tool post is used for cutting off the workpiece. The cross wise movements of the rear and front
tool posts are controlled by pre-stops.

2.10.3 Bar feeding mechanisms

The capstan and turret lathes while working on bar work require some mechanism for bar
feeding. The long bars which protrude out of the headstock spindle require to be fed through the spindle
up to the bar stop after the first piece is completed and the collet chuck is opened. In simple cases, the
bar may be pushed by hand. But this process unnecessarily increases the total production time by
stopping, setting, and starting the machine. Therefore, various types of bar feeding mechanisms have
been designed which push the bar forward immediately after the collet releases the work without
stopping the machine, enabling the setting time to be reduced to the minimum.

Type 1:
This mechanism is shown in Fig. 2.63. After the work piece is complete and part off, the
collet is opened by moving the lever manually in the rightward direction. Further movement of the lever
in the same direction causes forward push of the bar with the help of ratchet - pawl system. After the
projection of the bar from the collet face to the desired length controlled by a preset bar stop generally
held in one face of the turret, the lever is moved in the leftward direction to close the collet. Just before
closing the collet, the leftward movement of the lever pushes the ratchet bar to its initial position.

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Fig. 2.63 Bar feeding mechanism

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Type 2:
This mechanism is shown in Fig. 2.64. The bar is passed through the bar chuck, spindle of
the machine and then through the collet chuck. The bar chuck rotates in the sliding bracket body which
is mounted on a long sliding bar. The bar chuck grips the bar centrally by two set screws and rotates with
the bar in the sliding bracket body. One end of the chain is connected to the pin fitted on the sliding
bracket and the other end supports a weight. The chain running over two fixed pulleys mounted on the
sliding bar. The weight constantly exerts end thrust on the bar chuck while it revolves on the sliding
bracket and forces the bar through the spindle at the moment the collet chuck is released. Thus bar
feeding may be accomplished without stopping the machine.
In this way the bar is fed without stopping the machine. After a number of such feedings, the bar
chuck will approach the rear end of the head stock. Now the bar chuck is released from the bar and
brought to the left extreme position. Then it is screwed on to the bar.

Fig. 2.64 Bar feeding mechanism

2.10.4 Turret indexing mechanism

Construction:
Fig. 2.65 shows the schematic view of the turret indexing mechanism. It
illustrates an inverted plan of the turret assembly. This mechanism is also called as Geneva mechanism.
There is a small vertical spindle fixed on the turret saddle. At the top of the spindle, the turret head is
mounted. Just below the turret head on the same spindle, a circular index plate having six slots, a bevel
gear and a ratchet are mounted. There is a spring actuated plunger mounted on the saddle which locks
the index plate this prevents the rotation of turret during the machining operation. A pin fitted on the
plunger projects out of the housing. An actuating cam and an indexing pawl are fitted to the lathe bed at
the required position. Both cam and pawl are spring loaded.

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Fig. 2.65 Turret indexing mechanism

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Working principle:
When the turret reaches the backward position (after machining) the
projecting pin of the plunger rides over the sloping surface of the cam. So the plunger is released from
the groove of the index plate. Now the spring loaded pawl engages the ratchet groove and rotates it. The
index plate and the turret spindle rotate through 1/6 of a revolution. The pin and the plunger drop out of
the cam and hence the plunger locks the index plate at the next groove. The turret is thus indexed and
again locked into the new position automatically. The turret holding the next tool is now fed forward and
the pawl is released from the ratchet plate by the spring pressure.
The corresponding movement of the stop rods with the indexing of the turret can also be
understood from the Fig. 2.65. The pinion shaft has a bevel pinion at one end. The bevel pinion meshes
with the bevel gear mounted on the turret spindle. At its other end, a circular plate is connected. Six
adjustable stop rods are fitted to this circular plate. When the turret rotates, the bevel pinion will also
rotate. And hence the circular stop plate is also indexed by 1/6 of a revolution. The ratio of the teeth
between the pinion and the gear is chosen according to this rotation.
2.10.5 Work holding devices used in capstan and turret lathes
The standard practice of holding the work piece between two centres in a centre lathe finds no
place in a capstan lathe or turret lathe as there is no dead centre to support the work piece at the other
end. Therefore, the work piece is held at the spindle end by the help of chucks and fixtures. The usual
methods of holding the work piece in a capstan and turret lathes are:

1. Jaw chucks
The jaw chucks are used in capstan lathes having two, three or four jaws depending upon the
shape of the work piece. The jaw chucks are used to support odd sized jobs or jobs having larger
diameter which cannot be introduced through the headstock spindle and gripped by collet chucks.
2-jaw chuck self centering chuck
It is used for bar work. The two jaws hold the irregular work more readily since the
clamping is at two points which are diametrically opposite. It is available in size from about 125 mm to
250 mm outside diameter to hold bar stock of diameter from about 20 mm to 45 mm.

3-jaw chuck self centering chuck

It is used for holding round or hexagonal bar stock or other symmetrical work. It is
suitable for gripping larger diameter bars, circular castings, forgings etc. It is available in size from about
100 mm to 750 mm outside diameter and they can hold work up to about 650 mm diameter. The 3-jaw
chuck has been described in Article 2.2.5.1, Page 57 and illustrated in Fig. 2.10 (a).

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4-jaw independent chuck

It is used occasionally for gripping irregular shaped workpieces, where the number of
articles required does not justify the manufacture of special fixtures. It is used for holding rough
castings and square or octagonal work. Each jaw can be operated independently and is reversible. It is
available in sizes up to about 1000 mm diameter. The 4-jaw chuck has been described in Article 2.2.5.1,
Page 57 and illustrated in Fig. 2.10 (b).

Fig. 2.67 Air operated chuck

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Fig. 2.66 Combination chuck

Combination chuck
The combination chuck is shown in Fig. 2.66. As the name implies, a combination chuck
may be used both as a self centering and an independent chuck to take advantage of both the types.
The jaws may be operated individually by separate screws or simultaneously by the scroll disc. The
screws mounted on the frame have teeth cut on its underside which meshes with the scroll and all the
jaws together with the screws move radially when the scroll is made to rotate by a pinion.

Air operated chuck

The air operated chuck is shown in Fig. 2.67. Heavy duty turret lathes and capstan lathes
engaged in mass production work are equipped with air operated chucks for certain distinct advantages.
The chuck grips the work piece quickly and is capable of taking powerful grip with least manual
exertion. The chucks are operated by air at a pressure of 5.5 kg/cm2 to 7 kg/cm2.
The mechanism incorporates an air cylinder mounted at the back end of the headstock spindle
and rotates with it. Fluid pressure may be communicated to the cylinder by operating a valve with a lever
and the piston will slide within the cylinder. The movement of the piston is transmitted to the jaws by
means of connecting rod and links. A guide is provided for the movement of the connecting rod.
To clamp the work piece, compressed air is admitted to the cylinder at the right side of the piston.
The piston slides to the left side and the jaws grip the work piece securely. To release the work piece,
the air is admitted to the left side of the piston. Then the piston slides to the right side and the
jaws unclamp the work piece.
2. Collet chucks
Collet chucks or collets are used mainly to hold bar stock, especially in the smaller sizes. A collet
is a circular steel shell having three or four equally spaced slits extending the greater part of its length.
These slits impart springing action to the collet. That is why, collets are also known as spring collets.
The collet nose is made thicker to form the jaws. The outside surface of the nose fits in the taper hole of
the hood. The inside of the collet is made according to the shape of the work to be held.
Collets are much more suitable than a self centering chuck in mass production work due to its
quickness in action and accurate setting. The collets may be operated by hand or by power. The collets
are classified by the methods used to close the jaws on the work.

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Push out type Collet chuck

The push out type collet chuck is shown in Fig. 2.68 (a). In this type the taper of the collet
nose and hood converge towards the right. To grip the work, the tapered portion of the spring collet is
pushed into the mating taper of the hood. There is a tendency of the bar to be pushed slightly outward
when the collet is pushed for gripping. If the bar is fed against a stop bar fitted on the turret head, this
slight outward movement of the bar ensures accurate setting of the length for machining.

Fig. 2.68 Collet chucks (a) Push out type (b) draw back type (c) Dead length type

Draw back or Draw in type Collet chuck

The draw back type collet chuck is shown in Fig. 2.68 (b). In this type the taper of the
collet nose and hood converge towards the left. To grip the work, the tapered portion of the spring collet
is pulled back into the mating taper of the hood which causes the split end of the collet to close in and
grip the bar. The machining length of the bar in this type of chuck cannot be accurately set as the collet
while closing will draw the bar slightly inward towards the spindle.

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Dead length type Collet chuck

The dead length type collet chuck is shown in Fig. 2.68 (c). For accurate positioning of
the bar, both the push out and draw in type collet present some error due to the movement of the bar
along with the collet while gripping. This difficulty is removed by using a stationary collet on the bar.
In this type the taper of the collet nose converge towards the left. A sliding sleeve is placed between the
collet and the hood. This sliding sleeve has a tapered edge which fits on the taper of the collet nose. To
grip the work, the sliding sleeve is pushed towards the right. This makes the collet to close in and grip
the bar. The end movement of the collet is prevented by the shoulder stop.

3. Fixtures
A fixture may be described as a special chuck built for the purpose of holding, locating and
machining a large number of identical pieces which cannot be easily held by conventional gripping
devices. Fixtures also serve the purpose of accurately locating the machining surface.
The main functions of a fixture are as follows:
It accurately locates the work.
It grips the work properly, preventing it from bending or slipping during machining operations.
It permits rapid loading and unloading of workpieces.

2.10.6 Tool holding devices used in capstan and turret lathes

The wide variety of work performed in a capstan or turret lathe in mass production necessitated
designing of many different types of tool holders for holding tools for typical operations. The tool
holders may be mounted on turret faces or on cross-slide tool post and may be used for holding tools for
bar and chuck work. Certain tool holders are used for holding tools for both bar and chuck work while
box tools are particularly adapted in bar work.

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Straight cutter holder

This is a simple tool holder constructed to take standard section tool bits. The shank of the holder
can be mounted directly into the hole of the turret face or into a hole of a multiple turning head. In this
type of holder, the tool is held perpendicular to the shank axis. The tool is gripped in the holder by three
set screws. Different operations like turning, facing, boring, counter boring, chamfering, etc. can be
performed by holding suitable tools in the holder. Fig.2.69 illustrates a straight cutter holder.

Fig. 2.70 Adjustable angle cutter holder

Fig. 2.69 straight cutter holder

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Plain or adjustable angle cutter holder

It is similar as that of a straight cutter holder but having an angular slot. The tool is fitted in this
slot by means of setscrews. The inclination of the tool helps in turning or boring operations close to the
chuck jaws or up to the shoulder of the work piece without any interference. In plain type of holder, the
setting of the cutting edge relative to the work is effect by opening the set screws and then adjusting the
tool by hand. In adjustable type of holder, the accurate setting of the tool can be effect by rotating a
micrometer screw. Fig.2.70 illustrates an adjustable angle cutter holder.

Multiple cutter holder

This holder can accommodate two or more tools in its body. This feature enables turning of two
different diameters simultaneously. This will reduce the time of machining. Turning and boring tools can
also be set in the holder to perform two operations at a time. Fig.2.71 illustrates a multiple cutter holder.

Fig. 2.71 Multiple cutter holder

Fig. 2.72 Offset cutter holder

Offset cutter holder

In this type, the holder body is made offset with the shank axis. Larger diameter work can be
turned or bored by this type of holder. Fig.2.72 illustrates an offset cutter holder.

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Combination tool holder or multiple turning head

It is used for holding straight, angular, multiple or offset cutter holders, boring bars, etc. for
various turning and boring operations, so that it may be possible to undertake a number of operations
simultaneously. The tools are set at different positions on the work surface by inserting the shank of tool
holders in different holes of the multiple head body, and they are secured to it by tightening separate set
screws. A boring bar is held at the central hole of the head which is aligned with the axis of the
supporting flange. The head is supported on the turret face by tightening four bolts passing through the
holes of the flange. The tool holder has a guide bush. The pilot bar projecting from the head stock of the
machine; slides inside the guide bush. This gives additional support to the tool while cutting and
prevents any vibration or deflection. Fig.2.73 illustrates a combination tool holder.

Fig. 2.73 Combination tool holder

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Sliding tool holder

It is useful for rough and finish boring, recessing, grooving, facing, etc. The holder consists of a
vertical base on which a slide is fitted. The slide may be adjusted up or down accurately by rotating a
hand wheel provided with a micrometer dial. Two holes are provided on the sliding unit for holding
tools. The lower hole which is aligned with the lathe axis is used for holding boring bars, drills, reamers,
etc. The upper hole accommodates a turning tool holder. After necessary adjustments the slide is
clamped to the base by a clamping lever for turning or boring operations. For facing or recessing
operations, the crosswise movement of the tool is obtained in the vertical plane. The slide is equipped
with two adjustable stops for facing or similar operations in order to be able to duplicate the workpiece.
The holder base is clamped directly on the turret face by studs. Fig.2.74 illustrates a sliding tool holder.

Fig. 2.74 Sliding tool holder

Fig. 2.75 Knee tool holder

Knee tool holder

It is useful for simultaneous turning and boring or turning and drilling operations. The knee
holder is bolted directly on the turret face. The axis of the lower hole coincides with the lathe axis and is
used for holding boring bars, drills, etc. The turning tool holder is fitted in to the centre hole. A guide
bush is provided at the top of the holder for running of pilot bar. Fig.2.75 illustrates a knee tool holder.

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Flange tool holder

This holder is also called as extension holder, drill holder or boring bar holder. These holders are
intended for holding drills, reamers, boring bars, etc. The twist drills having Morse taper shanks are
usually held in a socket which is parallel outside and tapered inside. The socket is introduced in the hole
of the flange tool holder and clamped to it by set screws. The flanged end of the holder is bolted directly
to the face of the turret and is accurately centered. Fig.2.76 illustrates a flange tool holder.

Fig. 2.76 Flange tool holder

Fig. 2.77 Knurling tool holder

Knurling tool holder

It may be mounted on the turret face or on the tool posts of the cross-slide. The holders with
knurls mounted on the cross-slide can perform knurling operation on any diameter work. Fig 2.77
illustrates a knurling tool holder which is fitted on the turret face. The position of knurls can be adjusted
in a vertical plane to accommodate different diameters of work, while the relative angle between them
can also be varied to produce different patterns of knurled surface.

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Form tool holder

Two sets of form tool holders have been designed for holding straight and circular form cutters.
The usual procedure of holding a form tool holder is on the cross-slide. In the straight form tool holder,
the tool is mounted on a dovetail slide and the height of the cutting edge may be adjusted by moving the
tool within the slide. The height of the circular form tool may be adjusted by rotating the circular cutter.
Fig.2.78 illustrates a form tool holder.

Fig. 2.78 Form tool holder

Fig. 2.79 Balanced tool holder

Balanced tool holder

Its name is derived from the fact that the tools mounted on the holder are so arranged that the
cutting thrust exerted by one of the tools on the work is balanced by the cutting thrust developed by the
other tool fitted on the holder. This prevents any bending of the work and obviates the use of any other
work support. Fig.2.79 illustrates a balanced tool holder.
V-Steady tool holder
The V-steady box tool holders are used for lending support to the workpiece while cutting action
progresses from the end of a bar stock. Both the tool and V-steady are mounted on the adjustable slide in
order to set the required diameter of the machined part and to position the tool relative to the V-steady.
The V-steady tool holder is mainly used in brass work. Fig.2.80 illustrates a V-Steady tool holder.

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Fig. 2.81 Roller steady box tool holder

Fig. 2.80 V-Steady tool holder

1
2
3

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Capstan lathe
Turret lathe
Turret head is mounted on a ram which slides Turret head is directly mounted on saddle.
over the saddle.
But it slides on the bed.
The turret moves on the entire length of
The turret movement is limited.
the bed without any restriction.
Hence shorter work piece can be machined.
Longer work piece can be machined.
Its construction does not provide rigidity due
It provides rigidity and strong.
to overhanging of ram beyond the bed.
It is suitable for light duty applications.
It is suitable for heavy duty applications.
Turret head can be moved manually.
Turret head cannot be moved manually.
The maximum size of 60 mm diameter work It can accommodate only from 125 to
can be accommodated.
200mm.
Facing and turning are usually done by
No cross-wise movement to turret.
cross-wise movement of turret.
Overhung type of cross-slide is provided
Overhung type of cross-slide is not used.
for some specific operations.

Sl . No.

2.10.7 Comparison of capstan and turret lathes

Roller steady box tool holder

It is commonly used in bar work for turning steel rods. In construction, it replaces V-steady and
in its place two rollers are used to provide support to the work. The tool and the rollers can be adjusted in
the holder for proper setting. A high class finish is obtained on the work surface due to burnishing action
of the rollers on the work. The rollers acting against the cutting pressure remove the feed marks on the
workpiece. Fig.2.81 illustrates a roller steady box tool holder.

5
6
7
8
9

2.10.8 Specifications of capstan and turret lathes

The main sizes to be specified in any capstan and turret lathes are:
Maximum diameter of the workpiece that can be machined.
Swing over cross slide.
Swing over bed.
E.g. 100-200-250 refers to the maximum diameter that can be machined by using this size of lathe is
100 mm, the size of swing over cross slide is 200 mm and the size of swing over bed is 250 mm.
In addition to the above sizes, the following details are also needed to specify the full description
about the machine:
Power of the main drive motor.
Range of spindle speeds.
Range of feeds for the carriage.
Range of feeds for the turret or saddle.
Total weight of the machine.
Floor space required.

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AUTOMATIC LATHES
Highly automated machine tools especially of the lathe family are ordinarily classified as semi
automatics and automatics. Automatics as their name implies are machine tools with a fully automatic
work cycle. Semi automatics are machine tools in which the actual machining operations are performed
automatically in the same manner as on automatics. In this case however, the operator loads the blank
into the machine, starts the machine, checks the work size and removes the completed piece by hand.

2.11

2.11.1 Work holding devices used in automatic lathes

Automation is incorporated in machine tool systems to enable faster and consistently accurate
processing operations for increasing productivity and reducing manufacturing cost in batch and mass
production. Therefore, in semiautomatic and automatic machine tools mounting and feeding of the work
piece or blank is done much faster but properly.
Mostly collet chucks are used for holding the work pieces. Collet chucks inherently work at high
speed with accurate location and strong grip. The chucks are actuated manually or semi automatically in
semi automatic lathes and automatically in automatic lathes. The collet chucks has been described in
Article 2.10.5, Page 87 and illustrated in Fig. 2.68 (a, b and c).
SEMI AUTOMATICS
Semi automatics are employed for machining work from separate blanks. The operator loads and
clamps the blanks, starts the machine and unloads the finished work. The characteristic features of semi
automatic lathes are:
Some major auxiliary motions and handling operations like bar feeding, speed change, tool
change etc. are done quickly and consistently with lesser human involvement.
The operators need lesser skill and putting lesser effort and attention.
Suitable for batch or small lot production.
Costlier than centre lathes of same capacity.

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2.12

2.12.1 Classification of semi automatics

Depending upon the number of work spindle, these machines are classified as:

Single spindle semi automatics

Centre type:
In this type, the workpiece is held between centres, for which a head stock
and a tail stock are mounted on the bed of the machine. Usually, external stepped or formed
surfaces are machined on this machine. The work is machined by two groups of cutting tools.
The front tool slide holds the cutting tools which require a longitudinal feed motion to turn the
steps of a shaft, while the rear tool slide carries the tools that require a transverse feed motion to
perform operations such as facing, shouldering, necking, chamfering etc.
Chucking type:
In this type, the workpiece is held in a chuck. Such a machine may be
equipped with various tool slide arrangements. In addition to longitudinal and transverse feed
tool slides, these machines may also be equipped with a central end working tool slide or a turret
if internal surfaces are also to be machined in addition to the external surfaces.
Multi spindle semi automatics
The machine may also be built in two designs:
Centre type.
Chucking type.
These multi spindle semi automatics are classified as:
Parallel action or single station type.
Progressive action or multi station type.

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AUTOMATS
These are machine tools in which the components are machined automatically. The working
cycle is fully automatic that is repeated to produce identical parts without participation of the operator.
All the working and idle operations are performed in a definite sequence by the control system adopted
in the automats which is set up to suit a given work.

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2.13.1 Classification of Automats

The automats can be classified as follows:
According to the type of work materials used:
Bar stock machine.
Chucking machine.
According to the number of spindles:
Single spindle machine.
Multi spindle machine.
According to the position of spindles:
Horizontal spindle type.
Vertical spindle type.
According to the use:
General purpose machine.
Single purpose machine.
According to the feed control:
Single cam shaft rotating at constant speed.
Single cam shaft with two speeds.
Two cam shafts.

2.13

2.13.2

Advantages of automats over conventional lathes

Mass production of identical parts.
High accuracy is maintained.
Time of production is minimized.
Less floor space is required.
Unskilled labor is enough. It minimizes the labor cost.
Constant flow of production.
One operator can be utilized to operate more than one machine.
The bar stock is fed automatically.
Scrap loss is reduced by eliminating operator error.

2.13.3 Comparison of automats and semiautomatics

Sl . No.
1
2
3
4
5
6

Automats
Loading and unloading of work piece are done
automatically by the machine.
Feeding of bar stock and bringing the tools to
correct machining positions are done automatically.
A single operator can attend a number of machines
when they are arranged together as a group.
Production time and cost less.
Best suitable for production of small size
components.
Initial cost of machine is high.

Semi automatics
Loading and unloading are
manually.

done

These are done manually.

An operator can attend to only one or
two machines at a line.
Not so less.
Suitable for large size components.
Initial cost is lower than that of
automatic lathe.

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SINGLE SPINDLE AUTOMATS

These machines have only one spindle. So, one component can be machined at a time. These are
modified form of turret lathe. These machines have maximum of 4 cross slides in addition to a 6 station
or 8 station turret. These cross slides are operated by disc cams which draws the power from the main
spindle through cycle time change gears. The single spindle automats are of the following types:

2.14

SINGLE SPINDLE AUTOMATIC CUTTING OFF MACHINE

This machine produces large quantities of workpieces of smaller diameter and shorter lengths.
Components with simple form are produced in this machine by means of cross sliding tools.

2.15

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Construction
This machine is simple in design. The head stock with the spindle is
mounted on the bed. Two cross slides are located on the bed at the front end of the spindle. The front
cross slides are used for turning and forming operations. The rear tool slide is used for facing,
chamfering, recessing, under cutting and cutting off operations. Cams on a camshaft actuate the
movements of the cross slides through a system of levers.

Fig. 2.82 Arrangement of tool slide

Fig. 2.83 Simple parts produced on cutting off machine

Working principle
Typical arrangement of tool slide in an automatic cutting off machine is
illustrated in Fig. 2.82. The required length of work piece (stock) is fed out with a cam mechanism, up
to the stock stop which is automatically advanced in line with the spindle axis, at the end of each cycle.
The stock is held in the collect chuck of the rotating spindle. The machining is done by tools held in
cross slides operating only in the crosswise direction. The form tool held in the front tool slide produces
the required shape of the component. The parting off tool in the rear tool slide is used to cut off the
component after machining. Special attachments can be employed if holes or threads are required on the
simple parts.
This machine has a single cam shaft which controls the working and idle motions of the tools.
The cam shaft runs at constant speed. Therefore working motions and idle motions takes place at the
same speed. Hence the cycle time is more. Typical simple parts (from 3 mm to 20 mm in diameter)
produced on this machine are shown in Fig. 2.83.
2.16

SWISS TYPE AUTOMATIC SCREW MACHINE

This machine was designed and developed in Switzerland. So it is often called as Swiss auto
lathe. This machine is also known as Sliding head screw machine, or Movable headstock machine,
because the head stock is movable and the tools are fixed. This machine is used for machining long
accurate parts of small diameter (2 mm to 25 mm).
Construction
Fig. 2.84 schematically shows the basic configuration of a Swiss type
automatic screw machine. This machine has the following parts:

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Fig. 2.84 Swiss type automatic screw machine

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Sliding Head Stock:

This head stock has a collet. The bar stock is held in this collet. The
headstock slides along the guide ways of the bed. A bell cam connected to the cam shaft controls this
sliding motion.
Tool Bracket:
The tool bracket is mounted on the bed way near the head stock.
The tool bracket supports 4 or 5 toll slides. It also has a bush for supporting and guiding the bar stock.
Two slides are positioned horizontally (front and rear) on which the turning tools are normally clamped.
The other slides are arranged above these slides. These slides can move radially. All the slides can move
back and forth. These slides are actuated independently by sets or rocker arms and plate cams. Plate
cams are fitted to the cam shaft. The tool bracket is shown schematically in Fig. 2.85 (a) and
photographically in Fig. 2.85 (b).

Fig. 2.85 (a) Schematic view of a tool bracket

Fig. 2.85 (a) Photographic view of a tool bracket

Feed Base:
The feed base is a special attachment mounted at the right hand
side of the bed. This can move along the bed. Using this attachment, operations like drilling, boring,
thread cutting with taps or dies etc., are done. The movement of the feed base is controlled by the plate
cam fitted to the cam shaft.
Cam Shaft:
The cam shaft is mounted at the front of the machine. It has a bell
cam at the left end. This controls the sliding movement of the head stock. Plate cams fitted at the centre
of the shaft controls the movement of the tool slides. Plate cam at the right end of the cam shaft controls
the movement of the feed base.

Fig. 2.86 Working principle of the Swiss type automatic screw machine

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Working principle
Fig. 2.86 shows the working principle of the Swiss type automatic screw
machine. The stock is held by a rotating collet in the head stock and all longitudinal feeds are obtained
by a cam which moves the head stock as a unit. Most diameters turning are done by two horizontal tool
slides while the other three slides are used principally for such operations as knurling, chamfering,
recessing and cutting off. The tools are controlled and positioned by cams that bring the tools in as
needed to turn, face, form, and cut off the workpiece from the bar as it emerges from the bushing.
The cutting action is confined close to the support bushing reducing the overhang to a minimum.
As a result, the work can be machined to very close limits. All tools can work at a time. After the work
piece is machined, the head stock slides back to the original position. One revolution of the cam shaft
produces one component.
A wide variety of formed surfaces may be obtained on the workpiece by synchronized alternating
or simultaneous travel of the headstock (longitudinal feed) and the cross slide (approach to the depth of
cut). The bar stock used in these machines has to be highly accurate and is first ground on centreless
grinding machines to ensure high accuracy. Parts produced on this machine are shown in Fig. 2.87.

Fig. 2.87 Simple parts produced on Swiss auto lathe

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Advantages
It is used to precision turning of small parts.
Wide range of speeds is available.
It is rigid in construction.
Micrometer tool setting is possible.
Interchangeability of cams is possible.
Tolerance of 0.005 mm to 0.0125 mm is obtained.

SINGLE SPINDLE AUTOMATIC SCREW TYPE MACHINE

This is essentially wholly automatic bar type turret lathe. This is very similar to capstan and
turret lathes with reference to tool layout, but all the tool movements are cam controlled, such that full
automation in manufacturing is achieved. This is designed for machining complex external and internal
surfaces on parts made of bar stock or of separate blanks. These machines are made in several sizes for
bar work from 12.7 mm to 60 mm diameter.

2.17

Fig. 2.88 Single spindle automatic screw cutting machine

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Construction
Fig. 2.88 schematically shows the basic configuration of a single spindle
automatic screw cutting machine. Up to ten different cutting tools may be employed at a time in this
machine. The tools are fixed in indexing turret and in cross-slides. The turret carries six tools. Two
cross-slides (front and rear) are employed for cross-feeding tools. A vertical slide for parting off
operation may also be provided. It is installed above the work spindle. The stationary headstock,
mounted on the left end of the bed, houses the spindle which rotates in either direction.

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Working principle
The bar stock is held in a collet chuck and advanced by a feed finger after
each piece is finished and cut off. All movements of the machine units are actuated by cams mounted on
the camshaft. The bar stock is pushed through stock tube in a bracket and its leading end is clamped in
rotating spindle by means of a collet chuck. The bar is then fed out for the next part by stock feeding
mechanism. Longitudinal turning and machining of the central hole are performed by tools mounted on
turret slide. The cut off and form tools are mounted on the cross-slides. At the end of each cut, turret
slide is withdrawn automatically and indexed to bring the next tool into position. One revolution of
camshaft produces one component. It is used for producing small jobs, screws, stepped pins, taper pins,
bolts, etc. Typical parts produced on this machine are shown in Fig. 2.89.

Fig. 2.89 Parts produced on single spindle automatic screw cutting machine

MULTI SPINDLE AUTOMATS

The multi spindle automats are the fastest type of production machines and are made in a variety
of models with 2, 4, 5, 6 or 8 spindles. Each of the spindles is provided with its own set of tools for
operation. As a result, more than one work piece can be machined simultaneously in these machines. In
contrast to the single spindle automat, where one turret face at a time is working on one spindle, the
multi spindle automat has all turret faces working on all spindles at the same time. The production rate
of a multi spindle automat, however, is less than that of the corresponding number of single spindle
automats. E.g. the production rate of a 4 spindle automat is not four times but only 2 to 3 times more
than that of a single spindle automat.

2.18

2.18.1 Classification of multi spindle automats

The multi spindle automats can be classified as follows:
According to the type of stock used:
Bar stock machine.
Chucking type machine.
According to the position of spindles:
Horizontal spindle type.
Vertical spindle type.
According to the principle of operation:
Parallel action type.
Progressive action type.

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2.18.2 Comparison of single spindle automat and multi spindle automat

8
9

Tools in turret are indexed.

3
4
5
6
7

Multi spindle automat

There are 2,4,5,6 or 8 spindles.
More number of work pieces can be
machined at a time.
The rate of production is high.
Machining accuracy is lower.
Tool setting time is more.
Tooling cost is more.
Economical for longer runs only.
The time required to produce one job is the
time of the longest cut in any one spindle.
Work pieces held in spindles are indexed
(Progressive action machine)

Single spindle automat

There is only one spindle.
Only one work piece can be machined at a
time.
The rate of production is low.
Machining accuracy is higher.
Tool setting time is less.
Tooling cost is less.
Economical for shorter as well as longer runs.
The time required to produce one job is the
sum of all turret operation times.

Sl . No.
1

PARALLEL ACTION MULTI SPINDLE AUTOMAT

These machines are usually automatic cutting off bar type machines. This is also called as
multiple-flow machine. In this machine, the same operation is performed on each spindle and a
workpiece is finished in each spindle in one working cycle. The rate of production is very high, but the
machine can be employed to machine simple parts only since all the machining processes are done at
one position. Fig. 2.90 shows the basic configuration of a parallel action multi spindle automat.
They are used to perform the same work as single spindle automatic cutting off machines.
Centering or a single drilling operation can also be performed on certain models. The machine consists
of a frame with a head stock. The horizontal work spindles which are arranged in a line, one above the
other, are housed in this headstock. Cross slides are located at the right and left hand sides of the
spindles and carry the cross feeding tools. All the working and the auxiliary motions of the machine
units are obtained from the cam mounted on the cam shaft.

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2.19

Fig. 2.90 Parallel action multi spindle automat

2.20

PROGRESSIVE ACTION MULTI SPINDLE AUTOMAT

In this machine the blanks clamped in each spindle are machined progressively in station
after station.
Construction
Fig. 2.91 shows the basic configuration of a six-spindle progressive action
automat. The headstock is mounted at the left end of the base of the machine. It contains a spindle
carrier which periodically indexes through a definite angle (3600 divided by the number of spindles)
about a horizontal axis through the centre of the machine at each tool retraction. The main tool slide (end
tool slide), which accommodates tooling for all of the spindles, travels on the spindle carrier stem. The
number of tool slides or faces is equal to the number of spindles.

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Fig. 2.91 Six-spindle progressive action automat

The working spindles are mounted in this spindle carrier. The working spindles carry the collets
on which the workpieces are held. The bar stock is fed to the working spindle from the rear.
Cross slides which carry tools for operations such as cut off, turning, facing, forming, chamfering
etc. are mounted in a frame above the face of the spindle carrier. These cross slides travel radially inward
for cutting operation. The number of cross slides is equal to the number of spindles. The feed of each
tool, both cross slide tools and end slide tools, is controlled by its own individual cam.

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Working principle
The spindle carrier indexes on its own axis by 600 (3600/6) at each tool
retraction. As the spindle carrier indexes, it carries the work from station to station, where various tools
operate on it. The stock moves around the circle in counter clockwise direction and comes to the station
number 6 for cutting off. A finished component is obtained for one full revolution of the spindle carrier.
Typical parts produced on this machine are shown in Fig. 2.92.

Fig. 2.92 Parts produced on multi spindle automatic lathe

2.20.1 Comparison of parallel action and progressive action multi spindle automat
Sl . No.
1

2
3
4
5

Parallel action multi spindle automat

Progressive action multi spindle automat
Same operation is done on all jobs in all Different operations are done on jobs at each
the spindles.
station one after another.
It is not so. (i.e.) The number of components
In one cycle the number of components
produced in one cycle is not equal to the number
produced simultaneously is equal to the
of spindles. For every indexing of component
number of spindles.
(spindle) one component is produced.
Rate of production is very high.
Rate of production is moderate.
If anything goes wrong in one station, the If anything goes wrong in one station, the
production in that particular station only is production is completely affected in all the
affected.
stations.
Small parts of simple shapes are
Parts of complicate shapes can be produced.
produced.

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RECIPROCATING AND MILLING MACHINES

RECIPROCATING MACHINE TOOLS
In lathes the work piece is rotated while the cutting tool is moved axially to produce cylindrical
surfaces. But in reciprocating machine tools the single point cutting tool is reciprocates and produces flat
surfaces. The flat surfaces produced may be horizontal, vertical or inclined at an angle. These machine
tools can also be arranged for machining contoured surfaces, slots, grooves and other recesses. The
major machine tools that fall in this type are: Shaper, Planer and Slotter. The main characteristic of this
type of machine tools is that they are simple in construction and are thus economical in operation.

3.1

SHAPER
The main function of the shaper is to produce flat surfaces in different planes. In general the
shaper can produce any surface composed of straight line elements. Modern shapers can generate
contoured surface. The shaper was first developed in the year 1836 by James Nasmyth, an Englishman.
Because of the poor productivity and process capability the shapers are not widely used nowadays for
production. The shaper is a low cost machine tool and is used for initial rough machining of the blanks.

3.2

Classification of shapers
Shapers are broadly classified as follows:
According to the type of mechanism used:
Crank shaper.
Geared shaper.
Hydraulic shaper.
According to the position and travel of ram:
Horizontal shaper.
Vertical shaper.
Traveling head shaper.
According to the type of design of the table:
Standard or plain shaper.
Universal shaper.
According to the type of cutting stroke:
Push type shaper.
Draw type shaper.

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3.2.1

3.2.1.1 According to the type of mechanism used

Crank shaper
This is the most common type of shaper in which a single point cutting tool is given a
reciprocating motion equal to the length of the stroke desired while the work is clamped in position on
an adjustable table. In construction, the crank shaper employs a crank mechanism to change circular
motion of bull gear to reciprocating motion of the ram.

Geared type shaper

The reciprocating motion of the ram is some type of shaper is effect by means of a rack and
pinion. The rack teeth which are cut directly below the ram mesh with a spur gear. The pinion meshing
with the rack is driven by a gear train. The speed and the direction in which the ram will traverse depend
on the number of gears in the gear train. This type of shaper is not very widely used.

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Hydraulic shaper
In a hydraulic shaper, reciprocating movement of the ram is obtained by hydraulic power. Oil
under high pressure is pumped into the operating cylinder fitted with a piston. The end of the piston rod
is connected to the ram. The high pressure oil first acts on one side of the piston and then on the other
causing the piston to reciprocate and the motion is transmitted to the ram. The speed of the ram is
changed by varying the amount of liquid delivered to the piston by the pump.

