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List of programming languages by type

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This is a list of programming languages groups.

Contents [hide]
1 Array language
2 Assembly languages
3 Authoring languages
4 Command line interface languages
5 Compiled languages
6 Concurrent languages
7 Curly-bracket languages
8 Dataflow languages
9 Data-oriented languages
10 Data-structured languages
11 Decision table languages
12 Declarative languages
13 Embeddable languages
13.1 In source code
13.1.1 Server side
13.1.2 Client side
13.2 In object code
14 Educational languages
15 Esoteric languages
16 Extension languages
17 Fourth-generation languages
18 Functional languages
18.1 Pure
18.2 Impure
19 Hardware description languages
19.1 HDLs for analog circuit design
19.2 HDLs for digital circuit design
20 Imperative languages
21 Interactive mode languages
22 Interpreted languages
23 Iterative languages
24 List-based languages LISPs
25 Little languages
26 Logic-based languages
27 Machine languages
28 Macro languages
28.1 Textual substitution macro languages
28.2 Application macro languages
29 Metaprogramming languages
30 Multiparadigm languages
31 Numerical analysis
32 Non-English-based languages
33 Object-oriented class-based languages
33.1 Multiple dispatch
33.2 Single dispatch
34 Object-oriented prototype-based languages
35 Off-side rule languages
36 Procedural languages
37 Reflective languages
38 Rule-based languages
39 Scripting languages
40 Stack-based languages
41 Synchronous languages

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Programming language
lists
Alphabetical
Categorical
Chronological
Generational
v t e

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42 Syntax handling languages

43 Visual languages
44 Wirth languages
45 XML-based languages
46 See also
47 References
48 External links

Array language

[edit]

See also: Category:Array programming languages

Array programming (also known as vector or multidimensional languages) generalize operations on scalars to apply
transparently to vectors, matrices, and higher-dimensional arrays.
A+
APL
Chapel
Fortran
J
Julia
K
Matlab
Octave
S
S-Lang
SequenceL
X10
ZPL
IDL

Assembly languages

[edit]

Main article: List of assemblers

Assembly languages directly correspond to a machine language (see below) so machine code instructions appear in
a form understandable by humans. Assembly languages lets programmers use symbolic addresses, which the
assembler converts to absolute addresses. Most assemblers also support macros and symbolic constants.
Autocoder (for IBM 1401 and 1440 mainframe systems)
BAL (Basic Assembly Language) - for IBM System/360 and later mainframe systems
COMPASS (COMPrehensive ASSembler)
FAP (Fortran Assembly Program, for IBM 709, 7090, 7094 mainframes)
FASM (Flat Assembler; IA-32, IA-64)
GAS (GNU Assembler)
HLA (High Level Assembly)
HLASM (High Level Assembler, for mainframes)
LC-3
Linoleum (for cross-platform use)
MACRO-11 (for DEC PDP-11)
MASM (Microsoft Macro Assembler)
MI (Machine Interface, compile-time intermediate language)
MIPS (for MIPS architecture) Microprocessor without Interlocked Pipeline Stages
Motorola 68k Assembly (for Motorola 68000 family) of CPUs
NASM (Netwide Assembler)
NEAT (National's Electronic Autocoder Technique), for NCR computers, evolved into NEAT/3
PAL-III (for DEC PDP-8)
PASM (for Parrot virtual machine)
RosAsm (32-bit Assembler; The Bottom Up Assembler)
Sphinx C-- (mixes Assembly commands with C-like structures)
SPS (also IBM 1620)
TASM (Turbo Assembler, Borland)
X#
Yasm (Rewrite of NASM)
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Z80A Mnemonic language used to represent instructions for the Z80A microprocessor

Authoring languages

[edit]

Main article: Authoring language

Bigwig (web design language)
PILOT
TUTOR

Command line interface languages

[edit]

Command-line interface (CLI) languages are also called batch languages, or job control languages. Examples:
4DOS (extended command-line shell for IBM PCs)
bash (the Bourne-Again shell from GNU/FSF)
CHAIN (Datapoint)
CLIST (MVS Command List)
CMS EXEC
csh and tcsh (C-like shell from Bill Joy at UC Berkeley)
DCL DIGITAL Command Language - standard CLI language for VMS (DEC, Compaq, HP)
DOS batch language (standard CLI/batch language for the IBM PC running DR-DOS, MS-DOS, or PC DOS before
Windows)
EXEC 2
Expect (a UNIX automation and test tool)
Hamilton C shell (a C shell for Windows)
JCL (punch card-oriented batch control language for IBM System/360 family mainframes)
ksh (a standard UNIX shell, written by David Korn)
Rc (command-line shell for Plan 9)
REXX
sh (the standard UNIX shell, written by Stephen R. Bourne)
TACL (Tandem Advanced Command Language)
Windows batch language (Windows batch file language as understood by COMMAND.COM and CMD.EXE)
Windows PowerShell (Microsoft .NET-based CLI)
zsh (a UNIX shell)

Compiled languages

[edit]

