C Sharp Programming

Garnet Valley PA.
Sept 01, 2014
Programming C#
For Beginners
By
Mahesh Chand
Note: This book was published in year 2008.
2014 Mahesh Chand

SHARE THIS DOCUMENT AS IT IS. PLEASE DO NOT REPRODUCE, REPUBLISH, CHANGE OR COPY.
A Message from the Author

Mahesh Chand founded C#
Corner in 1999 as a hobby code
sharing website. Today, C#
Corner reaches over 3 Million
users each month and has
become one of the most
popular online communities for
developers.
Mahesh is a Software Solutions
Architect and 9-time Microsoft
MVP. Holding a Bachelors
degree in Mathematics and
Physics and a Masters degree in
Computer Science, Mahesh has
written half a dozen books with
publishers including AddisonWesley and APress.
In his day job, Mahesh is a
technical architect, startup
advisor, and mentor. Some of
the companies he has worked
with includes Microsoft, J&J,
Unisys, Adidas, Juniper,
McGraw-Hill, and Exelon.
C# Corner is a community with the main

goal learn, share and educate. You could
help grow this community by telling your
co-workers and share on your social media
Twitter and Facebook accounts
- Mahesh Chand
2013 Mahesh Chand
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Programming C# is a book written in step-by-step tutorial format for beginners and

students who want to learn C# programming. It is recommended that you have some
programming experience using any of the object-oriented languages such as C++,
Pascal, or Java.
In this tutorial, you will learn how to write and compile C# programs; understand C#
syntaxes, data types, control flow, classes and their members, interfaces, arrays, and
exception handling. After completing this tutorial, you should have a clear understanding
of the purpose of C# language, its usages, and how to write C# programs.
The current version of C# language is 3.0. This tutorial covers all versions of C#
language including 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0. The features added in versions 2.0 and 3.0 are
covered in the end of the book. Rest of the C# 3,0, 4.0, and 5.0 are covered in a separate
book titled Programming C# 5.0, published and available on C# Corner Ebooks section.
2013 Mahesh Chand
Programming C# for Beginners
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Table of Contents
Introduction
C# Language Features
C# Editors & IDEs
C# Components
Hello C#, World!
Types
Attributes
Variables
Constants
Expressions and Operators
Control Statements
Classes
Events
Indexers
Inheritance
C# 2.0/3.0 Features
Summary
2013 Mahesh Chand
1. Introduction
Microsoft developed C#, a new programming language based on the C and C++
languages. Microsoft describes C# in this way: C# is a simple, modern, objectoriented,
and typesafe programming language derived from C and C++. C# (pronounced c sharp)
is firmly planted in the C and C++ family tree of languages and will immediately be
familiar to C and C++ programmers. C# aims to combine the high productivity of visual
basic and raw power of C++.
Anders Hejlsberg, the principal architect of C#, is known for his work with Borland on
Turbo Pascal and Delphi (based on objectoriented Pascal). After leaving Borland,
Hejlsberg worked at Microsoft on Visual J++.
Some aspects of C# will be familiar to those, who have programmed in C, C++, or Java.
C# incorporates the Smalltalk concept, which means everything is an object. In other
words, all types in C# are objects. C# properties are similar to Visual Basic language
properties. The Rapid Application Development (RAD) goal in C# is assisted by C#s use
of concepts and keyword, such as class, structure, statement, operator, and enumeration.
The language also utilizes the concepts contained in the Component Object Model (COM)
architecture.
Unlike Visual Basic or Delphi, Events is a type in C# and can belong to an object.
Members of a class object can have variables, methods, properties, attributes, and
events. Attributes are another nice feature of C# language.
NOTE: C# is a case sensitive language.
2. C# Language Features
C# was developed as a language that would combine the best features of previously
existing Web and Windows programming languages. Many of the features in C# language
are preexisted in various languages such as C++, Java, Pascal, and Visual Basic. Here is
a list of some of the primary characteristics of C# language.
Modern and Object Oriented

Simple and Flexible
Typesafety
Automatic Memory Management
Versioning Control
Cross Platform Interoperability
Advanced features introduced in C# 2.0 and 3.0
a. Modern and Object Oriented

A modern language is one that provides latest features and tools for developing scalable,
reliable, and robust industrystandard applications. C# is a modern language. The current
2013 Mahesh Chand
As mentioned, C# is an objectoriented language. It supports all the basic object oriented

language features: encapsulation, polymorphism, and inheritance.
b. Simple and Flexible

C# is as simple to use as Visual Basic, in that everything in C# represented as an object.
All data type and components in C# are objects. C++ programmers are sometimes
confused when choosing different access operators to process object. With C# you use a
dot (.) operator to access the object members.
Programmers use C# to develop both managed and unmanaged code. Managed code is
code managed through the CLR module. It handles garbage collection, type-safety, and
platform-independence behavior. Unmanaged code, on the other hand is code run outside
the CLR, such as an ActiveX control.
C# provides the flexibility of using native Win 32 application programming interface (API)
and unmanaged code through COM+. C# enables you to declare unsafe classes and
members having pointers, COM interfaces, structures, and native APIs. Although the
class and its member are not typesafe, they still can be executed from managed code
using COM+. Using the N/ Direct features of C# and COM+, you can use the C language
API. With the help of the COM+ run-time and the COM+ Common Language Specification
(CLS), you can access the COM and COM+ API. Using the Sysimport attribute, you can
even access native Windows API (DLLs) in C#. See the Attributes section of this article
for more about attributes.
c. Typesafety
C# is a typesafe language. All variables and classes (including primitive type, such as
integer, Boolean, and float) in C# are a type, and all type are derived from the object the
object type.
The object type provides basic functionality, such as string conversion, and information
about a type. (See The Object Class section of this article for more about the object
type.) C# doesnt support unsafe type assignments. In other words, assigning a float
variable directly to a Boolean variable is not permitted. If you assign a float type to a
Boolean type, the compiler generates an error.
C# supports two kinds of type: value type and reference types. All value types are
initialized with a value of zero, and all reference types are automatically initialized with a
null value (local variable need to be initialized explicitly or the compiler throw a
warning). The Type in C# section of this article will discuss types in more detail.
d. Automatic Memory Management and Garbage Collection

Automatic memory management and garbage collection are two important features of C#.
With C#, you dont need to allocate memory or release it. The garbage collection feature
2013 Mahesh Chand
trend in programming is Web development, and C# is the best language for developing
web application and components for the Microsoft .NET platform.
e. Versioning Control and Scalable

If youre a Microsoft Window developer, you should be familiar with the expression DLL
hell, which refers to having multiple versions of the same Dynamic Link Library (DLL)
and not having backward and forward compatibility. For example, you cant run programs
written in Microsoft Foundation class (MFC) version4.0 on systems with MFC version 3.0
or earlier. This is one of the biggest challengers for a developer, especially if youre
developing MFC applications.
C# model is based on namespaces. All interfaces and classes must be bundled under a
namespace. A namespace has classes as its members. You can access all the members or
just a single member of a namespace. Two separate namespaces can have the same class
as their member.
C# also supports binary compatibility with a base class. Adding a new method to a base
class wont cause any problems in your existing application.
The .NET assemblies contain metadata called manifest. A manifest stores information
about an assembly such as its version, locale, and signature. There is no concept of
registry entries for handing compatibility. In .NET, you simple put your assembly into one
global folder if you want to make it sharable; otherwise, you put it in a private folder for
private use only.
f. Language and Cross Platform Interoperability

C#, as with all Microsoft .NET supported language, shares a common .NET run-time
library. The language compiler generates intermediate language (IL) code, which a .NET
supported compiler can read with the help of the CLR. Therefore, you can use a C#
assembly in VB.NET without any problem, and vice versa.
With the full support of COM+ and .NET framework services, C# has the ability to run on
cross-platform systems. The Web-based applications created from .NET use an
Extensible Markup Language (XML) model, which can run on multiple platforms.
g. Advanced Features introduced in C# 2.0 and 3.0

These features are discussed in more details in C# 2.0 Features and C# 3.0 Features
sections of this tutorial.
The following features were introduced in C# version 2.0.
Partial classes
Generics
2013 Mahesh Chand
ensures that unused references are deleted and cleaned up in memory. You use the new
operator to create type object, but you never need to call a delete operator to destroy
the object. If the garbage collector finds any unreferenced object hanging around in
memory, it removes it for you. Although you cant call delete directly on an object, you
have way to get garbage collector to destroy objects.
Nullable Types
Anonymous Methods
Iterators
Property Access Accessibility Modifiers
The following features were introduced in C# version 3.0.
Extension Methods
Implicit Typed Local Variables
Object and Collection Initializers
Query Expressions
Lambda Expressions
3. C# Editors and IDEs