3.2.1.2 According to the position and travel of ram

Horizontal shaper
In a horizontal shaper, the ram holding the tool reciprocates in a horizontal axis. Horizontal
shapers are mainly used to produce flat surfaces.

Vertical shaper
In a vertical shaper, the ram holding the tool reciprocates in a vertical axis. The work table of a
vertical shaper can be given cross, longitudinal, and rotary movement. Vertical shapers are very
convenient for machining internal surfaces, keyways, slots or grooves. Large internal and external gears
may also be machined by indexing arrangement of the rotary table. The vertical shaper which is
specially designed for machining internal keyway is called as Keyseater.

Travelling head shaper

The ram carrying the tool while it reciprocates moves crosswise to give the required feed. Heavy
jobs which are very difficult to hold on the table of a standard shaper and fed past the tool are held static
on the basement of the machine while the ram reciprocates and supplies the feeding movements.

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3.2.1.3 According to the type of design of the table

Standard or plain shaper
A shaper is termed as standard or plain when the table has only two movements, vertical and
horizontal, to give the feed. The table may or may not be supported at the outer end.

Universal shaper
In this type, in addition to the two movements provided on the table of a standard shaper, the
table can be swiveled about an axis parallel to the ram ways, and the upper portion of the table can be
tilted about a second horizontal axis perpendicular to the first axis. As the work mounted on the table can
be adjusted in different planes, the machine is most suitable for different types of work and is given the
name Universal. A universal shaper is mostly used in tool room work.
3.2.1.4 According to the type of cutting stroke
Push type shaper
This is the most general type of shaper used in common practice. The metal is removed when the
ram moves away from the column, i.e. pushes the work.
Draw type shaper
In this type, the metal is removed when the ram moves towards the column of the machine, i.e.
draws the work towards the machine. The tool is set in a reversed direction to that of a standard shaper.
In this shaper the cutting pressure acts towards the column which relieves the cross rail and other
bearings from excessive loading and allows to take deep cuts. Vibration in these machines is practically
eliminated. The ram is generally supported by an overhead arm which ensures rigidity and eliminates
deflection of the tool.

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3.2.2 Major parts of a standard shaper

Fig. 3.1 shows the basic configuration of a standard shaper. The major parts are:

Fig. 3.1 Schematic view of a standard shaper

Base
It provides the necessary support to the machine tool. It is rigidly bolted to the shop floor.
All parts are mounted on the base. It is made up of cast iron to resist vibration and take up high
compressive load. It takes the entire load of the machine and the forces set up by the cutting tool during
machining.

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Column
It is a box like casting mounted upon the base. It encloses the drive mechanisms for the
ram and the table. Two accuratelyy machined guide ways are provided on the top of the column on which
the ram reciprocates. The front vertical face of the column which serves as the guide ways for the cross
rail is also accurately machined.
Cross rail
It is mounted on the front vertical guide ways of the column. It has two parallel guide
ways on its top in the vertical plane that is perpendicular to the ram axis. The table may be raised or
lowered to accommodate different sizes of jobs by rotating an elevating screw which causes the cross
rail to slide up and down on the vertical face of the column. A horizontal cross feed screw which is fitted
within the cross rail and parallel to the top guide ways of the cross rail actuates the table to move in a
crosswise direction.

Saddle
It is mounted
ted on the cross rail which holds the table firmly on its top. Crosswise
movement of the saddle by rotating the cross feed screw by hand or power causes the table to move
sideways.
Table
It is bolted to the saddle receives crosswise and vertical movements
movement from the saddle and
cross rail. It is a box like casting having T-slots
T slots both on the top and sides for clamping the work. In a
universal shaper the table may be swiveled on a horizontal axis and the upper part of the table may be
tilted up or down. In a heavier
eavier type shaper, the front face of the table is clamped with a table support to
make it more rigid.
Ram
Itt holds and imparts cutting motion to the tool through reciprocation.
reciprocation It is connected to the
reciprocating mechanism
sm contained within the column. It is semi cylindrical in form and heavily ribbed
inside to make it more rigid. It houses a screwed shaft for altering the position of the ram with respect to
the work and holds the tool head at the extreme forward end.

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Tool head
It holds the tool rigidly, provides the feed movement of the tool and allows the tool to
have an automatic relief during its return stroke. The vertical slide of the tool head has a swivel base
which is held on a circular seat on the ram. So the vertical slide may be set at any desired
des
angle. By
rotating the down feed screw handle, the vertical slide carrying the tool executes the feed or depth of cut.
The amount of feed or depth of cut may be adjusted by a micrometer dial on the top of the down feed
screw. Apron consisting of clapper
er box, clapper block and tool post is clamped upon the vertical slide by
a screw. By releasing the clamping screw, the apron may be swiveled upon the apron swivel pin with
respect to the vertical slide. This arrangement is necessary to provide relief to the
t tool while making
vertical or angular cuts. The two vertical walls on the apron called clapper box houses the clapper block
which is connected to it by means of a hinge pin. The tool post is mounted upon the clapper block. On
the forward cutting stroke the clapper block fits securely to the clapper box to make a rigid tool support.
On the return stroke a slight frictional drag of the tool on the work lifts the block out of the clapper box a
sufficient amount preventing the tool cutting edge from dragging and consequent wear. The work
surface is also prevented from
rom any damage due to dragging. Fig.3.2 illustrates the tool head of a shaper.

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Fig. 3.2 Tool head of a shaper

Working principle of a standard shaper

3.2.3

Fig. 3.3 (a) Kinematic

inematic system of a shaper

Fig. 3.3 (b) Principle

ciple of producing flat surface

Fig. 3.3 (a) schematically shows the kinematic system of a standard shaper. Fig. 3.3 (b) shows
the basic principle of producing flat surface in a standard shaper. The bull gear receives its rotation
from the motor through the pinion. The rotation of the crank causes oscillation of the link and thereby
reciprocation of the ram and hence the tool in straight path. The cutting motion provided by the
reciprocating tool and the intermittent feed motion provided by the slow transverse motion of the work at
different rate by using the ratchet - pawl system along with the saddle result in producing a flat surface
by gradual
al removal of excess material layer by layer in the form of chips.

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The vertical infeed is given either by descending the tool holder or raising the cross rail or both.
Straight grooves of various curved sections are also made in shaper by using specific form
f
tools. The
single point straight or form tool is clamped in the vertical slide of the tool head, which is mounted at the
front face of the reciprocating ram.
ram The work piece is clamped directly on the table or clamped in a vice
which is mounted on the table. The changes in length of stroke and position of the stroke required for
different machining are accomplished respectively by:
by
Adjusting the crank length by rotating the bevel gear mounted coaxially with the bull gear.
gear
Shifting the ram block nut by rotating the lead screw.
Ram drive mechanism of a shaper
In a shaper, rotary movement of the drive is converted into reciprocating movement of the ram
by the mechanism contained within the column of the machine. In a standard shaper metal is removed
remove in
the forward cutting stroke and during the return stroke no metal is removed. To reduce the total
machining time it is necessary to reduce the time taken by the return stroke. Thus the shaper mechanism
should be so designed that it can allow the ram to move at a comparatively slower speed during the
forward cutting stroke and during the return stoke it can allow the ram to move at a faster rate to reduce
the idle return time. This mechanism is known as quick return mechanism. The reciprocating
reciprocatin movement
and the quick return of the ram are usually obtained by using any one of the following mechanisms.

3.2.4

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3.2.4.1 Crank and slotted link quick return mechanism

Fig. 3.4 Crank

Crank and slotted link quick return mechanism
The crank and slotted link quick return mechanism is shown in Fig. 3.4.
3. This mechanism has a
bull gear mounted within the column. The motion or power is transmitted to the bull gear through a
pinion which receives its motion from an individual motor. A radial slide is bolted to the centre of the
bull gear. This radial slide carries a bull gear sliding block into which the crank pin is fitted. Rotation of
the bull gear will cause the crank pin to revolve at a constant speed about the centre of the bull gear.
Rocker arm sliding block is mounted upon
upo the crank pin and is free to rotate about the pin. The rocker
arm sliding block is fitted within the slotted link and can slide along
ong the slot in the slotted link (rocker
arm). The bottom end of the rocker arm is pivoted to the frame of the column. The upper end is forked
and connected to the ram block by a pin which can slide in the forked end.
As the bull gear rotates causing the crank pin to rotate, the rocker arm sliding block fastened to
the crank pin will rotate on the crank pin circle, and at the same time will move up and down in the slot
provided in the slotted link. This up and down movement will give rocking motion (oscillatory motion)
to the slotted link (rocker arm), which communicated
c
to the ram. Thus the rotary motion of the bull gear
is converted into
to reciprocating movement of the ram.

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Quick return principle

Fig. 3.5
3. Principle of quick return motion
The principle of quick return motion is illustrated in Fig. 3.5. When the slotted link is in the
position PA1, the ram will be at the extreme backward position of its stroke. When the slotted link is in
the position PA2, the ram will be at the extreme forward position of its stroke.
PA1 and PA2 are shown tangent to the crank pin circle. Therefore the forward cutting stroke takes
place when
hen the crank pin rotates through the angle C1KC2 () and the return stroke takes place when the
crank pin rotates through the angle C2LC1 (). It is clear that the angle made by the forward or cutting
stroke is greater than that the angle described by the return stroke. The angular velocity of the crank
pin being constant, therefore the return stroke is completed within a shorter time for which it is known as
quick return motion.
=

Standard value of m is 2:1. But the practical value is 3:2.

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The only disadvantage of this mechanism is that the linear velocity of the ram is not constant
throughout the stroke. The velocity is minimum when the rocker
rocker arm is at the two extremities and the
velocity is maximum when the rocker arm is vertical.

Adjusting the length of stroke

Fig. 3.4 illustrates
llustrates how the length of stroke in a crank shaper can be adjusted. The crank pin is
fastened to the bull gear sliding block which can be adjusted and the radius of its travel may be varied.
The bevel gear 18 placed at the centre of the bull gear may be rotated by a handle causing the bevel gear
17 to rotate. The bevel gear 17 is mounted upon the small lead screw which
which passes through the bull gear
sliding block. Thus rotation of the bevel gear will cause the bull gear sliding block carrying the crank pin
to be brought inwards or outwards with respect to the centre of the bull gear.
Fig. 3.6 (a) shows the detail arrangement
arrangement for altering the position of the bull gear sliding block
on the bull gear. The sketch has been drawn without the rocker arm in position. Fig. 3.6 (b) shows the
short and long stroke of the ram, effect by altering the position of the crank pin.

Fig. 3.6 (a) Arrangement

rrangement of bull gear sliding block

Fig. 3.66 (b) Short and long stroke length

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Adjusting the position of stroke

The position of the ram relative to the work can also be adjusted. Referring to the Fig. 3.4, by
rotating the hand wheel 5 the screwed shaft fitted in the ram may be made to rotate through two bevel
gears 6 and 7. The ram block which is mounted upon the screwed shaft acts as a nut. The nut remaining
fixed in position, rotation of the screwed shaft will cause the ram to move forward or backward with
respect to the ram block according to the direction of rotation of the hand wheel. Thus the position of
ram may be adjusted with respect to the work piece.. The ram block locking handle 4 must be tightened
tightene
after the adjustment has been made.

3.2.4.2 Whitworth quick return mechanism

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Fig. 3.7
3. Whitworth quick return mechanism
The Whitworth quick return mechanism is shown in Fig. 3.7.
3. The bull gear is mounted on a large
fixed pin A upon which it is free to rotate. The motion or power is transmitted to the bull gear through a
pinion which receives its motion from an individual motor. The crank plate is pivoted eccentrically upon
the fixed pin at 5.. The crank pin is fitted on the face of the bull gear.
gear. The crank plate sliding block is
mounted upon the crank pin and it fits into the slot provided on the crank plate. The crank plate sliding
block can slide inside the slot. At the other end of the crank plate, a connecting rod connects the crank
plate and the ram by two pin 9 and 7.
7. When bull gear will rotate at a constant speed the crank pin with
the sliding block will rotate on a crank circle of radius A22 and the sliding block will cause the
th crank
plate to rotate about the point 5 with a variable angular velocity. Pin 9 fitted on the other end of
o the crank
plate will rotate in a circle and the rotary motion of the pin 9 will be converted into reciprocating
movement of the ram similar to the crank and connecting rod mechanism. The axis of reciprocating of
the ram passes through the pin 5 and is normal to the line A5.
When the crank pin 2 is at the point C the ram will be at the extreme backward position of its
stroke. When the crank pin 2 is at the point B the ram will be at the extreme forward position of its
stroke. Therefore the forward cutting stroke takes place when the crank pin rotates through the angle
CEB ()) and the return stroke takes place when the crank pin rotates through the angle BDC (). It is
clear that the angle made by the forward or cutting stroke is greater than the angle described by the
return stroke. The angular velocity of the crank pin being constant, therefore the return stroke is
completed within a shorter time
me for which it is known as quick return motion. The length of stroke of the
ram may be changed by shifting the position of pin 9 closer or away from the pivot 5. The position of
stroke may be altered by shifting the position of pin 7 on the ram.
3.2.4.3 Hydraulic drive quick return mechanism
A typical hydraulic drive for horizontal shaper is shown in Fig. 3.88. A constant speed motor
drives a hydraulic pump which delivers oil at a constant pressure to the line. A regulating valve admits
oil under pressure to each end on the piston alternately, at the same time allowing oil from the opposite
end of the piston
ton to return to the reservoir.

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Fig. 3.8
3. Hydraulic drive for horizontal shaper

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The piston is pushed by the oil and, being connected to the ram by the piston rod, pushes the ram
carrying the tool. The admission of oil to each end of the piston, alternately, is accomplished with the
help of trip dogs and pilot valve. As the ram moves and completes its stroke (forward or return) a trip
dog will tripp the pilot valve which operates the regulating valve. The regulating valve will admit the oil
to the other side of the piston and the motion of the ram will get reversed. It is clear that the length of the
ram stroke will depend upon the position of the trip
trip dogs. The length of the ram stroke can be changed
by unclamping and moving the trip dogs to the desired positions.
The above system is a constant pressure system. The velocity of the ram travel will be directly
proportional to the oil pressure and the piston area to which it is applied. The return stroke is quicker,
since the piston area on which the oil pressure acts is greater as compared to the other end for which it
gets reduced because of the piston rod. Another oil line is connected to a smaller feed cylinder to change
the hydraulic power to mechanical power for feeding the work past the tool.

Advantages of Hydraulic drive

Does not make any noise and operates very quietly.
quietly
Ability to stall against an obstruction without damage to the tool or the machine.
Ability to change length and position of stroke or speed while the machine is running.
running
The cutting and return speeds are practically constant throughout the stroke. This permits the
cutting tool to work uniformly during cutting stroke.
The reversall of the ram is obtained quickly without any shock as the oil on the other end of the
cylinder provides cushioning effect.
Offers great flexibility of speed and feed and the control is easier.
The hydraulic drive shows a very nearly constant velocity as compared
compared with a mechanical drive,
which has a constantly changing velocity because the horizontal component of the crankpin
moving about its circle is constantly changing. The velocity diagram is shown in Fig. 3.9.
3.

Fig. 3.9 Velocity diagram of (a) Crank shaper

shaper and (b) Hydraulic shaper
On the other hand, a mechanical shaper has the following plus points: Lower first cost and
simpler in operation. The cutting stroke has a definite stopping point.

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Feed mechanism of a shaper

The mechanism used for providing feed is known as feed mechanism. In a shaper both down feed
and cross feed movements may be obtained. Unlike a lathe, these feed movements are provided
intermittently and during the end of return stroke only. Vertical or bevel surfaces are produced
produc by
rotating the down feed screw of the tool head by hand. This movement of the tool is called down feed.
The horizontal movement of table is called cross feed. Cross feed movement is used to machine a
flat horizontal surface. The cross feed of the table
table is effect by rotating the cross feed screw. This screw is
engaged with a nut fitted in the table. Rotation of the cross feed screw causes the table mounted
upon the saddle to move sideways on the cross rail. Cross feed is given either by hand or power. If this
screw is rotated manually by handle, then it is called hand feed. If this screw is rotated by power, then it
is called automatic feed. The power is given through an automatic feed mechanism. The down feed and
cross feed mechanism of a shaper is schematically shown in Fig. 3.10.

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3.2.5

Fig. 3.10 Down feed and cross feed mechanism

Fig. 3.11 Automatic feed mechanism

3.2.5.1 Automatic feed mechanism of a shaper

Fig. 3.11 illustrates the automatic feed mechanism of a shaper. In this mechanism,
mechani
a ratchet
wheel is keyed to the end of the cross feed screw. A rocker arm is pivoted at the centre of the ratchet
wheel. The rocker arm houses a spring loaded pawl at its top.
top The spring pushes against the pawl to keep
it in contact with the ratchet wheel. The pawl is straight on one side and bevel on the other side. So the
pawl moves the ratchet wheel in one direction only. The rocker arm is connected to the driving disc or
feed disc by a connecting rod. The driving disc has a T-slot
T
on its face along its diameter. The driving
pin or crank pin fits into this slot. One end of the connecting rod is attached to this crank pin.
We know that the table feed is intermittent and is accomplished
accomplished on the return stroke when the
tool has cleared the work piece. The driving
d
disc is driven from the bull gear through a spur gear drive
and rotates at the same speed as the bull gear. As the driving disc rotates, the connecting rod oscillates
the rocker arm about the cross feed screw. During the forward stroke of the ram, the rocker arm moves
in the clockwise direction. As bevel side of the pawl fits on the right side, the pawl slips over the teeth of
the ratchet wheel.. It gives no movement to the table. During the return stroke of the ram, the rocker arm
moves in the counter clockwise direction. The left side of the pawl being straight; so that it moves the
ratchet wheel by engaging with it and hence rotates the cross feed screw which moves the table.
A knob at the top of the pawl enables the operator to rotate it 1800 to reverse the direction of feed
or 900 to stop it altogether. The rate of feed is controlled by adjusting the eccentricity or offset of the
crank pin in the driving disc.

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Work holding devices used in a shaper

The top and side of the table of a shaper have T-slots
T slots for clamping the work piece. The work
piece may be supported on the shaper table by using any one of the following work holding devices
depending upon the geometry of the work piece and nature of the operation to be performed.
Machine vise.
Clamping work on the table.
Angle plate.
V-blocks.
Shaper centre.

3.2.6

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3.2.6.1 Machine vise

A vise is a quick method of holding and locating small and regular
regular shaped work pieces. It
consists of a base, screw,
crew, fixed jaw and movable jaw. The work piece is clamped between fixed and
movable jaws by rotating the screw. Types of machine vise are plain vise, swivel
wivel vise and universal vise.
A plain vise is the most simple of all the types. The vise may have a single screw or double
screws for actuating the movable jaw. The double screws add gripping strength while taking deeper cuts
or handling heavier jobs. Fig. 3.122 (a) illustrates a plain vise.
In a swivel vise the base is graduated in degrees, and the body of the vise may be swiveled at any
desired angle on a horizontal plane. The swiveling arrangement is useful in beveling the end of work
piece. Fig. 3.12 (b) illustrates a swivel vise.
A universal vise may be swiveled like a swivel vise. In addition to that, the body may be tilted in
a vertical plane up to 90 degrees from the horizontal. An inclined surface may be machined by a
universal vise. Fig. 3.12 (c) illustrates a universal vise.

Fig. 3.12 Machine vise (a) Plain vise (b) Swivel vise and (c) Universal vise

Parallels
When the height of the job is less than the height of the jaws of the vise, parallels
are used to raise and seat the work piece above the vise jaws and parallel with the vise bottom. Parallels
are square or rectangular hardened bars of steel or cast iron. Fig 3.13 illustrates the use of parallels.

Fig. 3.13 Use of parallels

Fig. 3.14 Use

se of hold downs

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Hold downs
Fig 3.14 illustrates the use of hold downs. Hold downs or grippers are used for
holding thin pieces of work in a shaper vise. These are also used for holding work of smaller height than
the vise jaws. These are hardened wedge shaped piece with a taper angle of 50. These are placed between
two jaws of the vise and the work piece.
piece. When the screw is tightened the typical shape of the hold down
exerts downward pressure on the work to hold it tight on the parallels or on the vise table.

3.2.6.2 Clamping work on the table

When the work piece is too large to be held in a vise it must be fastened directly on the shaper
table. The different methods employed to clamp different types of work on a shaper table are:
T-bolts, step blocks and clamps.
Stop pins.
Stop pins and toe dogs.
Strip and stop pins.

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T-bolts, step blocks and clamps

Fig. 3.15 illustrates the use of T-bolt
bolt and clamp for holding the
work. T-bolt having T-head is fitted in the T-slot
T slot of the table. The length of the threaded portion is
sufficiently long in order to accommodate different heights of work. One end of the clamp rests on the
side of the work while the other end rests on a fulcrum block or step block.. The fulcrum block should be
of the same height as the part being clamped. To hold a large work on the table a series of clamps and TT
bolts are used all round the work.

Fig. 3.15 Use of T-bolt,, step block and clamp

Fig. 3.16 (a) Stop pins and (b) Use of stop pins

Stop pins
Fig.3. (a) illustrates the stop pins and Fig. 3.16 (b) illustrates the use of
Fig.3.16
stop pins. A stop pin is a one-leg
leg screw clamp. Stop pins are used to prevent the work piece from coming
out of position during the cutting stroke. The body of the stop pin is fitted in the slot on the table and the
screw is tightened till it forces against the work.

Stop pins and toe dogs

Fig.3. (a) illustrates the use of stop pins and toe dogs. While holding
Fig.3.17
thin work on the table stop pins
ns in conjunction with toe dogs are used. A toe dog is similar in shape to
that of a centre punch or a cold chisel. Fig.3.17 (b) shows the two types of toe dogs. When screw of the
stop pin is tightened, the work is gripped down on the table.

Fig. 3.17 (a) Use of stop pins and toe dogs

Fig. 3.17 (b) Toe dogs

Strip and stop pin

Work having sufficient thickness is held on the table by strip and stop pin.
A strip is a long bar having a tongue with holes for fitting the T-bolts.
T
The strip with bolts is fitted in the
T-slot of the table. Fig.3.18 illustrates the use of strip and stop pin for holding the work.

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Fig. 3.18 Use of strip and stop pin

Fig. 3.19 Use of angle plate

3.2.6.3 Angle plate

Fig.. 3.19 illustrates the use of angle plate. For holding L shaped work
piece, angle plate is used. Angle plate is made of cast iron and is accurately planed on two sides at right
angles. One of the sides is clamped to the table by T-bolts
T bolts while the other side holds the work by clamps.

3.2.6.4 V-blocks
Fig. 3.20 illustrates the use of V-blocks. V-block
blocks are used for holding
round rods. Work piece may be supported on two V-blocks
V blocks at its two ends and is clamped to the table by
T-bolts and clamps. V-blocks
blocks are made of cast iron or steel and are accurately machined.

Fig. 3.20 Use of V-blocks

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3.2.6.5 Shaper centre

Fig. 3.21 Use of shaper centre

Fig.3.21 illustrates the shaper center. This is a special attachment used for cutting equally spaced
grooves or splines and gears. A shaper centre consists of a headstock and a tailstock, and the work is
mounted between two centres. The worm gear is mounted upon the head stock spindle and it meshes
me
with the worm. The handle is connected with the worm shaft. Rotation of the handle causes the worm
gear to rotate and the motion is transmitted to the work through a catch plate and carrier. After cutting a
slot or groove on the top of the work, it may
may be turned to a predetermined amount by an index plate. The
index plate is mounted on the worm gear shaft. The index plate has a series of holes around its
circumference and is locked in any desired position by engaging the index pin in the corresponding hole.
3.2.7

Shaper tools
The cutting tool used in a shaper is a single point cutting tool having rake, clearance and other
tool angles similar to a lathe tool. It differs from a lathe tool in tool angles. Shaper tools are much more
rigid and heavier to withstand
ithstand shock experienced by the cutting tool at the commencement of each
cutting stroke. In a shaper tool the amount of side clearance angle is only 20 to 30 and the front clearance
angle is 40 for cast iron and steel. Small clearance angle adds strength to the cutting edge.

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co
s.
te
Fig. 3.22 Commonly used shaper tools

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3.2.7.1 Classification of shaper tools

The shaper tools are classified as follows:
According to the shape:
Straight tool.
Cranked tool.
Goose necked tool.
According
ding to the direction of cutting:
Left hand tool.
Right hand tool.
According to the finish required::
Roughing tool.
Finishing tool.
According to the type of operation:
operation
Down cutting tool.
Parting off tool.
Squaring tool.
Side recessing tool.
According to the shape of the cutting edge:
edge
Round nose tool.
Square nose tool.
Commonly used shaper tools are shown in Fig. 3.22.

As the tool removes metal mostly from its side cutting edge, side rake of 100 is usually provided
with little or no rake. A shaper can also use a right hand or left hand tool. High
High speed steel is the most
common material for a shaperr tool but shock resistant cemented carbide tipped tool is also used where
harder material is to be machined. As in a lathe, tool holders are also used to hold the tool bits.

Round nose tool:

This is used for roughing operations. The tool has no top rake. It has side rake
angle, in between 10 to 200. Round tool is of two types - plain and bent types. The plain straight type is
used for rough machining of horizontal surface. Round nose
nose tool can be left handed or right handed.
Another type of round nose tool which is cranked or bent is used for machining vertical surfaces. It is
known as round nose cutting down tool.

Square nose tool:

This tool is used for finishing operations. The cutting
cutting edge may have different
widths. It is also used to machine the bottom surfaces of key ways and grooves.
Side recessing tool: This is a special tool used for machining T-slots
slots and narrow vertical surfaces. This
tool can be both left handed and right handed.
Parting off tool:
This is used for parting off operation. It is also used for cutting narrow slots. It has
no side rake angle. It has front and side clearance angle of 30.
Goose necked tool: This is also known as spring tool. The special shape of tool reduces chatter and
prevents digging of tool into the work piece.
piece. This tool is generally used for finishing cast iron.
3.2.8

Shaper operations
A shaper is a versatile machine tool primarily designed
designed to generate a flat surface by a single point
cutting tool. But it may also be used to perform many other operations. The different operations which a
shaper can perform are as follows:

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Machining flat surfaces in different planes

Fig. 3.23 shows how flat surfaces are produced in a shaper by single point cutting
c
tools in (a)
Horizontal (b) Vertical and (c) Inclined
nclined planes.

(b) Vertical
ertical surface

(a) Horizontal surface

(c) Inclined surfaces (dovetail slides and guides)

Fig. 3.23
3. Machining of flat surfaces in a shaper

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Making features like slots, steps etc. which are also bounded by flat surfaces
Fig. 3.24 visualizes the methods of machining (a) Slot
S (b) Pocket
ocket (c) T-slot
T
and (d) V-block in a
shaper by single point cutting tools.

Fig. 3.24 Machining (a) Slot (b) Pocket (c) T-slot and (d) V-block
block in a shaper

Forming grooves bounded by short width curved surfaces

Fig. 3.25 typically shows how oil groove and contour form are made in a shaper by using single
point form tools.

25 Making grooves in a shaper by form tools

Fig. 3.25
Cutting external and internal keyways
Fig. 3.26 visualizes the methods of machining (a) External keyway and (b) Internal keyway in a
shaper by using single point tools.

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Fig. 3.26 Machining of (a) External keyway and (b) Internal keyway in a shaper

Machining of external gears, external and internal splines

Fig. 3.27 visualizes the methods of machining (a) External gear (b) External splines and (c)
Internal splines by using a shaper centre with single point tools.

Fig. 3.27 Machining of (a) External gear (b) External splines and (c) Internal splines in a shaper

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Some other machining applications of shaper are smooth slittingg or parting, cutting teeth of rack
for repair etc. using simple or form type single point cutting tools. Some unusual work can also be done,
if needed, by developing and using special attachments.
attachments However, due to very low productivity, less
versatility andd poor process capability, shapers are not employed for lot and batch production. Such low
cost primitive machine tools may be reasonably used only for little or few machining work on one or few
work pieces required for repair and maintenance work in small machine shops.
3.2.9

Special attachments
ttachments used in a shaper
Some special attachments are often used for extending the processing capabilities of a shaper and
also for getting some unusual work in an ordinary shaper.

3.2.9.1 Double cut attachment

Fig. 3.28 schematically shows the double cut attachment. This simple attachment is rigidly
mounted on the vertical face of the ram replacing the clapper box. It is comprised of a fixed body with
two working flat surfaces and a swing type tool holder having two tools on either
eith faces. The tool holder
is tilted by a spring loaded lever which is moved by a trip dog at the end of its strokes. Such attachment
simply enhances the productivity by utilizing both the strokes in shaping machines.

Fig. 3.28 Double cut attachment used in a shaper

Fig. 3.29 Thread rolling attachment used in a shaper

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3.2.9.2 Thread rolling attachment

The thread of fasteners is done by mass production methods. Thread rolling is hardly done
nowadays in shaping machines. However the configuration, mounting and the working principle of the
thread rolling attachment are visualized in Fig. 3.29. In between the flat dies, one fixed and one
reciprocating, the blanks are pushed and thread - rolled one by one.

PLANER
Like shapers, planers are also basically used for producing flat surfaces. But planers are very
large and massive compared to the shapers. Planers are generally used for machining large work pieces
which cannot be held in a shaper. The planers are capable of taking heavier cuts. The planer was first
developed in the year 1817 by Richard Roberts, an Englishman.

3.3.1 Types of planer

The different types of planer which are most commonly used are:
Standard or double housing planer.
Open side planer.
Pit planer.
Edge or plate planer.
Divided or latching table planer.

3.3

3.3.1.1 Standard or double housing planer

It is most widely used in work shops. It has a long heavy base on which a table reciprocates on
accurate guide ways. It has one draw back. Because of the two housings, one on each side of the bed, it
limits the width of the work that can be machined. Fig. 3.30 shows a double housing planer.

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3.3.1.2 Open side planer

It has a housing only on one side of the base and the cross rail is suspended from the housing as a
cantilever. This feature of the machine allows large and wide jobs to be clamped on the table. As the
single housing has to take up the entire load, it is made extra-massive to resist the forces. Only three tool
heads are mounted on this machine. The constructional and driving features of the machine are same as
that of a double housing planer. Fig. 3.31 shows an open side planer.

3.3.1.3 Pit planer

It is massive in construction. It differs from an ordinary planer in that the table is stationary and
the column carrying the cross rail reciprocates on massive horizontal rails mounted on both sides of the
table. This type of planer is suitable for machining a very large work which cannot be accommodated on
a standard planer and the design saves much of floor space. The length of the bed required in a pit type
planer is little over the length of the table. Fig. 3.32 shows a pit planer.
3.3.1.4 Edge or plate planer
The design of a plate or edge planer is totally unlike that of an ordinary planer. It is specially
intended for squaring and beveling the edges of steel plates used for different pressure vessels and shipbuilding works. Fig. 3.33 shows an edge planer.
3.3.1.5 Divided table planer
This type of planer has two tables on the bed which may be reciprocated separately or together.
This type of design saves much of idle time while setting the work. To have a continuous production one
of the tables is used for setting up the work and the other is used for machining. This planer is mainly
used for machining identical work pieces. The two sections of the table may be coupled together for
machining long work. Fig. 3.34 shows a divided table planer.

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Fig. 3.31 Schematic view of an open side planer

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Fig. 3.30 Schematic view of a double housing planer

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Fig. 3.33 Schematic view of an edge planer

Fig. 3.32 Schematic view of a pit planer

Fig. 3.34
3. Schematic view of a divided table planer
3.3.2 Major parts of a double housing planer
Fig. 3.30 shows the basic configuration of a double housing planer. The major parts are:
Bed
It is box like casting having cross ribs. It is a very large in size and heavy in weight and it
supports the column and all other moving parts of the machine. The bed is made slightly longer than
twice the length of the table so that the full length of the table
table may be moved on it. It is provided with
precision ways over the entire length on its top surface and the table slides on it. The hollow space
within the box like structure of the bed houses the driving mechanism for the table.

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Table
It supports the work
ork and reciprocates along the ways of the bed. The top face of the planer
table is accurately finished in order to locate the work correctly. T-slots
T slots are provided on the entire length
of the table so that the work and work holding devices may be bolted upon
upon it. Accurate holes are drilled
on the top surface of the planer table at regular intervals for supporting the poppet and stop pins. At each
end of the table a hollow space is left which acts as a trough for collecting chips. Long works can also
rest uponn the troughs. A groove is cut on the side of the table for clamping planer reversing dogs at
different positions.

Housing
It is also called columns or uprights are rigid box like vertical structures placed on each
side of the bed and are fastened to the sides of the bed. They are heavily ribbed to trace up severe forces
due to cutting. The front face of each housing is accurately machined to provide precision ways on
which the cross rail may be made to slide up and down for accommodating different heights of work.
Two side-tool
tool heads also slide upon it. The housing encloses the cross rail elevating screw, vertical and
cross feed screws for tool heads, counterbalancing weight for the cross rail, etc. these screws may be
operated either by hand or power.

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Cross rail
It is a rigid box like casting connecting the two housings. This construction ensures
rigidity of the machine. The cross rail may be raised or lowered on the face of the housing and can be
clamped at any desired position by manual, hydraulic or electrical
electrical clamping devices. The two elevating
screws in two housing are rotated by an equal amount to keep the cross rail
rail horizontal in any position.
The front face of the cross rail is accurately machined to provide a guide surface for the tool head
saddle.
e. Usually two tool heads are mounted upon the cross rail which are called railheads. The cross rail
has screws for vertical and cross feed of the tool heads and a screw for elevating the rail. These screws
may be rotated either by hand or by power.
Tool head

3.3.3

It is similar to that of a shaper both in construction and operation.

Working principle of a double housing planer

Fig. 3.35 Principle

ciple of producing flat surface

Fig. 3.36 Meshing

eshing of bull gear with table rack

Fig. 3.35 shows the basic principle of producing flat surface in a planer. The work piece is
mounted on the reciprocating table and the tools are mounted on the tool heads. The tool heads holding
the cutting tools are moved horizontally along the cross rail by screw-nut
nut system
syst
and the cross rail is
again moved up and down along the vertical rails by another screw-nut
nut pair.
pair The simple kinematical
system of the planer enables transmission and transformation of rotation of the main motor into
reciprocating motion of the large work table and the slow transverse feed motions (horizontal and
vertical) of the tool heads.
s. The reciprocation of the table, which imparts cutting motion to the work
piece, is attained by rack and pinion (bull gear) mechanism. Fig. 3.36 illustrates meshing of the bull gear
with the table rack. The rack is fitted with the table at its bottom surface and the pinion is fitted on the
output shaft of the speed gear box.
box The feed to the tool is given at the end of the return stroke.

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3.3.4 Table drive mechanism of a planer

3.3.4.1 Open and cross belt drive quick return mechanism
In this mechanism the movement of the table is effect by an open belt and a cross belt drive. It is
an old method of quick return drive used in planers of smaller size where the table width is less than 900
mm. Fig. 3.37 schematically shows the open and cross
cr
belt drive quick return mechanism of a planer.

Fig. 3.37 Open and cross belt drive quick return mechanism

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It has a counter shaft mounted upon the housings receives its motion from an overhead line shaft.
Two wide faced pulleys of different diameters are keyed to the counter shaft. The main shaft is placed
under the bed. One end of the shaft carries a set of two
two larger diameter pulleys and two smaller diameter
pulleys. The outer pulleys are rotate freely on the main shaft and they are called loose pulleys. The inner
pulleys are keyed tightly to the main shaft and they are called fast pulleys. The open belt connects
conn
the
larger diameter pulley on the countershaft with the smaller diameter pulley on the main shaft. The cross
belt connects the smaller diameter pulley on the counter shaft with the larger diameter pulley on the
main shaft. The speed of the main shaft is reduced through a speed reduction gear box. From this gear
box, the motion is transmitted to the bull gear shaft. The bull gear meshes with a rack cut at the
underside of the table and the table will receive a linear movement.