These are languages typically processed by compilers, though theoretically any language can be compiled or
interpreted. See also compiled language.
ActionScript
Ada (multi-purpose language)
ALGOL (extremely influential language design. The second high level language compiler.)
SMALL Machine Algol Like Language
Ateji PX, an extension of the Java language for parallelism
BASIC (some dialects, including the first version of Dartmouth BASIC)
BAIL (compiled into C)
BCPL
Blue
C (one of the most widely used procedural programming languages)
C++ (One of the most widely used Object Oriented Languages specially used in large scale, highly complex, high
performance software systems)
CLIPPER 5.3 (Programming Language for dos base software)
C# (compiled into Intermediate Language, which generates a native image at runtime)
CLEO (Clear Language for Expressing Orders) used the compiler for the British Leo computers
COBOL
Cobra
Common Lisp
Curl
D (Attempts a "C++ done right" philosophy)
DASL compiles into Java, JavaScript, JSP, Flex, etc., which are further compiled into a .war file
Delphi (Borland's Object Pascal development system)
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DIBOL (Digital Interactive Business Oriented Language)

Dylan
Eiffel (object-oriented language developed by Bertrand Meyer)
Sather
Ubercode
Emacs Lisp
Erlang
Factor
Fancy
Forth (professional systems, like VFX and SwiftForth)
Fortran (the first high-level, compiled language, from IBM, John Backus, et al.)
Go
Gosu
Groovy (compiled into JVM bytecode)
Haskell
Harbour
Java (usually compiled into JVM bytecode although true native-code compiled versions exist)
JOVIAL
LabVIEW
Mercury
Nemerle (compiled into Intermediate Language bytecode)
Obix
Objective-C
Pascal (most implementations)
Plus
RPG (Report Program Generator)
Rust
Scheme (some implementations, e.g. Gambit)
SequenceL purely functional, automatically parallelizing and race-free
Smalltalk generally compiled to platform independent bytecode that runs on a Virtual Machine.
Swift
ML
Standard ML
Alice
OCaml
Turing
Vala (Compiler for the GObject type system)
Visual Basic (earlier versions compiled directly to a native runtime. Recent .NET versions compile into Intermediate
Language that is generated into a native image at runtime)
Visual FoxPro
Visual Prolog
WinDev
X++
X#
XL
Z++

Concurrent languages

[edit]

See also: Category:Concurrent programming languages

Message passing languages provide language constructs for concurrency. The predominant paradigm for
concurrency in mainstream languages such as Java is shared memory concurrency based on monitors. Concurrent
languages that make use of message passing have generally been inspired by CSP or the -calculus, but have had
little commercial success, except for Ada and Erlang. Ada is a multipurpose language and concurrent programming is
only one option available.
Ada (multi-purpose language)
Alef concurrent language with threads and message passing, used for systems programming in early versions of
Plan 9 from Bell Labs
Ateji PX an extension of the Java language for parallelism

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ChucK domain specific programming language for audio, precise control over concurrency and timing
Cilk a concurrent C
C C Omega, a research language extending C#, uses asynchronous communication
Clojure a dialect of Lisp for the Java Virtual Machine
Chapel
Co-array Fortran
Concurrent Pascal (by Brinch-Hansen)
Curry
E uses promises, ensures deadlocks cannot occur
Eiffel (through the SCOOP mechanism, Simple Concurrent Object-Oriented Computation)
Erlang uses asynchronous message passing with nothing shared
Go
Java
Join Java concurrent language based on Java
X10
Join-calculus
Joule dataflow language, communicates by message passing
Limbo relative of Alef, used for systems programming in Inferno (operating system)
MultiLisp Scheme variant extended to support parallelism
occam influenced heavily by Communicating Sequential Processes (CSP).
occam- a modern variant of occam, which incorporates ideas from Milner's -calculus
Orc
Oz multiparadigm language, supports shared-state and message-passing concurrency, and futures
Mozart Programming System multiplatform Oz
Pict essentially an executable implementation of Milner's -calculus
Rust actor-based
SALSA actor language with token-passing, join, and first-class continuations for distributed computing over the
Internet
Scala implements Erlang-style actors on the JVM
SequenceL purely functional, automatically parallelizing and race-free
SR research language
Unified Parallel C
XProc XML Processing language, enabling concurrency.

Curly-bracket languages

[edit]

The curly-bracket or curly-brace programming languages have a syntax that defines statement blocks using the
curly bracket or brace characters { and } . This syntax originated with BCPL (1966), and was popularized by C
(1972). Many curly-bracket languages descend from or are strongly influenced by C. Examples of curly-bracket
languages include:
ABCL/c+
ActionScript
Alef
Limbo
Go
AutoHotkey
AWK
B
bc
BCPL
C - developed circa 1970 at Bell Labs
C++
C#
Candle
ChucK - audio programming language
Cilk - concurrent C for multithreaded parallel programming
Cyclone - safer C variant
D
DASL - based on Java
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E
ECMAScript
ActionScript
ECMAScript for XML
JavaScript
JScript
TypeScript
Frink
GML (Game Maker Language)
GLSL
ICI
Java
Processing
Groovy
Join Java
Tea
X10
LPC
MSL
MEL
Nemerle - combines C# and ML features, provides syntax extension capabilities
PCASTL
Perl
PHP
Pico
Pike
R
Rust
S-Lang
Scala
sed
SuperCollider
TCL
UnrealScript
Windows PowerShell (Microsoft .NET-based CLI)
Yorick
There is dispute among programmers who use these languages about the placement of opening braces. Some put
them on the lines of code which determine whether the contents of the braces are executed (e.g. the "if" or "while"
condition) in order to reduce the number of lines and make more code visible at once. Others put every brace on a
new line of code, in order to make brace nesting clearer. See Indent style.