Before starting your first C# application, you should take a look at the C# editors
available for creating applications. Visual Studio .NET (VS.NET) Integrated Development
Environment (IDE) is currently the best tool for developing C# applications. Installing VS
.NET also installs the C# command-line compiler that comes with the .NET Software
Development Kit (SDK).
If you dont have VS.NET, you can install the C# command-line compiler by installing the
.NET SDK. After installing the .NET SDK, you can use any C# editor.
Visual Studio 2005 Express is a lighter version of Visual Studio that is free to download.
You can also download Visual C# 2005 Express version for free. To download these
Express versions, go to MSDN website, select Downloads tab, and then select Visual
Studio related link.
Tip: There are many C# editors available- some are even free. Many of the editors that
use the C# command-line compiler are provided with the .NET SDK. Visit the C#
Corners tools section for a list of available C# editor
If you cant get one of these editors, you can use a text editor, such as Notepad or Word
pad. In the next sections, youll learn how to write a windows forms application in
notepad, and then youll look at the VS .NET IDE.
4. Hello, C# Word!
Lets write our first simple Hello, World! program. The program will write output on
your console saying, Hello, C# word!
Before starting with the C# programming, however you must install the C# compiler. The
C# command-line compiler, csc.exe, comes with Microsofts .NET SDK. The .NET SDK
supports the Windows 98, Windows ME, Windows NT 4.0 and Windows 2000 and later
platforms.
2013 Mahesh Chand
Listing 1. Hello, C# world! code

using System;
class Hello
{
static void Main()
{
Console.WriteLine("Hello, C# world!");
}
}
You can compile C# code from the command line using this syntax:
csc C:\\temp\first.cs
Make sure the path of your .cs file is correct and that the csc executable is included in
your path. Also make sure that path of C# Compiler (csc.exe) is correct. After compiling
your code, the C# compiler creates an .exe file called first.exe under the current
directory. Now you can execute the .exe from window explorer or from the command
line. Figure 1 shows the output.
Figure 1. Hello, C# World! program output

Did you seeHello, C# world! on your console?
Yes? Congratulations!!! Youre now officially a C# programmer.
No? You may want to check the path of your file first.cs and the path of the compiler
csc.exe.
You have now written your first few lines of C# code. But what does each line of your
program means? Ill describe the various components of your Hello, C# world! program.
2013 Mahesh Chand
After installing the compiler, type the code for the HELLO, C# World! program in any
C# editor, which is shown in Listing 1. Then save the file as first.cs.
The first line of your program is this:

using System;
The .NET framework class library is referenced in namespaces. The System namespace
contains the Console class, which reads from or writes to the console.
The class keyword defines a new class that is followed by a class name, as seen in the
second line of the Hello, C# World! code listing:
class Hello
{
...
}
The next line of code is the static void Main() function:
static void Main() {
Console.WriteLine ("Hello, C# World!");
}
}
In C#, every application must have a static Main() or int Main() entry point. The
concept is similar to that of the Main() function of C++. This means, this is what a
compiler will be looking for to start the application and whatever code is written in this
method will be executed before any thing else.
The Console class is defined in the System namespace. You can access its class
members by referencing them directly. Writeline(), A method of the Console class, writes
a string and a line terminator to the console.
5. C# Components
Now that youve finished your first C# program, its time to talk about the intricacies of
the C# language. In this section, Ill discuss the C# syntax and components and how to
use them.
Namespace and Assemblies

The first line of the Hello, C# World! program was this:
using System;
This line adds a reference to the System namespace to the program. After adding a
reference to a namespace, you can access any member of the namespace. As mentioned,
in .NET library references documentation, each class belongs to a namespace. But what
exactly is a namespace?
2013 Mahesh Chand
When you create a new application using visual C#, you see that each application is
defined as a namespace and that all classes belong to that namespace. You can access
these classes from other application by referencing their namespaces.
For example, you can create a new namespace MyOtherNamespace with a method Hello
defined in it. The Hello method writes Hello, C# World! to the console. Listing2 shows
the namespace.
Listing 2 Namespace wrapper for the hello class
// Called namespace
namespace MyOtherNamespace
{
class MyOtherClass
{
public void Hello()
{
Console.WriteLine ("Hello, C# World!");
}
}
}
In listing 3, youll see how to reference this namespace and call MyOtherClasss Hello
method from the main program.
In listing 2, the MyOtherClass and its members can be accessed from other namespaces
by either placing the statement using MyOtherNamespace before the class declaration or
by referring to the class my other namespace before the class declaration or by referring
to the class as MyOtherNamespace.Hello, as shown in listing 3 and listing 4.
Listing 3. Calling my other Namespace Name space members
using System;
using MyOtherNamespace;
// Caller namespace
namespace HelloWorldNamespace
{
class Hello
{
static void Main()
{
MyOtherClass cls = new MyOtherClass();
cls.Hello();
}
2013 Mahesh Chand
10
To define .NET classes in a category so theyd be easy to recognize, Microsoft used the
C++ class-packaging concept know as namespaces. A namespace is simply a grouping of
related classes. The root of all namespaces is the System namespace. If you see
namespaces in the .NET library, each class is defined in a group of similar category. For
example, The System.Data namespace only possesses data-related classes, and
System.Multithreading contains only multithreading classes.
11
}
}
// Called namespace
namespace MyOtherNamespace
{
class MyOtherClass
{
public void Hello()
{
Console.WriteLine("Hello, C# World!");
}
}
}
As you have seen in listing 3, you include a namespace by adding the using directly. You
can also reference a namespace direct without the using directive. Listing 4 shows you
how to use MyOtherClass of MyOtherNamespace.
Listing 4. Calling the HelloWorld namespace member from the MyOtherNamespace
// Caller namespace
namespace HelloWorldNamespace
{
class Hello
{
static void Main()
{
MyOtherNamespace.MyOtherClass cls =
new MyOtherNamespace.MyOtherClass();
cls.Hello();
}
}
}
Standard Input and Output Streams

The System.Console class provides the capability to read streams from and write
streams to the System console. It also defines functionality for error streams. The Read
operation reads data from the console to the standard input stream, and the Write
operation writes data to the standard output stream. The standard error stream is
responsible for storing error data. These streams are the automatically associated with
the system console.
The error, in, and out properties of the Console class represents standard error output,
standard input and standard output streams. In the standard output stream, the Read
method reads the next character, and the ReadLine method reads the next line. The
Write and WriteLine methods write the data to the standard output stream. Table 1
describes some of the console class methods.
Table 1. The System.Console Class methods
2013 Mahesh Chand
ReadLline
Write
WriteLine
DESCRIPTION
Reads
a
single
character
Reads a line
Writes a line
Writes a line followed
by a line terminator
EXAMPLE
int i = Console.Read();
12
METHOD
Read
string str = Console.ReadLine();

Console.Write ("Write: 1");
Console.WriteLine("Test Output Data with
Line");
Listing 5 shows you how to use the Console class and its members
Listing 5. Console class example
using System;
namespace ConsoleSamp
{
class Classs1
{
static void Main(string[ ] args )
{
Console.Write("Standard I/O Sample");
Console.WriteLine("");
Console.WriteLine ("= = = = = = = = ");
Console.WriteLine ("Enter your name . . .");
string name = Console.ReadLine();
Console.WriteLine("Output: Your name is : "+ name);
}
}
}
Figure 2 shows the output of listing 5.
Figure 2. The console class methods output
The Object Class
2013 Mahesh Chand
Table 2. Object class methods

METHOD
GetType
Equals
ReferenceEquals
ToString
GetHashCode
DESCRIPTION
Return type of the object.
Compares two object instances. Returns true if theyre
Equal; otherwise false.
Compares two object instances. Returns true if both are
Same instance; otherwise false.
Converts an instance to a string type.
Return hash code for an object.
The following sections discuss the object class methods in more detail.
The GetType method
You can use the Type class to retrieve type information from the object. The GetType
method of an object return a type object, which you can use to get information on an
object such as its name, namespace, base type, and so on. Listing 6 retrieves the
information of objects. In Listing 6, you get the type of the Object and System.String
classes.
Listing 6 GetType example
using System;
class TypeClass
{
static void Main(string [] args)
{
//create object of type object and string
Object cls1 = new Object ();
System.String cls2 = "Test string";
// Call Get Type to return the type
Type type1 = cls1.GetType( );
Type type2 =cls2.GetType( );
// Object class output
Console.WriteLine(type1.BaseType);
Console.WriteLine(type1.Name);
Console.WriteLine(type1.FullName);
Console.WriteLine(type1.Namespace);
// String output
}
2013 Mahesh Chand
13
As described, in the .NET framework, all types are represented as objects and are
derived from the Object class. The Object class defines five methods: Equals,
ReferenceEquals GetHashCode, GetType and ToString. Table 2 describes these methods,
which are available to all types in the .NET library.
14
}
Figure 3. Output of listing