Referring to the Fig. 3.337, the open belt connects the smaller loose pulley, so no motion is
transmitted by the open belt to the main shaft. But the cross belt connects the larger fast pulley, so the
motion is transmitted by the cross belt to the main shaft. The forward stroke of
o the table takes place.
During the cutting stroke, greater power and less speed is required. The cross belt giving a greater arc of
contact on the pulleys is used to drive the table during the cutting stroke. The greater arc of contact of
the belt gives greater
reater power and the speed is reduced as the belt connects smaller diameter pulley on the
counter shaft and larger diameter pulley on the main shaft. At the end of the forward stroke a trip dog
pushes the belt shifter through a lever arrangement. The belt shifter shifts both the belts to the right side.
The open belt is shifted to the smaller fast pulley and the cross belt is shifted to the larger loose
pulley. Now the motion is transmitted to the main shaft through the open belt and no motion is
transmitted
tted to the main shaft by the cross belt. The direction of rotation of the main shaft is reversed.
The return stroke of the table takes place. The speed during return stroke is increased as the open belt
connects the larger diameter pulley on the counter shaft
shaft with the smaller diameter pulley on the main
shaft. Thus a quick return motion is obtained by the mechanism. At the end of the return stroke, the belts
are shifted to the left side by another trip dog. So the cycle is repeated. The length and position of the
stroke may be adjusted by shifting the position of trip dogs.

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3.3.4.2 Reversible motor drive quick return mechanism

All modern planers are equipped with variable speed electric motor which drives the bull gear
through a gear train. The most efficient method of an electrical drive is based on Ward Leonard system.
Fig. 3.38 schematically shows the reversible
eversible motor drive quick return mechanism of a planer.

Fig. 3.38 Reversible motor drive quick return mechanism

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This system was introduced by Harry Ward Leonard in 1891. This system consists of an AC
motor which is coupled with a DC generator, a DC motor and a reversing switch. When the AC motor
runs, the DC motor will receive power from the DC generator. At that time, the table moves in forward
direction. At the end of this stroke, a trip dog actuates an electrical reversing switch. Due to this action, it
reverses the direction of current in DC generator with increased current strength. Now, the motor rotates
in reverse direction with higher speed.
spe
So, the table
able moves in the reverse direction to take the return
stroke with comparatively high speed.
speed Thus the quick return motion is obtained by the mechanism.
The distinct advantages
dvantages of electrical drive over a belt drive are:
Cutting speed, stroke length
ngth and stroke position can be adjusted without stopping the machine.
Large number of cutting speeds and return speeds are available.
Quick and accurate control.
control Push button controls the start, stop and fine movement of the table.
Return speed can be greatly
tly increased reducing idle time.
3.3.4.3 Hydraulic drive quick return mechanism
The hydraulic drive is quite similar to that used for a horizontal shaper. More than one hydraulic
cylinder may be used to give a wide range of speeds. The main drawback of the hydraulic drive on long
planers is irregular movement of the table due to the compressibility of the hydraulic fluid. The
hydraulic drive has been described in Article 3.2.4.3, Page
age 107 and illustrated in Fig. 3.8.
Feed mechanism of a planer
In a planer the feed is provided intermittently and at the end of the return stroke similar to a
shaper. The feed of a planer, both down feed and cross feed, is given by the tool head. The down feed is
applied while machining a vertical or angular
angular surface by rotating the down feed screw of the tool head.
The cross feed is given while machining horizontal surface by rotating the cross feed screw
passes through a nut in the tool head. Both the down feed and cross feed may be provided either by hand
or power by rotating two feed screws, contained within the cross rail.
If the two feed screws are rotated manually by a handle, then it called hand feed. If the two feed
screws are rotated by power, then it is called automatic feed.

3.3.5

3.3.5.1 Automaticc feed mechanism of a planer

Fig. 3.39 illustrates the front and top view of the automatic feed mechanism of a planer.
planer A trip
dog is fitted to the planer table. At the end of the return stroke, the trip dog strikes a lever. A pawl
attached to this lever rotates a ratchet. So a splined shaft attached to the ratchet rotates. A bevel gear cast
integral with a spur gear is fitted
ted freely on the down feed screw. This bevel gear meshes with other bevel
gear slides on the splined shaft.

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Fig. 3.39 Front and top view of the automatic feed mechanism of a planer

Work holding devices used in a planer

A planer table is used to hold very large, heavy and intricate work pieces, and in many cases,
large number of identical work pieces together.. Setting up of the work pieces on a planer table requires
sufficient amount of skill. The work piece may be held on a planer table by the following methods:
By standard clamping.
By special fixtures.

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3.3.6

The spur gear meshes with another spur gear which is keyed to the cross
cr
feed screw. So the
power from the splined shaft is transmitted to the cross feed screw. Then the rotation is transmitted to the
tool head through a nut. The tool head moves horizontally. It is known a cross feed. At the end of the
forward stroke, another trip dog strikes the lever. The lever comes to its original position. During this
time, the pawl slips over the ratchet. The ratchet wheel does not rotate.
For giving automatic down feed, the spur gear keyed to the
the cross feed screw is disengaged. The
bevel gear freely fitted to the down feed rod is keyed to the down feed rod. At the end of return stroke,
the power is transmitted to the down feed rod through the lever, ratchet and bevel gears. Then the
rotation is transmitted to the tool head though the bevel gears. The tool moves downward.

3.3.6.1 Standard clamping devices

The standard clamping devices are used for holding most of the work pieces on a planer table.
The standard clamping devices are as follows:
Heavy duty vises.
T-bolts, step blocks and clamps.
Stop pins and toe dogs.
Angle plates.
Planer jacks.
Planer centres (similar to shaper centre).
V-blocks.
Most of them have been described
cribed in Article 3.2.6 and Page 110.
A planer vise is much more robust in construction than a shaper vise as it is used for holding
comparatively larger size of work. The vise may be plain or swiveled base type.
Large work piecess are clamped directly on the table by TT bolts and clamps. Different types of
clamps are used for different types of work. Fig. 3.40 illustrates the method of clamping a large work
piece on a planer table. Step blocks are used to lend support to the other end of the clamp.
Planer jacks are used for supporting the overhanging part of a work to prevent it from bending.
Fig. 3.41 illustrates the use of a planer jack.

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Fig. 3.40
40 Clamping a large work piece on a planer table

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Fig. 3.41 Use of planer jack

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3.3.6.2 Special fixtures

These are used for holding a large number of identical pieces of work on a planer table. Fixtures
are specially designed for holding a particular type of work. By using a fixture the setting time may be
reduced considerably compared to the individual setting of work by conventional clamping devices.
Fig. 3.42 illustrates
llustrates the use of a fixture.

Fig. 3.42 Use of a fixture

Planer tools
The cutting tools used on planers are all single point cutting tools. They are in general similar in
shapes and tool angles to those used on a lathe and shaper. As a planer tool has to take up heavy cut and
coarse feed during a long cutting stroke, the tools
tools are made heavier and larger in cross-section.
cross
Planer
tools may be solid, forged type or bit type. Bits are made of HSS, stellite or cemented carbide and they
may be brazed, welded or clamped on a mild steel shank. Cemented carbide tipped tool is used for
fo
production work. Fig. 3.43 shows the typical tools used in a planer.

3.3.7

Fig. 3.43
3.4 Typical tools used in a planer

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Planer operations
All the operations done in a shaper can be done in a planer. But large size, stroke length and
higher rigidity enable the planers do more heavy duty work on large jobs and their long surfaces.
Simultaneous use of number of tools further enhances the production capacity of planers. The common
types of work machined in a planer are: Beds and tables of various machine tools,
tools large structures, long
parallel T-slots,
slots, V and inverted V type guide ways,
ways frames of different engines and identical pieces of
work which may be small in size but large in number.
Machining the major surfaces and guide ways of beds and tables of
of various machines like lathes,
drilling machines, milling machines, grinding machines,
machines broaching machines and planers itself are the
common applications of a planer as illustrated in Fig. 3.44. Where
here the several parallel surfaces of typical
machine bed and guide way are machined by a number of single point HSS or carbide tools.

3.3.8

Fig. 3.44
3.4 Machining of a machine bed in a planer

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Besides the general machining work, some other critical work like helical
helical grooving on large rods,
long and wide 2-D
D curved surfaces, repetitive oil grooves etc. can also be made, if needed, by using
suitable special attachments.

3.3.9 Special attachments

ttachments used in a planer
3.3.9.1 Contour forming attachment
Fig. 3.45 illustrates
ates the contour forming attachment used in a planer. The machining operation is
performed by using the attachment which consists of a radius arm and a bracket. The bracket is
connected to the cross member attached to the two housings. One end of the
the radius arm is pivoted on the
bracket and the other end to the vertical slide of the tool head. The down feed crew of the tool head is
removed. The horizontal rail is kept delinked from the vertical lead screws. The tool which is guided by
the radius arm planes a convex or a concave surface. The radius of convex or concave surface produced
is dependent upon the length of the radius arm.

Fig. 3.45 Contour forming attachment used in a planer

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Planer
The work reciprocates and the tool is
stationary.
Feed is given to the tool during the idle
stroke of the work table.
Less accuracy due to the over hanging of the
ram.
Suitable for machining large work pieces.
Heavy cuts can be applied.
Vertical and side tool heads can be used at a
time. So machining is quicker.
Setting the work piece is difficult.
Several work pieces can be machined at a
time.
They are larger in size.
Planers are heavier and larger.

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3.3.11 Difference between shaper and planer

Sl. No.
Shaper
The tool reciprocates and the work is
1
stationary.
Feed is given to the work during the idle
2
stroke of the ram.
It gives more accuracy as the tool is rigidly
3
supported during cutting.
4
Suitable for machining small work pieces.
5
Only light cuts can be applied.
Only one tool can be used at a time. So
6
machining takes longer time.
7
Setting the work piece is easy.
Only one work piece can be machined at a
8
time.
9
Tools are smaller in size.
10
Shapers are lighter and smaller.

3.3.10 Specifications of a planer

The planer is specified by the following parameters:
Radial distance between the top of the table and the bottom most position of the cross rail.
Maximum length of the table and maximum stroke length of table.
Power of the motor.
Range of speeds and feeds available.
Type of feed and type of drives required.
Horizontal distance between two vertical housings.
Net weight of machine and Floor area required.

3.4

SLOTTER
Slotter can simply be considered as vertical shaper where the single point (straight or formed)
cutting tool reciprocates vertically and the work piece, being mounted on the table, is given slow
longitudinal and / or rotary feed. The slotter is used for cutting grooves, keyways, internal and external
gears and slots of various shapes. The slotter was first developed in the year 1800 by Brunel.

3.4.1 Types of slotter

The different types of slotter which are most commonly used are:
Puncher slotter.
Precision slotter.

3.4.1.1 Puncher slotter

It is a heavy, rigid machine designed for removal of a large amount of metal from large forging
or castings. The length of a puncher slotter is sufficiently large. It may be as long as 1800 to 2000 mm.
The ram is usually driven by a spiral pinion meshing with the rack teeth cut on the underside of the ram.
The pinion is driven by a variable speed reversible electric motor similar to that of a planer. The feed is
also controlled by electrical gears.
3.4.1.2 Precision slotter
It is a lighter machine and is operated at high speeds. The machine is designed to take light cuts
giving accurate finish. Using special jigs, the machine can handle a number of identical works on a
production basis. The precision machines are also used for general purpose work and are usually fitted
with Whitworth quick return mechanism.

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3.4.2 Major parts of a slotter

Fig. 3.46 shows the basic configuration of a slotter.
s
The major parts are:

Fig. 3.46 Schematic view of a slotter

Base
It is rigidly built to take up all the cutting forces and entire load of the machine. The top
of the bed is accurately finished to provide guide ways on which the saddle is mounted. The guide ways
are perpendicular to the column face.

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Column
It is the vertical member which is cast integral with the base and houses driving
mechanism of the ram and feeding mechanism. The front
front vertical face of the column is accurately
finished for providing ways on which the ram reciprocates.
Saddle
It is mounted upon the guide ways and may be moved toward or away from the column
either by power or manual control to supply longitudinal feed
feed to the work. The top face of the saddle is
accurately finished to provide guide ways for the cross-slide.
cross slide. These guide ways are perpendicular to the
guide ways on the base.

Cross slide
It is mounted upon the guide ways of the saddle and may be moved parallel to the face of
the column. The movement of the slide may be controlled either by hand or power to supply cross feed.
Rotary table It is a circular table which is mounted on the top of the cross-slide.
cross
The table may be
rotated by rotating a worm which meshes with a worm gear connected to the underside of the table. The
rotation of the table may be effected either by hand or power. In some
some machines the table is graduated in
degrees that enable the table to be rotated for indexing or dividing the periphery of a job in equal number
of parts. T-slots
slots are cut on the top face of the table for holding the work by different clamping devices.
The rotary table enables a circular or contoured surface to be generated on the work piece.
Ram
It is the reciprocating member of the machine mounted on
on the guide ways of the column.
It is connected to the reciprocating mechanism contained within the column. A slot is cut on the body of
the ram for changing the position of the stroke. It carries the tool head at its bottom end.
Tool head
It holds the tool rigidly.
rigidly In some machines, special types of tool holders are provided to
relieve the tool during its return
turn stroke.

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Working principle of a slotter

Fig. 3.47
47 Principle
rinciple of producing vertical flat surface

3.4.3

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Ram drive mechanism of a slotter

A slotter removes metal during downward cutting stroke only whereas during upward return
stroke no metal is removed. To reduce the idle return time, quick return mechanism is incorporated in
the machine. The reciprocating movement and the quick return of the ram are usually
usuall obtained by using
any one of the following mechanisms.

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3.4.4

Fig. 3.47 shows the basic principle of producing vertical flat surface in a slotter. The vertical
ram holding the cutting tool is reciprocated by a ram drive mechanism. The work piece,
piece to be machined,
is mounted directly or in a vice on the work table. Like shaper, in slotter also the fast cutting motion is
imparted to the tool and the feed motions to the work piece. In slotter,, in addition to the longitudinal and
cross feeds, a rotary feed motion is also provided in the work table. The intermittent rotation of the feed
rod is derived from the driving shaft with the help of an automatic feed mechanism. The
T intermittent
rotation of the feed rod is transmitted
ansmitted to the lead screws for the two linear feeds and to the worm-worm
worm
wheel for rotating the work table. The working speed, i.e.,., number of strokes per minute may be changed
by changing the belt-pulley
pulley ratio or using an additional speed gear box. Only
On light cuts are taken due
to lack of rigidity of the tool holding ram. Unlike shapers
shap
and planers, slotters
slotter are generally used to
machine internal surfaces (flat, formed grooves and cylindrical).

3.4.4.1 Whitworth quick return mechanism

The Whitworth quick return mechanism is most widely used in a medium sized slotter for driving
the ram. This mechanism has been described in Article 3.2.4.2,, Page 107 and illustrated in Fig. 3.7.

3.4.4.2 Hydraulic drive quick return mechanism

The hydraulic drive is adapted in slotters which are used in precision or tool-room
tool
work. In a
hydraulic drive, the vibration is minimized resulting improved surface finish. The hydraulic drive has
been described in Article 3.2.4.3, Page 107 and illustrated in Fig. 3.8.
3.4.4.3 Electrical drive quick return mechanism
Large slotters are driven by variable voltage reversible motor. The drive is similar to that
described in Article 3.3.4.2, Page 119 and illustrated in Fig. 3.38.
3.3
3.4.5

Feed mechanism of a slotter

In a slotter, the feed is given by the table. A slotting machine table may have three types of feed
movements: Longitudinal, cross and circular.
c
If the table is fed perpendicular to the column toward or away from its face, the feed movement
is termed as longitudinal. If the table is fed parallel to the
the face of the column the feed movement is
termed as cross. If the table is rotated on a vertical axis, the feed movement is termed as circular.
Like a shaper or a planer, the feed movement of a slotter is intermittent and supplied at the
beginning of the cutting stroke. The feed movement may be provided either by hand or power. If the
feed screws are rotated manually by a handle, then it called hand feed. If the feed screws are rotated by
power, then it is called automatic feed.

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3.4.5.1 Automatic feed mechanism

hanism of a slotter

Fig. 3.48
3. Automatic feed mechanism of a slotter

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Fig. 3.48 illustrates the automatic feed mechanism of a slotter. A cam groove is cut on the face
of the bull gear in which a roller slides. As the bull gear rotates, the roller attached to a lever follows the
contour of the cam groove and moves up and down only during a very small part of revolution of the
bull gear. The cam groove may be so cut that the movement of the lever will take place only at the
beginning of the cutting stroke. Fig3.
Fig3. Shows the cam groove cut on a bull gear. The rocking movement
of the lever is transmitted to the ratchet and pawl mechanism, so that the ratchet will move in one
direction only during this short period of time. The ratchet wheel is mounted on a feed shaft
s
which may
be engaged with cross, longitudinal or rotary feed screws individually or together to impart power feed
movement to the table.
Work holding devices used in a slotter
The work is held on a slotter table by a vise, T-bolts
T
and clamps orr by special fixtures. T-bolts
T
and clamps are used for holding most of the work on the table. Before clamping, parallels are placed
below the work piece so as to allow the tool to complete the cut without touching the table. Holding
work by T-bolts and clamps
mps have been described in Article 3.2.6.2, Page 111 and illustrated in Fig. 3.15.
Special fixtures
ixtures are used for holding repetitive work. Fig. 3.49 shows a typical slotting fixture.

3.4.6

Fig. 3.49 Slotting fixture

Fig. 3.50 Different tools used in a slotter

3.4.7

Slotter tools
llustrates different slotter tools used in different operations. A slotter tool differs
Fig. 3.50 illustrates
widely from a shaper tool as the tool in a slotter removes metal during its vertical cutting stroke. This
changed cutting condition presents a lot of difference
difference in the tool shape. In a shaper tool the cutting
pressure acts perpendicular to the tool length, whereas in a slotter tool the pressure acts along the length
of the tool. The rake angle () and clearance angle () of a slotter
tter tool look different from a shaper tool.
The slotter tools are robust in cross section and are usually of forged type: of course, bit type tools fitted
in heavy tool holders are also used. Keyway cutting tools are thinner at the cutting edges. Round
Roun nose
tools are used for machining contoured surfaces. Square nose tools are used for machining flat surfaces.

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Slotter operations
Slotter is mostly used for machining internal surfaces. The usual and possible machining
operations of a slotter are:
Internal flat surfaces.
Enlargement and / or finishing non-circular
non circular holes bounded by a number of flat surfaces as shown
in Fig. 3.51 (a).
Blind geometrical holes like hexagonal socket as shown in Fig. 3.51 (b).
(b)
Internal grooves and slots of rectangular and curved sections.
Internal keyways and splines, straight tooth of internal spur gears, internal curved surfaces,
surface and
internal oil grooves etc as shown in Fig. 3.51
3. (c), which are not possible in shaper.

3.4.8

(a) Through rectangular hole (b) Hexagonal socket and (c) Internal keyway
Fig. 3.51 Typical machining operations performed in a slotter

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However, the productivity and process capability of slotterss are very poor and hence used mostly
for piece production required for maintenance and repair in small industries.
tries. Scope of use of slotter for
production has been further reduced by more and regular use of broaching machines.
Shapers, planers and slotters are becoming obsolete and getting replaced by Plano-millers
Plano
where
instead of single point cutting tools more number of large size and high speed milling cutters are used.

3.4.9 Specifications of a slotter

The slotter
er is specified by the following parameters:
The maximum stroke length.
Diameter of rotary table.
Maximum travel of saddle and cross
cros slide.
Type of drive used.
Power of the motor.
Net weight of machine.
Number and amount of feeds.
Floor area required.
3.5

MILLING MACHINE
This is a machine tool that removes material as the work is fed against a rotating cutter. The
cutter rotates at a high speed and because of the multiple cutting edges it removes material at a very fast
rate. The machine can also hold two or more number of cutters at a time. That is why a milling machine
finds wide application in machine shop. The first milling machine came into existence in about 1770 and
was of French origin. The milling cutter was developed by Jacques de Vaucanson in the year 1782. The
first
irst successful plain milling machine was designed by Eli Whitney in the year 1818. The universal
milling machine was invented in the year 1861 by Joseph R Brown.

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co
s.
te

TYPES OF MILLING MACHINE

Milling machines are broadly classified as follows:
Column and knee type
Hand milling machine.
Plain or horizontal milling machine.
Universal milling machine.
Omniversal milling machine.
Vertical milling machine.
Manufacturing or bed type
Simplex milling machine.
Duplex milling machine.
Triplex milling machine.
Planer type
Special type
Drum milling machine.
Rotary table milling machine.
Profile milling machine.
Pantograph milling machine.
Planetary milling machine.

3.6

Column and knee type milling machines

This is the most commonly used machine in view of its flexibility and easier setup. In such small
and medium duty machines the table with work travels above the saddle in horizontal direction (X axis)
(left and right). The saddle with table moves on the slideways provided on the knee in transverse
direction (Y axis) (front and back). The knee with saddle and table moves on a dovetail guide ways
provided on the column in vertical direction (Z axis) (up and down).

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3.6.1

3.6.1.1 Hand milling machine

This is the simplest form of milling machine where even the table feed is also given manually.
The cutter is mounted on a horizontal arbor. This is suitable for light and simple milling operations such
as machining slots, grooves and keyways. Fig. 3.52 (a) shows the photographic view of a horizontal
hand milling machine and Fig. 3.52 (b) shows that of a vertical hand milling machine.

Fig. 3.52 (a) Horizontal hand milling machine

Fig. 3.52 (b) Vertical hand milling machine

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3.6.1.2 Plain
n or horizontal milling machine
This non automatic general purpose milling machine of small to medium size possesses a single
horizontal axis milling arbor. The
he work table can be linearly fed along three axes (X,
(X Y, and Z) only.
The table may be fed by hand or power. These machines are most widely used for piece or batch
production of jobs of relatively simple design and geometry. Fig. 3.53 schematically shows the basic
configuration of a horizontal milling machine.

Fig. 3.53 Plain or horizontal milling machine

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3.6.1.3 Universal milling machine

It is so named because it may be adapted to a very wide range of milling operations. It can be
distinguished from a plain milling machine in that the table of a universal milling machine is mounted on
a circular swiveling base which has degree graduations, and the table can be swiveled to any angle up to
450 on either side of the normal position.
Thus in a universal milling machine, in addition to the three movements as incorporated in a
plain milling machine, the table have a fourth movement when it is fed at an angle to the milling cutter.
This additional feature enables it to perform helical milling operation which cannot be done on a plain
milling machine unless a spiral milling attachment is used. The capacity of a universal
universa milling machine
is considerably increased by the use of special attachments such as dividing head or index head, vertical
milling attachment, rotary attachment, slotting attachment, etc. The machine can produce spur, spiral,
bevel gears, twist drills, reamers,
amers, milling cutters, etc. besides doing all conventional milling operations.
Fig. 3.54 schematically shows the basic configuration of a universal milling machine.

Fig. 3.54 Universal

niversal milling machine

Fig. 3.555 Omniversal

Om
milling machine

3.6.1.4 Omniversal milling machine

Fig. 3.55 schematically shows the basic configuration of an omniversal milling machine. In this
machine, the table besides having all the movements of a universal milling machine can be tilted in a
vertical plane by providing a swivel arrangement at the knee. Also the entire knee assembly is mounted
in such a way that it may be fed in a longitudinal
longitudinal direction horizontally. The additional swiveling
arrangement of the table enables it to machine taper spiral grooves in reamers, bevel gears, etc. It is
essentially a tool room and experimental shop machine.

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3.6.1.5 Vertical milling machine

This machine is very similar to a horizontal milling machine. The only difference is the spindle is
vertical. The work table may or may not have swiveling features.
features. The spindle head may be swiveled at
an angle, permitting the milling cutter to work on angular surfaces.
surfaces. In some machines, the spindle
can also be adjusted up or down relative to the work piece. This machine works using end milling
and face milling cutters. This machine is adapted for machining grooves, slots and flat surfaces.
Fig. 3.56 schematically shows the basic configuration of a vertical milling machine.

Manufacturing or bed type milling machines

The fixed bed type milling machines are comparatively large, heavy, and rigid and differ
radically from column and knee type milling machines by the construction of its table mounting. The
table is mounted directly on the guide ways of the fixed bed. The table
table movement is restricted to
reciprocation at right angles to the spindle axis with no provision for cross or vertical adjustment. The
cutter mounted on the spindle head may be moved vertically on the column, and the spindle may be
adjusted horizontally to provide cross adjustment. The name simplex, duplex and triplex indicates that
the machine is provided with single, double and triple spindle heads respectively. In a duplex machine,
the spindle heads are arranged one on each side of the table. In triplex
triplex type the third spindle (vertical) is
mounted on a cross rail. The usual feature of these machines is the automatic cycle of operation for
feeding the table, which is repeated in a regular sequence. The feed cycle of the table includes the
following: Start,
t, rapid approach, slow feed for cutting, rapid traverse to the next work piece, quick return
and stop. This automatic control of the machine enables it to be used with advantage in repetitive types
of work. Fig. 3.57 (a) and (b) shows the simplex milling machine and duplex milling machine.

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3.6.2

Fig. 3.56 Vertical milling machine

Fig. 3.57 (a) Simplex milling machine

Fig. 3.57 (b) Duplex

plex milling machine

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Planer type milling machine

This heavy duty large machine, called Plano-miller,
Plano
look like planer where the single point tools
are replaced by one or a number of milling heads.
heads This is generally used for machining a number of
longitudinal flat surfaces simultaneously, such as lathe beds, table and bed of planer
plan etc. Modern
Plano-millers are providedd with high power driven spindles powered to the extent of 100 hp. and the
rate of metal removal is tremendous. The use of this machine is limited to production work only and is
considered ultimate in metal removing capacity. Fig. 3.58 shows a planer type
pe milling machine.

3.6.3

Fig. 3.59 Drum type milling machine

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Fig. 3.58 Planer

laner type milling machine

3.6.4 Special type milling machines

3.6.4.1 Drum milling machine
Fig. 3.59 schematically shows a drum milling machine. These machines are of the continuouscontinuous
operation type. They are mostly found in large-lot
large lot and mass production shops for production of large
parts such as motor blocks, gear cases, and clutch housings. Two flat surfaces of the workpiece
workpiec can be
milled simultaneously.
A square drum (sometimes it may be a regular pentagon or hexagon), is mounted on a shaft
passing through the frame. Parts are carried in fixtures mounted on the drum faces. The drum rotates
continuously in a horizontal axis, carrying the parts between face milling cutters. The milling cutters are
mounted on three or four spindle heads and rotates in a horizontal axis. The milling heads can be
adjusted along the housing and clamped as required for the set up. In addition to rotation, the milling
spindles also have axial adjustment to set the cutters to the depth of cut. The output of such machines
depends upon the number of simultaneously machined parts and the speed of rotation of the drum (rate
of feed). The machined parts are removed after one complete turn of the drum, and then the new ones are
clamped to it.
3.6.4.2 Rotary table milling machine
The construction of this machine is the modification of a vertical milling machine and is adapted
for machining flat surfaces. Such open or closed ended
ended high production milling machines
machine possess one
large rotary work table rotates about a vertical axis and one or two vertical spindles.
spindles The positions of the
work piece(s)
(s) and the milling head are adjusted according to the size and shape of the work piece. A
continuous loading and unloading of work pieces may be carried out by the operator while the milling is
in progress. Fig. 3.60
60 schematically shows a rotary table milling machine.

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Fig. 3.61 Profile milling machine

Fig. 3.60 Rotary table milling machine

3.6.4.3 Profile milling machine

Fig. 3.61 schematically shows a profile milling machine. This machine duplicates the full size of
the template attached to the machine. This is practically a vertical milling machine of bed type in which
the spindle can be adjusted vertically and the cutter head horizontally across the table. The movement of
the cutter is regulated by a hardened guide pin. The pin is held against and follows outline or profile of a
template mounted on the table at the side of the work piece.. The longitudinal movement of the table and
crosswise movement of the cutter head follow the
the movements of the guide pin on the template.

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3.6.4.4 Pantograph milling machine

This machine can duplicate a work by using a pantograph mechanism which permits the size of
the work piece reproduced to be smaller than, equal to or greater than the size of a template or model
used for the purpose. Pantograph machines are available in two dimensional or three dimensional
models. Two dimensional models are used for engraving letters or other designs, whereas three
dimensional models are employed for copying any shape and contour of the work piece. The tracing
stylus is moved manually on the contour of the model to be duplicated and the milling cutter mounted on
the spindle moves in a similar path on the work piece.

3.6.4.5 Planetary milling machine

In this machine, the work is held stationary while the revolving cutter(s)
(s) move in a planetary path
to finish a cylindrical surface on the work either internally or externally or simultaneously. This
Th machine
is particularly adapted, for milling internal or external
external threads of different pitches.
3.6.5

Major parts of a column and knee type milling machine

The general configuration of a column and knee type conventional milling machine with
horizontal arbor is shown in Fig. 3.53.
3.
The major parts are:
Base
It is accurately machined on its top and bottom surface and serves as a foundation
member for all other parts. It carries the column at its one end. In some machines, the base is hollow and
serves as a reservoir for cutting fluid.
Column
It is the main supporting frame mounted vertically on the base. The column is box
shaped, heavily ribbed inside and houses all the driving mechanisms for the spindle and table feed. The
front vertical face of the column is accurately machined and is provided with dovetail
dovetai guide ways for
supporting the knee. The top of the column is finished to hold an over arm that extends outward at the
front of the machine.

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Knee
It slides up and down on the vertical guide ways of the column face. The
adjustment of height is effected by an elevating screw mounted on the base that also supports the knee.
The knee houses the feed mechanism of the table, and different controls to operate it. The top face of the
knee forms a slideway for the saddle to provide cross travel of the table.

Table
The table rests on ways on the saddle and travels longitudinally. The top of the
table is accurately finished and T-slots are provided for clamping the work and other fixtures on it. A
lead screw under the table engages a nut on the saddle to move the table horizontally by hand or power.
The longitudinal travel of the table may be limited by fixing trip dogs on the side of the table. in
universal machines, the table may also be swiveled horizontally.

Overhanging arm
The overhanging arm that is mounted on the top of the column extends beyond the
column face and serves as a bearing support for the other end of the arbor. The arm is adjustable so that
the bearing support may be provided nearest to the cutter.

Front brace
The front brace is and extra support that is fitted between the knee and the over
arm to ensure further rigidity to the arbor and the knee. The front brace is slotted to allow for the
adjustment of the height of the knee relative to the over arm.

Spindle
The spindle of the machine is located in the upper part of the column and receives
power from the motor through belts, gears, clutches and transmits it to the arbor. The front end of the
spindle just projects from the column face and is provided with a tapered hole into which various cutting
tools and arbors may be inserted. The accuracy in metal machining by the cutter depends primarily on
the accuracy, strength, and rigidity of the spindle.

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Arbor
It may be considered as an extension of the machine spindle on which milling
cutters are securely mounted and rotated. The arbors are made with taper shanks for proper alignment
with the machine spindles having taper holes at their nose. The arbor may be supported at the farthest
end from the overhanging arm or may be of cantilever type which is called stub arbor. The arbor shanks
are properly gripped against the spindle taper by a draw bolt which extends throughout the length of the
hollow spindle. The threaded end of the draw bolt is fastened to the tapped hole of the arbor shank and
then the lock nut is tightened against the spindle. The spindle has also two keys for imparting positive
drive to the arbor in addition to the friction developed in the taper surfaces. The cutter is set at the
required position on the arbor by spacing collars or spacers of various lengths but of equal diameter. The
entire assembly of the milling cutter and the spacers are fastened to the arbor by a long key. The end
spacer on the arbor is slightly larger in diameter and acts as a bearing bush for bearing support which
extends from the over arm. Fig. 3.62 illustrates an arbor assembly used in a milling machine.

Fig. 3.62 Arbor assembly

Fig. 3.63 Principle of producing flat surface

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Working principle of a column and knee type milling machine

Fig. 3.63 shows the basic principle of producing flat surface in a milling machine by a plain
milling cutter. The kinematic system comprising of several mechanisms enables transmission of motion
and power from the motor to the cutting tool for its rotation at varying speeds and to the work table for
its slow feed motions along X, Y and Z directions. The milling cutter mounted on the horizontal milling
arbor,, receives its rotary motion at different speeds from the main motor through the speed gear box.
b
The
feeds of the work piece can be given by manually or automatically by rotating the respective wheels by
hand or by power. The work piece is clamped on the work table by a work holding device. Then the
work piece is fed against the rotating multipoint
multipoint cutter to remove the excess material at a very fast rate.

3.6.6

Mechanism of a column and knee type milling machine

This mechanism is composed of spindle drive mechanism and table feed mechanism. The spindle
drive mechanism is incorporated in the column. All modern machines are driven by individual motors
housed within the column, and the spindle receives power from a combination of gears and clutch
assembly. Multiple speed of the spindle may be obtained
obtained by altering the gear ratio. Fig. 3.64 illustrates
the power feed mechanism contained within the knee of the machine to enable the table to have three
different feed movements, i.e. longitudinal,
ngitudinal, cross and vertical.

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3.6.7

Fig. 3.64 Power

ower feed mechanism of a column and knee type milling machine

The power is transmitted from the speed gear box consisting of change gears to the feed shaft in
the knee of the machine by a telescopic feed shaft. Both ends of the telescopic feed shaft are provided
with universal joints. Telescopic feed shaft and universal joints
joints are necessary to allow vertical movement
of the knee, gear 14,, attached to the jaw clutch 20. The jaw clutch 20 is keyed to the feed shaft and
drives gear 13, which is free to rotate on the extreme end of the cross feed screw. Bevel gear 22 is free to
rotate
tate on feed shaft and is in mesh with gear 19 fastened to the evaluating screw. 16 serve as a nut for 15,
and it is screwed in nut 17. Therefore, 15 and 16 serve as a telescopic screw combination and a vertical
movementt of the knee is thus possible. As soon
on as the clutch 20 is engaged with the clutch attached to
the bevel gear 22 by means of a clutch operating lever, the bevel gear 22 rotates and this being in mesh
with gear 19 causes the elevating screw to rotate in nut 16 giving a vertical movement of the
th knee.
Like-wise,
wise, when the clutch 21 attached to the cross feed screw, is engaged with the clutch
attached to gear 13, power comes to the screw through gears 14 and 13. This causes the cross feed screw
to rotate in nut 6 of the clamp bed giving a cross feed movement of the clamp bed and saddle.

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Gear 18 is fastened to feed shaft, and meshes with gear 25 which is fastened to the bevel gear 24.
The bevel gear 24 meshes with bevel gear 5 attached to a vertical shaft which carries one more bevel
gear 3 at its upper end. The bevel gear 3 meshes with bevel gear 2 which is fastened to the table feed
screw. Therefore, longitudinal feed movement of the table is possible through gears 18, 25, 24, 5, 3, & 2.
Work holding devices used in a milling machine
Itt is necessary that the work piece should be properly and securely held on the milling machine
table for effective machining operations. The work piece may be supported on the milling machine table
by using any one of the following work holding devices depending
depending upon the geometry of the work piece
and nature of the operation to be performed.
T-bolts and clamps.
Angle plate.
V-blocks.
Vises.
Special fixtures.
Dividing heads.

3.6.8

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T-bolts and clamps Bulky work pieces of irregular shapes are clamped directly on the milling machine
table by using T-bolts
bolts and clamps. Fig. 3.15 illustrates the use of T-bolts
bolts and clamps. Different designs
of clamps are used for different patterns of work. Fig. 3.65 showss the different types
type of clamps.