Dataflow languages

[edit]

Dataflow programming languages rely on a (usually visual) representation of the flow of data to specify the program.
Frequently used for reacting to discrete events or for processing streams of data. Examples of dataflow languages
include:
Hartmann pipelines
G (used in LabVIEW)
Lucid
Max
Oz
Prograph
Pure Data
Reaktor
StreamBase StreamSQL EventFlow
VEE
VHDL
VisSim
WebMethods Flow

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Data-oriented languages

[edit]

Data-oriented languages provide powerful ways of searching and manipulating the relations that have been described
as entity relationship tables which map one set of things into other sets. Examples of data-oriented languages include:
Clarion
Clipper
dBase a relational database access language
MUMPS (an ANSI standard general purpose language with specializations for database work.)
Cach (similar to MUMPS)
RDQL
SPARQL
SQL
Tutorial D, see also The Third Manifesto
Visual FoxPro, a native RDBMS engine, object oriented, RAD
WebDNA
WebQL

Data-structured languages

[edit]

See also: Category:Data-structured programming languages

Data-structured languages are those where logic is structured in ways similar to their data. Such languages are
generally well suited to reflection and introspection. There are three main types:
Array-based
List-based
Stack-based
Assembly languages that statically link data inline with instructions can also be considered data-structured, in the
most primitive way.

Decision table languages

[edit]

Decision tables can be used as an aid to clarifying the logic before writing a program in any language, but in the
1960s a number of languages were developed where the main logic is expressed directly in the form of a decision
table, including:
Filetab

Declarative languages

[edit]

See also: Category:Declarative programming languages

Declarative languages describe a problem rather than defining a solution. Declarative programming stands in contrast
to imperative programming via imperative programming languages, where serial orders (imperatives) are given to a
computer. In addition to the examples given just below, all (pure) functional and logic-based programming languages
are also declarative. In fact, "functional" and "logical" constitute the usual subcategories of the declarative category.
Ant (partially Declarative languages, partially imperative programming)
Candle
DASL (partially Declarative languages, partially imperative programming)
Lustre
MetaPost
Modelica
Prolog
Oz
RDQL
SequenceL purely functional, automatically parallelizing and race-free
SPARQL
SQL
xBase
XSL Transformations

Embeddable languages

[edit]

In source code [edit]

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Source embeddable languages embed small pieces of executable code inside a piece of free-form text, often a web
page.
Client-side embedded languages are limited by the capabilities of the browser or intended client. They aim to provide
dynamism to web pages without the need to recontact the server.
Server-side embedded languages are much more flexible, since almost any language can be built into a server. The
aim of having fragments of server-side code embedded in a web page is to generate additional markup dynamically;
the code itself disappears when the page is served, to be replaced by its output.
Server side [edit]
PHP
VBScript
SMX, dedicated to web pages
WebDNA, dedicated to database-driven websites.
Python
The above examples are particularly dedicated to this purpose. A large number of other languages, such as Candle,
Erlang, Scala, Perl and Ruby can be adapted (for instance, by being made into Apache modules).
Client side [edit]
ActionScript
Java
JavaScript
ECMAScript
JScript
VBScript (Windows only)

In object code [edit]

A wide variety of dynamic or scripting languages can be embedded in compiled executable code. Basically, object
code for the language's interpreter needs to be linked into the executable. Source code fragments for the embedded
language can then be passed to an evaluation function as strings. Application control languages can be implemented
this way, if the source code is input by the user. Languages with small interpreters are preferred.
AngelScript
Ch
EEL
Io
Lua
Ruby (via mruby)
Tcl

Educational languages

[edit]

Languages developed primarily for the purpose of teaching and learning of programming.
Alice
Blue
Logo
Modula-2
Pascal
Scheme
Scratch
Turing

Esoteric languages

[edit]

See also: Category:Esoteric programming languages

An esoteric programming language is a programming language designed as a test of the boundaries of computer
programming language design, as a proof of concept, or as a joke.
Befunge
Brainfuck
Chef
FALSE

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INTERCAL
LOLCODE
Malbolge
Piet
Shakespeare
Whitespace

Extension languages

[edit]

Extension programming languages are languages embedded into another program and used to harness its features
in extension scripts.
Ateji PX an extension of the Java language for parallelism
AutoLISP (specific to AutoCAD)
CAL
C/AL(C/SIDE)
Guile
JavaScript and some dialects (e.g. JScript)
Lua
OpenCL an extension of C and C++ to use the GPU and parallel extensions of the CPU.
OptimJ an extension of the Java programming language with language support for writing optimization models and
powerful abstractions for bulk data processing.
Python (Maya, Blender and other 3-D animation packages)
REXX
Ruby (Google SketchUp)
S-Lang
SQL
Squirrel
Tcl
Vim script
VBA
Windows PowerShell

Fourth-generation languages

[edit]