The Equals and ReferenceEqual Methods
The Equals method in the Object class can compare two objects. The ReferenceEqual
method can compare the two objects instances. For example:
Console.WriteLine(Object.Equals(cls1, cls2));
Console.WriteLine(Object.Equals(str1, str2));
See listing 7 get type, equal, and reference Equals
Listing 7. Get Type, Equal, and ReferenceEquals
using System;
namespace TypesSamp
{
//define class 1
public class Class1: object
{
private void Method1()
{
Console.WriteLine("1 method");
}
}
// Define class 2
public class Class2: Class1
{
private void Method2( )
{
2013 Mahesh Chand
15
Console.WriteLine("2 method");
}
}
class TypeClass
{
{
Class1 cls1 = new Class1();
Class2 cls2 = new Class2();
Console.WriteLine ("= = = = = = = = = = ");
Console.WriteLine ("Type Information");
Console.WriteLine ("= = = = = = = = = =");
// Getting type information
Type type1 =cls1.GetType( );
Type type2 = cls2.GetType( );
// Comparing two objects
string str1 = "Test";
string str2 = "Test";
Console.WriteLine(" = = = = = = = = = = = ");
Console.WriteLine("comparison of two objects");
Console.WriteLine(object.Equals(cls1, cls2));
Console.WriteLine(object.Equals(str1, str2));
}
}
}
Figure 4 get type and compare objects code output
2013 Mahesh Chand
The ToString method of the Object class converts a type to a string type.
Listing 8 shows an example of the ToString method.
Listing 8. ToString method example
using System;
namespace ToStringSamp
{
class Test
{
{
int num1 =8;
float num2 =162.034f;
Console.WriteLine(num1.ToString( ));
Console.WriteLine(num2.ToString( ));
}
}
}
The GetHashCode method
A hashtable (also commonly known as a map or dictionary) is a data structure that stores
one or more key- value pairs of data. Hashtables are useful when you want fast access
to a list of data through a key (which can be a number, letter, string, or any object). In
.NET the HashTable class represents a hashtable, which is implemented based on a
hashing algorithm. This class also provides methods and constructors to define the size
of the hash table. You can use the Add and Remove methods to add and remove items
from a hashtable. The Count property of the HashTable class returns the number of
items in a hashtable.
The GetHashCode method returns the hash code of an object. To return a hash code for
a type, you must override the GetHashCode method. An integer value is returned, which
represents whether an object is available in a hashtable.
Two other useful methods of the object class are MemberWiseClone and Finalize
methods. The MemberWiseClone method creates a shallow copy of an object, which can
be used as a clone of an object. The Finalize method acts as a destructor and can clean
up the resources before the garbage collector calls the object. You need to override this
method and write your own code to clean up the resources. The garbage collector
automatically calls the Finalize method if an object is no longer in use.
6. Types
2013 Mahesh Chand
16
The ToString Method and String Conversion
A value type contains the actual value of the object. That means the actual data is stored
in the variable of a value type, whereas a reference type variable contains the reference
to the actual data.
Value Types
Value types reference the actual data and declared by using their default constructors.
The default constructor of these types returns a zero- initialized instance of the variable.
The value types can further be categorized instance of the variable. The value types can
further be categorized into many subcategories, described in the following sections.
Simple Types
Simple types include basic data types such as int, char, and bool. These types have a
reserved keyword corresponding to one class of a CLS type defined in the System class.
For example, the keyword int aliases the System.Int32 type, and the keyword long
aliases the System.Int64 type. Table 3 describes simple types.
Table 3 simple types
C# TYPE
ALIAS
sbyte
byte
CLS
TYPE
Sbyte
Byte
SIZE
BITS
8
8
SUFFIX
DESCRIPTION
RANGE
N/a
N/a
-128 to 127
0 to 255
short
Int16
16
N/a
ushort
unit16
16
N/a
int
Int32
32
N/a
Singed byte
Unsigned
byte
Short
integer
Unsigned
short
integer
Integer
uint
uint32
32
long
Int64
64
ulong
uint64
64
N/a
Unsigned
long integer
char
char
16
N/a
Unicode
character
float
single
32
double
double
64
Floating
point
integer
Double
floating
point
Unsigned
integer
Long integer
-32,768 to 32,767
0 to 65,535
-2,147,483,648 to
2,17483,648
0 to 4,294,967,295
-9223372036854775808
to 9223372036854775808
0 to
18,446,744,073,709,551
,615
any valid character,
e.g., a,*, \x0058
(hex), or\u0058
(Unicode)
2013 Mahesh Chand
17
As mentioned earlier in the article, C# supports value types and reference types. Value
types include simple data type such as int, char, and bool. Reference types include
object, class, interface, and delegate.
boolean
N/a
decimal
decimal
128
integer
Logical
true/false
value
Used
for
financial
and monetary
calculations
True/false
One feature of simple types is that you can assign single direct values to these types.
Listing 9 shows some assignment examples.
Listing 9. Simple type example
using System;
namespace ToStringSamp
{
class Test
{
static void Main(string[ ] args)
{
int num1 =12;
float num2 =3.05f;
double num3 = 3.5;
bool bl = true;
Console.WriteLine(num1.ToString());
Console.WriteLine(bl.ToString());
}
}
}
Struct Type
A struct type, or structure type, can declare constructors, constants, fields, methods,
properties, indexers, operators, and nested types. Structure types are similar to classes,
but theyre lightweight objects with no inheritance mechanism.
However, all structures inherit from the Object class.
In listing 10, your struct CarRec uses a record for a car with three members: name,
model, and year.
Listing 10. a struct type example
using System;
struct CarRec
{
public string Name;
public string Model;
2013 Mahesh Chand
18
bool
class TestStructureType
{
public static void Main ()
{
CarRec rec;
rec.Name ="Honda";
rec.Model ="Accord";
rec.Year = 1999;
Console.WriteLine("Car Name: " +rec.Name);
Console.WriteLine("Car Modal: " +rec.Model );
Console.WriteLine("Car: "+rec.Year);
}
}
Figure 5. Output of listing 10

Enum data types
The enum data types are useful when you need to represent a set of multiple values. A
good example of an enumeration is a list of colors:
enum ColorEnum {black, red, green};
Enum types are limited to long, int, short and byte.
This code declares an enum ColorEnum with members black, red, and green:
//black is 0, red is 1, green is 2.
enum ColorEnum{black, red, green};
2013 Mahesh Chand
19
public int Year;

}
20
You can also set your associated value to an e num type such as:
enum ColorEnum {black =0, red =1, green =2};
By default, enum associated value starts with 0 and increases by 1 for the next defined
member. If you assign your value, the default value of the next e num type member will
be the value of current member plus 1. For example, in this code the value of green is 7;
enum ColorEnum {black =0, red =6, green };
Reference Types
A reference type is a reference to an instance type. The main reference types are class,
array, interface, delegate, and event. A null value is assigned to a reference type by
default. A type assigned to a null value means the absence of an instance of that type.
Class Type
A class type defines a data structure that can have members in the form of methods,
properties, indexers, events, constructors, operators, and delegates. The class keyword
is used to create a class type. You can add methods, properties, indexers, delegates, and
events to the class. Listing 11 shows an properties, indexers, delegates, and events to
the class. Listing 11 shows an example of a class type.
Listing 11 Class Type example
// Define Class 1
public class class1:Object
{
private void Method1()
{
Console.WriteLine("1 method" );
}
}
The new keyword creates access to the class type. After creating an instance, you can
use the dot (.) operator to access its members, as shows here:
Class1 cls1 = new class1();
cls1.Method1();
Ill return to the discussion of classes later in this article.
Interface Type
An interface type is an abstract base class, which is a skeleton of a class and doesnt
implement the members that it defines. Only the derived class of an interface can
implement the members of the interface. Interfaces can contain methods, properties,
events, and indexers.
2013 Mahesh Chand
Listing 12. The interface type example

using System;
interface MyInterface
{
void TestMethod();
}
class MyClass:MyInterface
{
public static void Main()
{
MyClass cls=new MyClass();
cls.TestMethod();
}
public void TestMethod()
{
Console.WriteLine("Test Method");
}
}
A class can also implement multiple interfaces. Listing 13 defines two interfaces,
MyInterface and MyInterface2.MyClass is inherited from these interfaces. You must
implement these interfaces in the inherited class. If you dont implement an interface in
the derived class, the complier gives an error message.
For example, if you dont implement the method test method TestMethod2 of
MyInterface2 in Myclass, the compiler returns this message: Myclass does not
implement the interface member MyInterface2. TestMethod2 (int, int).
Listing 13. Multiple interfaces
using System;
interface MyInterface
{
void TestMethod();
}
interface MyInterface2
{
int TestMethod2(int a, int b);
}
class MyClass : MyInterface, MyInterface2
{
public static void main()
{
int num1 = 23;
int num2 = 6;
MyClass cls = new MyClass();
cls.TestMethod();
2013 Mahesh Chand
21
In listing 12 MyInterface is an interface that defines the method TestMethod.MyClass is

derived from MyInterface, and you implement the MyMethod method in MyClass.
22
int tot = cls.TestMethod2(num1, num2);