Fig. 3.65 Different types of clamps

Angle plate
The angle plate has been described in Article 3.2.6.3, Page 112 and illustrated in
Fig. 3.19. Sometimes a titling type angle plate in which one face can be adjusted relative to another face
for milling at a required angle is also used. Fig. 3.66 shows a tilting type angle plate.
plate

Fig. 3.66 Tilting type angle plate

V-blocks
The V-block
block has been described in Article
Article 3.2.6.4, Page 112 and illustrated in
Fig. 3.20. This is used for holding shafts on the table in which keyways, slots and flats are to be milled.

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Vises
The different types of vise has been described in Article 3.2.6.1, Page 110 and
illustrated in Fig. 3.12 (a), (b) and (c). Vises are the most common appliances for holding work on
milling machine table due to its quick loading and unloading arrangement.

Special fixtures
The fixtures are special devices designed to hold work for specific operations
more efficiently than standard work holding devices. Fixtures are especially useful when large numbers
of identical parts are being produced. By using fixtures loading, locating, clamping and unloading time is
greatly minimized.

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3.6.8.1 Indexing head or dividing head

It is a special work holding device used in a milling machine. Dividing head can also be
considered as a milling machine attachment. Fig. 3.67 shows a dividing head used in a milling machine.

Fig. 3.67 Dividing head

An important function and use of milling machines is for cutting slots, grooves etc. which are to
be equally spaced around the circumference of a blank, for example, gear cutting, ratchet wheels, milling
cutter blanks, reamers etc. This necessitates holding of the blank (work piece) and rotating it the exact
amount for each groove or slot to be cut. This process is known as indexing. The dividing head is the
device used for this purpose. It is lined and bolted to the machine table so that the axis passing through
the head stock centre and tail stock centre is at right angle to the spindle axis of the machine. The head
stock of the dividing head consists of a spindle to which a 40 tooth worm wheel is keyed. A single
threaded worm meshes with this wheel. The worm spindle projects from the front of the head and has a
crank and handle attached. The head spindle is bored with a tapered hole and is also screwed on its end.
The work piece is mounted between centres, one inserted into the dividing head spindle and the
other into the tail stock. The work piece may also be mounted on a mandrel between these centres. A
chuck may be mounted on the spindle nose for holding short work pieces having no centre holes. The
work piece is rotated by turning the index crank by means of handle. Since the gear ratio of worm and
worm wheel is 40:1, it takes 40 turns of the crank to rotate the spindle and hence the work piece through
one complete revolution. Thus one turn of the crank rotates the work piece through 1/40th of a turn.

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If divisions other than factors of 40 are required index plates. An index plate has several circles
of holes (each circle containing a different number of holes) and is mounted on the worm shaft. A pin on
the crank can be adjusted to a radius such that it will fit in any desired circle of holes. By using different
circles of holes and index plates, any fractional part of a turn of the index crank can be obtained. The two
sector arms shown on front of the index plate are used for avoiding counting of holes during indexing.

The index plates available with the Brown and Sharpe milling machines are:
15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20
21, 23, 27, 29, 31, 33
37, 39, 41, 43, 47, 49

For example
Plate No. 1
Plate No. 2
Plate No. 3

Index plate
It helps to accomplish indexing (dividing) of the work into equal divisions. It is a
circular plate approximately 6 mm thick, with holes (equally spaced) arranged in concentric circles. The
space between two subsequent holes is same for each circle; however it is different for different circles.
A plate can have through holes or blind holes on its faces.
For a plain dividing head, the index plate is fixed to the body of the dividing head while in the
case of universal dividing head it is mounted on the sleeve of the worm shaft. Various manufactures in
U.S.A. and other countries have produced index plates with different number of hole circles.

The index plate used on the Cincinnati and Parkinson milling machine is:
Obverse (A) 24, 25, 28, 30, 34, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42, 43
Reverse (B) 46, 47, 49, 51, 53, 54, 57, 58, 59, 62, and 66

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Index plates made in Germany are:

Plate No. 1
Plate No. 2
Plate No. 3

23, 25, 28, 31, 39, 43, 51, 59

16, 27, 30, 33, 41, 47, 53, 61
22, 24, 29, 36, 37, 49, 57, 63

The high number index plates are used to increase the indexing capacity. These index plates are
similar to those discussed earlier except that these contain very large number of holes. Cincinnati Milling
Machine Co. U.S.A. produces a set of three plates with holes on both sides of the plate as given below:
Obverse (A)
Reverse (B)

30, 48, 69, 91, 99, 117, 129, 147, 171, 177, 189
36, 67, 81, 97, 111, 127, 141, 157, 169, 183, and 194

Plate No 2

Obverse (A)
Reverse (B)

34, 46, 79, 93, 109, 123, 139, 153, 167, 181, 197
32, 44, 77, 89, 107, 121, 137, 151, 163, 179, and 193

Obverse (A)
Reverse (B)

26, 42, 73, 87, 103, 119, 133, 149, 161, 175, 191
28, 38, 71, 83, 101, 113, 131, 143, 159, 173, and 187

Plate No. 1

Plate No. 3

It is importance to note that there is no standard followed internationally in this regard. The
number of plates supplied varies with different manufacturers. However this does not change the
principle of indexing. It should be put up with in mind that larger the number of plates, and more the
hole circles and holes wider is the range of indexing and accuracy.
Types of dividing heads

The various dividing heads used with milling machines are:

Plain indexing head

A plain dividing head has a fixed spindle axis and the spindle rotates only
about a horizontal axis.

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Universal indexing head

In this, the spindle can be rotated at different angles in the vertical plane
from horizontal to vertical. This head performs the following functions: indexes the work piece, imparts
a continuous rotary motion to the work piece for milling helical grooves (flutes of drills, reamers, milling
cutters etc.) and setting the work piece in a given inclined position with reference to the table.

The various methods of indexing are discussed below:

Methods of indexing

Optical indexing head

These models are used for high precision angular setting of the work piece
with respect to the cutter. For reading the angles, an optical system is built into the dividing head.

Direct indexing
In this, the index plate is directly mounted on the dividing head spindle.
The intermediate use of worm and worm wheel is avoided. For indexing, the index pin is pulled out on a
hole, the work and the index plate are rotated the desired number of holes and the pin is engaged. Both
plain and universal heads can be used in this manner. Direct indexing is the most rapid method of
indexing, but fractions of a complete turn of the spindle are limited to those available with the index
plate. With a standard indexing plate having 24 holes, all factors of 24 can be indexed, that is, the work
can be divided into 2,3,4,6,8,12 and 24 parts.

Simple or plain indexing

In this, the index plate selected for the particular application, is
fitted on the worm shaft and locked through a locking pin. To index the work through any required
angle, the index crank pin is withdrawn from a hole in the index plate. The work piece is indexed
through the required angle by turning the index crank through a calculated number of whole revolutions
and holes on one of the hole circles, after which the index pin is relocated in the required hole. If the
number of divisions on the job circumference (that is number of indexing) needed is z, then the number

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of turns (n) that the crank must be rotated for each indexing can be found from the formula: n =

turns.

Example 3.1: Indexing 28 divisions.

The rotation of the index crank =

= =

= 1 turns.

This can be done as follows using any one of the Brown and Sharpe plates.
One full rotation + 9 holes in 21 hole circle in plate No. 2.
One full rotation + 21 holes in 49 hole circle in plate No. 3.

Example 3.2: Indexing 62 divisions.

The rotation of the crank =

=
= turns.

This can be done as follows using the Brown and Sharpe plates.
20 holes in 31 hole circle in plate No. 2.

Compound indexing
When the available capacity of the index plates is not sufficient to do a given indexing, the
compound indexing method can be used. First, the crank is moved in the usual fashion in the forward
direction. Then a further motion is added or subtracted by rotating the index plate after locking the plate
with the plunger. This is termed as compound indexing. For example, if the indexing is done by moving
the crank by 5 holes in the 20 hole circle and then the index plate together with the crank is indexed back
by a hole with the locking plunger registering in a 15 hole circle as shown in Fig. 3.68.

Then the total indexing done is - =

i.e., 11 holes in a 60 hole circle. Unfortunately the 60
hole circle is not available in the range of index plates. Similarly it is possible to have the two motions in

the same direction as well. In this, the total indexing will be + =

i.e., 19 holes in a 60 hole circle.

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Fig. 3.68 An example of compound indexing

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Differential indexing
This is an automatic way to carry out the compound indexing method. In this the required
division is obtained by a combination of two movements:
The movement of the index crank similar to the simple indexing.
The simultaneous movement of the index plate, when the crank is turned.
Fig. 3.69 schematically
ly shows the arrangement for differential indexing.

Fig. 3.69 Arrangement for differential indexing

In differential indexing, the index plate is made free to rotate. A gear is connected to the back end
of the dividing head spindle while another gear is mounted on a shaft and is connected
conn
to the shaft of the
index plate through bevel gears as shown in Fig.3.69.
Fig.3.
When
hen the index crank is rotated, the motion is
communicated to the work piece spindle. Since the work piece spindle is connected to the index plate
through the intermediate gearing as explained above, the index plate will also start rotating. If the chosen
indexing is less than the required one, then the index plate will have to be moved in the same direction
direct
as
the movement of the crank to add the additional motion. If the chosen indexing is more, then the plate
should move in the opposite direction to subtract the additional motion.
The direction of the movement of the index plate depends upon the gear train employed. If an
idle gear is added between the spindle gear and the shaft gear in case of a simple gear train, then the
index plate will move in the same direction to that of the indexing crank movement. In the case of a
compound gear train an idler is used when the index plate is move in the opposite direction. The
procedure of calculation is explained with the following example.
The change gear set available is 24 (2),, 28, 32, 40, 44, 48, 56, 64, 72, 86 and 100.

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40 -

Example 3.3: Obtain the indexing for 97 divisions.

The required indexing is 40/97 which cannot be obtained with any of the index plates available.
Choose the nearest possible division. For example, the indexing decided is 40/100 = 2/5 = 8/20.
The actual indexing decided is 8 holes in a 20 hole circle. This indexing will be less than
required. Ideally the workpiece should complete one revolution when the crank is moved through 97
turns at the above identified indexing. The actual motion generated when the crank is moved 97 times is

index crank is

The change gear set used is

= =

Hence the index plate has to move forward by this amount during the 97 turns to compensate for
the smaller indexing being done by the index crank. Hence the gear ratio between the spindle and the

An idler gear is to be used since the index plate has to move in the same direction.

$
$

is 40 -

Example 3.4: Obtain the indexing for 209 divisions.

The required indexing is 40/209 which cannot be obtained with any of the index plates available.
Choose the nearest possible division. For example, the indexing decided is 40/200= 4/20
The actual indexing decided is 4 holes in a 20 hole circle. This indexing will be more than
required. Ideally the workpiece should complete one revolution when the crank is moved through 209
turns at the above identified indexing. The actual motion generated when the crank is moved 209 times
Hence the index plate has to move in the reverse by this amount during the 209 turns to
compensate for the larger indexing being done by the index crank. Hence the gear ratio between the

$

= $

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spindle and the index crank is

The change gear set used is !" = $

Angular indexing
Sometimes it is desirable to carry out indexing using the actual angles rather than equal numbers
along the periphery. Here, angular indexing would be useful. The procedure remains the same as in the
previous cases, except that the angle will have to be first converted to equivalent divisions. Since 40
revolutions of the crank equals to a full rotation of the work piece, which means 3600, one revolution of
the crank is equivalent to 90. The formula to find the index crank movement is given below.
Index crank movement
=
Angular displacement of work (in degrees) / 9
=
Angular displacement of work (in minutes) / 540
=
Angular displacement of work (in seconds) / 32400
Example 3.5: Calculate the indexing for 410.
Indexing required =

This can be done as follows using the Brown and Sharpe plates.
Four full rotations + 10 holes in 18 hole circle in plate No. 1.
Example 3.6: Calculate the indexing for 190 40.
190 40 = (19 x 60) + 40 = 1140 + 40 = 1180
Indexing required =

= $ = 2 $

This can be done as follows using the Brown and Sharpe plates.
Two full rotations + 5 holes in 27 hole circle in plate No. 2.

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Cutter holding devices used in a milling machine

There are several methods of holding and rotating milling cutters by the machine spindle
depending on the different designs of the cutters. They are:

3.6.9

3.6.9.1 Arbors
The cutters have a bore at the centre are mounted and keyed on a short shaft called arbor. The
arbor has been described in Article 3.6.5, Page 133 and illustrated in Fig. 3.62.

3.6.9.2 Collets
A milling machine collet is a form of sleeve bushing for reducing the size of the taper hole at the
nose of the spindle so that an arbor or a milling cutter
cutter having a smaller shank than the spindle taper can
be fitted into it. Fig. 3.70 (a) illustrates a milling machine collet.

3.6.9.3 Adapter
An adapter is a form of collet used on milling machine having standardized spindle end. Cutters
having straight shanks are usually mounted on adapters. An adapter can be connected with the spindle by
a draw bolt or it may be directly bolted to it. Fig. 3.70 (b) illustrates a milling machine adapter.

3.6.9.4 Spring collets

Straight shank cutters are usually held on a special adapter called spring collet or spring
chuck. The cutter shank is introduced in the cylindrical hole provided at the end of the adapter and then
the nut is lightened. This causes the split jaws of the
the adapter to spring inside, and grip the shank firmly.
Fig. 3.70 (c) illustratess a spring collet.

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3.6.9.5 Bolted cutters

The face milling cutters of larger diameter having no shank are bolted directly on the nose of the
spindle. For this purpose four bolt
bolt holes are provided on the body of the spindle. This arrangement of
holding cutter ensures utmost rigidity. Fig. 3.70 (d) illustrates a face milling cutter bolted on the spindle.

3.6.9.6 Screwed on cutters

The small cutters having threaded holes at the centre are screwed on the threaded nose of an
arbor which is mounted on the spindle in the usual manner. Fig. 3.70 (e) shows a screwed on cutter.

Fig. 3.70 Different types of cutter holding devices used in milling machines

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3.6.10 Special attachments used in milling machines

machine
The attachments are intended to be fastened to or joined with one or more components of the
milling machine for the purpose of enhancing the range, versatility, productivity and accuracy of
operation. Some classes of milling machine attachments are used for
for positioning and driving the cutter
by altering the cutter axis and speed, whereas other classes are used for positioning, holding and feeding
the work along a specified geometric path. The following are the different attachments used on standard
column and
nd knee type horizontal milling machine.

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3.6.10.1 Universal milling attachment

Amongst the column and knee type conventional milling machines, horizontal arbor type is very
widely used, where various types and sizes of milling cutters having axial bore are mounted on the
horizontal arbor. For milling by solid end mill type and face milling cutters, separate vertical axis type
milling machines are available. But horizontal arbor type milling machines can also be used for those
operations to be done by end milling and smaller size face milling cutters by using the universal milling
attachment. The rotation of the horizontal spindle is transmitted into rotation about vertical axis and also
in any inclined direction by this attachment which thus extends the processing
processing capabilities and
application range of the milling machine. The universal milling attachment is shown in Fig. 3.71.

Fig. 3.71 Universal milling attachment

Fig. 3.72 Rotary table

Fig. 3.73 Slotting attachment

3.6.10.2 Indexing head or dividing head

This attachment is also considered as an accessory. The indexing
ing head has been described in
Article 3.6.8.1, Page 137 and illustrated in Fig. 3.67.
3.6.10.3 Rotary table
This device may also be considered both accessory or attachment and is generally
general used in milling
machines for both offline and online indexing / rotation of the work piece,, clamped on it, about vertical
axis. Fig. 3.72 visualizes such a rotary table which is clamped or mounted on the machine bed / table.
3.6.10.4 Slotting attachment
Such simple and low cost attachment is mounted on the horizontal spindle for producing
keyways and contoured surface requiring linear travel of single point tool in milling machine where
slotting machine and broaching machine are not available. The configuration of such a slotting
attachment and its mounting and operation can be seen in Fig. 3.73. The mechanism inside the
attachment converts rotation of the spindle into reciprocation of the single point tool in vertical direction.
The direction of the tool path can also be tilted by swiveling the circular base of the attachment body.

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MILLING CUTTERS
Milling machines are mostly general purpose and have wide range of applications requiring
various types and sizes of milling cutters.
A milling cutter is a multi edged rotary cutting tool having the shape of a solid of revolution with
cutting teeth arranged either on the periphery or on the end face or on both. Usually, the cutter is held in
a fixed (but rotating) position and the work piece moves
moves past the cutter during the machining operation.

3.7

Cutter materials
Intermittent cutting nature and usually complex geometry necessitate making the milling cutters
mostly by HSS which is unique for high tensile and transverse rupture strength, fracture
frac
toughness and
formability almost in all respects i.e. forging, rolling, powdering, welding, heat treatment, machining (in
annealed condition) and grinding. Tougher grade cemented carbides are also used without or with
coating, where feasible, for high productivity and product quality. In some cutters tungsten carbide teeth
are brazed on the tips of the teeth or individually inserted and held in the body of the cutter by some
mechanical means. Carbide tipped cutter is especially adapted to heavy cuts and
an increased cutting
speeds. The advantages of carbide tipped cutters (either solid or inserted blade type) are:
Their high production capacity.
The high quality of the surfaces they produce.
Elimination of grinding operation in some cases, the possibility of machining hardened steels and
the reduction in machining costs that their use leads to.
Due to these advantages, they have been successfully applied in metal cutting industry where they have
replaced many solid cutters of tool steels. Along with the especially
especially popular carbide tipped face milling
cutters, carbide tipped side and form milling cutters and various end mills are used in industry.
Types of milling cutters
Many different kinds of milling cutters are used in milling machines. They are:

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3.7.2

3.7.1

3.7.2.1 Slab or plain milling cutters:

cutter Straight or helical fluted
Plain milling cutters are hollow straight HSS cylinder of 40 to 80 mm outer diameter having 4 to
16 straight or helical equi-spaced
spaced flutes or cutting edges on the circumference.
circumference These are used in
horizontal arbor to machine flat surfaces
surfaces parallel to the axis of rotation of the spindle. Very wide plain
milling cutters are termed as slab milling cutters. Fig. 3.74 illustrates a plain milling cutter.

Fig. 3.74 Slab or plain milling cuttre

3.7.2.2 Side milling cutters: Single side or double sided type
These arbor mounted disc type cutters have a large number of cutting teeth at equal spacing on
the periphery. Each tooth has a peripheral cutting edge and another cutting edge on one face in case of
single side cutter and two more cutting edges on both the faces leading to double sided cutter. One sided
cutters are used to produce one flat surface or steps comprising two flat surfaces at right angle.
angle Both
sided cutters are used for making rectangular
rectangular slots bounded by three flat surfaces. Fig. 3.75 illustrates a
side milling cutter.

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Fig. 3.75 Side milling cutter

Fig. 3.76 Slitting saw

3.7.2.3 Slitting saws or parting tools

These milling cutters are very similar to the slotting cutters having only one peripheral cutting
edge on each tooth. Fig. 3.76 illustrates a slitting saw. However, the slitting saws:
Are larger in diameter and much thin.
thin
Possess large number of cutting teeth but of small size.
size
Used only for slitting or parting.
parting

Fig. 3.77 End milling cutters

Fig. 3.78
3.7 Face milling cutter

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3.7.2.4 End milling cutters: With straight or taper shank

Fig. 3.77 illustrates end milling cutters.
cutters The common characteristics of end milling cutters are:
Mostly made of High Speed
peed Steel.
4 to 12 straight or helical teeth on the periphery and face.
Diameter ranges from about 1 mm to 40 mm.
mm
Very versatile and widely used in vertical spindle type milling machines.
machines
End milling cutters requiring larger diameter are made as a separate cutter body which is fitted in
the spindle through a taper shank arbor (Shell end mills).

3.7.2.5 Face milling cutters

Fig. 3.78 illustrates a face milling cutter.
cutter The main characteristics of face milling cutters are:
Usually large in diameter (80 to 800 mm) and heavy.
heavy
Used
sed only for machining flat surfaces in different orientations.
orientations
Mounted
ounted directly in the vertical and / or horizontal spindles.
spindles
Coated or uncoated carbide inserts are clamped at the outer edge of the carbon steel body.
body
Generally used
sed for high production machining of large jobs.
3.7.2.6 Form cutters
These cutters have irregular profiles on the cutting edges in order to generate an irregular outline
of the work. These disc type HSS cutters are generally used for making grooves or slots of various
profiles.
Slotting cutters
T
cutter or dove tail cutter. Fig. 3.79 illustrates a
Slotting cutters are of end mill type like T-slot
T-slot milling cutter.

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slot milling cutter

Fig. 3.79 T-slot

Fig. 3.80 Involute gear milling cutter

Gear (teeth) milling cutters

Fig. 3.80 illustrates an involute gear milling cutter. Gear milling cutters are made
mad of HSS and
available mostly in disc form like slot milling cutters and also in the form of end mill for producing teeth
of large module gears. The form of these tools conforms to the shape of the gear tooth-gaps
tooth
bounded by
two involutes. Such form relieved cutters can be used for producing teeth of straight and helical toothed
external spur gears and worm
m wheels as well as straight toothed bevel gears.

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Spline shaft cutters

These disc type HSS form relieved cutters are used for cutting the slots of external spline shafts
having 4 to 8 straight axial teeth. Fig. 3.81
3. illustrates the tooth section of a spline
ine shaft cutter.

Fig. 3.81 Tooth section of a spline shaft cutter

Fig. 3.82 Tool form cutter

Tool form cutters

Fig. 3.82 illustrates a tool form cutter. Form milling type cutters
utters are also used widely for cutting
slots are flutes of different cross section e.g. the flutes of twist drills, milling cutters, reamers etc., and
gushing of hobs, taps, short thread milling cutters etc.

Thread milling cutters

These shank type solid HSS or carbide cutters having threaded like annular grooves with equispaced gushing are used in automatic single purpose milling machines for cutting the threads in large lot
production of screws, bolts etc. Both internal and external threads are cut by the tool.
tool These milling
cutters are used for long thread milling also (e.g. lead screws, power screws, worms etc).
etc
Fig. 3.83 (a) shows internal thread milling cutters,
cutter Fig. 3.83 (b) shows a short thread milling
cutter and Fig. 3.83 (c) shows a long thread milling cutter.

Fig. 3.83 (a) Internal thread milling cutters (b) Short

Short thread milling cutter (c) Long thread milling cutter

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Convex and concave milling cutters

These cutters have teeth curved outwards or inwards on the circumferential surface to form the
contour of a semicircle. These cutters produces concave or convex semicircular surface on the work
pieces. The diameter of the cutters ranges from 50 mm to 125 mm and the radius of the semicircle varies
from 1.5 mm to 20 mm. Fig. 3.84 (a and b) illustrates the convex and concave milling cutters.

Fig. 3.84 (a) Convex milling cutter (b) Concave milling cutter and (c) Corner rounding milling cutter

Corner rounding milling cutters

Fig 3.84 (c) illustrates a corner rounding milling cutter. These cutters have teeth curved inwards
on the circumferential surface to form the contour of a quarter circle. The cutter produces a convex
quarter circular surface on the work piece. These are used for cutting a radius on the corners or edge of
the work piece. The diameter of the cutter ranges from 1.5 mm to 20 mm.

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Angle milling cutters

These cutters are made as single or double angle cutters and are used to machine angles other
than 900. The cutting edges are formed at the conical surface around the periphery of the cutter. The
double angle milling cutters are mainly used for cutting spiral grooves on a piece of blank. Fig 3.85 (a)
shows a single angle milling cutters and Fig. 3.85 (b) shows a double angle milling cutter.

Fig. 3.85 (a) Single angle milling cutter and (b) Double angle milling cutter

3.7.2.7 Woodruff key slot milling cutters

These cutters are small standard cutters similar in construction to a thin small diameter plain
milling cutter, intended for the production of woodruff key slots. The cutter is provided with a shank and
may have straight or staggered teeth. Fig. 3.86 illustrates a woodruff key slot milling cutter.

Fig. 3.86 Woodruff key slot milling cutter

Fig. 3.87 Schematic view of a fly cutter

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3.7.2.8 Fly cutter

These are simplest form of cutters and are mainly used in experimental shops or in tool room
works. The cutter consists of a single point cutting tool attached to the end of an arbor. This cutter may
be considered as an emergency tool when the standard cutters are not available. The shape of the tool tip
is the replica of the contour to be machined. Fig. 3.87 schematically shows a fly cutter.

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3.7.2.9 Ball nose end mill

Small end mill withh ball like hemispherical end is often used in CNC milling machines for
machining free form 3-D or 2-D
D contoured surfaces. These cutters may be made of HSS, solid carbide or
steel body with coated or uncoated carbide inserts clamped at its
it end as can be seen in the Fig. 3.88.
3.8

Fig. 3.88 Ball nose end mills

3.7.3

Elements of a plain milling cutter

The major parts and angles of a plain milling cutter are illustrated in Fig. 3.89.

Body of cutter

Fig. 3.89 Elements of a plain milling cutter

The part of the cutter left after exclusion of the teeth and the portion to which the
teeth are attached.

Cutting edge

The edge formed by the intersection of the face and the circular land or the surface
left by the provision
provisio of primary clearance.

Face

The portion of the gash adjacent to the cutting edge on which the chip impinges as
it is cut from the work.

Fillet

The curved surface at the bottom of gash that joins the face of one tooth to the
back of the tooth immediately ahead.

Gash

The chip space between the back of one tooth and the face of the next tooth.

Land

The part of the back of tooth adjacent to the cutting edge which is relieved to
avoid interference between the surface being machined and the
th cutter.

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The diameter of the circle passing through the peripheral cutting edge.

Root diameter

The diameter of the circle passing through the bottom of the fillet.

Cutter angles

Similar to a single point cutting tool, the milling cutter

cutter teeth are also provided
with rake, clearance and other cutting angles in order to remove metal efficiently.

Relief angle

The angle in a plane perpendicular to the axis.

axis The
he angle between land of a tooth
and tangent to the outside diameter of cutter at the cutting edge of that tooth.

Lip angle

The included angle between the land and the face of the tooth, or alternatively the
angle between the tangent to the back at the cutting edge and the face of the tooth.
The angle formed by the back of the tooth with a line drawn tangent to the
periphery of the cutter at the cutting edge.

Primary clearance angle

Outside diameter

The angle measured in the diametral plane between the face of the tooth
and a radial line passing through the tooth cutting edge. The rake angle
which may be positive, negative or zero is illustrated in Fig. 3.90.

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Rake angle (Radial)

Secondary clearance angle The angle formed by the secondary clearance surface of the tooth with a
line drawn tangent to the periphery of the cutter at the cutting edge.

Fig. 3.90 Three types of rake angle of a plain milling cutter

MILLING OPERATIONS
Milling machines are mostly general purpose machine tools and used for piece or small lot
production. In general, all milling operations can be grouped into two types.
They are: peripheral milling and face milling.

3.8

Peripheral milling
Here, the finished surface is parallel to the axis of rotation of the
cutter and is machined by cutter teeth on the periphery of the cutter. Fig. 3.91
91 schematically shows the
peripheral milling operation.

chematic view of the peripheral milling operation

Fig. 3.91 Schematic

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Face milling
Here, the finished surface is perpendicular to the axis of rotation of
the cutter and is machined by cutter teeth on the periphery and the flat end of the cutter. The peripheral
cutting edges do the actual cutting, whereas the face cutting edges finish up the work surface by
removing a very small amount of material. Fig. 3.92 schematically shows the face milling operation.
operatio

Fig. 3.92
92 Schematic view of the face milling operation

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Special type - End milling

It may be considered as the combination of peripheral and face
milling operation. The cutter has teeth both on the end face and on the periphery. The cutting
characteristics
istics may be of peripheral or face milling type according to the cutter surface used. Fig. 3.93
schematically shows the different end milling operation.

Fig. 3.93 Schematic views

view of the different end milling operations

According to the relative movement between the tool and the work, the peripheral milling
operation
on is classified into two types. They are: up milling and down milling.

Up milling or conventional milling Here, the cutter rotates in the opposite direction to the work table
movement. In this, the chip starts as zero thickness and gradually increases to the maximum. The cutting
force is directed upwards and this tends to lift the work piece from the work holding device. Each tooth
slides across a minute distance on the work surface before
before it begins to cut, producing a wavy surface.
This tends to dull the cutting edge and consequently have a lower tool life. As the cutter progresses, the
chip accumulate at the cutting zone and carried over with the teeth which spoils the work surface.
Fig. 3.94 (a) schematically shows the up milling or conventional milling process.

Fig. 3.94 Schematic views of (a) Up milling process and (b) Down
own milling process

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Down milling or climb milling

Here, the cutter rotates in the same direction as that of the work
table movement. In this, the chip starts as maximum thickness and gradually decreases to zero thickness.
This is suitable for obtaining fine finish on the work surface. The cutting force acts downwards and this
tends to seat the work piece firmly in the work holding device. The chips are deposited behind the cutter
and do not interfere with the cutting. Climb milling allows greater feeds per tooth and longer tool life
between regrinds than up milling. Fig. 3.94 (b) schematically shows the down or climb milling process.

3.8.1 Basic functions of milling machine

Milling machines of various types are widely used for the following purposes:
Producing flat surface in horizontal, vertical and inclined planes as shown in Fig. 3.95.
3.9

Fig. 3.95 Producing flat

f surface in horizontal, vertical and inclined planes

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Machining slots of various cross sections as shown in Fig. 3.96.

Fig. 3.96
3.9 Machining slots of various cross sections

Slitting or parting operation as shown in Fig. 3.97.

3.9

Fig. 3.97 Parting

ting by slitting saw

Fig. 3.98 Straddle milling

Straddle milling or parallel

arallel facing operation by two single side milling cutters as shown in Fig. 3.98.
Form milling operation by form cutters as shown in Fig. 3.99.

Fig. 3.99 Form milling operations

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Cutting helical grooves like flutes of the drills as shown in Fig. 3.100.

Fig. 3.101 (a) Short thread milling (b) Long thread milling

Fig. 3.100 Cutting of drill flutes

Short thread milling for small size fastening screws, bolts etc. and long thread milling on large
lead screws, power screws, worms etc. These are illustrated in Fig. 3.101 (a and b).

Cutting teeth of spur gears, straight toothed bevel gears, worm wheels, sprockets in piece or
batch production. These are illustrated in Fig. 3.102 (a, b and c).

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Fig. 3.102 (a) Cutting teeth of spur gear by disc type cutter (b) Cutting teeth of spur gear by end mill
(c) Cutting teeth of straight toothed bevel gear by disc type cutter

Cutting the slots of external spline shafts as shown in Fig. 3.103.

Fig. 3.103 Cutting slots of external spline shaft

Fig. 3.104 Profile milling of a cam

Profile milling like cam profiles as shown in Fig. 3.104.

Surface contouring or 3-D contouring like die or mould cavities as shown in Fig. 3.105 (a and b).

Fig. 3.105 (a) Surface contouring of 3-D surface (b) Surface contouring of die cavity

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Fig. 3.106 Gang milling

Gang milling
Gang milling operation is employed for quick production of complex
contours comprising a number of parallel flat or curved surfaces. Proper combinations of several cutters
are mounted tightly on the horizontal arbor are indicated in Fig. 3.106.

Turning by rotary tools

During turning like operations in large heavy and odd shaped jobs its
speed (rpm) is essentially kept low. For enhancing productivity and better cutting fluid action rotary
tools like milling cutters are used as shown in Fig. 3.107 (a, b and c).

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Fig. 3.107 (a, b and c) Turning by rotary milling cutters

HOLE MAKING
Machining round holes in metal stock is one of the most common operations in the
manufacturing industry. It is estimated that of all the machining operations carried out, there are about
20 % hole making operations. Literally no work piece leaves the machine shop without having a hole
made in it. The various types of holes are shown in Fig. 3.108.

3.9

Fig. 3.108 Various types of holes

3.10

DRILLING
Drilling is the process of originating holes in the work piece by using a rotating cutter called drill.
The machine used for this purpose is called drilling machine. Although it was primarily designed to
originate a hole, it can perform a number of similar operations. In a drilling machine holes may be
drilled quickly and at a low cost. As the machine tool exerts vertical pressure to originate a hole it is also
called drill press. Holes were drilled by the Egyptians in 1200 B.C. by bow drills. The bow drill is the
mother of present day metal cutting drilling machine.

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3.10.1 Types of drilling machine

The different types of drilling machine which are most commonly used are:
Portable drilling machine.
Sensitive drilling machine (Bench mounting or table top and Floor mounting).
Upright drilling machine (Pillar
(
or Round column section and Box column section).
section
Radial drilling machine (Plain, Semi-universal
Semi
and Universal).
Gang drilling machine.
Multiple spindle drilling machine.
Deep hole drilling machine.
Turret type drilling machine
But in working principle all are more or less the same.

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3.10.1.1 Portable drilling machine or hand drilling machine

Unlike the mounted stationary drilling machines, the hand drill is a portable drilling device which
is mostly held in hand and used at the locations where holes have to be drilled.
drilled. The small and reasonably
light hand drilling machines are run by a high speed electric motor. In fire hazardous areas the hand
drilling machine is often rotated by compressed air. The maximum size of the drill that it can
accommodate is not more than 12 to 18 mm. Fig. 3.109 illustrates a hand drilling machine.

Fig. 3.109 Hand drilling machine

Fig. 3.110 Table top sensitive drilling machine

3.10.1.2 Bench mounting or table top sensitive drilling machine

This small capacity (
0.5 kW) upright (vertical) single spindle drilling machine is mounted on
rigid table and manually operated using usually small size (
( 10 mm) drills. Fig. 3.110 illustrates a
table top sensitive drilling machine.
3.10.1.3 Floor mounting sensitive drilling machine
The floor mounting sensitive drilling machine is a small machine designed for drilling small
holes at high speed in light jobs. The base of the machine is mounted on the floor. It consists of a vertical
column, a horizontal table, a head supporting the motor and driving mechanism, and a vertical spindle
for driving and rotating the drill. There is no arrangement for any automatic feed of the drill spindle. The
drill is fed into the work by purely hand control. High speed is necessary for drilling small holes. High
speeds are necessary to attain required cutting speed by small diameter drill. Hand feed permits the
operator to feel or sense the progress of the drill into the work, so that if the drill becomes worn out or
jams on any account, the pressure on the drill may be released immediately to prevent it from breaking.
As the operator senses the cutting action, at any instant, it is called sensitive drilling machine. Sensitive
drilling machines are capable of rotating
rotat
drills of diameter from 1.5 to 15.5 mm. Super sensitive drilling

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machines are designed to drill holes as small as 0.35 mm in diameter and the machine is rotated at a high
speed of 20,000 r.p.m. or above. Fig. 3.111 illustrates a floor mounting sensitive
sensitiv drilling machine.

Fig. 3.111 Floor

loor mounting sensitive drilling machine

Fig. 3.112 Pillar drilling machine

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3.10.1.4 Pillar or Round column section upright drilling machine

Fig.. 3.112 illustrates a pillar or round column section upright drilling machine. This machine is
usually called pillar drilling
ing machine. It is quite similar to the table top drilling machine but
bu of little
larger size and higher capacity (0.55 ~ 1.1 kW) and are mounted on the floor. In this machine the drill
feed and the work table movements are done manually. This low cost drilling machine has a base, a tall
tubular column,, an arm supporting the table and a drill head assembly. The arm may be moved up and
down on the column and also be moved in an arc up to 1800 around the column.
column The table may be
0
rotated 360 about its own centre independent of the position of the arm. It is generally used for small
jobs and light drilling. The maximum size of holes that can
c be drilled is not more than 50 mm.