See also: Category:4GL

Fourth-generation programming languages are high-level languages built around database systems. They are
generally used in commercial environments.
ABAP
BuildProfessional
CorVision
CSC's GraphTalk
Easytrieve report generator (now CA-Easytrieve Plus)
FOCUS
IBM Informix-4GL / Aubit-4GL
LINC 4GL
MAPPER (Unisys/Sperry) now part of BIS
MARK-IV (Sterling/Informatics) now VISION:BUILDER of CA
NATURAL
Progress 4GL
Revolution (not based on a database; still, the goal is to work at a higher level of abstraction than 3GLs)
SAS
Sculptor
Ubercode (VHLL, or Very High Level Language)
Uniface
Visual DataFlex
Visual FoxPro
xBase

Functional languages

[edit]

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See also: Category:Functional languages

Functional programming languages define programs and subroutines as mathematical functions. Many so-called
functional languages are "impure", containing imperative features. Not surprisingly, many of these languages are tied
to mathematical calculation tools. Functional languages include:

Pure [edit]
Charity
Clean
Coq (Gallina)
Curry
Haskell
Hope
Mercury
Miranda
Idris
SequenceL

Impure [edit]
APL
ATS
C#
Candle
Curl
Erlang
F#
FPr
CAL
Hop
J
Java (since version 8)
JavaScript
Joy
Julia
Lisp
Clojure
Common Lisp
Dylan
Emacs Lisp
Little b
Logo
Scheme
Racket (formerly PLT Scheme)
Tea
Mathematica
ML
Standard ML
Alice
OCaml
Nemerle
Opal
OPS5
Poplog
Python
Q (equational programming language)
Q (programming language from Kx Systems)
R
Ruby
REFAL
Rust
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Scala
Spreadsheets

Hardware description languages

[edit]

In electronics, a Hardware description language or HDL is a specialized computer language used to describe the
structure, design and operation of electronic circuits, and most commonly, digital logic circuits. The two most widely
used and well-supported HDL varieties used in industry are Verilog and VHDL. Hardware description languages
include:

HDLs for analog circuit design [edit]

Verilog-AMS (Verilog for Analog and Mixed-Signal)
VHDL-AMS (VHDL with Analog/Mixed-Signal extension)

HDLs for digital circuit design [edit]

Advanced Boolean Expression Language(ABEL)
Altera Hardware Description Language(AHDL)
Bluespec
Chisel (Constructing Hardware in a Scala Embedded Language)
Confluence
ELLA
ESys.net
Handel-C
HHDL
Impulse C
JHDL
Lava
Lola
M
MyHDL
PALASM
Ruby (hardware description language)
SystemC
SystemVerilog
Verilog
VHDL (VHSIC HDL)

Imperative languages

[edit]

Imperative programming languages may be multi-paradigm and appear in other classifications. Here is a list of
programming languages that follow the imperative paradigm:[1][2]
Ada
ALGOL
BASIC
Blue
C
C++
COBOL
D
FORTRAN
Go
Java
Julia
Lua
MATLAB
Machine language
Modula-2, Modula-3
MUMPS
Oberon
Object Pascal

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OCaml
Pascal
Perl
PHP
PROSE modeling language
Python
Ruby
Rust

Interactive mode languages

[edit]

Interactive mode languages act as a kind of shell: expressions or statements can be entered one at a time, and the
result of their evaluation is seen immediately.
APL
BASIC (some dialects)
Clojure
Common Lisp
Erlang
F#
Fancy
Forth
FPr
Fril
Haskell (with the GHCi or Hugs interpreter)
IDL
J
JavaScript (via Node.js at the command line or Chrome's developer tools)
Julia
Lua
MUMPS (an ANSI standard general purpose language)
Maple
Mathematica
MATLAB
ML
Obix
Perl
Pike
PostScript
Python
PROSE modeling language
R
REXX
Ruby (with IRB)
Scala
Scheme
Smalltalk (anywhere in a Smalltalk environment)
S-Lang (with the S-Lang shell, slsh)
Tcl (with the Tcl shell, tclsh)
Windows PowerShell (Microsoft .NET-based CLI)

Interpreted languages

[edit]

Interpreted languages are programming languages in which programs may be executed from source code form, by an
interpreter. Theoretically, any language can be compiled or interpreted, so the term *interpreted language* generally
refers to languages that are commonly interpreted rather than compiled.
Ant
APL
AutoHotkey scripting language
AutoIt scripting language
BASIC (some dialects)
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DATABUS (later versions added optional compiling)

DM
Eiffel (via "Melting Ice Technology" in EiffelStudio)
Forth (interactive shell only; otherwise compiled to native or threaded code)
FPr (Virtual machine: Text is compiled to linked lists; linked lists are interpreted)
Frink
Game Maker Language
Groovy
Haskell (GHCi, Hugs, NHC, YHC etc.)
J
Julia
JavaScript
Lisp (early versions, pre-1962, and some experimental ones; production Lisp systems are compilers, but many of
them still provide an interpreter if needed)
Tea
LPC
Lua
MUMPS (an ANSI standard general purpose language)
Maple
Mathematica
Oriel
Pascal (early implementations)
PCASTL
Perl
PHP
Pikt
PostScript
PROSE modeling language
Python
REXX
R
Ruby
S-Lang
SML (Standard ML)
Spin
Tcl
TI-BASIC
TorqueScript
thinBasic scripting language
VBScript
Windows PowerShell (Microsoft .NET-based CLI)
Some scripting languages (below)

Iterative languages

[edit]

Iterative languages are built around or offering generators.