Console.WriteLine(tot.ToString());
}
public void TestMethod()
{
Console.WriteLine("test method");
}
public int TestMethod2(int a, int b)
{
return a + b;
}
}
Delegates Types
Delegate types are mainly are used with the class events. A delegate type encapsulates a
method with a certain signature, called a callable entity. Delegates are the typesafe and
secure version of function pointers (callback functionality).
Delegate instances are not aware of the methods they encapsulate; theyre aware only
and return type.
There are three steps in defining and using a delegate: declaration syntax. For example,
this code:
delegate void MyDelegate():
Declares a delegate named MyDelegate that no arguments and returns void.
The next step is to create an instance of delegate and call it:
MyDelegate del =new MyDelegate(TestMethod);
del();
Listing 14 shows an example of delegate.
Listing 14. An example of delegate.
delegate void MyDelegate();
class Test
{
static void TestMethod()
{
System.Console.WriteLine("Test Method called");
}
static void Main()
{
MyDelegate del = new MyDelegate(TestMethod);
del();
}
}
2013 Mahesh Chand
The event keyword defines an event. An eventype enables an object or class to provide
notification of an event from the system. An instance of a delegate type encapsulates the
callable entities. The EventHandler class defines a delegate definition. For example:
public delegate void EventHandler(object sender, System.Event Args e);
public event EventHandler Click;
...........
Ill discuss events in more detail in the Class Members section of this article.
Array Types
An array type is a sequential set of any of the other types. Arrays can be either singleor multidimensional. Both rectangular and jagged arrays are supported a jagged array has
elements that dont necessarily have the same length. A rectangular array is
multidimensional, and all of its subarrays have the same length. With arrays, all of the
elements must be of the same base type. In C#, the lower index of an array starts with 0,
and the upper index is number of item minus 1.
You can initialize array item either during the creation of an array or later by referencing
array item, as shown here:
int[] nums = new int[5];
int[0] = 1;
int[1] = 2;
int[2] = 3;
int[3] = 4;
int[4] = 5;
Or here
int[] nums = new int {1,2,3,4,5,};
Listing 15 shows an example of single- dimensional arrays.
Listing 15. Single dimensional array example
class Test
{
static void Main()
{
//array of integers
int[] nums = new int[5];
// Array of strings
string[ ] names = new string[2];
for(int i =0; i< nums.Length; i++)
nums[i] = i+2;
names[0] = "Mahesh";
names[1] = "Chand";
2013 Mahesh Chand
23
Event Types
}
}
The following is an example is an example of multiple, rectangular, and jagged arrays:
char[] arr1 =new char[] {a, b, c};
int[,] arrr2 = new int[,] {{2,4}, {3, 5}};
//rectangular array declaration
int [, ,]arr3= new int[2,4,6];
// also rectangular
int[][]jarr = new int[3][];
//jagged array declaration
jarr[0] = new int[] {1,2,3};
jarr[1] = new int[] {1,2,3,4,5,6};
jarr[2] = new int[] {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9};
Sorting Searching, and Copying Arrays
The array class defines functionalities for creating, manipulating, searching, shorting, and
copying arrays. Table4 lists and describes some of the array class properties.
Table 4. The array class properties
PROPERTY
Length
Rank
IsFixedLength
IsReadOnly
DESRIPITION
Number of items in an array
Number of dimensions in an array
Indicates if an array is of fixed length
Indicates if an array is read-only
Table 5 describes some of the array Class methods.

Table 5. The array class methods
METHOD
BinarySearch
Clear
Copy
CreateInstance
Reverse
Sort
Clone
CopyTo
GetLength
GetValue
SetValue
DESCRIPTION
Searches for an element using Binary search algorithm
Removes all elements of an array and set reference to
null
Copies a section of one array to another
Initializes a new instance of an array
Reverses the order of array elements
Sorts the elements of an array
Creates a shallow copy of an array
Copies all elements from 1 D array to another
Returns number of items in an array
Gets a value at a specified location
Sets a value at a specified location
2013 Mahesh Chand
24
for (int i = 0; i< nums.Length; i++)

System.Console.WriteLine ("num[{0}] = {1}", i, nums[i] );
System.Console.WriteLine
(names[0].ToString() + " " + names[1].ToString() );
Listing 16. Copying array sample

using System;
public class ArraySample
{
{
// Create and initialize a new arrays
int[] intArr = new int[5] {1,2,3,4,5};
Object[] objArr = new Object[5] {10,20,30,40,50};
foreach (int i in intArr)
{
Console.Write(i);
Console.Write(",");
}
Console.WriteLine();
foreach (Object i in objArr )
{
Console.Write (i);
Console.Write (",");
}
Console.WriteLine();
// Copy one first 3 elements of intArr to objArr
Array.Copy(intArr, objArr,3);
Console.WriteLine("After coping" );
foreach (int i in intArr)
{
Console.Write(i);
Console.Write(" , ");
}
Console.WriteLine( );
foreach (Object i in objArr)
{
Console.Write(i);
Console.Write(" ,");
}
Console.WriteLine( );
}
}
The Sort and Reverse methods of the array class are useful when you need to sort and
reverse array elements. Listing 17 shows how to sort and reverse arrays.
Listing 17. Reversing and sorting array elements
2013 Mahesh Chand
25
The Copy method copies one-array section to another array section. However, this
method only works for single-dimensional array. Listing 16 shows a sample of coping
array items from one array to another.
26
using System;
public class ArraySample
{
{
// Create and initialize a new array instance.
Array strArr = Array.CreateInstance(typeof(string), 3);
strArr.SetValue("Mahesh", 0);
strArr.SetValue("chand", 1);
strArr.SetValue("Test Array", 2);
// Display the values of the array.
Console.WriteLine("Initial Array values:");
for (int i = strArr.GetLowerBound(0);
i <= strArr.GetUpperBound(0); i++)
Console.WriteLine(strArr.GetValue(i));
//sort the value of the array.
Array.Sort(strArr);
Console.WriteLine("After sorting:");
for (int i = strArr.GetLowerBound(0);
i <= strArr.GetUpperBound(0); i++)
// Reverse values of the array.
Array.Reverse(strArr);
for (int i = strArr.GetLowerBound(0); i <=
strArr.GetUpperBound(0); i++)
}
}
Type Conversions
C# supports two kinds of type conversions: implicit conversions and explicit conversions.
Some of the predefined types define predefined conversions, such as converting from an
int type to a long type.
Implicit conversions are conversions in which one type can directly and safely are
converted to another type. Generally, small range type converts to large range type. As
an example, youll examine the process of converting from an int type to a long type. In
this conversion, there is no loss of data, as shown in Listing 18.
Listing 18. Conversion example
using System;
class ConversionSamp
{
static void Main()
2013 Mahesh Chand
27
{
int num1 = 123;
long num2 = num1;
}
}
Casting performs explicit conversions. There may be a chance of data loss or even some
errors in explicit conversions. For example, converting a long value to an integer would
result in data loss.
This is an example of an explicit conversion:
long num1 = Int64.MaxValue;
int num2 =(int)num1;
The process of converting from a value type to a reference type is called boxing. Boxing
is an implicit conversion. Listing 19 shows an example of boxing.
Listing 19. Boxing example
using System;
{
static void Main()
{
int num1 = 123;
Object obj = num1;
Console.WriteLine(obj.ToString());
}
}
The process of converting from a reference type to a value type is called unboxing.
Listing 20 shows an example of unboxing.
Listing 20. Unboxing example
using System;
{
static void Main()
{
Object obj = 123;
int num1 = (int)obj;
Console.WriteLine(obj.ToString());
}
}
2013 Mahesh Chand
28
7. Attributes
Attributes enable the programmer to give certain declarative information to the elements
in their class. These elements include the class itself, the methods, the fields, and the
properties. You can choose to use some of the useful built-in attributes provided with the
.NET platform, or you can create your own. Attributes are specified in square brackets (
[. . .] ) before the class element upon which theyre implemented. Table 6 shows some
useful attributes provided with .NET.
Table 6 Useful Built-in Attributes
NAME
DllImport
Serializable
Conditional
DESCRIPTION
Imports a native DLL
Makes a class serializable
Includes/omits a method based
on condition
EXAMPLE
[DllImport(winmm.dll) ]
[Serializable]
[Conditional(Diagnostic)]
8. Variables
A variable represents a strong location. Each variable has a type that determines what
values can be stored in the variable. A variable must definitely be assigned before its
value can be obtained.
In C#, you declare a variable in this format:
[modifiers] datatype identifier;
In this case, the modifier is an access modifier. The variable Modifiers section will
discuss class member access modifiers. The data type refers to the type of value a
variable can store. The identifier is the name of variable.
The next two examples are declarations of variable where public is the modifier, int is
the data type, and num1 is the name. The second variable type is a local variable. A local
variable cant have modifier because it sits inside a method and is always private to the
method. Here are the examples:
public int num1;
and:
int num1;
A value can be assigned to variable after its declared. You can also initialize a value
during a variable declaration. For example:
2013 Mahesh Chand
29
int num1 = new Int16();

num1 = 34;
int num2 = 123;
Variable Modifiers
Modifiers enable you to specify a number of features that you apply to your variable. You
apply a variable modifier when you declare a variable. Keep in mind that mo-differs can
be applied to fields not to local variables.
Note: A local variable only has scope within its defined block in the program.
A variable can have one or combination of more then one of the following types: internal,
new, private, public, protected, read only, and static.
Accessibility modifiers
Some of the modifiers discussed in previous sections can set the accessibility level of
variables. These are called accessibility modifiers (see table 7).
Table 7. Accessibility modifiers
MODIFIER
internal
public
protected
protected internal
private
DESCRIPTION
The variable can only accessed by the current program.
The variable can be accessed from any where as a field.
The variable can only be accessed with the class in which
its defined and its derived class.
The variable can only be accessed from the current
program and the type derived from the current program.
The variable can only be accessed within the type in which
its defined.
Youll now examine access modifiers in an example. In listing 21, AccessCls is a class
accessed by the Main method. The Main method has access to num1 because its defined
as a public variable, but not to num2 because its a private variable.
Listing 21. Variable access modifiers.
using System;
class VarAccess
{
class AccessCls
{
public int num1 = 123;
int num2 = 54;
}
static void Main()
{
AccessCls cls = new AccessCls();
2013 Mahesh Chand
30
int num1 = 98;

num1 = cls.num1;
//int i = cls. Num2;
}
}
When you access class members, the num2 variable is not available in the list of its
members. See figure 6.
Figure 6. Available members of AccessCls