3.10.1.5 Box column section upright

pright drilling machine
Fig. 3.113 illustrates a box column section upright drilling machine. The major parts are:

Fig. 3.113 Box

Box column section upright drilling machine

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Base
It is a part of the machine on which vertical column is mounted. The top of the base is
accurately machined and has T-slots
slots on it so that large work pieces and work holding devices may be set
up and bolted to it.

Column
It is the vertical member of the machine which supports the table and the head containing
all the drivingg mechanism. The column should be sufficiently rigid so that it can take up the entire
cutting pressure of the drill. The column may be made of box section or of round section. Box column is
a more rigid unit. In box column type, the front face of the column
column is accurately machined to form guide
ways on which the table can slide up and down for vertical adjustment.

Table
It is mounted on the column and is provided with T-slots
T slots for clamping the work directly
on its face. The table may be round or rectangular
rectangular in shape. The table may have three types of
adjustments: vertical adjustment, radial adjustment about the column, and circular adjustment about its
own axis. After the required adjustments have been made the table and the arm are clamped in position.

Drill head
It is mounted on the top of the column and houses the driving and feeding mechanism for
the spindle. In some of the machines the drill head may be adjusted up or down for accommodating
different heights of work in addition to the table adjustment.
adjustment
Spindle
Holds
olds the drill and transmits rotation and axial translation to the tool for providing cutting
motion and feed motion - both to the drill.

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3.10.1.6 Radial drilling machine

Fig. 3.114 illustrates a radial drilling machine. The major parts are:

Fig. 3.114 Radial drilling machine

Base
It is a large rectangular casting that is finished on its top to support a column on its one
end and to hold the work table at the other end. In some machines T-slots
T slots are provided on the base for
clamping work when it serves as a table.
Column
The column is a cylindrical casting that is mounted vertically at one end of the base. It
supports the radial arm which may slide up or down on its face. An electric motor is mounted on the top
of the column which imparts
parts vertical adjustment of the arm by rotating a screw passing through a nut
attached to the arm.
Radial arm The radial arm that is mounted on the column extends horizontally over the base. It is a
massive casting with its front vertical face accurately machined to provide guide ways on which the drill
head may be made to slide. The arm may be swung round the column. In some machines this movement
is controlled by a separate motor.

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Drill head
The drill head is mounted on the radial arm and drives the drill spindle. It encloses all the
mechanism for driving the drill at multiple speeds and at different feed. All the mechanisms and controls
are housed within a small drill head which may be made to slide on the guide ways of the arm for
adjusting the position of drill spindle with respect to the work.

Spindle drive and feed mechanism

There are two common methods of driving the spindle. A constant speed motor is mounted at the
extreme end of the radial arm. The motor drives a horizontal spindle which runs along the length of the
arm and the motion is transmitted to the drill head through bevel gears. By the gear train within the drill
head, the speed of the spindle may be varied. Through another gear train within the drill head, different
feeds of the spindle are obtained. In some machines, a vertical motor is fitted directly on the drill head
and through gear box multiple speed and the feed of the spindle can be obtained.

Working principle
The work is mounted on the table or when the work is very large it may be
placed on the floor or in a pit. Then the position of the arm and the drill head is altered so that the drill
may be pointed exactly on the location where the hole is to be drilled. When several holes are drilled on
a large work piece, the drill head is moved from one position to the other after drilling the hole without
altering the setting of the work. This versatility of the machine allows it to work on large work pieces.
There are some more machines where the drill spindle can be additionally swiveled and / or tilted.

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3.10.1.7 Gang drilling machine

In this almost single purpose and more productive drilling machine a number of spindles (2 to 6)
with drills (of same or different size) in a row are made to produce number of holes progressively or
simultaneously through the jig. Fig. 3.115 illustrates a typical gang drilling machine.

Fig. 3.115 Gang drilling machine

Fig. 3.116 Multiple spindle drilling machine

3.10.1.8 Multiple spindle drilling machine

Fig. 3.116 schematically shows a typical multiple spindle drilling machine. In this high
production machine a large number of drills work concurrently on a blank through a jig specially made
for the particular work. The entire drilling head works repeatedly using the same jig for batch or lot
production. The rotations of the drills are derived from the main spindle and the central gear through a
number of planetary gears in mesh with the central gear and the corresponding flexible shafts. The
positions of those parallel shafts holding the drills are adjusted depending upon the locations of the holes
to be made on the job. Each shaft possesses a telescopic part and two universal joints at its ends to allow
its change in length and orientation respectively for adjustment of location of the drills of varying size
and length. In some heavy duty multi spindle drilling machines, the work-table is raised to give feed
motion instead of moving the heavy drilling head.

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3.10.1.9 Deep hole drilling machine

Very deep holes of L/D ratio 6 to even 30, required for rifle barrels, long spindles, oil holes in
shafts, bearings, connecting rods etc, are very difficult to make
make for slenderness of the drills and
difficulties in cutting fluid application and chip removal. Such drilling cannot be done in ordinary
drilling machines and by using ordinary drills. It needs machines like deep hole drilling machine such as
gun drilling machines with horizontal axis or vertical axis.
These machines are provided with:
with
High spindle speed.
High rigidity.
Tool guide.
Pressurized
ressurized cutting oil for effective cooling, chip removal and lubrication at the drill tip.
Fig. 3.117 schematically shows a deep hole drill tool used in the deep hole drilling operation.

Fig. 3.117 Deep hole drill

Fig. 3.118 Turret type drilling machine

3.10.1.10 Turret type drilling machine

Fig. 3.118 schematically shows a typical turret type drilling machine. Turret drilling machine is
structurally rigid column type drilling machine but is more productive like gang drill machine by having
a pentagon or hexagon turret. The turret holds a number
ber of drills and similar tools, is indexed and moved
up and down to perform quickly the desired series of operations progressively. These drilling machines
are available with varying degree of automation both fixed and
a flexible type.

3.10.2 Spindle and drill head assembly

The spindle is a vertical shaft which holds the drill. It receives its motion from the top shaft
though bevel gears. A long key--way
way is cut on the spindle and the bevel gear is connected to it by a
sliding key. This construction is made to allow the spindle to be connected with the top shaft irrespective
of its position when the spindle is raised or lowered for feeding the drill into the work piece. The spindle
rotates within a non-rotating
rotating sleeve which
which is known as the quill. Rack teeth are cut on the outer surface
of the sleeve. The sleeve may be moved up or down by rotating a pinion which meshes with the rack and
this movement is imparted to the spindle
spi
to give the required feed.
The downward movement
ment of the spindle is effected by rotating the pinion which causes the quill
to move downward exerting pressure on the spindle through a thrust bearing and washer. The spindle is
moved upward by the upward pressure exerted by the quill acting against a nut
nu attached to the spindle
through the thrust bearing. The lower end of the spindle is provided with Morse taper hole for
accommodating taper shank drill. A slot is provided at the end of the taper hole for holding the tang of
the drill to impart it a positive
ive drive. The drill spindle assembly is illustrated in Fig. 3.119.

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Fig. 3.119 Drill spindle assembly

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3.10.2.1 Spindle drive mechanism

The spindle drive mechanism of a drilling machine incorporates an arrangement for obtaining
multiple speed of the spindle similar to a lathe to suit to
to various machining conditions.
Multiple speed of the spindle may be obtained as follows:
By step cone pulley drive.
By step cone pulley drive with one or more back gears.
By gearing.

Step cone pulley drive

Fig. 3.113 shows the schematic view of a spindle driving
mechanism incorporating a step cone pulley. The motion is transmitted from an overhead line shaft to
the countershaft mounted on the base of the machine. The countershaft may be started or stopped by
shifting the belt from loose pulley to fast pulley or vice versa by operating the foot-pedal
foot
7. The step
cone pulley mounted on the head of the machine receives power from the countershaft step cone pulley 5
through the belt. The drill spindle 2 receives power from the overhead shaft 3 through bevel gears 1 and
the speed of the spindle may be varied by shifting the belt on different steps of the cone pulley 5. The
number of spindle speeds available is dependent upon the number of steps on the cone pulley.
Step cone pulley drive with back gear
In order to obtain larger number of spindle speeds back
gears are incorporated in the machine in addition to the step cone pulley.
Spindle drive by gearing
Modern heavy duty drilling machines are driven by
individual motor mounted
ounted on the frame of the machine. The multiple speeds may be obtained by sliding
gear or sliding clutch mechanism or by the combination of the above two methods.
3.10.2.2 Feed mechanism
In a drilling machine, the feed is effect by the vertical movement of the drill into the work. The
feed movement of the drill may be controlled by hand or power.
The hand feed may be applied by two methods:
Quick traverse hand feed.
Sensitive hand feed.

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The quick traverse feed is used to bring the cutting tool rapidly to the hole location or for
withdrawing the drill when the operation is completed. Quick hand feed is obtained by rotating the hand
wheel pivoted to the pinion. One turn of the hand wheel will cause the pinion to rotate through one
complete revolution giving
ng quick hand feed movement of the spindle.
The sensitive hand feed is applied for trial cut and for drilling small holes. The sensitive feed
hand wheel is attached to the rear end of the worm shaft. Rotation of the hand wheel will cause the worm
and worm gear to rotate and a slow but sensitive feed is obtained.

Fig. 3.120 Automatic

A
feed mechanism

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The automatic feed is applied while drilling larger diameter holes as the cutting pressure required
is sufficiently great. Fig.3.120 illustrates the automatic feed mechanism. The gear A rotates with the
spindle as the spindle passes through it. Gear B is connected with gear A, so it also rotates. The shaft S
rotates with the gear B as it connected to it. At a suitable distance under the shaft, there is a worm which
w
drives a pinion. The pinion is connected with the rack on the non rotating sleeve (quill) fitted over the
spindle. The rotation of the worm rotates the pinion. The rotation of the pinion moves the quill up and
down through the rack cut on it. The quill
quill moves the drill spindle up and down. Thus the automatic feed
of the drill spindle is achieved. Different ranges of feed can be obtained by means of feed gearbox.

3.10.3 Work holding devices used in drilling machines

Before performing any operation in a drilling machine it is absolutely necessary to secure the
work firmly on the drilling machine table. The work should never be held by hand, because the drill
while revolving exerts so much of torque on the work piece that it starts revolving along with the
th tool
and may cause injuries to the operator. The work holding devices commonly used for holding the work
piece in a drilling machine table are: T-bolts and clamps, machine vises, step
tep blocks, V-blocks, angle
plate and drill jigs. All of them except drill jig have been described
cribed in Article 3.2.6 and Page 110. When
the work is heavy and / or of odd shape and size,
size, it is directly clamped on the drilling machine table.
3.10.3.1 Drill jigs
These are used for holding the work in a mass production process. A drill jig can hold the work
securely, locate the work and guide the tool at any desired position. The work may be clamped and
unclamped quickly. Jigs are specially designed for each type of
of work where quantity production is
desired. The work is clamped below the jig and the holes are located. The drill is guided by the drill
bush. Fig. 3.1211 schematically shows some types of drill jigs used in mass production.
production

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Fig. 3.121 Some types of drill jigs

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3.10.4 Tool holding devices used in drilling machines

In drilling machines mostly drills of various type and size are used for drilling holes. Often some
other tools are also used for enlarging and finishing drilled holes, counter boring, countersinking,
tapping etc. The different methods used for holding tools in a drill spindle are:
By directly fitting in the spindle.
By a sleeve.
By a socket.
By chucks.

3.10.4.1 Drill directly fitted in the spindle

All drilling machines have the spindle bored out to a standard Morse taper (1:20) to receive the
taper shank of the tool. While fitting the tool the shank is forced in the tapered hole and the tool is
gripped by friction. The tool may be rotated with the spindle by friction between the tapered surface and
the spindle; but to ensure a positive drive the tang or tongue of the tool fits into a slot at the end of the
taper hole. The tool is removed by pressing a tapered wedge known as the drift or key into the slotted
hole of the spindle. Fig. 3.122 (a) shows a drill directly fitted in the spindle. Fig. 3.122 (b) shows a drift.

Fig. 3.122 (a) Drill directly fitted in the spindle and (b) Drift or key

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3.10.4.2 Drill sleeve

The drill spindle is suitable for holding only one size of shank. If the taper shank of the tool is
smaller than the taper in the spindle hole, a taper sleeve is used. The outside taper of the sleeve conforms
to the drill spindle taper and the inside the taper
taper holds the shanks of smaller size tools or smaller sleeves.
The sleeve fits into the taper hole of the spindle. The sleeve has a tang which fits into the slot of the
spindle. The tang of the tool fits into a slot provided at the end of the taper hole of
o the sleeve. The sleeve
with the tool
ool may be removed by forcing a drift within the slot of the spindle and the tool may be
separated from the sleeve by the similar process. Different size of the tool shanks may be held in the
spindle by using different sizes of sleeves. Fig. 3.123 (a) shows a drill sleeve. Fig. 3.123
3.12 (b) shows a
drill sleeve holding a drill fitted in the drill spindle. Fig. 3.123
3.12 (c) shows different sizes of drill sleeves.

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Fig. 3.123 (a) Drill sleeve (b) Drill sleeve holding a drill fitted in the drill spindle and
(c) Different sizes of drill sleeves.
3.10.4.3 Drill socket
When the tapered tool shank is larger than the spindle taper, drill sockets are used to hold the
tool. Drill sockets
kets are much longer in size than the drill sleeves. A socket consists of a solid shank
attached to the end of a cylindrical body. The taper shank of the socket conforms to the taper of the drill
spindle and fits into it. The body of the socket has a tapered
tapered hole larger than the drill spindle taper into
which the taper shank of any tool may be fitted. The tang of the socket fits into the slot of the spindle
and the tang of the tool fits into the slot of the socket. Fig. 3.124 shows a drill socket.

Fig. 3.124 Drill socket

3.10.4.4 Drill chucks

The chucks are especially intended for holding smaller size drills are any other tools. A sleeve or
socket can hold one size of tool shank only; but a drill chuck may be used to hold different sizes of tool
shanks within a certain limit. Drill chucks have tapered shanks which are fitted into the drilling machine
spindle. Different types of drill chucks are manufactured for different purposes. The most common type
of drill chuck used is three jaw self centering drill chuck.
This type of chuck is particularly adapted for holding tools having straight shanks. Three slots are
0
cut 120 apart in the chuck body which houses three jaws having threads cut at the back that meshes with
a ring nut. The ring nut is attached to the sleeve. Bevel teeth are cut all round the sleeve body. The sleeve
may be rotated by rotating a key having bevel teeth
teeth cut on its face which meshes with the bevel teeth on
the sleeve. The rotation of the sleeve causes the ring nut to rotate in a fixed position and all the three
jaws close or open by the same amount from the centre holding or releasing the shank of a tool.
too
Fig. 3.125 shows a three jaw self centering drill chuck.

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Fig. 3.125 Three jaw self centering drill chuck

3.10.5 Drilling tools
Different types of drills are properly used for various applications depending upon work material,
tool material, depth and diameter of the holes. General purpose drills may be classified as:

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According to material:
High speed steel - most common.
Cemented carbides.
Without or with coating.
In the form of brazed, clamped or solid.
According to size:
Large twist drills of diameter around 40 mm.
Micro drills of diameter 25 m to 500 m.
Medium range diameter ranges between 3 mm to 25 mm (most widely used).
According to number of flutes:
Two fluted - most common.
Single flute - e.g., gun drill (robust).
Three or four flutes - called slot drill.
According to helix angle of the flutes:
Usual: 200 to 350 - most common.
Large helix: 450 to 600 - suitable for deep holes and softer work materials.
Small helix: for harder / stronger materials.
Zero helix: spade drills for high production drilling micro-drilling and hard work materials.
According to length to diameter ratio:
Deep hole drill; e.g. crank shaft drill, gun drill etc.
General type: L/ 6 to 10.
Small length: e.g. centre drill.
According to shank:
Straight shank - small size drill being held in drill chuck.
Taper shank - medium to large size drills being fitted into the spindle nose directly or through
taper sockets and sleeves.
According to specific applications:
Centre drill [Fig. 3.126 (a)] for small axial holes with 600 taper ends to hold the lathe centre.
Step drill and sub land drill [Fig. 3.126 (b and c)] for small holes with 2 or 3 steps.
Half round drill, gun drill and crank shaft drill [Fig. 3.126 (d, e and f)] for making oil holes.
Ejector drill for high speed drilling of large diameter holes.
Taper drill for batch production.
Trepanning tool [Fig. 3.126 (g)] for large holes in soft materials.

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Fig. 3.126 Different types of drills used in various applications

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3.10.5.1
.1 Twist drill nomenclature
The following are the nomenclature, definitions and functions of the different parts of a drill
illustrated in Fig. 3.127.

Fig. 3.127 Twist drill nomenclature

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Twist drill elements

Axis
The longitudinal centre line of the drill.
That portion of the drill extending from its extreme point to the commencement of
the neck, if present, otherwise extending to the commencement of the shank.

Body clearance

That portion of the body surface which is reduced in diameter to provide diametral
clearance.

Chisel edge

The edge formed by the intersection of the flanks. The chisel edge is also
sometimes called dead centre.

Chisel edge corner

The corner formed by the intersection of a lip and the chisel edge.

Face

The portion of the flute surface adjacent to the lip on which the chip impinges as it
is cut from the work.

Flank

That surface on a drill point which extends behind the lip to the following flute.

Flutes

The groove in the body of the drill which provides lip.

The functions of the flutes are:
To form the cutting edges.
To allow the chips to escape.
To cause the chips to curl.
To permit the cutting fluid to reach the cutting edges.

Heel

The edge formed by the intersection of the flute surface and the body clearance.

Lands

The cylindrically ground surface on the leading edges of the drill flutes. The width
of the land is measured at right angles to the flute helix.

Lip (cutting edge)

The edge formed by the intersections of the flank and face.

The requirements of the drill lip are:
Both lips should be at the same angle of inclination (590) with the drill axis.
Both lips should be of equal length.
Both lips should be provided with the correct clearance.

Neck

The diametrically undercut portion between the body and the shank of the drill.
Diameter and other particulars of the drill are engraved at the neck.

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Body

Outer corner

The corner formed by the intersection of the flank and face.

Point

The sharpened end of the drill, which is shaped to produce lips, faces, flanks and
chisel edge.

Shank

That part of the drill by which it is held and driven. The most common types of
shank are the taper shank and the straight shank.

Tang

The flattened end of the taper shank intended to fit into a drift slot in the spindle,
socket or drill holder. The tang ensures positive drive of the drill from the spindle.

Web

The central portion of the drill situated between the roots of the flutes and
extending from the point toward the shank; the point end of the web or core
forms the chisel edge.

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Linear dimensions
Back taper (longitudinal clearance) It is the reduction in diameter of the drill from the point towards
the shank. This permits all parts of the drill behind the point to clear and not rub against the sides of the
hole being drilled. The taper varies from 1:4000 for small diameter drills to 1:700 for larger diameters.
The diameter over the surface of the drill body which is situated
behind the lands.

Depth of body clearance

The amount of radial reduction on each side to provide body clearance.

The measurement across the cylindrical lands at the outer corners of the drill.

Diameter

Body clearance diameter

Flute length The axial length from the extreme end of the point to the termination of the flute at the
shank end of the body.
Lead of helix The distance measured parallel to the drill axis between the corresponding points on the
leading edge of the flute in one complete turn of the flute.
The minimum distance between the outer corner and the chisel edge corner of the lip.

Lip length

The length over the extreme ends of the point and the shank of the drill.

Web (core) taper

The increase in the web or core thickness from the point of the drill to the shank
end of the flute. This increasing thickness gives additional rigidity to the drill and
reduces the cutting pressure at the point end.

Web thickness

The minimum dimension of the web or core measured at the point end of the drill.

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Drill angles
Chisel edge angle

Overall length

The obtuse angle included between the chisel edge and the lip as viewed
from the end of the drill.
This is the angle formed by the leading edge of the land with a plane
having the axis of the drill.

Point angle

This is the angle included between the two lips.

Lip clearance angle

The angle formed by the flank and a plane at right angles to the drill axis.

Helix angle or rake angle

3.10.6 Drilling operations

The wide range of applications of drilling machines includes:
Drilling machines are generally or mainly used to originate through or blind straight cylindrical
holes in solid rigid bodies and/or enlarge (coaxially) existing holes:
Of different diameters up to 40 mm.
Of varying length depending upon the requirement and the diameter of the drill.
In different materials excepting very hard or very soft materials like rubber, polythene etc.
Originating stepped cylindrical holes of different diameter and depth.
Making rectangular section slots by using slot drills having 3 or 4 flutes and 1800 cone angle.
Boring, after drilling, for accuracy and finish or prior to reaming
Counter boring, countersinking, chamfering or combination using suitable tools.
Spot facing by flat end tools.
Trepanning for making large through holes and or getting cylindrical solid core.

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If necessary Reaming is done on drilled or bored holes for accuracy and good surface finish.
Different types of reamers of standard sizes are available for different applications.
Also used for cutting internal threads in parts like nuts using suitable attachment.
The different operations that can be performed in a drilling machine are shown in Fig. 3.128.

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Fig. 3.128 Different operations performed in a drilling machine

REAMING
Reaming is an operation of finishing a hole previously drilled to give a good surface finish and
an accurate dimension. A reamer is a multi tooth cutter which rotates and moves axially into the hole.
The reamer removes relatively small amount of material. Generally the reamer follows the already
existing hole and therefore will not be able to correct the hole misalignment. Fig. 3.129 illustrates the
elements of a reamer. Fig. 3.130 shows the different types of reamers of standard sizes.

3.11

Fig. 3.129 Elements of a reamer

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Fig. 3.131 Principle of boring operation

Fig. 3.130 Different

ifferent types of reamers

BORING
Boring is an operation of enlarging and locating previously drilled holes with a single point
cutting tool. The machine used for this purpose is called boring machine. The boring machine is one of
the most versatile machine tools used to bore holes in large
large and heavy parts such as engine frames, steam
engine
ne cylinders, machine housings etc. Drilling, milling and facing operations also can be performed in
this machine. Screw cutting. Turning, planetary grinding and gear cutting operations also can be done by
fitting simple attachments. The principle of boring operation is illustrated in Fig. 3.131.

3.12

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3.12.1 Horizontal boring machines

In horizontal boring machine, the tool revolves and the work is stationary. A horizontal boring
machine can perform boring, reaming, turning, threading, facing, milling, grooving, recessing and many
other operations with suitable tools. Work pieces which are
re heavy, irregular, unsymmetrical or bulky can
be conveniently held and machined. This machine has two vertical columns. A headstock slides up and
down in one column. It may be adjusted to any desired height and clamped. The headstock holds the
cutting tool.
ol. The cutting tool revolves in the headstock in horizontal axis. A sliding type bearing block is
provided in the other vertical column. It is used to support the boring bar. The work piece is mounted on
the table and is clamped with ordinary strap clamps,
clamps T-slot
slot bolts and nuts, or it is held in a special fixture
if so required. Various types of rotary and universal swiveling attachments can be installed on the
horizontal boring machines table to bore holes at various angles in horizontal and vertical planes.
plan
Fig. 3.132 schematically shows the basic configuration of a horizontal boring machine.

Fig. 3.132 Basic

Basic configuration of a horizontal boring machine

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3.12.2 Types of horizontal boring machine

Different types of horizontal boring machines have been designed to suit different purposes.
They are:

3.12.2.1 Table type horizontal boring machine

The work is held stationary on a coordinate work table having in and out as well as back and
forth movements that is perpendicular and parallel to the spindle axis. The spindle carrying the tool can
be fed axially. Alternatively, the table travels parallel to the spindle axis (longitudinal feed). This method
of boring with longitudinal feed of the table is employed when holes are of considerable length and
being bending of the boring bar is possible. Fig. 3.133 shows the table type horizontal boring machine.

Fig. 3.133 Table type horizontal boring machine

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3.12.2.2 Planer type horizontal boring machine

This machine is similar to the table type horizontal boring machine except that the work table has
only in and out movements that is perpendicular to the spindle axis. Other features and applications of
this machine are similar to the table type horizontal boring machine. This type of machine is suitable for
supporting a long work. Fig. 3.134 shows the planer type horizontal boring machine.

Fig. 3.134 Planer type horizontal boring machine

3.12.2.3 Floor type horizontal boring machine
Here, there is no work table and the job is mounted on a stationary T-slotted floor plate. This
design is used when large and heavy jobs can not be mounted and adjusted on the work table. Horizontal
movement perpendicular to the spindle axis is obtained by traversing the column carrying the head stock,
on guide ways. Fig. 3.135 shows the floor type horizontal boring machine.

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Fig. 3.135 Floor type horizontal boring machine

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3.12.2.4 Multiple head type horizontal boring machine

The machine resembles a double housing planer or a Plano-miller and is used for boring holes of
large diameter is mass production. The machine may have two, three or four headstocks. This type of
machine may be used both as a horizontal and vertical machine. Fig. 3.136 shows the multiple head type
horizontal boring machine.

Fig. 3.136 Multiple head type horizontal boring machine

3.12.3 Vertical boring machines

For convenience, parts whose length or height is less than the diameter are machined on vertical
boring machines. The typical works are: Large gear blanks, locomotive and rolling stock tires, fly
wheels, large flanges, steam and water turbine castings etc. On a vertical boring machine, the work is
fastened on a horizontal revolving table, and the cutting tool(s) which are stationary, advance vertically
into it are as the table revolves.
There are two types of vertical boring machine: Single column vertical boring machine and
double column vertical boring machine. The single column vertical boring machine looks like a drilling
machine or a knee type vertical milling machine. Guide ways are employed on the column to support the
spindle head in the vertical direction. A double column vertical boring machine is shown in Fig. 3.137.
The work is accommodated on the horizontal revolving table at the front of the machine. The circular
work can be clamped on to the table with the help of jaw chucks whereas the T-slots can be used with
bolts and clamps for setting up and holding irregular work. A horizontal cross rail is carried on vertical
slideways and carries the tool holder slide(s). On machines designed for working on large batches of
identical parts, a single slide with turret may be employed. Fig. 3.138 shows the turret boring machine.

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Fig. 3.138 Turret boring machine

Fig. 3.137 Double column vertical boring machine

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3.12.4 Jig borers or jig boring machines

It is very precise vertical type boring machine. The spindle and spindle bearings are constructed
with very high precision. The table can be moved precisely in two mutually perpendicular directions in a
plane normal to the spindle axis. The coordinate method for locating holes is employed. Holes can be
located to within tolerances of 0.0025 mm. Jig boring machines are relatively costlier. Hence, they are
found only in the large machine shops, where a sufficient amount of accurate hole locating is done. Jig
boring machines are basically designed for use in the making jigs, fixtures and other special tooling.
Fig. 3.139 shows the block diagram of a jig boring machine.

Fig. 3.139 Block diagram of a jig boring machine

3.12.5 Boring tools

A boring tool consists of a single point cutting tool (boring bit) held in a tool holder known as
boring bar. The boring bit is held in a cross hole at the end of the boring bar. The boring bit is adjusted
and held in position with the help of set screws. The material of the boring bit can be: Solid HSS, solid
carbide, brazed carbide, disposable carbide tips or diamond tips. Boring tools are of two types: fixed
type and rotating type. Fixed type boring tools are used on working rotating machines such as lathes,
whereas rotating type boring tools are used on tool rotating machines such as drilling machines, milling
machines and boring machines. Fig. 3.140 shows the different types of boring tools (bars).

3.13

TAPPING
Tapping is the faster way of producing internal threads. A tap is a multi fluted cutting tool with
cutting edges on each blade resembling the shape of threads to be cut. A tap is used after carrying out the
pre drilling operation corresponding to the required size. Fig. 3.141 shows the hand (solid) taps.
Fig. 3.142 shows the elements of a solid tap.

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Fig. 3.140 Different types of boring tools (bars)

Fig. 3.141 Hand (solid) taps

Fig. 3.142 Elements of a solid tap

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UNIT - IV

ABRASIVE PROCESS, SAWING, BROACHING & GEAR CUTTING

ABRASIVE PROCESSES: GRINDING
Grinding is the most common form of abrasive machining. The art of grinding goes back many
centuries. Over 5000 years ago the Egyptians abraded and polished building stones to hairline fits for the
pyramids. Grinding is a metal cutting process which engages an abrasive tool whose cutting elements are
grains of abrasive material known as grit. These grits are characterized by sharp cutting points, high hot
hardness, wear resistance and chemical stability. The grits are held together by a suitable bonding
material to give shape of an abrasive tool. Simply it is a metal removal process in which the metal is
removed with the help of rotating grinding wheel. Fig. 4.1 illustrates the cutting action of abrasive
grits of disc type grinding wheel similar to cutting action of teeth of the cutter in slab milling.

4.1

Fig. 4.1 Cutting action of abrasive grains

Fig. 4.2 Grinding wheel and work piece interaction

Applications of grinding
To remove small amount of metal from work pieces and finish then to close tolerances.
To obtain a better surface finish.
To machine hard surfaces that cannot be machined by high-speed steels.
Grinding of tools and cutters and resharpening of the same.
Grinding of threads.
Stock removal (abrasive milling) finishing of flat as well as cylindrical surface.
Slitting and parting.
Descaling and deburring.

4.1.2

Advantages of grinding
Dimensional accuracy and good surface finish.
Good form and locational accuracy.
Applicable to both hardened and unhardened material.

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4.2

GRINDING WHEELS
Grinding wheel consists of hard abrasive grains called grits, which perform the cutting or
material removal, held in the weak bonding matrix. A grinding wheel commonly identified by the type
of the abrasive material used. The conventional wheels include Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3) and Silicon
Carbide (SiC) wheels while diamond and CBN (Cubic Boron Nitride) wheels fall in the category of
super abrasive wheel. Thus, it forms a multi-edge cutter.
4.2.1

Grinding wheel and work piece interaction

The bulk grinding wheel-work piece interaction as illustrated in Fig. 4.2 can be divided into the
following:

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1. Grit-work piece (forming chip).

2. Chip-bond.
3. Chip-work piece.
4. Bond-work piece.
Except the grit-work piece interaction which is expected to produce chip, the remaining three
undesirably increases the total grinding force and power requirement. Therefore, efforts should always
be made to maximize grit-work piece interaction leading to chip formation and to minimize the rest for
best utilization of the available power.

Interaction of grit with the work piece

The importance of the grit shape can be easily realized because it determines the grit geometry
e.g. rake and clearance angle as illustrated in Fig. 4.3. It appears that the grits do not have definite
geometry unlike a cutting tool and the grit rake angle may vary from +450 to -600 or more.

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Fig. 4.3 Variation in rake angle with grits of different shape

Grit with favorable geometry can produce chip in shear mode. However, grits having large
negative rake angle or rounded cutting edge do not form chips but may rub or make a groove by
ploughing leading to lateral flow of the work piece material as illustrated in Fig. 4.4

Fig. 4.4 Grits engage shearing, ploughing and rubbing

4.2.3 Reconditioning of grinding wheel

4.2.3.1 Truing of grinding wheel
Truing is the act of regenerating the required geometry on the grinding wheel, whether the
geometry is a special form or flat profile. Therefore, truing produces the macro-geometry of the grinding
wheel.
Truing is also required on a new conventional wheel to ensure concentricity with specific
mounting system. In practice the effective macro-geometry of a grinding wheel is of vital importance
and accuracy of the finished work piece is directly related to effective wheel geometry.
Truing tools
There are four major types of truing tools:
Steel cutter: These are used to roughly true coarse grit conventional abrasive wheel to ensure
freeness of cut.
Steel or carbide crash roll: It is used to crush-true the profile on vitrified bond grinding wheel.

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Vitrified abrasive stick and wheel: It is used for off hand truing of conventional abrasive wheel.
These are used for truing resin bonded super abrasive wheel.
Diamond truing tool:
Single point diamond truing tools. [shown in Fig. 4.5]
Multi stone diamond truing tools. [shown in Fig. 4.6]
Impregnated diamond truing tools. [shown in Fig. 4.7]
Rotary powered diamond truing wheels. [shown in Fig. 4.8]
Surface set truing wheels.
Impregnated truing wheels.
Electroplated truing tools.
Diamond form truing blocks. [shown in Fig. 4.9]

Fig. 4.5 Application of single point diamond truing tool

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Diamond weight
Diamond
Distribution of diamond
(carat)
weight (carat)
(i) 1 layer 3 stone
10
(v) 5 layer 7 stone
50
(ii) 2 layer 3 stone
10
(vi) 5 layer 17 stone
10
(iii) 3 layer 5 stone
10
(vii) 5 layer 25 stone
250
(iv) 5 layer 13 stone
25
(viii) throughout
50
Fig. 4.6 Distribution pattern of diamond particles in multi-stone diamond truing tools

Distribution of diamond

Fig. 4.7 Impregnated diamond truing tools

Fig. 4.8 Rotary power truing wheel being used in (a) cross-axis (b) parallel-axis

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Fig. 4.9 Diamond form truing block to true (a) a straight faced wheel (b) a form wheel

4.2.3.2 Dressing of grinding wheel

Dressing is the conditioning of the wheel surface which ensures that grit cutting edges are
exposed from the bond and thus able to penetrate into the work piece material. Also, in dressing attempts
are made to splinter the abrasive grains to make them sharp and free cutting and also to remove any
residue left by material being ground. Dressing therefore produces micro-geometry. The structure of
micro-geometry of grinding wheel determines its cutting ability with a wheel of given composition.
Dressing can substantially influence the condition of the grinding tool.
Truing and dressing are commonly combined into one operation for conventional abrasive
grinding wheels, but are usually two distinctly separate operation for super abrasive wheel.

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Dressing of super abrasive wheel

Dressing of the super abrasive wheel is commonly done with soft conventional abrasive vitrified
stick, which relieves the bond without affecting the super abrasive grits. However, modern technique
like electrochemical dressing has been successfully used in metal bonded super abrasive wheel. The
wheel acts like an anode while a cathode plate is placed in front of the wheel working surface to allow
electrochemical dissolution.
Electro discharge dressing is another alternative route for dressing metal bonded super abrasive
wheel. In this case a dielectric medium is used in place of an electrolyte. Touch-dressing, a new concept
differs from conventional dressing in that bond material is not relieved. In contrast the dressing depth is
precisely controlled in micron level to obtain better uniformity of grit height resulting in improvement of
work piece surface finish.
4.3
SPECIFICATION OF GRINDING WHEEL
A grinding wheel requires two types of specification:
1. Geometrical specification.
2. Compositional specification.
Geometrical specification
This is decided by the type of grinding machine and the grinding operation to be performed in the
work piece. This specification mainly includes wheel diameter, width and depth of rim and the bore
diameter. The wheel diameter, for example can be as high as 400mm in high efficiency grinding or as
small as less than 1mm in internal grinding. Similarly, width of the wheel may be less than an mm in
dicing and slicing applications. Standard wheel configurations for conventional and super abrasive
grinding wheels are shown in Fig. 4.10 and Fig. 4.11.

4.3.1

Fig. 4.10 Standard wheel configuration for conventional grinding wheels

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Fig. 4.11 Standard wheel configuration for super abrasive wheel

4.3.2

Compositional specifications
Specification of a grinding wheel ordinarily means compositional specification. Conventional
abrasive grinding wheels are specified encompassing the following parameters.
The type of grit material.
The grit size.
The bond strength of the wheel, commonly known as wheel hardness.
The structures of the wheel denoting the porosity i.e. the amount of inter grit spacing.
The type of bond material.
Other than these parameters, the wheel manufacturer may add their own identification code
prefixing or suffixing (or both) the standard code.