Aldor
Alphard
C#
CLU
Cobra
Eiffel, through "agents"
Icon
IPL-v
Lua
Python
Sather
XL ("iterator" construct)

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List-based languages LISPs

[edit]

List-based languages are a type of data-structured language that are based upon the list data structure.
FPr
Joy
Lisp
Arc
Clojure
Common Lisp
Dylan
Emacs Lisp
Racket
Scheme
Logo
R
Tcl
Tea
TRAC

Little languages

[edit]

Little languages serve a specialized problem domain.

awk can serve as a prototyping language for C, because the syntax is similar
Comet is used to solve complex combinatorial optimization problems in areas such as resource allocation and
scheduling.
SQL has only a few keywords, and not all the constructs needed for a full programming language.[3] Many
database management systems extend SQL with additional constructs as a stored procedure language.

Logic-based languages

[edit]

See also: Category:Logic programming languages

Logic-based languages specify a set of attributes that a solution must have, rather than a set of steps to obtain a
solution. Examples:
ALF
Alma-0
CLACL (CLAC-Language)
Curry
Fril
Janus
Prolog (a logic programming language featuring polymorphic typing, modular programming, and higher-order
programming)
Leda
Oz
Mozart Programming System a multiplatform Oz
Poplog
Prolog (formulates data and the program evaluation mechanism as a special form of mathematical logic called
Horn logic and a general proving mechanism called logical resolution)
Mercury (based on Prolog)
Strawberry Prolog (standard Prolog with some extensions)
Visual Prolog (object-oriented Prolog extension)
ROOP

Machine languages

[edit]

Machine languages are directly executable by a computer's CPU. They are typically formulated as bit patterns, usually
represented in octal or hexadecimal. Each group of npatterns (often 1 or more bytes) causes the circuits in the CPU
to execute one of the fundamental operations of the hardware. The activation of specific electrical inputs (e.g., CPU
package pins for microprocessors), and logical settings for CPU state values, control the processor's computation.
Individual machine languages are processor specific and are not portable. They are (essentially) always defined by
the CPU developer, not by 3rd parties. The symbolic version, the processor's assembly language, is also defined by

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the developer, in most cases. Since processors come in families based on a shared architecture, the same basic
assembly language style can often be used for more than one CPU. Each of the following CPUs served as the basis
for a family of processors:
ARM
DEC PDP-6, which led to the KA10 family (used in PDP-10, DECSYSTEM-20)
DEC PDP-11 (influenced VAX and M68000)
Intel 8008, 8080 and 8085
Zilog Z80
x86-16 Instruction set first used in the Intel 8086
Intel 8088 (variant used in the first and early IBM PC)
Intel 80186
Intel 80286 (the first x86 processor with protected mode, used in the IBM AT)
x86-32
Intel 80386
Intel 80486
Intel Pentium and Xeon CPUs
x86-64 The original specification was created by AMD. There are vendor variants, but they're essentially the
same
AMD's AMD64 - Opteron, Athlon 64
Intel's Intel 64 - Core CPUs (Core2, i3, i5, i7), some Atom, and newer Pentium 4s and Xeon processors
IBM System/360
MIPS R2000/R3000
Motorola 6800
Motorola 68000 family (CPUs used in early Apple Macintosh and early Sun computers)
MOS Technology 65xx
6502 (CPU for VIC-20, Apple II, and Atari 800)
6510 (CPU for Commodore 64)
Western Design Center 65816/65802 (CPU for Apple IIGS and (variant) Super Nintendo Entertainment
System)
National 32032
Power Architecture
POWER
PowerPC - used in Power Macintosh and the technology is used in many game consoles)
StrongARM
Sun SPARC, UltraSPARC

Macro languages

[edit]

Textual substitution macro languages [edit]

See also: Category:Macro programming languages
Macro languages transform one source code file into another. A "macro" is essentially a short piece of text that
expands into a longer one, possibly with parameter substitution. They are often used to preprocess source code.
Preprocessors can also supply facilities like file inclusion. Macro languages may be restricted to acting on specially
labeled code regions (pre-fixed with a # in the case of the C preprocessor. Alternatively, they may not, but in this
case it is still often undesirable to (for instance) expand a macro embedded in a string literal, so they still need a
rudimentary awareness of syntax. That being the case, they are often still applicable to more than one language.
Contrast with source-embeddable languages like PHP, which are fully featured.
cpp (the C preprocessor)
m4 (originally from AT&T, bundled with UNIX)

Application macro languages [edit]

Scripting languages such as Tcl and ECMAScript (ActionScript, ECMAScript for XML, JavaScript, JScript) have been
embedded into applications. These are sometimes called "macro languages", although in a somewhat different sense
to textual-substitution macros like m4.