If you try access num2 from the main program, the compiler gives the error shown in
figure 7
2013 Mahesh Chand
31
Figure 7. Error given when trying to access a private member of class
Static and Read-Only Variables
By default, a field is an instance field. That means a new copy of variable is creates for
each instance of the class to which it belongs. There are some cases where you want the
variable to be shared by ever instance of the class, and its in such cases that static
fields are useful. By defining the static keyword, you can restrict a field to create only
one instance of the variable of a class and share it with all other class instance of the
same type. In other words, if you change the value of a static variable in a class, all
instance at the class level rather then the instance level. You can use the static modifier
alongside other modifiers.
For example:
public static int num2 = 34;
You can modify the value of a variable once its initialized, but there are some cases
where you dont want to change the value of the variable after its assigned during
initialization. In these cases, you can the read only modifier to prevent modification.
9. Constants
2013 Mahesh Chand
const int num3 = 34;

num3 = 54;
// Compilation error: the left-hand side of an assignment must
// be a variable, property or indexer
Although constant are similar to read-only fields, some differences exist. You can also
declare local variables to be constants. Constants are always static, even though you
dont use the static keyword explicitly, so theyre shared by all instances of the class.
10. Expressions and Operators

An expression is a sequence of operators and operands that specify some sort of
computation. The operators indicate an operation to be applied to one or two operands.
For example, the operators + and - indicate adding and subtracting operands. For
example, the operator + and- indicate adding and subtracting one object from another,
respectively. Listing 22 is a simple example of operators and operands.
Listing 22. The relationship between operators and operands
using System;
class Test
{
static void Main()
{
int num1 = 123;
int num2 = 34;
int res = num1 + num2;
Console.WriteLine(res.ToString());
res = -(res);
Console. WriteLine(res.ToString());
}
}
This example applies an operator on two objects, num1 and num2:
There are three types of operators:
The unary operators take one operand and use either a prefix notation (Such as x)
or postfix notation (such as x++ ).
The binary operators take two operands and all use what is called infix notation,
where the operator appears between two objects (such as x + y).
2013 Mahesh Chand
32
Constants are similar to read-only fields. You cant change a constant value once its
assigned. The const keyword precedes the field to define it as a constant. Assigning
value to a constant would give a compilation error. For example:
The ternary operator takes three operands and uses infix notation (such as c? x: y).
Only one ternary operator, ?:, exists.
Table 8 categorizes the operators. The table summarizes all operators in order of
precedence from highest to lowest.
Table 8. Operators in C#
OPERATOR CAREGORY
Primary
Unary
Multiplicative
Additive
Shift
Relational and type testing
Equality
Logical
Logical
Logical
Conditional
Conditional
Conditional
Assignment
OPERATORS
x.y f(x) a[x] x++ x-- new typeof checked
unchecked
+ - ! ~ ++x --x (T)x
*/%
+<< >>
< > <= >= is as
== !=
AND &
XOR ^
OR |
AND &&
OR ||
?:
= *= /= %= += -= <<= >>= &= ^= |=
The checked and unchecked operators

The checked and unchecked operators are two new features in C# for C++ developers.
These two operators force the CLR to handle stack overflow situations. The checked
operators enforces overflow through an exception if an overflow occurs. The unchecked
operator doesnt throw an exception if an overflow occurs. Here the code throws an
exception in the case of the checked operator, whereas the unchecked part of the same
code wont throw an exception:
checked
{
num1 += 5;
}
unchecked
{
num =+ 5;
}
The is operator
The is operator is useful when you need to check whether an object is compatible with a
type. For example:
2013 Mahesh Chand
33
The sizeof Operator

The sizeof operator determines the size of a type. This operator can only be used in an
unsafe context. By default, an unsafe context is false in VS.NET, so youll need to follow
the right- click on the project > properties > Build option and set allow unsafe code
blocks to use the unsafe block in your code. Then youll be able to compile the following
code:
unsafe
{
Console.WriteLine(sizeof(int));
}
The typeof Operator
The typeof operator returns the type of a class or variable. Its an alternative to
GetType, discussed earlier in the Objects in C# section of this article.
For example:
Type t = typeof(MyClass);
The GetType operator returns a Type Object, which can access the type name and other
type property information.
11. Control Statements

Control flow and program logic are of the most important parts of a programming
languages dynamic behavior. In this section, Ill cover control flow in C#. Most of the
condition and looping statements in C# comes from c and C++. Those who are familiar
with java will recognize most of them, as well.
The if . . .else Statement
The if . . .else statement is inherited from C and C++. The if . . .else statement is also
known as a conditional statement. For example:
if (condition)
statement
else
statement
2013 Mahesh Chand
34
string str = "Mahesh";

if (str is object)
{
Console.WriteLine(str +" is an object compatible");
}
You can also apply conditional or ( || ) and conditional and (&&) operators to combine
more then one condition. Listing 23 shows you how to use the if. . .else statement.
Listing 23. The if . . . else statement example
using System;
public class MyClass
{
{
int num1 = 6;
int num2 = 23;
if (res > 25)
{
res = res - 5;
Console.WriteLine("Result is more then 25");
}
else
{
res = 25;
Console.WriteLine("Result is less then 25");
}
bool b = true;
if (res > 25 || b)
Console.WriteLine("Res > 25 or b is true");
else if ( (res>25) && !b )
Console.WriteLine("Res > 25 and b is false");
else
Console.WriteLine("else condition");
}
}
The switch Statement
Like the if . . . statement, the switch statement is also a conditional statement. It
executes the case part if it matches with the switch value. If the switch value doesnt
match the case value, the default option executes .The switch statement is similar to an if
. . . statement with multiple. . .else conditions, but it tends to be more readable. Note that
in C#, you can now switch on string, which is something C++ did not previously allow.
See listing 24 for an example of a switch statement.
Listing 24. The switch statement example
int i = 3;
switch(i)
{
case1:
2013 Mahesh Chand
35
The if. . .section of the statement or statement block is executed when the condition is
true; if its false, control goes to the else statement or statement block. You can have a
nested if . . .else statement with one of more else blocks.
36
Console.WriteLine("one");
break;
case2:
Console.WriteLine("two");
break;
case3:
Console.WriteLine("three");
break;
case4:
Console.WriteLine("four");
break;
case5:
Console.WriteLine("five");
break;
default:
Console.WriteLine("None of the about");
break;
}
The for loop Statement
The for loop statement is probably one of the widely used control statements for
performing iterations in a loop. It executes a statement in the loop until the given guard
condition is true. The for loop statement is a pretest loop, which means it first tests if a
condition is true and only executes if it is. You can use the ++ or operators to provide
forward or backward looping. The following is an example of a for loop statement:
// Loop will execute 10 times from 0 to 9
for (int i=0; i<10; i++)
{
Console.WriteLine(i.ToString( ) );
}
The while loop Statement
The while loop statement also falls in the conditional loop category. The while loop
statement executes unit the while condition is true. Its also a pretest loop, which means
it first tests if a condition is true and only continues execution if it is in the example
shown here, the while loop statement executes until the value of i is less then 10;
int i = 0;
while (i<10)
{
Console.WriteLine(i.ToString());
i++;
}
The do . . . while loop Statement
The do . . . while loop statement is a post- test loop, which means it executes a
statement first and then checks if the condition is true. If the condition is true, the loop
2013 Mahesh Chand
int i = 0;
do
{
i++;
} while (i<10);
The foreach loop statement
The foreach loop statement is new concept to C++ programmers but will be familiar to
veteran visual basic programmers. The foreach loop enables you to iterate over each
element of an array or each element of a collection. This is a simple example:
//foreach loop
string[] strArr = {"Mahesh", "Chand", "Test String"};
foreach (string str in strArr)
Console.WriteLine(str);
In this example, the loop will continue until the items in the array are finished. Many of
the collection examples in this article will use this loop.
The go to statement
The goto statement is used when you need to jump to a particular code segment. Its
similar to the goto statement in visual basic or C++.
In the following code, if an item of array is found, the control goes to the level found and
skips all code before that.
Most programmers avoid using the goto statement, but you may find a rare need for it.
One such occasion is the use of fall-through on a switch statement. Fall- thought is the
ability for the control flow to fall from one case statement directly into another by
leaving out the break statement. In C#, fall-though in a switch statement is not allowed
as it was in C++. However, if you explicitly tell the switch statement to go to the next
label, it will perform a jump to the next case, essentially carrying out the same function
as a fall-through. Note that when using a go to in a case statement, you dont have to
provide a break (in all other cases, a break statement is mandatory). in this is bill and
sometimes Im called William are displayed on the screen:
Console.WriteLine("What is your name? ");
string name = Console.ReadLine();
switch(name)
{
case "Bill":
Console.WriteLine("My name is Bill.");
goto case "William";
case "William":
Console.WriteLine("Sometimes Im called William.");
2013 Mahesh Chand
37
continues until the condition is false. As the name says, do something while something is
true. This is an example of a do . . . while loop:
}
The break statement
The break statement exits from a loop or a switch immediately. The break statement is
usually applicable when you need to release control of the loop after a certain condition
is met, or if you want to exit from the loop without executing the rest of the loop
structure. You use it in for, foreach, while, and do. . . while loop statements. The
following code shows the break statement. If condition j == 0 is true control will exit
from the loop:
for (int i=0; i<10; i++)
{
int j = i*i;
if (j == 9)
break;
Console.WriteLine(j.ToString());
}
The continue Statement
Similar to the break statement, the continue statement also works in for, foreach, while,
and do . . . while statements. The continue statement causes the loop to exit from the
current iteration and continue with the rest of the iterations in the loop. See the following
code for an example:
for (int i=0; i<10; i++)
{
int j = i*i;
Console.WriteLine("i is "+ i.ToString());
if (j == 9)
Continue;
Console.WriteLine("j is "+ j.ToString());
}
In this code snippet, when the condition j == 9 is true, the control exits from the current
iteration and moves to the next iteration.
Note: The break statement makes control exits the entire loop, but the continue
statement only skips the current iteration.
The return Statement
The return statement returns from a method before the end of that method is reached.
The return statement can either a value or not, depending on the method that calls it.
2013 Mahesh Chand
38
break;
case "Anne":
Console.WriteLine("My name is Anne. ");
break;
default:
break;