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4.3.2.1 Marking system for conventional grinding wheel

The standard marking system for conventional abrasive wheel can be as follows:
51
A
60
K
5
V
05
where
The number 51 is manufacturers identification number indicating exact kind of abrasive used.
The letter A denotes that the type of abrasive is Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3). In case of Silicon
Carbide (SiC) the letter C is used.
The number 60 specifies the average grit size in inch mesh. For a very large size grit this
number may be as small as 6 where as for a very fine grit the number may be as high as 600.
The letter K denotes the hardness of the wheel. The letter symbol can range between A and
Z, A denoting the softest grade and Z denoting the hardest one.
The number 5 denotes the structure or porosity of the wheel. This number can assume any
value between 1 to 20, 1 indicating high porosity and 20 indicating low porosity.
The letter code V means that the bond material used is vitrified.
The number 05 is a wheel manufacturers identifier.

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4.3.2.2 Marking system for super abrasive grinding wheel

Marking system for super abrasive grinding wheel is somewhat different as illustrated below:
R
D
120
N
100
M
4
where
The letter R is manufactures code indicating the exact type of super abrasive used.
The letter D denotes that the type of abrasive is Diamond. In case of Cubic Boron Nitride
(CBN) the letter B is used.
The number 120 specifies the average grain size in inch mesh. However, a two number
designation (e.g. 120/140) is utilized for controlling the size of super abrasive grit.
Like conventional abrasive wheel, the letter N denotes the hardness of the wheel. However,
resin and metal bonded wheels are produced with almost no porosity and effective grade of the
wheel is obtained by modifying the bond formulation.
The number 100 is known as concentration number indicating the amount of abrasive contained
in the wheel. The number 100 corresponds to an abrasive content of 4.4 carats/cm3. For
diamond grit, 100 concentration is 25% by volume. For CBN the corresponding volumetric
concentration is 24%.
The letter M denotes that the type of bond is metallic. The other types of bonds used in super
abrasive wheels are resin, vitrified or metal bond, which make a composite structure with the grit
material. However, another type of super abrasive wheel with both diamond and CBN is also
manufactured where a single layer of super abrasive grits are bonded on a metal perform by a
galvanic metal layer or a brazed metal layer as illustrated in Fig. 4.12.

Brazed type wheel

Galvanic type wheel
Fig. 4.12 Comparison of brazed type and galvanic type bonded single layer CBN grinding wheel

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4.3.2.3 Indian standard marking system

W
A
36
K
5
R
17
Where
W
Manufactures symbol indicating exact kind of abrasive, (optional use).
A
Abrasive type: A for Al2O3, C for SiC, D for Diamond.
36
Grain size.
K
Grade.
5
Structure.
R
Bond type.
17
Private marking to identify the wheel, (optional use).

SELECTION OF GRINDING WHEEL

Selection of a proper grinding wheel is very important for getting the best results in grinding
work. The selection will depend upon the following factors:
1. Constant factors
a. Physical and chemical properties of material to be ground.
b. Area of contact.
c. Amount and rate of stock to be removed.
d. Types of grinding machine.

b. Wheel speed.
c. Condition of the grinding machine.
e. Type of grinding (stock removal grinding or form finish grinding).

2. Variable factors
a. Work speed.
d. Personal factor.

4.4

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4.4.1 Types of abrasives

Abrasives may be classified into two types:
1. Natural abrasives - Emery (50 - 60 % crystalline Al2O3 + Iron Oxide), Sandstone or Solid Quartz,
Corundum (75 - 90 % crystalline Al2O3 + Iron Oxide) and Diamond.
2. Artificial abrasives - Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3), Silicon Carbide (SiC), Artificial diamond,
Boron Carbide and Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN).
The abrasives that are generally used are
1. Aluminium Oxide. (Al2O3)
3. Diamond.

2. Silicon Carbide. (SiC)

4. Cubic Boron Nitride. (CBN)

1. Aluminium oxide (Al2O3)

Aluminium oxide may have variation in properties arising out of differences in chemical
composition and structure associated with the manufacturing process. Pure Al2O3 grit with defect
structure like voids leads to unusually sharp free cutting action with low strength and is advantageous in
fine tool grinding operation, and heat sensitive operations on hard, ferrous materials. Regular or brown
aluminium oxide (doped with TiO2) possesses lower hardness and higher toughness than the white Al2O3
and is recommended heavy duty grinding to semi finishing. Al2O3 alloyed with chromium oxide (<3%)
is pink in colour. Monocrystalline Al2O3 grits make a balance between hardness and toughness and are
efficient in medium pressure heat sensitive operation on ferrous materials.
Microcrystalline Al2O3 grits of enhanced toughness are practically suitable for stock removal
grinding. Al2O3 alloyed with zirconia also makes extremely tough grit mostly suitably for high pressure,
high material removal grinding on ferrous material and are not recommended for precision grinding.
Microcrystalline sintered Al2O3 grit is the latest development particularly known for its toughness and
self sharpening characteristics. Trade names: Alundum, Aloxide, corundum, emery, etc.

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2. Silicon carbide (SiC)

Silicon carbide is harder than alumina but less tough. Silicon carbide is also inferior to Al2O3
because of its chemical reactivity with iron and steel. Black carbide containing at least 95% SiC is less
hard but tougher than green SiC and is efficient for grinding soft nonferrous materials. Green silicon
carbide contains at least 97% SiC. It is harder than black variety and is used for grinding cemented
carbide. Trade names: Carborundum, Crystolon, Electrolon, etc.

3. Diamond
Diamond grit is best suited for grinding cemented carbides, glass, sapphire, stone, granite,
marble, concrete, oxide, non-oxide ceramic, fiber reinforced plastics, ferrite, graphite. Natural diamond
grit is characterized by its random shape, very sharp cutting edge and free cutting action and is
exclusively used in metallic, electroplated and brazed bond.
Monocrystalline diamond grits are known for their strength and designed for particularly
demanding application. These are also used in metallic, galvanic and brazed bond. Polycrystalline
diamond grits are more friable than monocrystalline one and found to be most suitable for grinding of
cemented carbide with low pressure. These grits are used in resin bond.

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4. Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN)

Diamond though hardest is not suitable for grinding ferrous materials because of its reactivity. In
contrast, CBN the second hardest material, because of its chemical stability is the abrasive material of
choice for efficient grinding of HSS, alloy steels, HSTR alloys.
Presently CBN grits are available as monocrystalline type with medium strength and blocky
monocrystals with much higher strength. Medium strength crystals are more friable and used in resin
bond for those applications where grinding force is not so high. High strength crystals are used with
vitrified, electroplated or brazed bond where large grinding force is expected.
Microcrystalline CBN is known for its highest toughness and auto sharpening character and
found to be best candidate for HEDG and abrasive milling. It can be used in all types of bond.
4.4.2

Grit size or grain size

It refers to the actual size of the abrasive particles. The grain size is denoted by the number.
Table 4.1 shows the different types of grit or grain sizes and their corresponding numbers.
Table 4.1

Grinding operation

Grit or Grain size

Coarse

Medium

Fine

100

120

150

180

220
240
280
320
400
500
600
Very fine
The grain size affects material removal rate and the surface quality of work piece in grinding.
Large grit
: Big grinding capacity, rough work piece surface.
Fine grit
: Small grinding capacity, smooth work piece surface.

4.4.3

Grade
Grade or hardness indicates the strength with which the bonding material holds the abrasive
grains in the grinding wheel. This means the amount of force required to pull out a single bonded
abrasive grit by bond fracture. It does not refer to the hardness of the abrasive grain. The worn out grit
must pull out from the bond and make room for fresh sharp grit in order to avoid excessive rise of
grinding force and temperature.

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Therefore, a soft grade should be chosen for grinding hard material. On the other hand, during
grinding of low strength soft material grit does not wear out so quickly. Therefore, the grit can be held
with strong bond so that premature grit dislodgement can be avoided.
Table 4.2 shows the different grades of grinding wheels and their corresponding letter symbols.
Table 4.2 Different grades of grinding wheels
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
Soft
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Medium
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
Hard

Structure / Concentration of wheels

This term denotes the spacing between the abrasive grains or in other words the density of the
wheel. Structure of the grinding wheel is designated by a number.
Table 4.3 shows the two types of structure with their numbers.
Table 4.3 Two types of structure with their numbers
Structure
Symbol
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Dense
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
or more
Open
The structure should be open for grinding wheels engaged in high material removal to provide
chip accommodation space. The space between the grits also serves as pocket for holding grinding fluid.
On the other hand dense structured wheels are used for longer wheel life, for holding precision forms
and profiles.
Bond
It is an adhesive substance which holds the abrasive grains together to form the grinding wheel.
Types of bonds - Bonds are classified into two types:
1. Organic
Resinoid, Rubber, Shellac & Oxychloride
2. Non - Organic
Metallic, Vitrified & Silicate

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4.4.4

Vitrified bond (V)

Vitrified bond is suitable for high stock removal even at dry condition. It can also be safely used
in wet grinding. It can not be used where mechanical impact or thermal variations are like to occur. This
bond is also not recommended for very high speed grinding because of possible breakage of the bond
under centrifugal force.

Rubber bond (R)

Its principal use is in thin wheels for wet cut-off operation. Rubber bond was once popular for
finish grinding on bearings and cutting tools.
Silicate bond (S)
Silicate wheels are made by mixing abrasive grains with silicate of soda. The mixture is moulded
in a mould and dried for several hours. After drying, the moulded material is kept in a furnace at about
2600 C for 20 to 80 hours. Silicate bonded wheels are light grey in colour. These wheels are having a
fairly high tensile strength.
Metal bond (M)
Metal bond is extensively used with super abrasive wheels. Extremely high toughness of metal
bonded wheels makes these very effective in those applications where form accuracy as well as large
stock removal is desired.

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Shellac bond (E)

Shellac bonded grinding wheels are relatively strong but not rigid. At one time this bond was
used for flexible cut off wheels. At present use of shellac bond is limited to grinding wheels engaged in
fine finish of rolls.

Oxychloride bond (O)

It is less common type bond, but still can be used in disc grinding operation. It is used under dry
condition. It is produced by mixing abrasive grains with oxide and chloride of magnesium.

Resinoid bond (B)

Conventional abrasive resin bonded wheels are widely used for heavy duty grinding because of
their ability to withstand shock load. This bond is also known for its vibration absorbing characteristics
and finds its use with diamond and CBN in grinding of cemented carbide and steel respectively.
Resin bond is not recommended with alkaline grinding fluid for a possible chemical attack
leading to bond weakening. Fiberglass reinforced resin bond is used with cut off wheels which requires
added strength under high speed operation.

Electroplated bond
This bond allows large (30-40%) crystal exposure above the bond without need of any truing or
dressing. This bond is specially used for making small diameter wheel, form wheel and thin super
abrasive wheels. Presently it is the only bond for making wheels for abrasive milling and ultra high
speed grinding.

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Brazed bond
This is relatively a recent development, allows crystal exposure as high 60-80%. In addition grit
spacing can be precisely controlled. This bond is particularly suitable for very high material removal
either with diamond or CBN wheel. The bond strength is much greater than provided by electroplated
bond. This bond is expected to replace electroplated bond in many applications.
TYPES OF GRINDING PROCESS
Grinding processes are generally classified based on the type of surface produced. They are:
1. Cylindrical grinding process. [shown in Fig. 4. 13 (a)]
2. Surface grinding process. [shown in Fig. 4. 13 (b)]
3. Centreless grinding process. [shown in Fig 4.13 (c)]

4.5

Fig. 4.13 Schematic illustration of (a) Cylindrical grinding process

(b) Surface grinding process and (c) Centreless grinding process

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CYLINDRICAL GRINDING PROCESS

It is used generally for producing external cylindrical surfaces. The machine is very similar to a
centre lathe. The grinding wheel is located similar to the tool post with an independent power and is
driven at a high speed suitable for the grinding operation. There are four movements in a cylindrical
grinding process.
i. Rotation of cylindrical work piece about its axis.
ii. Rotation of grinding wheel about its axis.
iii. Longitudinal feed movement of the work past the wheel face.
iv. Movement of wheel into the work perpendicular to the axis of the work to give depth of cut.
The work which is normally held between the centres is rotated at a much lower speed in a direction
opposite to that of the grinding wheel. The table assembly which houses the centres can be reciprocated
to provide the necessary traverse feed of the work piece past the grinding wheel. The infeed is provided
by the movement of the grinding wheel head into the work piece. Typical grinding allowances left are
about 0.1 to 0.3mm. Beyond this the grinding operation becomes too expensive.
Types of operations in cylindrical grinding are:
(i) Traverse grinding or infeed grinding - In this grinding wheel is moved into the work. The desired
surface is then produced by traversing the work piece across the wheel as shown in Fig. 4.14 (a).
(ii) Plunge grinding - The basic movement is of the grinding wheel being fed radially into the work
while the later revolves on centres as shown in Fig. 4.14 (b). It is similar to form cutting on lathe. The
method is used for short work pieces where the width of the wheel overlaps the length to be ground.
Short rigid work pieces can be ground by this method.

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Fig. 4.14 Cylindrical grinding process (a) traverse grinding and (b) plunge grinding
(iii) Full-depth grinding - The wheel is trued to obtain an entering taper or step, and the whole
allowance is ground off in one or two lengthwise passes. The method is usually applied to relatively
short surfaces of rigid shaft-type work pieces.
Plain centre type cylindrical grinding machine
Fig. 4.15 illustrates schematically this machine and various motions required for grinding action.

4.6.1

Fig. 4.15 Plain centre type cylindrical grinding machine

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Base:
The base or bed is the main casting that rest on the floor and supports the parts mounted
on it. On the top of the base are precision horizontal ways set at right angles for the table to slide on the
base. The base also houses the table drive mechanism.

Tables:
There are two tables, lower table and upper table. The lower table slides on ways on the
bed and provides traverse of the work past the grinding wheel. It can be moved by hand or power within
desired limits. The upper table that is pivoted at its centre is mounted on the top of the sliding table.
It has T-slots for securing the head stock and tail stock or foot stock and can be positioned along the
table to suit the length of the work. The upper table can be swiveled and clamped in position to provide
adjustment for grinding straight or tapered work as desired. Setting for tapers up to 100 can be made in
this way. Steep tapers are ground be swiveling the wheel head. Adjustable dogs are clamped in
longitudinal slots and they are provided at the side of the lower or sliding table and are set up to reverse
the table at the ends of the stroke.
Head stock: The headstock supports the work piece by means of a dead centre and drives it be means
of a dog, or it may hold and drive the work piece in a chuck.

Tail stock:
The tail stock can be adjusted and dampen in various positions to accommodate different
lengths of work piece.

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Wheel head: The wheel head carries a grinding wheel and its driving motor is mounted on a slide at the
top and rear of the base. The wheel head may be moved perpendicularly to the table ways, by hand or
power, to feed the wheel to the work. The grinding wheel is fed to the work by hand or power as
determined by the engagement of the cross-feed control lever.
Working principle: The machine is similar to a centre lathe in many respects. The work piece is held
between head stock and tailstock centres. A disc type grinding wheel performs the grinding action with
its peripheral surface. Both traverse and plunge grinding can be carried out in this machine as shown in
Fig. 4.14 (a and b).
Universal cylindrical grinding machine
These grinders, in addition to the features offered by plain grinders, are provided with a
swiveling headstock and a swiveling wheel head. This permits the grinding of taper of any angle, much
greater than is possible in plain grinder. Universal machines are available to handle parts requiring
swings up to 450 mm and centre distance of 1800mm. This allows grinding of any taper on the work
piece. Universal grinder is also equipped with an additional head for internal grinding. Schematic
illustration of important features of this machine is shown in Fig. 4.16.

4.6.2

Fig. 4.16 Important features of universal cylindrical grinding machine

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Universal grinder has the following additional features:

The centre of the head stock spindle can be used alive or dead. The work can be held and
revolved by a chuck. It can also be held between centres and revolved.
The wheel head can be swiveled in a horizontal plane in any angle. The wheel head can be fed in
the inclined direction also.
The headstock can be swiveled to any angle in the horizontal plane.

Internal cylindrical grinding machine

Internal grinding is employed chiefly for finishing accurate holes in hardened parts, and also
when it is impossible to apply other more productive methods of finishing accurate hold, for example,
precision boring, honing etc.
There are two general methods of internal grinding:
With a rotating work piece.
With the work piece held stationary.
The first method is used in grinding holes in relatively small work pieces, mostly bodies of revolution,
for example, the bores of gears and the inner surfaces of ball bearing rings. The work piece is held in a
chuck or special fixture and rotated in the same manner as in a lathe. A straight type grinding wheel is
rotated and has two feed-longitudinal feed along the wheel axis and is thus reciprocated back and forth
through the length of the hole, and intermittent cross feed(radial feed) at the end of each pass, which
determines the depth of cut.
The second method of internal grinding is used for grinding holes in large bulky work pieces
(housing-type parts) that are inconvenient or even impossible to clamp in a chuck of the grinder. They
are mounted on the table of a planetary grinding machine. In addition to rotation about its axis, the wheel
spindle of this type of machine also rotates with a planetary motion about the axis of the hole being
ground. Axial motion of the wheel provides the longitudinal feed.

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4.6.3.1 Chucking type internal grinding machine

Fig. 4.17 illustrates schematically this machine and various motions required for grinding action.
The work piece is usually mounted in a chuck. A magnetic face plate can also be used. A small grinding
wheel performs the necessary grinding with its peripheral surface. Both transverse and plunge grinding
can be carried out in this machine as shown in Fig. 4.18.

(a)

Fig. 4.17 Internal cylindrical grinding machine

(b)

Fig. 4.18 Internal (a) transverse grinding and

(b) plunge grinding

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4.6.3.2 Planetary internal grinding machine

Planetary internal grinding machine is used where the work piece is of irregular shape and can
not be rotated conveniently as shown in Fig. 4.19. In this machine the work piece does not rotate.
Instead, the grinding wheel orbits the axis of the hole in the work piece.

Fig. 4.19 Planetary internal grinding machine

Special application of cylindrical grinding machine

Principle of cylindrical grinding is being used for thread grinding with specially formed wheel
that matches the thread profile. A single ribbed wheel or a multi ribbed wheel can be used as shown in
Fig. 4.20.

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Fig. 4.20 Thread grinding with (a) single rib (b) multi-ribbed wheel
Roll grinding is a specific case of cylindrical grinding wherein large work pieces such as shafts,
spindles and rolls are ground. Crankshaft or crank pin grinders also resemble cylindrical grinder but are
engaged to grind crank pins which are eccentric from the centre line of the shaft as shown in Fig. 4.21.
The eccentricity is obtained by the use of special chuck.

Fig. 4.21 Grinding of crank pin

Cam and camshaft grinders are essentially subsets of cylindrical grinding machine dedicated to
finish various profiles on disc cams and cam shafts. The desired contour on the work piece is generated
by varying the distance between wheel and work piece axes. The cradle carrying the head stock and tail
stock is provided with rocking motion derived from the rotation of a master cam that rotates in
synchronization with the work piece. Newer machines however, use CNC in place of master cam to
generate cam on the work piece.

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SURFACE GRINDING
Surface grinding machines are generally used for generating flat surfaces. These machines are
similar to milling machines in construction as well as motion. There are basically four types of machines
depending upon the spindle direction and the table motion. They are,
1. Horizontal spindle and rotating table grinding machine.
2. Vertical spindle and rotating table grinding machine.
3. Horizontal spindle and reciprocating table grinding machine, and
4. Vertical spindle and reciprocating table grinding machine.
The table in the case of reciprocating machines is generally moved by the hydraulic power.
The wheel head is given a cross feed motion at the end of each table motion. In this machine the wheel
should over travel the work piece at both the ends to prevent the grinding wheel removing the metal at
the same work spot during the table reversal.
Vertical spindle machines are generally of a bigger capacity. The diameter of the wheel is wider
than the work piece and as a result no traverse feed is required. The complete machining surface is
covered by the grinding wheel face. They are suitable for production grinding of very flat surfaces.

4.7

Horizontal spindle and rotating table grinding machine

Surface grinding in this machine is shown in Fig. 4.22. In principle the operation is same as that
for facing on the lathe. This machine has a limitation in accommodation of work piece and therefore
does not have wide spread use. However, by swiveling the worktable, concave or convex or tapered
surface can be produced on individual part as illustrated in Fig. 4.23.

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4.7.1

Fig. 4.22 Surface grinding in horizontal spindle and rotating table grinding machine

Fig. 4.23 Grinding of a tapered surface in horizontal spindle and rotating table grinding machine

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Vertical spindle and rotating table grinding machine

The principle of grinding in this machine is shown in Fig. 4.24. The machine is mostly suitable
for small work pieces in large quantities. This primarily production type machine often uses two or more
grinding heads thus enabling both roughing and finishing in one rotation of the work table.

4.7.2

Fig. 4.24 Surface grinding in vertical spindle and rotating table grinding machine
Horizontal spindle and reciprocating table grinding machine
Fig. 4.25 illustrates this machine with various motions required for grinding action. A disc type
grinding wheel performs the grinding action with its peripheral surface as shown in Fig. 4.26. Both
traverse and plunge grinding can be carried out in this machine as shown in Fig. 4.27.

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4.7.3

Fig. 4.25 Horizontal spindle and reciprocating

table grinding machine

Fig. 4.26 Horizontal spindle and reciprocating

table surface grinding process

Fig. 4.27 Surface grinding (a) traverse grinding (b) plunge grinding

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Vertical spindle and reciprocating table grinding machine

This grinding machine with all working motions is shown in Fig. 4.28. The grinding operation is
similar to that of face milling on a vertical milling machine. In this machine a cup shaped wheel grinds
the work piece over its full width using end face of the wheel as shown in Fig. 4.29. This brings more
grits in action at the same time and consequently a higher material removal rate may be attained than for
grinding with a peripheral wheel.

CENTRELESS GRINDING
Centreless grinding makes it possible to grind cylindrical work pieces without actually fixing the
work piece using centres of a chuck. As a result no work rotation is separately provided. The process
consists of two wheels, one large grinding wheel and another smaller regulating wheel. The work is held
on a work rest blade. The regulating wheel is mounted at an angle to the plane of the grinding wheel.
The centre of the work piece is slightly above the centre of the grinding wheel. The work piece is
supported by the rest blade and held against the regulating wheel by the grinding force. As a result the
work rotates at the same surface speed as that of regulating wheel. The axial feed of the work piece is
controlled by the angle of tilt of the regulating wheel. Typical work speeds are about 10 to 50m/min.

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4.8

Fig. 4.29 Vertical spindle and reciprocating table

surface grinding process

Fig. 4.28 Vertical spindle and

reciprocating table grinding machine

4.7.4

Centreless external grinding machine

This grinding machine [shown in Fig. 4.30] is a production machine in which out side diameter
of the work piece is ground. The work piece is not held between centres but by a work support blade. It
is rotated by means of a regulating wheel and ground by the grinding wheel. In through-feed centreless
grinding, the regulating wheel revolving at a much lower surface speed than grinding wheel controls the
rotation and longitudinal motion of the work piece. The regulating wheel is kept slightly inclined to the
axis of the grinding wheel and the work piece is fed longitudinally as shown in Fig. 4.31.

4.8.1

Fig.4.30 Centreless external grinding machine

Fig. 4.31 Centreless through feed grinding

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Fig. 4.33 Internal centreless grinding

Fig. 4.32 Centreless (a) infeed and (b) end feed grinding

Parts with variable diameter can be ground by Centreless infeed grinding as shown in
Fig. 4.32 (a). The operation is similar to plunge grinding with cylindrical grinder. End feed grinding
shown in Fig. 4.32 (b) is used for work piece with tapered surface. The grinding wheel or the regulating
wheel or both require to be correctly profiled to get the required taper on the work piece.

Centreless internal grinding machine

This machine is used for grinding cylindrical and tapered holes in cylindrical parts
(e.g.
cylindrical liners, various bushings etc). The work piece is rotated between supporting roll, pressure roll
and regulating wheel and is ground by the grinding wheel as illustrated in Fig. 4.33.
SURFACE FINISHING PROCESSES OR MICRO FINISHING PROCESSES
To ensure reliable performance and prolonged service life of modern machinery, its components
require to be manufactured not only with high dimensional and geometrical accuracy but also with high
surface finish. The surface finish has a vital role in influencing functional characteristics like wear
resistance, fatigue strength, corrosion resistance and power loss due to friction.
Unfortunately, normal machining methods like turning, milling or even classical grinding can not
meet this severe requirement. Table 4.4 illustrates gradual improvement of surface roughness produced
by various processes ranging from precision turning to super finishing including lapping and honing.
The typical surface finishes for these operations are presented in the table 4.5.
Table 4.4
Table 4.5

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4.8.2

Therefore, surface finishing processes like lapping, honing, polishing, buffing, super finishing,
burnishing are being employed to achieve and improve the above-mentioned functional properties in the
machine component.

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HONING
Honing is a low abrading process which uses bonded abrasive sticks for removing stock from
metallic and non-metallic surfaces. This process is used primarily to remove the grinding or the tool
marks left on the surface by previous operations. However, it can be used for external cylindrical
surfaces as well as flat surfaces. It is most commonly used for internal surfaces.
The advantages of honing are:
o Correction of geometrical accuracy.
o Dimensional accuracy.
Honing is a finishing process performed by a honing tool called as hone [shown in Fig. 4.34],
which contains a set of three to a dozen and more bonded abrasive sticks. The sticks are equally spaced
about the periphery of the honing tool. The sticks are held against the work surface with controlled light
pressure, usually exercised by small springs.
The honing tool is given a complex rotational and oscillatory axial motion, which combine to
produce a crosshatched lay pattern [shown in Fig. 4.35] of very low surface roughness. In addition to the
surface finish of about 0.1 m, honing produces a characteristic crosshatched surface that tends to retain
lubrication during operation of the component, thus contributing to its function and service life.
A cutting fluid must be used in honing to cool and lubricate the tool and to help remove the
chips. A common application of honing is to finish the holes. Typical examples include bores of internal
combustion engines, bearings, hydraulic cylinders, and gun barrels.

Fig. 4.34 Honing tool

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Fig. 4.35 Lay pattern produced by combination of rotary and oscillatory motion
The honing stones are given a complex motion so as to prevent every single grit from repeating
its path over the work surface. The critical process parameters are:
Rotation speed.
Oscillation speed.
Length and position of the stroke.
Honing stick pressure.
With conventional abrasive honing stick, several strokes are necessary to obtain the desired finish on the
work piece. However, with introduction of high performance diamond and CBN grits it is now possible
to perform the honing operation in just one complete stroke. Advent of precisely engineered
microcrystalline CBN grit has enhanced the capability further.

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Honing stick with microcrystalline CBN grit can maintain sharp cutting condition with consistent
results over long duration. Super abrasive honing stick with monolayer configuration, where a layer of
CBN grits are attached to stick by a galvanically deposited metal layer [shown in Fig. 4.36], is typically
found in single stroke honing application.

Fig. 4.36 Super abrasive honing stick with single layer configuration
With the advent of precision brazing technique, efforts can be made to manufacture honing stick
with single layer configuration with a brazed metal bond. Like brazed grinding wheel such single layer
brazed honing stick are expected to provide controlled grit density, larger grit protrusion leading to
higher material removal rate and longer life compared to what can be obtained with a galvanically
bonded counterpart.
LAPPING
Lapping is a surface finishing process used on flat or cylindrical surfaces. Lapping is the
abrading of a surface by means of a lap (which is made of a material softer than the material to be
lapped), which has been charged with the fine abrasive particles. The process is employed to get:
Geometrically true surface.
Extreme accuracy of dimension.
Correction of minor imperfections in shape.
Refinement of the surface finish, and
Close fit between mating surfaces.
Lapping methods:
Hand lapping for flat work.
Hand lapping for external cylindrical work, (Ring lapping).
Machine lapping.
In lapping, instead of a bonded abrasive tool, oil-based fluid suspension of very small free abrasive
grains (aluminum oxide and silicon carbide, with typical grit sizes between 300 and 600) called a
lapping compound is applied between the work piece and the lapping tool.
The lapping tool is called a lap, which is made of soft materials like copper, lead or wood. The
lap has the reverse of the desired shape of the work part. To accomplish the process, the lap is pressed
against the work and moved back and forth over the surface in a figure-eight or other motion pattern,
subjecting all portions of the surface to the same action. Lapping is sometimes performed by hand, but
lapping machines accomplish the process with greater consistency and efficiency.
The cutting mechanism in lapping is that the abrasives become embedded in the lap surface, and
the cutting action is very similar to grinding, but a concurrent cutting action of the free abrasive particles
in the fluid cannot be excluded. Lapping is used to produce optical lenses, metallic bearing surfaces,
gauges, and other parts requiring very good finishes and extreme accuracy. Fig. 4.37 schematically
represents the lapping process. Material removal in lapping usually ranges from .003 to .03 mm but
many reach 0.08 to 0.1mm in certain cases.
Characteristics of lapping process:
Use of loose abrasive between lap and the work piece.
Usually lap and work piece are not positively driven but are guided in contact with each other.
Relative motion between the lap and the work should change continuously so that path of the
abrasive grains of the lap is not repeated on the work piece.

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Fig. 4.37 Schematics of lapping process showing the lap and

the cutting action of suspended abrasive particles.
Cast iron is the mostly used lap material. However, soft steel, copper, brass, hardwood as well as
hardened steel and glass are also used.
Abrasives of lapping:
Al2O3 and SiC, grain size 5~100m.
Cr2O3, grain size 1~2 m.
B4C3, grain size 5-60 m.
Diamond, grain size 0.5~5 V.
Vehicle materials for lapping:
Machine oil.
Rape oil.
Grease.
Technical parameters affecting lapping processes are:
Unit pressure.
The grain size of abrasive.
Concentration of abrasive in the vehicle.
Lapping speed.
Lapping is performed either manually or by machine. Hand lapping is done with abrasive powder as
lapping medium, whereas machine lapping is done either with abrasive powder or with bonded abrasive
wheel.
SUPER FINISHING
Super finishing is a micro finishing process that produces a controlled surface condition on parts
which is not obtainable by any other method. It is abrasive process which utilizes either a bonded
abrasive like honing for cylindrical surfaces or a cup wheel for flat surfaces. Fig. 4.38 schematically
shows the super finishing process.

4.12

Fig. 4.38 Schematics of the super finishing process.

Super finishing is a finishing operation similar to honing, but it involves the use of a single
abrasive stick. The reciprocating motion of the stick is performed at higher frequency and smaller
amplitudes. Also, the grit size and pressures applied on the abrasive stick are smaller. A cutting fluid is
used to cool the work surface and wash away chips.

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In super finishing, the cutting action terminates by itself when a lubricant film is built up between
the tool and work surface. Thus, super finishing is capable only of improving the surface finish but not
dimensional accuracy. The result of these operating conditions is mirror like finishes with surface
roughness values around 0.01 m. Super finishing can be used to finish flat and external cylindrical
surfaces. The operation also called micro stoning consists of scrubbing a stone against a surface to
produce a fine quality metal finish. Super finishing is generally used for:
Removing surface fragmentation.
Reducing surface stresses and burns and thus restoring surface integrity.
Correcting inequalities in geometry.
Super finishing produces a high wear resistant surface on any objet which is symmetrical.
Fig. 4.39 illustrates super finishing end-face of a cylindrical work piece. In this both feeding and
oscillation of the super finishing stone is given in the radial direction. Fig. 4.40 shows the super finishing
operation in plunge mode. In this case the abrasive stone covers the section of the work piece requiring
super finish. The abrasive stone is slowly fed in radial direction while its oscillation is imparted in the
axial direction.

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Fig. 4.39 Super finishing of end face of a

Fig. 4.40 Super finishing operation
cylindrical work piece in radial mode
in plunge mode
Super finishing can be effectively done on a stationary work piece as shown in Fig. 4.41. In this
the abrasive stones are held in a disc which oscillates and rotates about the axis of the work piece.
Fig. 4.42 shows that internal cylindrical surfaces can also be super finished by axially oscillating and
reciprocating the stones on a rotating work piece.

Fig. 4.41 Abrasive tool rotating and

oscillating about a stationary work piece

Fig. 4.42 Super finishing of internal surface

4.12.1 Burnishing
The burnishing process consists of pressing hardened steel rolls or balls into the surface of the
work piece and imparting a feed motion to the same. Ball burnishing of a cylindrical surface is illustrated
in Fig. 4.43. During burnishing considerable residual compressive stress is induced in the surface of the
work piece and thereby fatigue strength and wear resistance of the surface layer increase.

4.12.2 Magnetic float polishing

Magnetic float polishing (shown in Fig. 4.44) finds use in precision polishing of ceramic balls. A
magnetic fluid is used for this purpose. The fluid is composed of water or kerosene carrying fine Ferromagnetic particles along with the abrasive grains.

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Ceramic balls are confined between a rotating shaft and a floating platform. Abrasive grains
ceramic ball and the floating platform can remain in suspension under the action of magnetic force. The
balls are pressed against the rotating shaft by the float and are polished by their abrasive action. Fine
polishing action can be made possible through precise control of the force exerted by the abrasive
particles on the ceramic ball.

Fig. 4.43 Scheme of ball burnishing

Fig. 4.44 Scheme of magnetic float polishing

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4.12.3 Magnetic field assisted polishing

Magnetic field assisted polishing is particularly suitable for polishing of steel or ceramic roller.
The process is illustrated schematically in Fig. 4.45. A ceramic or a steel roller is mounted on a rotating
spindle. Magnetic poles are subjected to oscillation, thereby, introducing a vibratory motion to the
magnetic fluid containing these magnetic and abrasive particles.
This action causes polishing of the cylindrical roller surface. In this technique, the material
removal rate increases with the field strength, rotational speed of the shaft and mesh number of the
abrasive. But the surface finish decreases with the increase of material removal rate.

Fig. 4.45 scheme of magnetic field assisted polishing

4.12.4 Electro polishing

Electro polishing is the reverse of electroplating. Here, the work piece acts as anode and the
material is removed from the work piece by electrochemical dissolution. The process is particularly
suitable for polishing irregular surface since there is no mechanical contact between work piece and
polishing medium. The electrolyte electrochemically etches projections on the work piece surface at a
faster rate than the rest, thus producing a smooth surface. This process is also suitable for deburring
operation.
4.13

POLISHING
Polishing is a surface finishing process to a smooth and lustrous surface. Polishing is done with
very fine abrasive particles of Al2O3 or diamond in loose form smeared on the polishing wheel with the
work rubbing against the flexible wheel. The fine lustrous surface is obtained due to the cutting action of
fine abrasive particles and the softening and smearing of surface layers by frictional heating during the
process. Polishing operations are often accomplished manually.

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A very small amount of material is removed in polishing. The grit size of the abrasive is: 20 - 80
for roughing, 90 - 120 for dry fining and 130 - 150 for fine finishing.
Limitations - The parts with irregular shapes, sharp corners, deep recesses and sharp projections
are difficult to polish.

BUFFING
Buffing is a finishing operation similar to polishing, in which the abrasive grains in a suitable
carrying medium such as grease are applied at suitable intervals to the buffing wheel. Negligible amount
of material is removed in buffing while a very high luster is generated on the buffed surface. Fig. 4.46
schematically shows the buffing process.

Fig. 4.46 Schematics of the buffing operation

4.14

Fig. 4.47 Setup of abrasive jet grinding

ABRASIVE JET GRINDING

In this process, abrasive particles are used for grinding. The abrasive particles carried by high
pressure gas of air, are forced on the work piece through a nozzle. These particles act as cutting tools and
the cutting force is provided by the high kinetic energy of the carrier gas. Fig. 4.47 shows the schematic
arrangement of the abrasive grinding process. The process parameters are given below:
Velocity of the abrasive 200 - 400 m/sec.
Inside diameter of the nozzle 0.075 - 0.4 mm.
Stand off distance 0.7 - 1 mm.
Size of abrasive particles 10 - 50 microns.
Abrasives used Al2O3, SiC.
Carrier gas CO2, Air, N2.