Metaprogramming languages

[edit]

Metaprogramming is writing of programs that write or manipulate other programs (or themselves) as their data or that
do part of the work that is otherwise done at run time during compile time. In many cases, this allows programmers to
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get more done in the same amount of time as they would take to write all the code manually.
C++
Curl
D
Fancy
Forth
Groovy
Haskell
Julia
Lisp
Lua
Maude system
Mathematica
MetaL
MetaOCaml
Nemerle
Perl
Python
Ruby
Rust
Scheme
SequenceL
Smalltalk
XL (concept programming)

Multiparadigm languages

[edit]

Multiparadigm languages support more than one programming paradigm. They allow a program to use more than one
programming style. The goal is to allow programmers to use the best tool for a job, admitting that no one paradigm
solves all problems in the easiest or most efficient way.
Ada (concurrent, distributed, generic (template metaprogramming), imperative, object-oriented (class-based))
ALF (functional, logic)
Alma-0 (constraint, imperative, logic)
APL (functional, imperative)
BETA (functional, imperative, object-oriented (class-based))
C++ (generic, imperative, object-oriented (class-based), functional)
C# (generic, imperative, object-oriented (class-based), functional, declarative)
ChucK (imperative, object-oriented, time-based, concurrent, on-the-fly)
Cobra (generic, imperative, object-oriented (class-based), functional, contractual)
Common Lisp (functional, imperative, object-oriented (class-based), aspect-oriented (user may add further
paradigms, e.g., logic))
Curl (functional, imperative, object-oriented (class-based), metaprogramming)
Curry (concurrent, functional, logic)
D (generic, imperative, functional, object-oriented (class-based), metaprogramming)
Delphi (generic, imperative, object-oriented (class-based), metaprogramming)
Dylan (functional, object-oriented (class-based))
ECMAScript (functional, imperative, object-oriented (prototype-based))
ActionScript
ECMAScript for XML
JavaScript
JScript
Eiffel (imperative, object-oriented (class-based), generic, functional (agents), concurrent (SCOOP))
F# (functional, generic, object-oriented (class-based), language-oriented)
Fantom (functional, object-oriented (class-based))
FPr (function-level, object-oriented (class-based))
Harbour
Hop
J (functional, imperative, object-oriented (class-based))
Julia (functional, imperative, object-oriented, metaprogramming)

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LabVIEW (dataflow, visual)

Lasso (macro, object-oriented (prototype-based), procedural, scripting)
Lava (object-oriented (class-based), visual)
Leda (functional, imperative, logic, object-oriented (class-based))
Lua (functional, imperative, object-oriented (prototype-based))
Mercury (functional, logical, object oriented)
Metaobject protocols (object-oriented (class-based, prototype-based))
Nemerle (functional, object-oriented (class-based), imperative, metaprogramming)
Objective-C (imperative, object-oriented (class-based), reflective)
OCaml (functional, imperative, object-oriented (class-based))
Oz (functional (evaluation: eager, lazy), logic, constraint, imperative, object-oriented (class-based), concurrent,
distributed)
Mozart Programming System (multiplatform Oz)
Object Pascal (imperative, object-oriented (class-based))
Perl (imperative, functional (can't be purely functional), object-oriented, class-oriented, aspect-oriented (through
modules))
PHP (imperative, object-oriented)
Pike
Poplog (functional, imperative, logic)
Prograph (dataflow, object-oriented (class-based), visual)
Python (functional, object-oriented (class-based), imperative, metaprogramming)
R
Racket (functional, imperative, object-oriented (class-based)..., and can be extended by the user)
REBOL (functional, imperative, object-oriented (prototype-based), metaprogramming (dialected))
ROOP (imperative, logic, object-oriented (class-based), rule-based)
Ruby (imperative, functional, object-oriented (class-based))
Rust (concurrent, functional, imperative, object-oriented)
Scala (functional, object-oriented)
Seed7 (imperative, object-oriented, generic)
SISAL (concurrent, dataflow, functional)
Spreadsheets (functional, visual)
Tcl (functional, imperative, object-oriented (class-based))
Tea (functional, imperative, object-oriented (class-based))
Windows PowerShell (functional, imperative, pipeline, object-oriented (class-based))
XL (concept programming approach)

Numerical analysis

[edit]

AIMMS
AMPL
GAMS
Julia
MATLAB
PROSE modeling language
Seneca an Oberon variant

Non-English-based languages

[edit]

Main article: non-English-based programming languages

ARLOGO - Arabic
Chinese BASIC - Chinese
Fjlnir - Icelandic
Language Symbolique d'Enseignement - French
Lexico - Spanish
Rapira - Russian

Object-oriented class-based languages

[edit]

Class-based Object-oriented programming languages support objects defined by their class. Class definitions include
member data. Message passing is a key concept (if not the key concept) in Object-oriented languages.

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Polymorphic functions parameterized by the class of some of their arguments are typically called methods. In
languages with single dispatch, classes typically also include method definitions. In languages with multiple dispatch,
methods are defined by generic functions. There are exceptions where single dispatch methods are generic functions
(e.g. Bigloo's object system).