{
int output = 9 + 6;
if ( output >= 12)
return;
Console.WriteLine ("Output less then 12");
}
public int Sum(int a, int b)
{
return a + b;
}
12. Classes
You saw a class structure in the Hello, C# World! sample. In the C#, you define a class
by using the class keyword, just as you do in C++. Following the class keyword the
class name and curly brackets ({. . .}), as shown here:
class Hello
{
static void Main()
{
Console.WriteLine("Hello, C# World!");
}
}
Note: C# classes dont end semicolon (;) as C++.
Once a class is defined, you can add class members to it. Class members can include
constants, fields, methods, properties, indexers, events, operators, instance constructors,
static constructors, destructors, and nested type declarations. Each class member has an
associated accessibility, which controls the scope of the member and defines whether
these members are accessible outside the class.
Class Members
Table 9 describes allowable class member elements.
Table 9. A class members
CLASS MEMBER
Methods
Properties
Events
INHERITANCE
Similar to C++ functions. Methods implement some action that
can be performed by an object.
Provide access to a class attribute (a field). Useful for
exposing fields in components.
Used to provide notification.
2013 Mahesh Chand
39
This is an example of a return statement that return nothing, and another where the
return statement returns an integer value:
Types
Represents a constant value.

Represents a variable of the class
Used to define an expression (+, *,->, ++,[], and so on ).
Methods called during initialization of an object.
Called automatically.
Called when an object is being destroyed.
A new concept in C#. An indexer provider indexing on an
object. It allows you to treat a class as an array.
All local types used in a class.
Before examining these members in detail, youll look at the accessibility of these
members. Table 10 describes class member accessibility type and their scopes.
Table 10. Class member accessibility types and scopes
ACCESSIBLITY TYPE
Public
Protected
Internal
Protected internal
SCOPE
Member is accessible from other programs.
Member is accessible by the containing and its
derived classes and types.
Member is accessible only the current program.
Member is accessible by the current program and the
class derived from the containing class.
Now youll look at class members in more detail.

Fields
A field member Represent a variable of a class. In this example, strClassName is a string
type public variable that can be accessed by the class instance:
class myClass
{
public static string strClassName;
public void SetClassName(string strName)
{
strClassName = strName;
}
}
As noted earlier; you can define field members as read-only. This means the field can
only be assigned in the declaration or in the constructor of the class. See the following
code:
class myClass
{
public static readonly string strClassName = "myClass";
2013 Mahesh Chand
40
Constants
Fields
Operators
Instance
Constructors
Static Constructors
Destructors
Indexers
Note that the complier will throw an error because of an illegal assignment.
If the field is not static, you have to access fields from the class instance. Its the same
idea as accessing a public variable in the C++ or structure in C. for example:
myClass cls = new MyClass();
string clsName = cls.strClassName;
Constants
A constant Member represents a constant value throughout the program. For example the
clsNodes is constant that has integer value 12. See the following code:
class myClass
{
public const int clsNodes = 12;
}
The value of clsNodes will be 12 throughout the program and cant be reassigned.
Instance and Static Constructors
Constructors in C# are defined in the same way as in C++. C# supports two types of
constructors: instance constructors and static constructors. Instance constructors are
called every time a class is initialized. Static constructors are executed only once. Static
constructors are for initialing the values of static variable. Listing 25 is an example of a
class with a static constructor.
Listing 25. Calling Static Constructors
using System;
class myClass
{
static myClass()
{
Console.WriteLine("Initialieze clas ");
}
public static void foo()
{
Console.WriteLine(" foo");
}
}
class Test
{
static void Main()
{
2013 Mahesh Chand
41
public void SetClassName(string strName)

{
strClassName = strName; // illegal assignment
}
}
}
Constructors can be overloaded, as shown in listing 26.
Listing 26. Over loaded Constructors example
class myClass
{
public int iCounter, iTotal;
public myClass()
{
iCounter = 0;
iTotal = 0;
}
public myClass (int iCount, int iTot)
{
iCounter = iCount;
iTotal = iTot;
}
}
Listing 27. Calling class constructors
using System;
class myClass
{
public int iCounter, iTotal;
public myClass()
{
iCounter = 0;
iTotal = 0;
}
public myClass(int iCount, int iTot )
{
iCounter = iCount;
iTotal = iTot;
}
}
class TestmyClass
{
static void Main()
{
myClass cls = new myClass();
myClass cls1 = new myClass(3, 4);
Console.WriteLine(cls1.iCounter.ToString());
Console.WriteLine(cls1.iTotal.ToString());
}
}
Destructors
2013 Mahesh Chand
42
myClass.foo();
//class myClass static constucter and then foo
class myClass
{
~myClass()
{
// free resources
}
}
TIP: Its not mandatory; in fact its unadvisable to call destructors. Theyre called
automatically by the CLR.
Methods
A method is a member that implements some functionality. Its similar in appearance to
the methods found in C++ and java. A method can return a value have, a list of
parameters, and can be accessed through the class, whereas non - static. Static methods
are accessed through the class, whereas non-static methods are accessed through the
instance of the class. For example, listing 28 adds a method sum to the class myClass
and called this method from the Main method.
Listing 28. Class method example
using System;
class myClass
{
{
int res = a + b;
return res;
}
}
class TestmyClass
{
static void Main()
{
int total = cls.Sum(5, 8);
Console.WriteLine(total.ToString());
}
}
Methods in C# support function overloading in a similar way as C++. If you have
programmed in C++, youll notice that C# methods are similar to C++ functions (and
almost mirror those methods found in java). So its not a bad idea to call function
overloading in C# method overloading. In listing 29, I over- overload the Sum method by
passing in different types of values and call each of the overloaded Sum methods from
the Main method.
2013 Mahesh Chand
43
A destructor is called when its time to destroy the object. Destructors cant take
parameters. See following code:
44
Listing 29. Method overloading example

using System;
class myClass
{
{
int res = a + b;
return res;
}
public float Sum(float a, float b)
{
float res = a + b;
return res;
}
public long Sum(long a, long b)
{
long res = a + b;
return res;
}
public long sum(long a, long b, long c)
{
long res = a + b + c;
return res;
}
public long Sum(int[] a)
{
int res = 0;
for (int i=0; i < a.Length; i++)
{
res += a[i];
}
return res;
}
public void Sum()
{
//return nothing
}
}
class TestmyClass
{
static void Main()
{
int intTot = cls.Sum(5,8);
Console.WriteLine("Return integer sum:"+
intTot.ToString());
cls.Sum();
long longTot = cls.Sum(Int64.MaxValue - 30, 8);
Console.WriteLine("Return long sum:" + longTot.ToString());
float floatTot = cls.Sum(Single.MaxValue-50, 8);
Console.WriteLine("Return float sum:" +
floatTot.ToString());
2013 Mahesh Chand
}
}
The ref and out Parameters

Did you ever need your method to return more than one value? You may need to do this
occasionally, or you may need to use the same variables that you pass as an argument of
the method. When you pass a reference type, such as a class instance, you dont have to
worry about getting a value in a separate variable because the type is already being
passed as a reference and will maintain the changes when it returns. A problem occurs
when you want the value to be returned in the value type. The ref and out parameters
help to do this with value types.
The out keyword defines an out type parameter. You Use the out keyword to pass a
parameter to a method. This example is passing an integer type variable as an out
parameter. You define a function with the out keyword as an argument with the variable
type:
myMethod(out int iVal1)
The out parameter can be used to return the values in the same variable passed as a
parameter of the method. Any changes made to the parameter will be reflected in the
variable. Listing 30 shows an example of the parameter.
Listing 30. Using the out parameter
using System;
public class myClass
{
public static void ReturnData(out int iVal1, out int iVal2)
{
iVal1 = 2;
iVal2 = 5;
}
{
int iV1, iV2; // variable need not be initialized
ReturnData(out iV1, out iV2);
Console.WriteLine(iV1);
}
}
The ref keyword defines a ref type parameter. You pass a parameter to a method with
this keyword, as in listing 31. This example passes an integer type variable as a ref
parameter. This is a method definition:
myMethod(ref int iVal1)
2013 Mahesh Chand
45
int[] myArray = new int[] {1,3,5,7,9};