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4.15

As in polishing, the abrasive particles must be periodically replenished. As in polishing, buffing

is usually done manually, although machines have been designed to perform the process automatically.
Polishing is used to remove scratches and burrs and to smooth rough surfaces while buffing is
used to provide attractive surfaces with high luster. The dimensional accuracy of the parts is not affected
by polishing and buffing operations.

Merits - no heat is generated, pressure exerted on the work is less, it has no wheel wear and high MRR.
Demerits - cost is high, power consumption is high and skilled labor is required.
Applications - mainly used in grinding hardened steel and cemented carbides, used in resharpening and
reconditioning of carbide tools and used in grinding thin-wall tube without leaving burr or distortion
which are difficult to grind in any other processes.
4.16

SAWING MACHINES
Sawing is one of the basic machining operations carried out in a narrow cutting zone though the
successive removal of chips by the teeth on a saw blade. The types of sawing machines used are:
1. Hack saw
(i) Manual hack saw (ii) Power hack saw
2. Band saw
(i) Vertical band saw (ii) Horizontal band saw (iii) Contour band saw
3. Circular saw

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HACK SAW
A power hack saw [shown in Fig. 4.48] uses the hack saw blade. The blade is mounted in the
hacksaw frame and reciprocated for the sawing operation. It is a very simple machine with a tool frame
for holding the saw and some work holding device similar to a vice. The reciprocating motion is
inherently inefficient because no cutting takes place during the return stroke.

4.17

Fig. 4.49 (a) Vertical band saw machine

Fig. 4.48 Power hack saw machine

BAND SAW
A band saw basically has a continuous band of saw blade rotated between two disks such that the
cutting action is continuous unlike the power hacksaw. Band saws are generally used for cutting off
single stationary work pieces that can be held on to the table of the band saw. The saw blade can be tilted
up to 450 to permit cutting at any angle. The band saw operates continuously such that the cutting force
forc
is always directed against the table.
It is relatively safer to use compared to the hack saw and it can cut work pieces without even
clamping them to the table. Contour band saw machines are similar to band sawing machines and are
used for sawing of any predefined contours in the work piece. Fig. 4.49 (a and b) schematically shows
the vertical and horizontal band saw machine.

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4.18

Fig. 4.49 (b) Horizantal band saw machine

Fig. 4.50 Circular saw machine

4.19

CIRCULAR SAW
Circular saw [shown in Fig. 4.50] has the ability to run the saw at very high cutting
speeds up to about 130 m/s and large feed rates. The stock can be cut very quickly and therefore care has
to be takes in the selection of the parameters to maximize the productivity.

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4.20 BROACHING
4.20.1 Basic principles of broaching
Broaching is a machining process for removal of a layer of material of desired width and depth
usually in one stroke by a slender rod or bar type cutter having a series of cutting edges with gradually
increased protrusion as indicated in Fig. 4.51 (b). In shaping, attaining full depth requires a number of
strokes to remove the material in thin layers step-by-step by gradually infeeding the single point tool as
illustrated in Fig. 4.51 (a). Whereas, broaching enables remove the whole material in one stroke only by
the gradually rising teeth of the cutter called broach. The amount of tooth rise between the successive
teeth of the broach is equivalent to the infeed given in shaping.

Fig. 4.51 Basic principle of broaching

Machining by broaching is preferably used for making straight through holes of various forms
and sizes of section, internal and external through straight or helical slots or grooves, external surfaces of
different shapes, teeth of external and internal splines and small spur gears etc. Fig. 4.52 schematically
shows how a through hole is enlarged and finished by broaching.

Fig. 4.52 Schematic views of finishing hole by broaching

The cutting tool is called a broach, and the machine tool is called a broaching machine. The
shape of the machined surface is determined by the contour of the cutting edges on the broach,
particularly the shape of final cutting teeth. Broaching is a highly productive method of machining.
Advantages include good surface finish, close tolerances, and the variety of possible machined surface
shapes, some of them can be produced only by broaching. Owing to the complicated geometry of the
broach, tooling is expensive. Broaching is a typical mass production operation.

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Productivity improvement to ten times or even more be not uncommon, as the metal removal rate
by broaching is vastly greater. Roughing, semi finishing and finishing of the component is done just in
one pass by broaching, and this pass is generally accomplished in seconds.
Broaching can be used for machining of various integrate shapes which can not be otherwise
machined with other operations. Some of the typical examples of shapes produced by internal broaching
are shown in Fig. 4.53.

Fig. 4.53 Typical examples of shapes produced by internal broaching

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4.20.2 Different types of broaches and their applications

Broaching is getting more and more widely used, wherever feasible, for high productivity as well
as product quality. Various types of broaches have been developed and are used for wide range of
applications. Broaches can be broadly classified in several aspects such as:
Internal broaching or external broaching.
Pull type or Push type.
Ordinary cut or Progressive type.
Solid, Sectional or Modular type.
Profile sharpened or form relieved type.

Internal broaching and broaches

Internal broaching tools are used to enlarge and finish various contours in through holes
preformed by casting, forging, rolling, drilling, punching etc. Internal broaching tools are mostly pull
type but may be push type also for lighter work. Pull type internal broaching tools are generally provided
with a set of roughing teeth followed by few semi-finishing teeth and then some finishing teeth which
may also include a few burnishing teeth at the end. The wide range of internal broaching tools and their
applications include:
Through holes of different form and dimensions. [Fig. 4.54]
Non-circular holes and internal slots. [Fig. 4.54]
Internal keyway and splines. [Fig. 4.54]
Teeth of straight and helical fluted internal spur gears. [Fig. 4.54]

External broaching and broaches

External surface broaching competes with milling, shaping and planing and, wherever feasible,
outperforms those processes in respect of productivity and product quality. External broaching tools may
be both pull and push type. Major applications of external broaching are:
Un-obstructed outside surfacing; flat, peripheral and contour surfaces. [Fig. 4.55 (a)]
Grooves, slots, keyways etc. on through outer surfaces of objects. [Fig. 4.55 (a)]
External splines of different forms.
Teeth of external spur gears or gear sectors as shown in Fig. 4.55 (b).
External broaching tools are often made in segments which are clamped in fixtures for operation.

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Fig. 4.54 Internal broaching tools and applications

Fig. 4.55 (a) External broaching making slot

Fig 4.55 (b) Broaching of gears and gear sectors

Pull type and push type broaches

During operation a pull type broach is subjected to tensile force, which helps in maintaining
alignment and prevents buckling. Pull type broaches are generally made as a long single piece and are
more widely used, for internal broaching in particular. Push type broaches are essentially shorter in
length (to avoid buckling) and may be made in segments. Push type broaches are generally used for
external broaching, preferably, requiring light cuts and small depth of material removal.

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Ordinary cut or progressive type broach

Most of the broaches fall under the category of Ordinary cut type where the teeth increase in
height or protrusion gradually from tooth to tooth along the length of the broach. By such broaches,
work material is removed in thin layers over the complete form. Whereas, Progressive cut type broaches
have their teeth increasing in width instead of height. Fig. 4.56 shows the working principle and
configuration of such broach.

Fig. 4.56 Progressive cut type broaches; (a) single bar and (b) double bar type

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Solid, Sectional and module type broaches

Broaches are mostly made in single pieces especially those used for pull type internal broaching.
But some broaches called sectional broaches, are made by assembling several sections or cutter-pieces in
series for convenience in manufacturing and resharpening and also for having little flexibility required
by production in batches having interbatch slight job variation. External broaches are often made by
combining a number of modules or segments for ease of manufacturing and handling. Fig. 4.57 typically
shows solid, sectional and segmented (module) type broaches.

Fig. 4.57 (a) Solid, (b) Sectional and (c) Segmented broaches

Profile sharpened and form relieved type broaches

Like milling cutters, broaches can also be classified as:
Profile sharpened type broaches
Such cutters have teeth of simple geometry with
same rake and clearance angles all over the cutting edge. These broaches are generally designed
and used for machining flat surface(s) or circular holes.
Form relieved type broaches
These broaches, being used for non-uniform profiles
like gear teeth etc., have teeth where the cutting edge geometry is more complex and varies point
to point along the cutting edges. Here the job profile becomes the replica of the tool form.
Such broaches are sharpened and resharpened by grinding at their rake faces unlike the profile
sharpened broaches which are ground at the flank surfaces.

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4.20.3 Advantages and limitations of broaching

Major advantages
Very high production rate (much higher than milling, planing, boring etc.).
High dimensional and form accuracy and surface finish of the product.
Roughing and finishing in single stroke of the same cutter.
Needs only one motion (cutting), so design, construction, operation and control are simpler.
Extremely suitable and economic for mass production.
Since all the machining parameters are built into the broach, very little skill is required from the
operator.
Any type of surface, internal or external can be generated with broaching.

Limitations
Only through holes and surfaces can be machined.
Usable only for light cuts, i.e. low chip load and unhard materials.
Cutting speed cannot be high.
Defects or damages in the broach (cutting edges) severely affect product quality.
Design, manufacture and restoration of the broaches are difficult and expensive.
Separate broach has to be used when the size, shape and geometry of the job changes.
Economic only when the production volume is large.
BROACH CONSTRUCTION
The broach is composed of a series of teeth, each tooth standing slightly higher than the previous
one. This rise per tooth is the feed per tooth and determines the material removed by the tooth. There are
basically three sets of teeth present in a broach. The roughing teeth that have the highest rise per tooth
removes bulk of the material.
The semi-finishing tooth whose rise per tooth is smaller follows this. Hence they remove
relatively smaller amounts of material compared to the roughing teeth. The last set of teeth is called the
finishing or sizing teeth. Very little material is removed by these teeth. The necessary size is achieved by
these teeth and hence all the teeth are of the same size as that required finally.
The pull end of the broach is attached to the pulling mechanism of the broaching machine with
the front pilot aligning the broach properly with respect to the work piece axis before the actual cutting
starts. The rear pilot helps to keep the broach to remain square with the work piece as it leaves the work
piece after broaching. Broaching speeds are relatively low. However the production rate is high.
Broaches are generally made to high speed steel in view of its high impact strength.

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4.21

4.21.1 Configuration of broaching tool

Both pull and push type broaches are made in the form of slender rods or bars of varying section
having along its length one or more rows of cutting teeth with increasing height (and width
occasionally). Push type broaches are subjected to compressive load and hence are made shorter in
length to avoid buckling. The general configuration of pull type broaches, which are widely used for
enlarging and finishing preformed holes, is schematically shown in Fig. 4.58.

Fig. 4.58 Configuration of a pull type broach used for internal broaching

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The essential elements of the broach (Fig. 4.58) are:

Pull end for engaging the broach in the machine.
Neck of shorter diameter and length, where the broach is allowed to fail, if at all, under
overloading.
Front pilot for initial locating the broach in the hole.
Roughing and finishing teeth for metal removal.
Finishing and burnishing teeth.
Rear pilot and follower rest or retriever.
Broaches are designed mostly pull type to facilitate alignment and avoid buckling. The length of the
broach is governed by:
Type of the broach; pull or push type.
Number of cutting edges and their pitch depending upon the work material and maximum
thickness of the material layer to be removed.
Nature and extent of finish required..
Keeping in view that around 4 to 8 teeth remain engaged in machining at any instant, the pitch (or gap),
p, of teeth is simply decided from,
. to 1.5
where, L = length of the hole or job.
The total number of cutting teeth for a broach is estimated from,
Tn total depth of material to be removed / tooth rise (a1) [which is decided based on the tool
work materials and geometry].
Broaches are generally made from solid rod or bar. Broaches of large section and complex shape
are often made by assembling replaceable separate sections or inserting separate teeth for ease of
manufacture and maintenance.

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4.21.2 Material of broach

Being a cutting tool, broaches are also made of materials having the usual cutting tool material
properties, i.e., high strength, hardness, toughness and good heat and wear resistance. For ease of
manufacture and resharpening the complex shape and cutting edges, broaches are mostly made of HSS.
To enhance cutting speed, productivity and product quality, now-a-days cemented carbide segments
(assembled) or replaceable inserts are also used specially for stronger and harder work materials like cast
irons and steels. TiN coated carbides provide much longer tool life in broaching. Since broaching speed
(velocity) is usually quite low, ceramic tools are not used.

4.21.3 Geometry of broaching teeth and their cutting edges

Fig. 4.59 shows the general configuration of the broaching teeth and their geometry. The cutting
teeth of HSS broaches are provided with positive radial or orthogonal rake (50 to 150) and sufficient
primary and secondary clearance angles (20 to 50 and 50 to 200 respectively) as indicated in Fig. 4.59.
Small in-built chip breakers are alternately provided on the roughing teeth of the broach as can be seen
in Fig. 4.52 to break up the wide curling chips and thus preventing them from clogging the chip spaces
and increasing forces and tool wear. More ductile materials need wider and frequent chip breakers.

Fig. 4.59 Geometry of teeth of broaching tools

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4.22 BROACHING MACHINES

4.22.1 Broaching operation
Like any other machining, broaching is also accomplished through a series of following
sequential steps:
Selection of broach and broaching machine.
Mounting and clamping the broach in the broaching machine.
Fixing work piece in the machine.
Planning tool - work motions.
Selection of the levels of the process parameters and their setting.
Conducting machining by the broach.

4.22.2 Selection of broach and broaching machine

There are various types of broaches available. The appropriate one has to be selected based on:
Type of the job; size, shape and material.
Geometry and volume of work material to be removed from the job.
Desired length of stroke and the broach.
Type of the broaching machines available or to be used.
Broaching machine has to be selected based on:
The type, size and method of clamping of the broach to be used.
Size, shape and material of the work piece.
Strength, power and rigidity required for the broaching machine to provide the desired
productivity and process capability.

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4.22.3 Function of broaching machines

The basic function of a broaching machine is to provide a precise linear motion of the tool past a
stationary work position. There are two principal modifications of the broaching machines, horizontal,
and vertical. The former are suitable for broaching of relatively long and small diameter holes, while the
later are used for short lengths and large diameters.
The unique characteristics of broaching operation are:
For producing any surface, the form of the tool (broach) always provides the Generatrix and the
cutting motion (of the broach relative to the job surface) provides the Directrix.
So far as tool work motions, broaching needs only one motion and that is the cutting motion
(velocity) preferably being imparted to the broach.
Hence design, construction and operation of broaching machines, requiring only one such linear motion,
are very simple. Only alignments, rigidity and reduction of friction and wear of slides and guides are to
be additionally considered for higher productivity, accuracy and surface finish.
4.22.4 Specification of broaching machines
Broaching machines are generally specified by:
Type; horizontal, vertical etc.
Maximum stroke length.
Maximum working forces (pull or push).
Maximum cutting velocity possible.
Type of drive - Electro-Mechanical, Hydraulic etc.
Power rating of electrical motor.
Floor space required.
Most of the broaching machines have hydraulic drive for the cutting motion. Electro-mechanical drives
are also used preferably for high speed of work but light cuts.

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PUSH BROACHING MACHINES

In these machines the broach movement is guided by a ram. These machines are simple, since the
broach only needs to be pushed through the component for cutting and then retracted. The work piece is
fixed into a boring fixture on the table. Even simple arbor presses can be used for push broaching.

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4.23

4.22.5 Classification of broaching machines

There are different types of broaching machines which are broadly classified as:
According to purpose of use
General purpose.
Single purpose.
Special purpose.
According to nature of work
Internal broaching.
External (surface) broaching.
According to configuration
Horizontal.
Vertical.
According to number of slides or stations
Single station type.
Multiple station type.
Indexing type.
According to tool / work motion
Intermittent (one job at a time) type.
Continuous type.
According to the type of drive
Mechanical drive.
Hydraulic drive.

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4.23.1 Push down type vertical surface broaching machine

Fig. 4.60 Push down type vertical surface broaching machine

Fig. 4.60 shows the push down type vertical surface broaching machine. It consists of a box
shape column, slide and drive mechanism. Broach is mounted on the slide which is hydraulically
operated and accurately guided on the column ways. Slide with the broach travels at various speeds. The
slide is provided with quick return mechanism. The worktable is mounted on the base in front of the
column. The fixture is clamped to the table. The work piece is held in the fixture.

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After advancing the table to the broaching position, it is clamped and the slide with the broach
travel downwards for machining the workpiece. Then the table recedes to load a new work piece and the
slide returns to its upper position. The same cycle is then repeated.
Vertical broaching machines occupy less floor space and are more rigid as the ram is supported
by the base. They are mostly used for external or surface broaching though internal broaching is also
possible and occasionally done.
PULL BROACHING MACHINES
These machines consist of a work holding mechanism, and a broach pulling mechanism along
with a broach elevator to help in the removal and threading of the broach through the work piece. The
work piece is mounted in the broaching fixture and the broach is inserted through the hole present in the
work piece.
Then the broach is pulled through the work piece completely and the work piece is then removed
from the table. Afterwards the broach is brought back to the starting point before a new work piece is
located on the table. The same cycle is then repeated.

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4.24.1 Pull type horizontal internal broaching machine

4.24

Fig. 4.61 Pull type horizontal internal broaching machine

Fig. 4.61 shows the pull type horizontal internal broaching machine. This machine has a box
type bed. The length of bed is twice the length of stroke. Most of the modern horizontal broaching
machines are provided with hydraulic or electric drive. It is housed in the bed. The job is located in the
adopter. The adopter is fitted in the front vertical face of the machine. The small end of the broach is
inserted through the hole of the job and connected to the pulling head.
The pulling head is mounted in the front end of the ram. The ram is connected to the hydraulic
drive mechanism. The rear end of the broach is supported by a guide. The broach is moved along the
guide ways. It is used for small and medium sized works. It is used for machining keyways, splines,
serrations, internal gears, etc.
Horizontal broaching machines are the most versatile in application and performance and hence
are most widely employed for various types of production. These are used for internal broaching but
external broaching work is also possible. The horizontal broaching machines are usually hydraulically
driven and occupy large floor space.

4.24.2 Pull down type vertical internal broaching machine

This machine has an elevator at the top. The pulling mechanism is enclosed in the base of the
machine. The workpiece is mounted on the table by means of fixture. The tail end of the broach is
gripped in the elevator. The broach is lowered through the work piece.

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The broach is automatically engaged by the pulling mechanism and is pulled down through the
job. After the operation is completed, the broach is raised and gripped by the elevator. The elevator
returns to its initial position. This is illustrated in Fig. 4.62 (a).

4.24.2 Pull up type vertical internal broaching machine

In this type, the ram slides on the vertical column of the machine. The ram carries the pulling
head at its bottom. The pulling mechanism is above the worktable and the broach is in the base of the
machine. The broach enters the job held against the underside of the table and is pulled upward. At the
end of the operation, the work is free and falls down into a container. This is illustrated in Fig. 4.62 (b).

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Fig. 4.62 Vertical internal broaching operation (a) pull down type (b) pull up type
SURFACE BROACHING MACHINES
In horizontal surface broaching machines, the broach is pulled over the top surface of the work
piece held in the fixture on the worktable as shown in Fig. 4.63. The cutting speed ranges from 3 to 12
mpm with a return speed up to 30 mpm. The construction and working principle of horizontal surface
broaching machine is similar to that of pull type horizontal internal broaching machine.
In vertical surface broaching machines, the work piece is held in the fixture while the surface
broach is reciprocated with the ram on the vertical guide ways on the column as shown in Fig. 4.64.
Surface broaching is relatively simple since the broach can be continuously held and then it will carry
out only a reciprocating action. The construction and working principle of vertical surface broaching
machine is already discussed in the article no. 4.23.1 at page no.
Instead of using simple broach some times the progressive cut type broach with the teeth
segments distributed into the three areas as shown in Fig. 4.56 (b) is used in surface broaching. The
progressive action reduces the maximum broaching force, but results in a longer broach.

4.25

Fig. 4.63 Horizontal surface broaching machine

Fig. 4.64 Vertical surface broaching machine

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CONTINUOUS BROACHING MACHINES

These broaching machines are also known as high production broaching machines. The
reciprocation of the broach always involves an unproductive return stroke, which is eliminated in a
continuous surface broaching machine. These machines are used for fast production of large number of
pieces by surface broaching.

4.26

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4.26.1 Horizontal continuous broaching machine

In this the small work pieces are mounted on the broaching fixtures which are in turn fixed to an
endless chain continuously moving in between two sprockets. Broaches which are normally stationary
are kept above the work pieces. The work pieces are pushed past the stationary broaches by means of the
conveyor for cutting. The work pieces are loaded and unloaded onto the conveyor manually or
automatically. This is illustrated in Fig. 4.65 (a).

Fig. 4.65 Continuous broaching machine (a) Horizontal type (b) and (c) Rotary type

4.26.2 Rotary continuous broaching machine

Type I:
This machine has a rotary table and a vertical column. The vertical column has a
guide way. An arm is fixed in the vertical column and it moves up and down in the guide way. Work
pieces are clamped in the fixtures horizontally above the work table. The broach is fixed underside of the
arm. Now the work table is rotated and the broaching operation is carried out. Depth of cut is given by
moving the work table in upward direction. This is illustrated in Fig. 4.65 (b).
Type II:
This machine has a ring shaped rotating work table. Work pieces are clamped in
the fixtures in the inner periphery of the work table. The stationary broaches are fixed in the outer
periphery of the vertical column located inside the work table. Now the table is rotated and the broaching
operation is carried out. This is illustrated in Fig. 4.65 (c).
Broaching operation and broaching machines are as such high productive but its speed of
production is further enhanced by:
Incorporating automation in tool job mounting and releasing.
Increasing number of workstations or slides for simultaneous multiple production.
Quick changing the broach by turret indexing.
Continuity of working.

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GEAR CUTTING
Gears are important machine elements and widely used in various mechanisms and devices to
transmit power and motion positively (without slip) between parallel, intersecting (axis) and
non-intersecting non parallel shafts:
Without change in the direction of rotation
With change in the direction of rotation
Without change of speed (of rotation)
With change in speed at any desired ratio
Often some gearing system (rack and pinion) is also used to transform rotary motion into linear
motion and vice-versa. There are large varieties of gears used in industrial equipments as well as a
variety of other applications.
Special attention is paid to gear manufacturing because of the specific requirements to the gears.
The gear tooth flanks have a complex and precise shape with high requirements to the surface finish.
Gears can be manufactured by most of manufacturing processes. (casting, forging, extrusion,
powder metallurgy, blanking, etc.)
But machining is applied to achieve the final dimensions, shape and surface finish in the gear.
The initial operations that produce a semi finishing part ready for gear machining as referred to as
blanking operations; the starting product in gear machining is called a gear blank.

4.27

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Two principal methods of gear manufacturing include:

Gear forming
where the profile of the teeth are obtained as the replica of the
form of the cutting tool (edge); e.g., milling, broaching etc.
Gear generation
where the complicated tooth profile are provided by much simpler
form cutting tool (edges) through rolling type, tool work
motions, e.g., hobbing, gear shaping etc.
Each method includes a number of machining processes, the major of them discussed in this section.
Manufacture of gears needs several processing operations in sequential stages depending upon
the material and type of the gears and quality desired. Those stages generally are:
Preforming the blank without or with teeth.
Annealing of the blank, if required, as in case of forged or cast steels.
Preparation of the gear blank to the required dimensions by machining.
Producing teeth or finishing the preformed teeth by machining.
Full or surface hardening of the machined gear (teeth), if required.
Finishing teeth, if required, by shaving, grinding etc.
Inspection of the finished gears.
4.28

GEAR FORMING
Production of gears by gear forming method uses a single point cutting tool or a milling cutter
having the same form of cutting edge as the space between the gear teeth being cut. This method uses
simple and cheap tools in conventional machines and the setup required is also simple. The principle of
gear forming is shown in Fig. 4.66.

4.28.1 Shaping, planing and slotting

Fig. 4.67 schematically shows how teeth of straight toothed spur gear can be produced in
shaping machine. Both productivity and product quality are very low in this process. So this process is
used only for making one or few teeth on one or two pieces of gears as and when required for repair and
maintenance purpose. The planning and slotting machines work on the same principle. Planing machine
is used for making teeth of large gears whereas slotting, generally, for internal gears.

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Fig. 4.66 Principle of gear forming

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Fig. 4.67 Gear teeth cutting in ordinary shaping machine

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4.28.2 Milling
Gear teeth can be produced by both disc type and end mill type form milling cutters
cutter in a milling
machine. Fig. 4.68 illustrates the production of external spur gear teeth by using disc type and end mill
type cutters. Fig. 4.69 shows the form cutters used for finishing
finishing cuts and for rough cuts. Fig. 4.70
illustrates the production of external helical gear teeth
teeth by using form milling cutter. Fig. 4.71 shows the
dividing head and foot stock used to index the gear blank in form milling.

Fig. 4.69 Form milling cutters

Fig. 4.68 Producing external teeth by form milling cutters

(a) disc type and (b) end mill type

Fig. 4.70 Producing external teeth by form milling

cutters (a) single helical and (b) double helical teeth

Fig. 4.71 Dividing head and footstock used

to index the gear blank in form milling

The form milling cutter called DP (Diametral Pitch, used in inch systems which is equivalent to
the inverse of a module) cutter have the shape of the teeth similar to the tooth space with the involute
form of the corresponding size gear. These can be used on either horizontal axis or vertical axis milling
machines, through horizontal axis is more common.
co

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The cutting tool is fed radially into the work piece till the full depth is reached. Then the work
piece is fed past the cutter to complete the machining of one tooth space. Milling of gears is relatively
common process in machine shops; it is suitable for small volume production.
The work piece is actually mounted in the dividing head. In form milling, indexing of the gear
blank is required to cut all the teeth. Indexing is the process of evenly dividing the circumference of a
gear blank into equally spaced divisions. The index head of the indexing fixture is used for this purpose.
The index fixture consists of an index head (also dividing head, gear cutting attachment) and
footstock, which is similar to the tailstock of a lathe. The index head and footstock attach to the
worktable of the milling machine. An index plate containing graduations is used to control the rotation
of the index head spindle. Gear blanks are held between centers by the index head spindle and footstock.
Workpieces may also be held in a chuck mounted to the index head spindle or may be fitted directly into
the taper spindle recess of some indexing fixtures.

Production of gear teeth by form milling are characterized by:

Use of HSS form milling cutters.
Use of ordinary milling cutters.
Low production rate:
o Need of indexing after machining each tooth gap.
o Slow speed and feed.
Low accuracy and surface finish.
Inventory problem due to need of a set of eight cutters for each module pressure angle
combination.
End mill type cutters are used for teeth of large gears and / or module.

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4.28.3 Fast production of teeth of spur gears by parallel multiple teeth shaping
In principle, it is similar to ordinary shaping but all the tooth gaps are made simultaneously,
without requiring indexing, by a set of radially infeeding single point form tools as indicated in
Fig. 4.72. This old process was highly productive but became almost obsolete for very high initial and
running costs.

Fig. 4.72 High production of straight teeth of external spur gears by parallel shaping
4.28.4 Fast production of teeth of spur gears by Broaching
Teeth of small internal and external spur gears; straight or single helical, of relatively softer
materials are produced in large quantity by this process. Fig. 4.73 (a and b) schematically shows how
external teeth are produced by a broaching in one pass. The process is rapid and produces fine surface
finish with high dimensional accuracy. However, because broaches are expensive and a separate broach
is required for each size of gear, this method is suitable mainly for high-quantity production.

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Fig. 4.73 (b) Broaching the teeth of a gear segment

by horizontal external broaching in one pass

Fig. 4.73 (a) High production of straight teeth

of external spur gears by broaching

GEAR GENERATION
To obtain more accurate gears, the gear is generally generated using a cutter, which is similar to
the gear with which it meshes by following the general gear theory. The gears produced by generation
are more accurate and the manufacturing process is also fast.
Generation method is characterized by automatic indexing and ability of a single cutter to cover
the entire range of number of teeth for a given combination of module and pressure angle and hence
provides high productivity and economy. These are used for large volume production.
In gear generating, the tooth flanks are obtained (generated) as an outline of the subsequent
positions of the cutter, which resembles in shape the mating gear in the gear pair. In gear generating, two
machining processes are employed, shaping and milling. There are several modifications of these
processes for different cutting tool used:
Milling with a hob (gear hobbing).
Gear shaping with a pinion-shaped cutter.
Gear shaping with a rack-shaped cutter.
Cutters and blanks rotate in a timed relationship: a proportional feed rate between them is maintained.
Gear generating is used for high production runs and for finishing cuts.

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4.29

4.29.1 Sunderland method using rack type cutter

Fig. 4.74 schematically shows the principle of this generation process where the rack type HSS
cutter (having rake and clearance angles) reciprocates to accomplish the machining (cutting) action while
rolling type interaction with the gear blank like a pair of rack and pinion.

Fig. 4.74 External gear teeth generation by rack type cutter

The favourable and essential applications of this method (and machine) include:
Moderate size straight and helical toothed external spur gears with high accuracy and finish.
Cutting the teeth of double helical or herringbone gears with a central recess (groove).
Cutting teeth of straight or helical fluted cluster gears.

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However this method needs, though automatic, few indexing operations. Advantages of this
method involve a very high dimensional accuracy and cheap cutting tool (the rack type cutters teeth
blanks are straight, which makes sharpening of the tool easy). The process can be used for low-quantity
as well as high-quantity production of spur and helical external gears.

4.29.2 Gear shaping

In principle, gear shaping is similar to the rack type cutting process, except that, the linear type
rack cutter is replaced by a circular cutter as indicated in Fig. 4.75, where both the cutter and the blank
rotate as a pair of spur gears in addition to the reciprocation of the cutter. Fig. 4.76 schematically shows
the generating action of a gear-shaper cutter.

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Fig. 4.75 Setup of gear teeth generation by gear shaping operation with a pinion-shaped cutter

Fig. 4.76 Generating action of a gear-shaper cutter; (Bottom) series of photographs showing
various stages in generating one tooth in a gear by means of a gear-shaper cutter,
action taking place from right to left. One tooth of the cutter was painted white.

The gear shaper cutter is mounted on a vertical ram and is rotated about its axis as it performs the
reciprocating action. The work piece is also mounted on a vertical spindle and rotates in mesh with the
shaping cutter during the cutting operation. The relative rotary motions of the shaping cutter and the
gear blank are calculated as per the requirement and incorporated with the change gears.
The cutter slowly moves into the gear blank surface with incremental depths of cut, till it reaches
the full depth. The cutter and gear blank are separated during the return (up) stroke and come to the
correct position during the cutting (down) stroke. Gear shaping can cut internal gears, splines and
continuous herringbone gears that cannot be cut by other processes. The gear type cutter is made of HSS
and possesses proper rake and clearance angles.

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The additional advantages of gear shaping over rack type cutting are:
Separate indexing is not required at all.
Straight or helical teeth of both external and internal spur gears can be produced with high
accuracy and finish.
Productivity is also higher.

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4.29.3 Gear hobbing

Gear hobbing is a machining process in which gear teeth are progressively generated by a series
of cuts with a helical cutting tool (hob). The gear hob is a formed tooth milling cutter with helical teeth
arranged like the thread on a screw. These teeth are fluted to produce the required cutting edges. All
motions in hobbing are rotary, and the hob and gear blank rotate continuously as in two gears meshing
until all teeth are cut. This process eliminates the unproductive return motion of the gear shaping
operation. The work piece is mounted on a vertical axis and rotates about its axis.
The hob is mounted on an inclined axis whose inclination is equal to the helix angle of the hob.
The hob is rotated in synchronization with the rotation of the blank and is slowly moved into the gear
blank till the required tooth depth is reached in a plane above the gear blank.
The tool-work configuration and motions in hobbing are shown in Fig. 4.77, where the HSS or
carbide cutter having teeth like gear milling cutter and the gear blank apparently interact like a pair of
worm and worm wheel. The hob (cutter) looks and behaves like a single or multiple start worms. Having
lesser number (only three) of tool work motions, hobbing machines are much more rigid, strong and
productive than gear shaping machine. But hobbing provides lesser accuracy and finish and is used only
for cutting straight or helical teeth (single) of external spur gears and worm wheels.

Fig. 4.77 Setup of gear hobbing operation

Fig. 4.78 shows the generation of different types of gears by gear hobbing. When bobbing a spur
gear, the angle between the hob and gear blank axes is 90 minus the lead angle at the hob threads. For
helical gears, the hob is set so that the helix angle of the hob is parallel with the tooth direction of the
gear being cut. Additional movement along the tooth length is necessary in order to cut the whole tooth
length. Machines for cutting precise gears are generally CNC type and often are housed in temperature
controlled rooms to avoid dimensional deformations.

Fig. 4.78 Generation of external gear teeth by hobbing (a) spur gear (b) helical gear and (c) worm wheel

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NUMERICAL CONTROL MACHINE TOOLS
Numerical control of machine tools may be defined as a method of automation in which various
functions of machine tools are controlled by letters, numbers, symbols and alphanumeric instructions.
Basically a NC machine runs on a program fed to it, by means of punched card, punched tape or
magnetic tap. The program consists of precise instructions about the manufacturing
manufacturing methodology as well
as the movements.
For example, what tool is to be used, at what speed, at what feed and to move from which point
to which point in which path, all these instructions are given. Numerical control is a form of
programmable automation. All the functions of an NC machine tool are controlled electronically,
hydraulically or pneumatically.
NC Machine Tool = MCU + Machine Tool
MCU = Machine Control Unit = DPU + CLU
DPU = Data Processing Unit, CLU = Control Loop Unit
Block diagram of a NC machine tool is schematically shown in Fig. 5.1

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5.1

Fig. 5.1 Block diagram of a NC machine tool

Classification of NC machine tools

Components of a NC machine tool
The components
nts of a traditional NC machine tool are:

5.1.1
5.1.2

Program of instructions
The program of instruction, often called part program is the detailed set of
directions for producing a component by the NC machine. Each line of instruction is a mixture of
alphabetic codes and numeric data and is punched in a input
input media (usually paper tape) in a specified
format. This program is translated into electrical signals to drive various motors to operate the machine
to carry out the required operations.
Tape punch
Usually it is a paper tape of 1 inch width. Paper-Mylar,
Paper
Aluminium Mylar
or plastics are also used as tape materials. Paper tapes are cheap and popular but cannot last long. It is
treated to resist oil and water. Mylar tapes are expensive but durable. These are still used by machine
manufacturers to store information
ormation as executive tapes. Punching machine (Flexo writers) of various
types is used to key in program instructions to tapes. Presently tapes are prepared by micro computers by

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keying in the information from the manuscript. The end of NC tapes was the result of two competing
developments, CNC and DNC.
Tape readers
A tape reader reads the hole pattern on the tape and converts the patterns to a corresponding
electrical signal.
Machine controller
It receives the electrical signals from tape reader or an operating panel and causes NC machine to
respond. It contains a decoder/encoder, an interpolator and facilities to execute auxiliary functions which
are machine dependent. The decoder/encoder receives the data and stores them in two separate memory
locations. One for the part geometry data and the other for the process data.
For cutting complex surfaces, the interpolator breaks down these curves into small individual
increments for each controlled motion of machine tools. Controller also interfaces various machine units
like drive motors, transducers and other control functions of the machine tools.
NC machine
It responds to the electrical signals from the controller. Accordingly the machine executes
various slide motions and spindle rotations to manufacture a part.

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The major advantages of NC over conventional methods of machine control are as follows:
Higher precision: NC machine tools are capable of machining at very close tolerances, in some
operations as small as 0.005 mm.
Machining of complex three-dimensional shapes: this is discussed in Section 6.2 in connection
with the problem of milling of complex shapes.
Better quality: NC systems are capable of maintaining constant working conditions for all parts
in a batch thus ensuring less spread of quality characteristics.
Higher productivity: NC machine tools reduce drastically the non machining time. Adjusting the
machine tool for a different product is as easy as changing the computer program and tool turret
with the new set of cutting tools required for the particular part.
Multi-operational machining: some NC machine tools, for example machine centers, are capable
of accomplishing a very high number of machining operations thus reducing significantly the
number of machine tools in the workshops.
Low operator qualification: the role of the operation of a NC machine is simply to upload the
work piece and to download the finished part. In some cases, industrial robots are employed for
material handling, thus eliminating the human operator.