Multiple dispatch [edit]

Common Lisp
Cecil
Dylan
Goo
Julia

Single dispatch [edit]

ActionScript 3.0
Actor
Ada 95 and Ada 2005 (multi-purpose language)
BETA
Blue
C++
C#
Oxygene (formerly known as Chrome)
ChucK
Cobra
ColdFusion
Curl
D
DASL
Delphi
E
GNU E
Eiffel
Sather
Ubercode
Fancy
F-Script
Fortran 2003
Fortress
FPr
Gambas
Game Maker Language
Harbour
J
Java
Processing
Groovy
Join Java
Tea
X10
LabVIEW
Lava
Lua
Modula-2 (data abstraction, information hiding, strong typing, full modularity)
Modula-3 (added more object oriented features to Modula-2)
Moto
Nemerle
IBM NetRexx
Oberon-2 (full object orientation equivalence in an original, strongly typed, Wirthian manner)
Obix
Object Pascal

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Object REXX
Objective-C (a superset of C adding a Smalltalk derived object model and message passing syntax)
OCaml
Oz
Mozart Programming System
Perl 5
PHP
Pike
Prograph
Python (object oriented interpretive language)
Realbasic
Revolution (programmer does not get to pick the objects)
Ruby
Scala
Simula (the first object oriented language, developed by Ole-Johan Dahl and Kristen Nygaard)
Smalltalk (pure object-orientation, developed at Xerox PARC)
Bistro
F-Script
Little Smalltalk
Squeak
Scratch
IBM VisualAge
VisualWorks
SPIN
SuperCollider
VBScript (Microsoft Office 'macro scripting' language)
Visual DataFlex
Visual FoxPro
Visual Prolog
X++
XOTcl

Object-oriented prototype-based languages

[edit]

Prototype-based languages are object-oriented languages where the distinction between classes and instances has
been removed:
ABCL/1
ABCL/R
ABCL/R2
ABCL/c plus
Agora
Cecil
ECMAScript
ActionScript
ECMAScript for XML
JavaScript (first named Mocha, then LiveScript)
JScript
Etoys in Squeak
Io
Lisaac
Lua
MOO
NewtonScript
Obliq
R
REBOL
Self (the first prototype-based language, derived from Smalltalk)
TADS

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Off-side rule languages

[edit]

Off-side rule languages are those where blocks are formed, indicated, by their indentation.
ISWIM, the abstract language that introduced the rule
ABC, Python's parent
Python
Cobra
Boo
Genie
Miranda, Haskell's parent
Orwell
Haskell
Curry
F#
Occam
SPIN
XL

Procedural languages

[edit]

Procedural programming languages are based on the concept of the unit and scope (the data viewing range of an
executable code statement). A procedural program is composed of one or more units or modules, either user coded
or provided in a code library; each module is composed of one or more procedures, also called a function, routine,
subroutine, or method, depending on the language. Examples of procedural languages include:
Ada (multi-purpose language)
ALGOL (extremely influential language design. The second high level language compiler.)
SMALL Machine Algol Like Language
Alma-0
BASIC (BASICs are innocent of most modularity in (especially) versions before about 1990)
BCPL
BLISS
Blue
C
C++ (C with objects + much else)
C# (similar to Java/C++)
ChucK (C/Java-like syntax, with new syntax elements for time and parallelism)
COBOL
Cobra
ColdFusion
Combined Programming Language (CPL)
Curl
D
DASL (partly declarative, partly imperative)
ECMAScript
ActionScript
ECMAScript for XML
JavaScript (first named Mocha, then LiveScript)
JScript
Eiffel
Fortran (better modularity in later Standards)
F
Go
Harbour
HyperTalk
Java
Groovy
Join Java
Tea
JOVIAL
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Lasso
Modula-2 (fundamentally based on modules)
MATLAB
MUMPS (more modular in its first release than a language of the time should have been; the standard has become
still more modular since then)
Nemerle
Oberon and Oberon-2 (improved, smaller, faster, safer follow-ons for Modula-2)
Component Pascal
Lagoona
Seneca
Obix
Occam
Oriel
Pascal (successor to ALGOL 60, predecessor of Modula-2)
Free Pascal (FPC)
Object Pascal (Delphi)
PCASTL
Perl
Pike
PL/C
PL/I (large general purpose language, originally for IBM mainframes)
Plus
PROSE modeling language
Python
R
Rapira
RPG (only available in IBM's System i midrange computers)
Rust
S-Lang
VBScript
Visual Basic
Visual FoxPro
X++
X#
XL

Reflective languages

[edit]

Reflective languages let programs examine and possibly modify their high level structure at runtime. This is most
common in high-level virtual machine programming languages like Smalltalk, and less common in lower-level
programming languages like C. Languages and platforms supporting reflection:
See also: Aspect-oriented programming
Befunge
C#
Charm
ChucK
Cobra
Component Pascal BlackBox Component Builder
Curl
Delphi
ECMAScript
ActionScript
ECMAScript for XML
JavaScript
JScript
Eiffel
Forth
Harbour
Java
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Java Virtual Machine

Groovy
Join Java
X10
Julia
Lisp
Clojure
Common Lisp
Dylan
Logo
Scheme
Lua
Maude system
.NET Framework Common Language Runtime
Oberon-2 ETH Oberon System
Obix
Objective-C
PCASTL
Perl
PHP
Pico
Poplog
POP-11
Prolog
Python
REBOL
Ruby
Smalltalk (pure object-orientation, originally from Xerox PARC)
Bistro
F-Script
Little Smalltalk
Self
Squeak
IBM VisualAge
VisualWorks
Snobol
Tcl
XOTcl
X++
XL