Console.WriteLine("Return sum of array = {0}",
cls.Sum(myArray).ToString());
Listing 31. A ref parameter example

using System;
public class myClass
{
public static void ReturnData(ref int iVal1, ref int iVal2, ref
int iVal3)
{
iVal1 +=2;
iVal2 = iVal2*iVal2;
iVal3 = iVal2 + iVal1;
}
{
int iV1, iV2, iV3; // variable need not be initialized
iV1 = 3;
iV2 = 10;
iV3 = 1;
ReturnData(ref iV1, ref iV2, ref iV3);
}
}
In this method, ReturnData takes three values as input parameters, operates on the
passed data returns the result in the same variable.
Properties
Other than methods, another important set of members of a class is variables. A variable
is a type that stores some value. The property member of a class provides access to
variables. Some examples of Properties are font type, color, and visible properties.
Basically, Properties are fields. A field member can be accessed directly, but a property
member is always accessed through accessor and modifier methods called get and set,
respectively. If you have ever created active X controls in C++ or visual basic, or
created JavaBeans in java, you understand.
Note: Visual Basic programmers will note that Let is not available in C#
This is because all types are objects, so only the set access or is necessary.
In Listing 32 you create two properties of myClass:Age and MaleGender. Age is an
integer property, and MaleGender is a Boolean type property. As you can see in the
example, the get and set keywords are used to get and set property values. Youre
reading and writing property values from the Main method. Note that leaving out the set
method in a property makes the property read-only.
Listing 32. Class property member example
2013 Mahesh Chand
46
You can use the ref parameter as a method input parameter and an output parameter. Any
changes made to the parameter will be reflected in the variable. See listing 31
47
using System;
class myClass
{
private bool bGender;
private int intAge;
// Gender property.
public bool MaleGender
{
get
{
return bGender;
}
set
{
bGender = value;
}
}
// Age property
public int Age
{
get
{
return intAge;
}
set
{
intAge = value;
}
}
}
class TestmyClass
{
static void Main()
{
// set properties values
cls.MaleGender = true;
cls.Age = 25;
if (cls.MaleGender)
{
Console.WriteLine("The Gender is Male");
Console.WriteLine("Age is" + cls. Age.ToString() );
}
}
}
Why use properties if you already have the field available? First of all, properties expose
fields in classes being used in components. They also provide a means for doing
necessary computation before or after accessing or modifying the private fields theyre
representing. For example, if youre changing the color of a control in the set method,
you may also want to execute an invalidate method inside the set to repaint the screen.
2013 Mahesh Chand
48
13. Events
In C# events are a special type of delegate. An event member of a class provides
notifications from user or machine input.
A class defines an event by providing an event declaration, which is of type delegate.
The following line shows the definition of an event handler:
public delegate void EventHandler(object sender, System.EventArgs e);
The EventHandler takes two arguments: one of type object and the other of type
System.EvenArgs. A class implements the event handler using the event keyword. In the
following example, MyControl class implements the EventHandler:
public class MyControl
{
public event EvenHandler Click;
public void Reset()
{
Click = null;
}
}
You probably know that Windows is an event- driven operating system. In Windows
programming, the system sends messages to the massage queue for every action taken
by a user or the system, such as mouseclick, keyboard, touch screen, and timers. Even
if the operating system is doing nothing, it still sends an idle message to the message
queue after a certain interval of time.
Although you usually use events in GUI applications, you can also implement events in
console-based application. You can use them when you need to notify a state of an
action. Youll have a look at an example of both types.
Listing 33 shows you how to implement events and event handlers in a console-based
application. The Boiler.cs class defines the BoilerStatus event. The SetBoilerReading
method sets the boiler temperature and pressure readings, and it writes the boiler status
on the console based on the temperature and pressure reading. Boiler.cs defines
BoilerStatus using the event keyword.
Listing 33. Boiler.cs
namespace BoilerEvent
{
using System;
public class Boiler
{
public delegate void EngineHandler(int temp);
public static event EngineHandler BoilerStatus;
2013 Mahesh Chand
49
public Boiler()
{
}
public void SetBoilerReading(int temp, int pressure)
{
if (BoilerStatus != null)
{
if (temp >=50 && pressure >= 60)
{
BoilerStatus(temp);
Console.WriteLine("Boiler Status: Temperature High");
}
else if (temp < 20 || pressure < 20)
{
BoilerStatus(temp);
Console.WriteLine("Boiler status: Temperature Low");
}
else
Console.WriteLine("Boiler status: Temperature Normal");
}
}
}
}
Listing 34 is a caller class (main application) that calls the event through
BoilerEventSink. The BoilerTempoMeter method of the sink generates a warning
massage on the console only when the temperature of the boiler is zero.
Listing 34. Caller of Boiler.Cs
namespace BoilerEvent
{
using System;
public class Boiler
{
// Boiler class here
}
public class BoilerEventSink
{
public void BoilerTempoMeter(int temp)
{
if (temp <= 0)
{
Console.WriteLine("Alarm: Boiler is switched off");
}
}
}
// Event caller mailn application
public class BoilerCallerApp
{
public static int Main(string [] args)
{
2013 Mahesh Chand
As you can see in Listing 34, I created a Boiler object that calls the BoilerStatus handler,
which passes BoilerEventSinks methods as an argument when calling Boiler.
EngineHandler is a delegate defined in the Boiler class. Then the program calls the
SetBoilerReading method with different temperature and pressure reading. When the
temperature is zero, the program displays a warning message on the console; otherwise,
the program displays message generated by the SetBoilerReading method.
Actually, its easier to understand events using windows application than it is using a
console-based application. To show you can an event sample in windows Forms, youll
create a Windows application. In this application, youll create a form and a button. The
button-click event executes and displays a message box.
Here, the button-click event executes button1_click method:
button1.Click += new System.EventHandler(button1_ Click);
and the button-click handler looks like the following:
private void button1_click(object sender, System.EventArgs e)
{
MassageBox.Show ("button is clicked");
}
Listing 35 shows a windows forms program with event sample. If you compile this
program, the out put looks like figure 8.
Listing
using
using
using
35. Event Handling example

System;
System.Windows.Forms;
System.Drawing;
namespace NotePadWindowsForms
{
public class NotePadWindowsForms: System.Windows.Forms.Form
{
private System.Windows.Forms.Button button1;
public NotePadWindowsForms()
{
button1 = new System.Windows.Forms.Button();
2013 Mahesh Chand
50
Boiler boiler1 = new Boiler();

BoilerEventSink bsink = new BoilerEventSink();
Boiler.BoilerStatus
+=
new
Boiler.EngineHandler(
bsink.BoilerTempoMeter);
boiler1.SetBoilerReadings (55, 74);
return 0;
}
}
}
// Adding controls to the form

Controls.AddRange(new System.Windows.Forms.Control[]
{button1} );
button1.Click += new
System.EventHandler(button1_Click);
}
// Button click handler
private void button1_Click(object sender, System.EventArgs e)
{
MessageBox.Show ("Button is clicked");
}
public static int Main()
{
Application.Run(new NotePadWindowsForms());
return 0;
}
}
}
Figure 8 shows the output of listing 35 after clicking the Click me button.
Figure 8 output of listing35
2013 Mahesh Chand
51
// Button control and its properties

button1.Location = new System.Drawing.Point(8, 32);
button1.Name ="button1";
button1.Size = new System.Drawing.Size(104,32);
button1.TabIndex = 0;
button1.Text = "Click me";
52
14. Indexers
Indexers are a new concept in C#. Indexers enable a class object to function as an array.
Implementing indexers is similar to implementing properties using the get and set
functions. The only different is that when you call an indexer, you pass an indexing
parameter. Accessing an indexer is similar to accessing an array. Indexers are nameless,
so the this keyword declares indexers.
I just said that after defining indexers, a class object could be treated as an array. What
does that mean? To explain, Ill show you an example using the class called my class.
The way you treat an instance of myClass now is like this:
cls.MaleGender = true;
After defining an indexer in myClass, you could treat an instance of it as if it were an
array:
cls[0].MaleGender = true;
cls[1].MaleGender = true;
You define indexer by using the this keyword as if were an array property of type object.
Listing 36 shows the indexer signature of my class.
Listing 36. Indexers of myClass
public object this[int index]
{
get
{
if (! ValidIndex(index))
throw new Exception("Index out of range.");
else
return MaleGender(index).Value;
}
set
{
if (!ValidIndex(index) )
throw new Exception("Index out of range.");
else
MaleGender(index).Value = value;
}
}
2013 Mahesh Chand
53
15. Inheritance
Inheritance is one of the main features of an object-oriented language. C# and the .NET
class library are heavily based on inheritance. The telltale sign of this is that all .NET
common library classes are derived from the object class, discussed at the beginning of
this article. As pointed out, C# doesnt support multiple Inheritance. C# only supports
single inheritance; therefore, all objects are implicitly derived from the object class.
Implementing inheritance in C# is similar to implementing it in C++. You use a colon (:)
in the definition of a class to derive it from another class. In listing37, BaseClassB, which
later accesses the BaseClassA method in the Main method.
Listing 37. Inheritance example
using System;
// Base class A
class BaseClassA
{
public void MethodA()
{
Console.WriteLine("A Method called");
}
}
// Base class B is derived from Base class A
class BaseClassB:BaseClassA
{
public void MethodB()
{
Console.WriteLine("B method called");
}
}
class myClass
{
static void Main()
{
// Base class B
BaseClassB b = new BaseClassB();
// Base class B method
b.MethodB();
// BaseClassA Method through BaseClassB
b.MethodA();
}
}
2013 Mahesh Chand
54
16. C# 2.0 Features
Here is a list of new features added to C# version 2.0.
1. Partial Classes
2. Static Classes
3. Property Accessor Accessibility Modifier
4. Nullable Types
5. Generics
6. Anonymous Methods
7. Iterators
8. Friend Assemblies
1. Partial Classes
Partial classes is one of the coolest feature added to C# language. Having partial classes
in the language provides programmers to write cleaner interfaces. A partial
class means "A single class can be defined in multiple physical files.". For example, I can
have a ClassA, which is defined in three different AFile.cs, BFile.cs, and CFile.cs physical
files.
Now you may ask why would I want that? Do you remember ASP.NET or Windows Forms
applications, where designer (Visual Studio IDE) generated code was written in a region
and your code will be added after that. When writing larger user interface driven
applications (for example Windows UI or Web UI), you may want to have user interfaces
related code in a file, some logic in a separate file and so on. Now using partial classes,
we can have designer generated code in a separate file, control event handlers in a
separate file, and rest of the code in a separate file.
2. Static Classes
C# 2.0 now supports static classes. Here are static classes properties.
A static class cannot be instantiated. That means you cannot create an instance of
a static class using new operator.
A static class is a sealed class. That means you cannot inherit any class from a
static class.
A static class can have static members only. Having non-static member will
generate a compiler error.
A static class is less resource consuming and faster to compile and execute.
Public static class MyStaticClass