Types of NC systems
Machine controls are divided into three groups:
Traditional numerical control (NC).
Computer numerical control (CNC).
Distributed numerical control (DNC).

CNC refers to a system that has a local computer to store all required numerical data. While CNC
was used to enhance tapes for a while, they eventually allowed the use of other storage media, magnetic
tapes and hard disks. The advantages of CNC systems include but are not limited to the possibility to
store and execute a number of large programs (especially if a three or more dimensional machining of
complex shapes is considered), to allow editing of programs, to execute cycles of machining commands,
etc.
The development of CNC over many years, along with the development of local area networking,
has evolved in the modern concept of DNC. Distributed numerical control is similar to CNC, except a

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remote computer is used to control a number of machines. An off-site mainframe host computer holds
programs for all parts to be produced in the DNC facility. Programs are downloaded from the mainframe
computer, and then the local controller feeds instructions to the hardwired NC machine. The recent
developments use a central computer which communicates with local CNC computers (also called Direct
Numerical Control).

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Controlled axes
NC system can be classified on the number of directions of motion they are capable to control
simultaneously on a machine tool. Each free body has six degree of freedom, three positive or negative
translations along x, y, and z-axis, and three rotations clockwise or counter clockwise about these axes.
Commercial NC system are capable of controlling simultaneously two, two and half, three, four and five
degrees of freedom, or axes. The NC systems which control three linear translations (3-axis systems), or
three linear translations and one rotation of the worktable (4-axis systems) are the most common.

Identification of controlled axes for (a) lathe, (b) vertical spindle milling machine and
(c) horizontal spindle milling machine
Although the directions of axes for a particular machine tool are generally agreed as shown in the
figure, the coordinate system origin is individual for each part to be machined and has to be decided in
the very beginning of the process of CNC part programming.
Point-to-point vs. continuous systems
The two major types of NC systems are (see the figure):
Point-to-point (PTP) system.
Contouring system.
PTP is a NC system, which controls only the position of the components. In this system, the path
of the component motion relative to the work piece is not controlled. The travelling between different
positions is performed at the traverse speed allowable for the machine tool and following the shortest
way.
Contouring NC systems are capable of controlling not only the positions but also the component
motion, i.e., the travelling velocity and the programmed path between the desired positions:

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Schematics of point-to-point
point point (Left) and contouring (Right) NC systems.
CNC

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The abbreviation CNC stands for computer numerical control, and refers specifically to a
computer "controller" that reads G-code
G code instructions and drives a machine tool, a powered mechanical
device typically used to fabricate components by the selective removal of material. CNC does
numerically directed
irected interpolation of a cutting tool in the work envelope of a machine. The operating
parameters of the CNC can be altered via a software load program
CNC was preceded by NC (Numerically Controlled) machines, which were hard wired and their
operating parameters
arameters could not be changed. NC was developed in the late 1940s and early 1950s by John
T. Parsons in collaboration with the MIT Servomechanisms Laboratory. The first CNC systems used NC
style hardware, and the computer was used for the tool compensation
compensation calculations and sometimes for
editing.
Punched tape continued to be used as a medium for transferring G-codes
G codes into the controller for
many decades after 1950, until it was eventually superseded by RS232 cables, floppy disks, and now is
commonly tied directly
rectly into plant networks. The files containing the G-codes
G codes to be interpreted by the
controller are usually saved under the .NC extension. Most shops have their own saving format that
matches their ISO certification requirements.
The introduction of CNC machines radically changed the manufacturing industry. Curves are as
easy to cut as straight lines, complex 3-D
3 D structures are relatively easy to produce, and the number of
machining steps that required human action has been dramatically reduced.
With the increased automation of manufacturing processes with CNC machining, considerable
improvements in consistency and quality have been achieved with no strain on the operator. CNC
automation reduced the frequency of errors and provided CNC operators with time to perform additional
tasks. CNC automation also allows for more flexibility in the way parts are held in the manufacturing
process and the time required changing the machine to produce different components.
History of CNC
1949 - US Air Force asks MIT to develop a "numerically controlled" machine.
1952 - Prototype NC machine demonstrated (punched tape input).
input)
1980 - CNC machines (computer used to link directly to controller).
controller)
1990 - DNC: external computer drip feeds control programmer to machine tool controller.
co
Motivation and uses
To manufacture complex curved geometries in 2D or 3D was extremely expensive by mechanical
means (which usually would require complex jigs to control the cutter motions).
motions)
Machining components with repeatable accuracy.
accuracy
Unmannedd machining operations.
operations
Advantages of CNC

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Easier to program.
Easy storage of existing programs.
Easy to change a program.
Avoids human errors.
NC machines are safer to operate.
Complex geometry is produced as cheaply as simple ones.
Usually generates closer tolerances than manual machines.

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: Point-to-Point or Continuous path.

: Open loop or Closed loop.
: Electric or Hydraulic or Pneumatic.
: Incremental or Absolute.

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Types of CNC machines

Based on Motion Type
Based on Control Loops
Based on Power Supply
Based on Positioning System

CNC terminology
BLU: basic length unit - smallest programmable move of each axis.
Controller: (Machine Control Unit, MCU) - Electronic and computerized interface between operator and
m/c.
Controller components:
Data Processing Unit (DPU).
Control-Loops Unit (CLU).
Data Processing Unit:
Input device [RS-232 port/ Tape Reader/ Punched Tape Reader].
Data Reading Circuits and Parity Checking Circuits.
Decoders to distribute data to the axes controllers.
Control Loops Unit:
Interpolator to supply machine-motion commands between data points.
Position control loop hardware for each axis of motion.

CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES
Spindle drives of CNC machine tools
DC drive units
Direct current motors allow precise control of the speed over a wide operating range by
manipulation of the voltage applied to the motor. They are ideally suited for driving the axes of small
to medium sized NC machines and robots.
Merits
It is relatively easy to control the speed of rotation.
High over load capacity.
Excellent dynamic response.
Demerits
High cost.
Large dimension and weight.
Regular maintenance is required.

AC drive units
Now a days AC spindle motors are preferred for the main drive by CNC machine tool designers
due to a variety of reasons. They are:

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Digital Ac servo drives are preferred today because of:

Good response for stable, high cutting performance.
Improved acceleration and deceleration in low speed range.
Improving rigidity at spindle orientation.
Improve in linearity of loadmeter.
Easy setting of maximum rpm through parameter values.

Demerits
Inverters used for converting DC into AC are very costly.
Size of the inverters is big which occupies more space.

AC motors are more reliable than Dc motors under severe operating conditions including floating
dust and coolant splash.
AC motors being free of brushes and other wearing parts do not require frequent maintenance.
The unique stator cooling system in AC motors results in high speed high output characteristics
with compact size.
AC drive units provide stable and smooth operation with reduced vibrations and noise from low
speed to high speed.

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AC spindle drives for machine tools comprise a squirrel cage induction motor and a transistor
inverter type controller. These motors:
Are maintenance free.
Enable fast installation.
Have high degree of safety.
Save mechanical gear reductions.
Have low inertia.
Have short speed and torque response time.
In order to reduce inertia rotors are made hollow. The magnetic material used is samarium cobalt.
Two thermistors are used to protect motor from excessive temperature rise.

Transmission belting
Different types of transmission belting are used with CNC machine drives. For low speed
operation (say up to 3000 rpm) it is common to use toothed belt, in conjunction with a toothed pullers.
For higher speeds a poly V belt is recommended. This belt has a higher strength but lower mass. The
matching profile on the pulley reduces slip. Some CNC machines are found to be fitted with standard
V- belts.

Axes feed drives

CNC machines are provided with independent axis drives to provide the feed movements for the
slides. The arrangements for the slides are similar with variation only in the ratings of motors or sizes of
ball screws. In order to obtain fast response, a special type of motor called servomotor is used to power
the slides. The servomotors can be directly coupled or drive is transmitted through a toothed belt drive.
The encoders or resolver mounted on the servomotor is used to generate the signals required for
position/velocity feedback. The servomotors are of two types:
1. DC servomotors
2. AC servomotors

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DC servomotors
These are characterized by high overload capacity and excellent dynamic response. They have
low moment of inertia. The speeds usually vary upto 3000 rpm. These motors provide smooth rotation
even at low speeds.

AC servomotors
3 phase servomotors are now becoming popular with CNC machine tool designers. These have
the followings merits:
Low moment of inertia.
High power/weight ratio.
Constant acceleration torque up to maximum speed.
Practically no maintenance required.
Light weight motor.
Low speed and torque response times.
High frequency response.
High reliability.
These are self cooled motors.
These motors are provided with integrated holding brake and pulse generator or resolver.

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Slideways for CNC machines

Precise positioning and repeatability of machine tool slides are the major functional requirements
of CNC machines. The inaccuracies that are caused are mainly due to the stick slip motion when plain
slideways (metal to metal contact) are used. To eliminate the stick slip motion rolling friction slideways
and slideways with low friction PTFE (Poly Tetra Fluoro Ethylene) are used. These have low wear,
negligible stick-slip, good vibration damping, easy machinability, low price and low coefficient of
friction properties. Combinations of machine tool slideway systems:
Plain
Metal to metal.
o Cast iron to cast iron.
o Cast iron to steel.
o Steel to steel.
Plastic to metal.
o Plastic to cast iron.
o Plastic to steel.
Rolling friction
Linear motion system with
o Recirculating balls.
o Recirculating rollers.
The requirements of a good slideway system:
A good slideway system must possess;
Low coefficient of friction at varying slide velocities.
Minimum difference between static and dynamic friction co efficient - positive slope for friction
- velocity characteristics.
Low rate of wear.
High stiffness at the sliding joints.
Sufficient damping.

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Plastic coated slideways

In this slideways a plastic or non-metallic inserts are used. These inserts are bonded to the
underside of the sliding members. They can be of thermoplastics (Trucite-B) or thermosetting (SKC-3,
moglice) types. These inserts/ composites are made of two or more materials in which one reduces co
efficient of friction. The other increases strength, war resistance and load bearing capacity. They also
have self lubricating property; have a soft matrix for taking up dust or particles and to eliminate scoring.
Another advantage is the ease with which a worn out strip can be replaced without the need for any
scraping or machining of bed ways.

Linear motion bearings

Rolling element when applied to reciprocating motion has following advantages.
With rolling element linear motion bearings there is little difference between dynamic friction
and static friction. This means that is possible to reduce the drive power to be used and also
makes the drive equipment more compact. Further machine weight, overall costs and
maintenance cost can be reduced.
Even though internal clearance is reduced to zero to absorb machine vibration and shock, smooth
motion is obtained.
Stick slip problem is completely eliminated.
Lubrication of metal to metal contact slideways is difficult at low speed. So a high degree of
wear results in conventional slides. But a rolling element slide requires only small quantities of
lubricant, shows little wear and lasts long.

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Construction
Linear motion guide system consists of a bearing block and rail. Two race ways are provided on
one side of the bearing block where two rows of rolls are retained and caused to recirculate by means of
retainer and two end plates. The unit is constructed in such a manner that each of the rows of balls
rolling over the rail comes into contact with the race way at an angle of 45o.
The race is in line contact rather than the conventional point contact. Thus the ball has 13 more
times allowable load carrying capacity than conventional point contact system. This system is capable of
withstanding equal load in any direction.

Ball screws
Ball screws are primarily employed in feed mechanism of CNC machine tools. When compared
with conventional acme and trapezoidal screws, the ball screws provide many advantages, they are:
In a ball screws, the load between the threads of the screw and nut is not transmitted by direct
contact, but through intermediate rolling members (spherical balls).
Low coefficient of friction.
High transmission efficiency. This allows larger thrust loads to be carried with less torque.
Friction force is virtually independent of the travel velocity and the friction at rest is very small.
Consequently the stick slip phenomenon is absent, ensuring uniformity of motion.
General arrangement of ball screws
The basic idea of ball screw is to interpose a series of bearing balls between the screw and the
nut. These balls rolls in the groove as the nut or screw moves and the rolling friction thus replaces the
sliding friction of the conventional acme or trapezoidal screws.

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Accessories of CNC machines

co
s.

Nut configurations
Ball screw nuts are available in different types:
Round flanged nut with embedded tube for return of the balls.
Round cylindrical nut with embedded tube.
Small outside diameter flanged nut with outside tube.
Rectangular nuts.

The balls rolling in the grooves exit from the trailing end of the nut, and are picked up by the
return tube inserted from outside and are recirculated into the loading end of the nut. The ball screws can
have circular or Gothic arch grooves. Gothic arch grooves have a small axial clearance.

Automatic Tool Changer (ATC)

An ATC is an important part of a CNC machining centre. An ATC picks up a tool from the
magazine and keeps it ready for swapping with the tool in the spindle which is presently cutting. The
time for tool change varies between 3 to 7 seconds. The ATC plays a significant role in reducing idle
time during tool change operations.

Types of ATC and magazine

Drum type
For holding small number of tools not more than 30, stored on the
periphery of the drum. Tool search speed is faster.
Chain type
For more number of tools (more than 30 - 40). Tool search speed is less.

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Work tables
Work tables can be indexed or tilted to present a fresh surface for machining. Table tilting is
usually done by hinges in the case of horizontal machining centre. Hinges are provided at the side of the
table closest to the spindle column and the table is tilted from the other side via a ball screw. A variety of
drive systems, including Geneva mechanism for simple indexing have been used. The typical rotary
table features DC servomotors connected to a worm drive that rotates the table on preloaded roller
bearings.

Spindles
Requirements of spindles for CNC machines are:
High stiffness both static and dynamic.
Running accuracy.
Axial load carrying capacity.
Thermal stability.
Axial freedom for thermal expansion.
High speeds of operation.
The bearings are used are generally ball bearings, roller bearings or hydrostatic bearings. A combination
of cylindrical roller bearings for radial loads and double direction angular contact ball bearings for axial
thrusts is employed by many designers. High speed spindles are supported by ceramic bearings. The
bearing diameter is directly dependent on the spindle taper.
Spindle heads
These are of three types:
Robot like head.

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Horizontal/vertical head (universal head).

Inclinable head.
In robot like heads nine axes are usually available in the machine, of which six axes are controlled
simultaneously.

Beds and columns

Cast or a welded box type structures are generally used for beds and columns. Large base
structures can be economically fabricated with concrete plus resin mixture which gives high rigidity and
reduced vibration. In CNC lathes epoxy concrete and concrete mixed with other synthetic material are
also used in lathes. These have high damping capacity.

Post process metrology

Work piece probes can be mounted on the tool post which can measure the dimensional accuracy
of the work pieces.

Special features
Feedback devices
Feed back devices measure the position of the slide and close the control loop. The accuracy of
the positioning of the slide is largely dependent on the resolution of the feedback device. Feedback
devices can be broadly classified into:
Digital incremental measuring devices.
Digital absolute measuring devices
Analog measuring devices.

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Digital incremental displacement measuring systems

Digital measuring methods offer three fundamental advantages when applied to numerical
control systems:
The measured value can be transmitted directly to a numerical data processing unit.
The data can be processed numerically right from the moment when it is originally produced to
the end of the process.
It is possible to provide a numerical value for the actual position of the slide using very simple
means.

Incremental rotary encoders

The visible exterior of the unit includes the shaft, the flange, the rotor housing, and output cable.
The shaft carries a graduated glass disc with radial crating. Incremental linear measuring systems use a
glass scale with line grating which consists of opaque lines and transparent spaces of equal width.
The digital absolute measuring system
A NC system in which all positional dimensions are measured with respect to a common datum
point called a digital absolute system. In such a system, the transducers therefore give a direct reading of
position with reference to the common datum (zero point). The zero point may be either a floating or a
fixed point. An absolute rotary encoder is used in this system.
Electro magnetic analog position transducers
Synchros and synchro-resolvers
A synchro is an electromagnetic position transducer comprising a rotor and a stator with a
number of windings. The level of output voltage depends upon the angular position of the rotor. The

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CNC MACHINE TOOLS AND PART PROGRAMMING

voltage reduces to zero when the axis of the rotor coil coincided with the field vector of the stator. A
synchro resolver has the windings at exactly 90o to each other and resolves the voltage into two
components at a phase difference of 90o.

Inductosyn
The Inductosyn is a precision feedback device for the accurate measurement and control of
angles or linear distances with inductive coupling between conductors separated by a small air space.
Accuracy of better than one second or arc and linear accuracy of better than 0.5 microns is achieved.
There are two forms in inductosyns. Rotary form is used in precision servo systems on machine tools
and other equipments as a primary generator for shaft digitizers. The linear form provides means for
accurate control of elements moving in translation and widely used in automatic machine tool controls.

Laser interferometer
Interferometric techniques have been developed due to the demand for greater accuracy and due
to inherent manufacturing errors which lead to decreased accuracy in conventional position and velocity
transducers. LASER having high coherence and frequency stability. This can be used in wide
environmental conditions and does not require highly skilled operator. Laser interferometers are mainly
used for the calibration of CNC machine tools.

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Part programming fundamentals

The term CNC programming refers to the methods for generating the instructions used to drive
CNC machine tools. For two dimensional components with little geometric complexity, the instructions
can be written manually. However as geometrical complexity increases more sophisticated techniques
are required, particularly for driving 3 axis, 4 axis CNC machines.
Four distinct techniques are used for generating CNC instructions:
Manual CNC programming.
Computer assisted part programming.
Graphic numerical control programming(CAD/cam based programming system).
CNC programming based on solid modeling.

Manual part programming

Manual programming is one of the conventional methods of CNC programming. This technique
is widely used for work pieces of relatively simple geometry. Manual programming begins with careful
study of component drawing. The tool path of the CNC machine is then described in machine codes,
which usually take the following general form some of the terms being optional.
N-G-X-Y-Z-A-B-C-F-S-T-M
NC program
A program of NC consists of a sequence of directions that causes an NC machine to accomplish a certain
operation. The NC program describes the sequence of actions of the controlled NC machine.
These actions include but are not limited to:
Component movements, incl. direction, velocity and positioning.
Tool selection, tool change, tool offsets, and tool corner wear compensation.
Spindle rotation and spindle rotation speed, incl. possibility to change it to keep constant.
Cutting speed for different diameters in turning.
Application of cutting fluids.

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A part program is simply an NC program used to manufacture a part. Part programming for NC may be
performed manually (manual part programming) or by the aid of a computer (Computer-aided part
programming).
Many programming languages have been developed for part programming. The first that used
English like statements and one of the most popular languages is called APT (for Automatically
Programmed Tools). Many variations of APT have been developed, including ADAPT (ADaptation of
APT), EXAPT (a European flavor of APT), UNIAPT (APT controller for smaller computer systems),
etc.
NC programming for complex parts are generated using advanced computer programs
(CAD/CAM programs), which create automatically the machine code (so called G-code) in a graphic
environment. Machine code is also largely used for manual part programming of simple shapes and is
covered in the present section.

Machine code
The structure of a NC program written in machine code is standardized and for a two-axis NC system
has the following format:

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Structure of a NC program

NC program block consists of a number of program words. The NC program is executed block
by block: each next block is entered in the system and executed only after entirely completing the
current block.
Each program word is an ordered set of characteristics, letters and numbers, to specify a single
action of the machine tool. Program words fall into two categories:
Modal, which are active in the block in which they are specified and remain active in the
subsequent blocks until another program word overrides them.
Non-modal, which are only active in the block in which they are specified.
Some of the most important program words are as follows:
Sequence numbers (N****)
Sequence numbers are a means of identifying program blocks. In some systems they are not
required although sequence numbers are needed in most canned cycles (covered later in this section).
Preparatory functions (also G-codes) (G**)
Preparatory functions are used to set up the mode in which the rest of the operation is to be
executed. Some of examples of G-codes are given in the table.
Dimension words (D****.***), where D stands for X, Z, U, or W
Dimension words specify the coordinate positions of the programmed path. X and Z specify the
absolute coordinates, and U and W specify the incremental coordinates (absolute and incremental
programming are explained later in this section);
Arc center coordinates (D****.***), where D stands for I, or K

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Arc center coordinates specify the incremental coordinate position of the arc center (I in the
direction of X-axis, and K in the direction of Z-axis), measured from the arc starting point;
Feed function (F**.**)
Specifies the velocity of feed motion;
Spindle control function (S****)
Specifies spindle rotational speed in revolutions per minute, or cutting velocity in meter per
minute depending on the type of NC system and machine tool;
Tool calls (T**.**)
The tool call word is used to access the required tool. It also gives the information for the radial
compensation of tool corner wear for each new run of the program (and each new part);
Miscellaneous functions (M**)
The M-function performs miscellaneous machine actions such as these listed in the table:

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Absolute vs. incremental programming

Absolute and incremental programming specifies the coordinates of points with respect to the
work coordinate system (absolute coordinates), or from the point where the component is located
(incremental coordinates):

Absolute (X and Z) and incremental (U and W) coordinates of point B,

and sections of NC programs showing both types of programming.

Incremental positioning is also called a point-to-point positioning (do not mix with point-to-point
NC systems). Both types of programming can be used for the whole program or just for certain sections
of the program. Which kind of programming to apply generally depends on the type of dimensioning
used in the part drawing? The next figure illustrates some examples of different dimensioning styles
applied to one and the same part configuration, which suggest either absolute, or incremental, or mixed

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programming:

The type of part dimensioning defines the type of programming used.

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Program points
The NC system must know where the part is positioned in the work space. The procedure for
defining the work coordinate system (WPC) is called work piece coordinate setting. Two important
factors deal with work piece coordinate setting:
Where the part datum (the origin of the WPC) is situated with respect to the work piece.
Where the part datum is situated with respect to the machine tool.
The WPC origin may be located at any part of the work piece, but to avoid dimensional recalculations
and respectively errors, the good programmers will chose the WPC origin at the point, from where the
part features are dimensioned.

Selection of WPC origin

The method for locating the positions of the WPC origin with respect to the machine tool varies
for each machine tool. Some systems use a zero-set button to set the WPC origin. On other types of NC
systems, the WPC is set with a G54 or a G92 code followed by X, and Z dimensions.
The G54 code tells the machine where the position of the WPC measured from the machine zero
point is. Machine zero point (machine datum) is a fixed point on the machine tool and cannot be
programmed or altered.

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UNIT - V

Example of how G54 is used to set the WPC. Note that in turning X is given as a diameter, not radius

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Another important point is the program start point (also tool home position). This point is
selected by the programmer at some distance from the work piece, not too far to save some time when
the tool returns home, and not too close to allow for safe indexing of the tool turret when the cutting tool
is changed. The program, therefore the new part machining, starts and ends with the tool at home
position, but the tool needs also to be returned to home whenever a tool change take place during the
program execution.
Some NC system uses a G28 command to return to home position; other systems return to home
automatically when a tool change (M06) is commanded.

The use of G-codes for rapid positioning of the tool (G00),

linear feed motion (G01) and rapid home return (G28)

Linear and circular interpolation

A G01 linear interpolation code moves the tool to a position with coordinates defined with
program words in a straight, including angular line at the specified with F-code feed rate. The command
is modal and is active until either a G00, or G02, or G03 overrides it.
NC systems are capable of commanding a circular motion. Arc movement is known as circular
interpolation and is carried out with a G02 (clockwise circular interpolation) or G03 (counter clockwise
circular interpolation) codes. The arc radius is specified either by the incremental dimensional words I
and K, which defines the position of arc center point with respect to the arc start point, or directly by the
radius R-code. In both methods, the program block, which starts with a G02 or G03 codes must also
include the coordinates of the arc end point. If R-code is used, arcs less than 180o are given a positive
radius and arcs more than 180o are given a negative radius value.

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Linear and circular interpolation.

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Cycles

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The repetitive program (and machining) sequence is called a cycle. Cycles are classified into two
principle groups:
Canned cycles (also fixed cycles).
User-defined cycles (sub-routines).
Canned cycles are an inbuilt feature of the NC system. The usage of canned cycles makes easier
programming for threading, drilling holes and other repetitive machining tasks. The next figure
illustrates a thread cutting canned cycle.

Example of threaded canned cycle.

User sub-routines are useful, when the necessary canned cycle is not available. The user subroutine is a NC program, which describes a sequence of operations, which is often repeated when
machining particular part. The sub-routine is called from the main NC program with a M98 command.
A special type of user-defined cycles is so-called macros, which are generic cycles with
parametric variables. The macro is called from the main program with a set of numerical values for these
variables. This allow to use one and the same macro to machine different in size, but similar in shape
components. Programming with macros is often referred to as a parametric programming.
Nomenclature of the CNC machines
According to international standard ISO/R841, the US standard EIA (Electronics Industries
Association) document RS267 formed the basis of the ISO standard.

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Co-ordinate system
Discussed earlier in NC machines.
Machine types
CNC machines are classified into four groups:
Group1 machines with rotating tools.
Group2 machines with rotating work pieces.
Group3 machines with non rotating work pieces and non rotating tools.
Group4 machines other than belongs to above 3 groups CNC drafting machine.

UNIT - V

Motion designation
Discussed earlier in NC machines.

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Reference points for manual programming

The machine datum point M
The machine datum is the origin of the co-ordinate system. With lathes it is on the mounting
flange of the main spindle and the turning axis.
It is fixed by the manufacturer and programmed into the computer memory. It cannot be changed
by the user of the machine.
The machine reference point R
The position of the reference point R is determined by the manufacturer. The value of machine
reference co-ordinates XMR and ZMR are fixed and cannot be changed by the user.
The machine reference point serves for the calibration of the measuring system.
The workpiece zero point W
It is also called the program zero point.
This point determines the workpiece co-ordinate system in relation to the machine zero point.
This point is chosen by the programmer and inputted to the CNC system when setting up the machine.
Tool post reference point T
It is the point of rotation of the tool post. It is useful for cutter tool compensation, tool changing
etc.

Zero points or zero datum

It is the origin point of the co-ordinate system of the NC machine.
With respect to this origin point programmer decides the tool positions and movements.
There are two methods of specifying this zero point.
Fixed zero
It is fixed by the manufacturer and cannot be changed by the user.
e.g. machine datum point(M) , machine reference point ( R )
Floating zero
It is set by the operator at any position on the machine.
e.g. work piece zero point (W), tool post reference point (T)
Part program formats
1. Fixed block format
a. Fixed sequential format
b. Tab sequential format
2. Word address format (variable block)

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Meaning
Rotation about X - Axis
Rotation about Y - Axis
Rotation about Z - Axis
Rotations about Additional Axes
Feed Rate
Preparatory Function
Unassigned
Interpolation Parameter / Thread Pitch Parallel to X - Axis
Thread Pitch Parallel to Y - Axis
Thread Pitch Parallel to Z - Axis
Unassigned
Auxiliary Function
Block Number
Not Used
Thread Movement Parallel to X - Axis, Also used as a Parameter in Cycles
Thread Movement Parallel to Y - Axis, Also used as a Parameter in Cycles
Thread Movement Parallel to Z - Axis, Also used as a Parameter in Cycles
Spindle Speed
Tool Number
Secondary Movement Parallel to X - Axis
Secondary Movement Parallel to Y - Axis
Secondary Movement Parallel to Z - Axis
Movement in X - Axis
Movement in Y - Axis
Movement in Z - Axis

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Characters
A
B
C
D&E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z

Address Characters as per DIN 66025

Preparatory functions or G functions or G codes in CNC programming

These are the commands which prepare the machine tool for different modes of movement like
positioning, turning, facing, thread cutting etc. The preparatory functions always precede the dimension
words.
As per DENFORD - FANUC OT (Offline turning) & FANUC OM (offline milling) programming
the preparatory functions are given below.
G - CODES - Preparatory Functions
Codes
Function in turning centre
Function in machining centre
G00
Rapid movement or positioning
Rapid movement or positioning
G01
Linear movement with feed rate
Linear movement with feed rate
G02
Circular movement with feed rate ( CW )
Circular movement with feed rate ( CW )
G03
Circular movement with feed rate ( CCW ) Circular movement with feed rate ( CCW )
G04
Dwell
Dwell
G05 - G19 Not assigned
Not assigned
G20
Inch data input
Inch data input
G21
Metric data input
Metric data input
G22 - G27 Not assigned
Not assigned
G28
Return to home position
Return to home position

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Cancel scaling

Scaling
Not assigned
Datum shift
Not assigned
Coordinate rotation
Cancel rotation
Not assigned
Not assigned
Not assigned
High speed peck drilling
Counter tapping
Not assigned
Fine boring
Canned cycle cancel
Drilling - Spot boring
Drilling - Counter boring
Deep hole peck drilling
Tapping
Boring
Back boring
Boring
Absolute zero command
Incremental command
Not assigned
Not assigned
Feed rate in mm / min
Feed rate in mm / rev
Not assigned

G51
G52, G53
G54
G55 - G67
G68
G69
G70
G71
G72
G73
G74
G75
G76
G80
G81
G82
G83
G84
G85, G86
G87
G89
G90
G91
G92
G93
G94
G95
G96
G97
G98
G99
G170, G171
G172, G173

Not assigned
Cutter compensation cancel
Cutter compensation left
Cutter compensation right
Z length offset
Not assigned

G50

Not assigned
Tool nose radius compensation cancel
Tool nose radius compensation left
Tool nose radius compensation right
Not assigned
Not assigned
Work coordinate system shift /
Clamping maximum spindle speed
Not assigned
Not assigned
Not assigned
Not assigned
Not assigned
Not assigned
Finishing cycle
Multiple turning cycle
Multiple facing cycle
Pattern repeating cycle
End face peck drilling cycle
Grooving cycle
Multiple threading cycle
Not assigned
Deep hole drilling cycle
Not assigned
Not assigned
Not assigned
Not assigned
Not assigned
Not assigned
Turning cycle
Not assigned
Threading cycle
Not assigned
Facing cycle
Not assigned
Constant surface speed control
Constant surface speed control cancel
Feed rate in mm / min
Feed rate in mm / rev
Not assigned
Not assigned

G29 - G39
G40
G41
G42
G43
G44 - G49

CNC MACHINE TOOLS AND PART PROGRAMMING

UNIT - V

Return to initial level

Return to R point level
Circular pocket milling
Rectangular pocket milling

The G codes are divided into two types:

Model G codes.
One shot or non-model G codes.

Model G codes - This G code is effective until another G code in the same group is commanded.
Non-model G codes - This G code is effective only at the block in which it was specified.
Motion group GO0, G01, GO2, GO3
Dwell group GO4

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Active plane selection group G17, G18, G19

Cutter compensation group G40, G41, G42
Units Group G20, G21
Hole making canned cycle group G80, G81-G89
Co ordinate system group G90, G91

Canned cycles or fixed cycles

The routine that automatically generates multiple tool movements from a single block is known
as canned or fixed cycle. e.g. G71,G70,G81-G89, G92
G80 canned cycle cancel.
Merits
Program becomes simple and needs less memory.
Program writing is easier.

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Miscellaneous or Auxiliary functions or M codes

The function related to the auxiliary or switching information like spindle start-stop, coolant onoff, etc., and not related to any dimensional movement of the machine is known as miscellaneous
functions.
As per Denford - FANUC OT (offline turning) and FANUC OM (offline milling) programming
the miscellaneous functions are given below.
M - CODES - Miscellaneous Functions
Codes
Function in turning centre
Function in machining centre
M00
Program stop
Program stop
M01
Optional stop
Optional stop
M02
End of program
Program reset
M03
Spindle forward
Spindle forward
M04
Spindle reverse
Spindle reverse
M05
Spindle stop
Spindle stop
M06
Automatic tool change
Automatic tool change
M07
High pressure coolant ON
Not assigned
M08
Low pressure coolant ON
Coolant ON
M09
Coolant OFF
Coolant OFF
M10
Chuck open
Vice open
M11
Chuck close
Vice close
M13
Spindle forward and coolant ON Spindle forward and coolant ON
M14
Spindle reverse and coolant ON Spindle reverse and coolant ON
M19
Not assigned
Spindle orientation
M20
Not assigned
ATC arm in
M21
Not assigned
ATC arm out
M22
Not assigned
ATC arm down
M23
Not assigned
ATC arm up
M24
Not assigned
ATC draw bar unclamp
M25
Tail stock quill extend
ATC draw bar clamp
M26
Tail stock quill retract
Not assigned
M27
Not assigned
Reset carousel to pocket one
M30
Program stop and reset
Program reset and rewind
M32
Not assigned
Carousel CW
M33
Not assigned
Carousel CCW
M38
Door open
Door open
M39
Door close
Door close

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Parts catcher extend
Parts catcher retract
Auxiliary output functions
Not assigned
Not assigned
Auxiliary output functions
Not assigned
Not assigned
Sub program call
Sub program end and return

Not assigned
Not assigned
Not assigned
Mirror in X ON
Mirror in Y ON
Not assigned
Mirror in X OFF
Mirror in Y OFF
Sub program call
Sub program end and return

M40
M41
M62 - M67
M70
M71
M76, M77
M80
M81
M98
M99

CNC MACHINE TOOLS AND PART PROGRAMMING

UNIT - V

Computer assisted part programming

In computer aided part programming, much of the tedious computational work needed in manual
programming is performed by the computer processor. In this programming the programmer prepare the
set of instructions in high level computer language. The high level computer languages use simple
English words which can be converted to machine tool level program with the help of processors.
Merit programming becomes less time consuming and accurate.
e.g. APT, UNIAPT, ADAPT, COMPACT-II

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APT language
The APT (automatically Programmed Tools) language system was designed at the
servomechanism laboratory of Massachusetts institute of technology. The APT NC reference language
consists of a specially structured set of vocabulary, symbols, rules and conventions which are easily
understood by the part programmer and would help him in faster preparation of control tapes.
Today it is used for continuous path programming up to five axes. It includes:
APTURN for Lathes
APTMIC for mill and drill
APTPOINT for point-point operation
APT program is used to command the cutting tool through its sequence of machining process. APT is
also used to calculate the cutter positions. APT is a three dimensional system controlling up to five axes
including rotational co-ordinates.
The complete APT part program consists of the following four types of statements:
Geometric statements.
Motion statements.
Post processor statements.
Special or compilation control or Auxiliary statements.
Geometric statements
These are used to define the part configuration, which includes points, lines, circles, planes,
cylinders, ellipses, cones, general conics and quadrics with a total of fifteen different surfaces.
Format:
Symbol = Geometry type/ descriptive data
Motion statements
These statements are used to control the cutter path to generate the part and include start-up
procedures, point-to-point programming, cutter description and direction modifiers.
Format:
Motion command/ descriptive data

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Post processor statements

These are used to specify the machine tool functions and are supposed to be acted upon by the
post processor identified earlier in the part program.
e.g. COOLNT/ON, SPINDL/ON, FEDRAT/20

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Auxiliary statements
These are used for cutter size definition, part identification and so on. These statements control
the output listing, translation, rotation and repetitive programming techniques.
e.g. CLPRNT, OUTTOL, INTOL, FINI.
Normally, a part program is executed sequentially starting from a PARTNO statement to the
FINI statement. After entering the program, a printout of the APT processor can be obtained showing the
canonical information of all the geometry defined and the cutter location data. A plot of the CLDATA is
also obtained to prove the validity of the program.

A CNC Milling Machine

A CNC Turning Center

CNC panel Siemens Sinumerik

Siemens CNC panel

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The abbreviation CNC stands for computer numerical control, and refers specifically to a computer
"controller" that reads G-code instructions and drives a machine tool, a powered mechanical device
typically used to fabricate components by the selective removal of material. CNC does numerically
directed interpolation of a cutting tool in the work envelope of a machine. The operating parameters of
the CNC can be altered via a software load program.

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