Rule-based languages

[edit]

Rule-based languages instantiate rules when activated by conditions in a set of data. Of all possible activations, some
set is selected and the statements belonging to those rules execute. Rule-based languages include:
awk
CLIPS
Constraint Handling Rules
GOAL agent programming language
Jess
OPS5
Prolog
ToonTalk robots are rules
Mathematica
XSLT

Scripting languages

[edit]

"Scripting language" has two apparently different, but in fact similar meanings. In a traditional sense, scripting

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languages are designed to automate frequently used tasks that usually involve calling or passing commands to
external programs. Many complex application programs provide built-in languages that let users automate tasks.
Those that are interpretive are often called scripting languages.
Recently, many applications have built-in traditional scripting languages, such as Perl or Visual Basic, but there are
quite a few "native" scripting languages still in use. Many scripting languages are compiled to bytecode and then this
(usually) platform independent bytecode is run through a virtual machine (compare to Java).
AppleScript
AWK
BeanShell
Bash
Candle
Ch (Embeddable C/C++ interpreter)
CLIST
ColdFusion
ECMAScript
ActionScript
ECMAScript for XML
JavaScript (first named Mocha, then LiveScript)
JScript
CMS EXEC
EXEC 2
F-Script
Falcon
Fancy
Frink
Game Maker Language (GML)
ICI
Io
JASS
Groovy
Join Java
Julia
Tea
Lua
MAXScript
MEL
Obix
Oriel
Perl
PHP (intended for Web servers)
Pikt
Python
R
REBOL
REXX
Revolution
Ruby
Smalltalk
S-Lang
sed
Tcl
TorqueScript
VBScript
WebDNA, dedicated to database-driven websites
Windows PowerShell (Microsoft .NET-based CLI)
Winbatch
Many shell command languages such as the UNIX shell or DCL on VMS have powerful scripting capabilities.

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Stack-based languages

[edit]

See also: Category:Stack-oriented programming languages

Stack-based languages are a type of data-structured language that are based upon the stack data structure.
colorForth
Factor
Forth
Joy (all functions work on parameter stacks instead of named parameters)
Piet
Poplog via its implementation language POP-11
PostScript
RPL

Synchronous languages

[edit]

See also: Category:Synchronous programming languages

Synchronous programming languages are optimized for programming reactive systems, systems that are often
interrupted and must respond quickly. Many such systems are also called realtime systems, and are found often in
embedded uses. Examples:
Argus
Averest
Esterel
Lustre
SyncCharts

Syntax handling languages

[edit]

These languages assist with generating lexical analyzers and parsers for Context-free grammars.
ANTLR
Candle (instead of generating lexical analyzers or parsers, Candle takes EBNF kind of grammar and generate the
AST of the source)
Coco/R (EBNF with semantics)
GNU bison (FSF's version of Yacc)
GNU Flex (FSF's version of Lex)
glex/gyacc (GoboSoft compiler compiler to Eiffel)
lex (Lexical Analysis, from Bell Labs)
M4
yacc (yet another compiler compiler, from Bell Labs)
JavaCC

Visual languages

[edit]

See also: Category:Visual programming languages

Visual programming languages let users specify programs in a two-(or more)-dimensional way, instead of as onedimensional text strings, via graphic layouts of various types.
CODE
DRAKON
Fabrik
G (used in LabVIEW)
Lava
Limnor
Max
NXT-G
Pict programming language
Prograph
Pure Data
Quartz Composer
Scratch (written in and based on Squeak, a version of Smalltalk)
Simulink
Spreadsheets
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Subtext
ToonTalk
VEE
VisSim
vvvv
EICASLAB
Some dataflow programming languages are also visual languages.

Wirth languages

[edit]

Computer scientist Niklaus Wirth designed and implemented several influential languages.
ALGOL W
Euler
Modula
Modula-2 (and Modula 3, etc. variants)
Obliq Modula 3 variant
Oberon (Oberon, Oberon-07, and Oberon-2)
Component Pascal
Lagoona
Oberon-2
Pascal
Object Pascal ("umbrella" name for Delphi, Free Pascal, Oxygene and others)

XML-based languages

[edit]

These are languages based on or that operate on XML. Although the big-boy equivalents of
Oracle/PostgreSQL/MSSQL don't yet exist for XML, there are languages to navigate through it and its more treeoriented structure.
Ant
Candle
C
ECMAScript ECMAScript for XML
MXML
LZX
XAML
XPath
XQuery
XProc
XSLT

See also

[edit]

Programming paradigms
IEC 61131-3 - a standard for PLC programming languages
Educational programming language
Esoteric programming language

References

[edit]

1. ^ "Your Answer You asked: list of imperative programming languages" . True Knowledge. Retrieved 2012-05-22.
2. ^ Imperative programming history, Wikipedia
3. ^ The objects of SQL are collections of records, called tables. A full programming language can specify algorithms,
irrespective of runtime. Thus an algorithm can be considered to generate usable results. In contrast, SQL can only select
records which are limited to the current collection, the data at hand in the system, rather than produce a statement of the
correctness of the result.

External links

[edit]

Categories of programming languages

Content of this page pivoted by language

Categories: Lists of programming languages

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