{
Private static int myStaticVariable;
Public static int StaticVariable;
{
2013 Mahesh Chand
55
Get
{
return myStaticVariable;
}
Set
{
myStaticVariable = value;
}
}
Public static void Function()
{
}
}
3. Property Accessor Accessibility Modifier

C# 2.0 supports access modifiers for property accessor, which means now you can set
access levels to get and set accessors of a property. For example, I can write a property
something like this:
public string LoginName
{
get { return loginName; }
protected set { loginName = value; }
}
So now I can set LoginName property from any class derived from the class that has this
property but I won't be able to set this property from other classes. This feature was not
supported in previous version of C#.
I create a class called ABaseClass, which has LoginName property:
class ABaseClass
{
/// <summary>
/// Property Access Modifiers
/// </summary>
private string loginName;
/// <summary>
/// Login Name
/// </summary>
public string LoginName
{
get { return loginName; }
protected set { loginName = value; }
}
}
2013 Mahesh Chand
class ADerivedClass : ABaseClass

{
public void SetPrivateProperty()
{
base.LoginName = "mcb";
}
}
If I try to set the property value from other classes, I get the following error:
4. Nullable Types
One of the new features of C# 2.0 is nullable types. Now C# 2.0 allows you to assign null
values to premitive types such as int, long, and bool.
The following code shows how to define an integer as nullable type and checks if the
value of the integer is null or not.
/// <summary>
/// Nullable types
/// </summary>
public static void TestNullableTypes()
{
// Syntax to define nullable types
int? counter;
counter = 100;
if (counter != null)
{
// Assign null to an integer type
counter = null;
Console.WriteLine("Counter assigned null.");
}
else
{
Console.WriteLine("Counter cannot be assigned null.");
Console.ReadLine();
}
2013 Mahesh Chand
56
Now I create a new class, which is derived from ABaseClass and in this class I set set
LoginName property.
5. Generics in C#
This topic of the book is written by Amr Monjid on C# Corner. Here is a list of original
articles published on C# Corner.
http://www.c-sharpcorner.com/uploadfile/Ashush/generics-in-C-Sharp-part-i/
http://www.c-sharpcorner.com/uploadfile/Ashush/generics-in-C-Sharp-part-ii/
Generics Part 1
Generics give you the ability to create generic methods or a generic type by defining a
placeholder for method arguments or type definitions, that are specified at the time of
invoking the generic method or creating the generic type.
Why Generics?
To understand the importance of generics, let's start by seeing some kind of problems
that can be solved by them.
ArrayList:
Let's start by creating an ArrayList to hold stack-allocated data.
ArrayList intList = new ArrayList();
As you may know, the ArrayList collection can receive and return only an Object type, so
the runtime will convert the value type (stack-allocated) automatically via boxing
operation into an Object (heap-allocated) as in the following:
ArrayList intList = new ArrayList();
2013 Mahesh Chand
57
If you remove the "?" from int? counter, you will see a warning as following:
58
//add a value type to the collection(boxing)

intList.Add(5);
To retrieve the value from the ArrayList you must unbox the heap-allocated object into a
stack-allocated integer using a casting operation.
//unboxing
int x = (int)intList[0];
The problem with the stack/heap memory transfer is that it can have a big impact on
performance of your application because when you use boxing and unboxing operations
the following steps occur:
1. A new object must be allocated on the managed heap.
2. The value of the stack-allocated type must be transferred into that memory
location.
3. When unboxed, the value stored on the heap must be transferred back to the
stack.
4. The unused object on the heap will be garbage collected.
Now consider that your ArrayList contained thousands of integers that are manipulated
by your program, this for sure will have an affect on your application performance.
Custom Collections:
Assume that you need to create a custom collection that can only contain objects of the
Employee type.
public class Employee
{
string FirstName;
string LastName;
int Age;
public Employee() { }
public Employee(string fName, string lName, int Age)
{
this.Age = Age;
this.FirstName = fName;
this.Lastname = lName;
}
public override string ToString()
{
return String.Format("{0} {1} is {2} years old", FirstName, LastName,
Age);
}
}
Now we will build the custom collection as in the following:
2013 Mahesh Chand
59
public class EmployeesCollection : IEnumerable
{
ArrayList alEmployees = new ArrayList();
public EmployeesCollection() { }
//Insert Employee type
public void AddEmployee(Employee e)
{
//boxing
alEmployees.Add(e);
}
//get the employee type
public Employee GetEmployee(int index)
{
//unboxing
return (Employee)alEmployees[index];
}
//to use foreach
IEnumerator IEnumerable.GetEnumerator()
{
return alEmployees.GetEnumerator();
}
}
The problem here is that if you have many types in you application then you need to
create multiple custom collections, one for each type. And as you can see, we also have
the problem of boxing and unboxing here.
All problems you saw previously can be solved using generics, so let's see what we can
do.
The System.Collections.generic namespace
You can find many generic collections in the System.Collections.Generic just like:
1. List<T>
2013 Mahesh Chand
60
2. Dictionary<K, V>
3. Queue<T>
4. Stack<T>
Generic collections allow you to delay the specification of the contained type until the
time of creation.
By using the generic collection you avoid performance problems of the boxing and
unboxing operations and don't need to create a custom collection for each type in you
application.
With the generic collections it's up to you to define the type that will be contained in the
collection by replacing the placeholder T by the type you want at the time of creation.
List<T>
The List<T> is a generic collection that represents a strongly typed list of objects that
can be accessed by index. It is just like the non-generic collection ArrayList.
The following is an example of a List<T>:
//Can only contain int type
List<int> intList = new List<int>();
//no boxing
intList.Add(10);
//no unboxing
int x = intList[0];
//Can only contain Employee objects
List<Employee> empList = new List<Employee>();
//no boxing
empList.Add(new Employee("Amr", "Ashush", 23));
//no unboxing
Employee e = empList[0];
Queue<T>
Queue<T> is a generic collection that represents a first-in, first-out (FIFO) collection of
objects. It is just like the non-generic collection Queue.
The following is an example of a Queue<T>:
//A generic Queue collection
Queue<int> intQueue = new Queue<int>();
//Add an int to the end of the queue
//(no boxing)
intQueue.Enqueue(5);
//Returns the int at the beginning of the queue
//without removing it.
//(no unboxing)
int x = intQueue.Peek();
2013 Mahesh Chand
61
//Removes and returns the int at the beginning of the queue

//(no unboxing)
int y = intQueue.Dequeue();
Stack<T>
Stack<T> is a generic collection that represents a last-in-first-out (LIFO) collection of
instances of the same arbitrary type. It is just like the non-generic collection Stack.
The following is an example of a Stack<T>:
Stack<int> intStack = new Stack<int>();
//Insert an int at the top of the stack
//(no boxing)
intStack.Push(5);
//Returns the int at the top of the stack
//without removing it.
//(no unboxing)
int x = intStack.Peek();
//Removes and returns the int at the top of the stack
//(no unboxing)
int y = intStack.Pop();
Dictionary<K, V>
Dictionary<K, V> is a generic collection that contains data in Key/Value pairs, it is just
like the non-generic collection Hashtable.
The following is an example of a Dictionary<K, V>:
Dictionary<string, string> dictionary = new Dictionary<string, string>();
//Add the specified key and value to the dictionary
dictionary.Add("Key", "Value");
//Removes the value with the specified key from the dictionary
dictionary.Remove("Key");
//get the number of the Key/Value pairs contained in the dictionary
int count = dictionary.Count;
Generic Methods
You can create generic methods that can operate on any possible data type.
To define a generic method you specify the type parameter after the method name and
before the parameters list.
The following is an example of a generic method:
2013 Mahesh Chand
62
public void MyGenericMethod<T>(T x, T y)
{
Console.Writeline("Parameters type is {0}", typeof(T));
}
You can define the type you want at the time you invoke the method.
int x, y;
MyGenericMethod<int>(x, y);
The result will be a ???.

The parameter type is a System.Int32.
string x, y;
MyGenericMethod<string>(x, y);
The result will be a ???.

The parameter type is a System.String.
You can also create a generic method with out parameters as follows:
public void MyGenericMethod<T>()
{
T x;
Console.WriteLine("The type of x is
{0}", typeof(T));
Here we see the method in use:

MyGenericMethod<int>();
The result will be:
The type of x is a System.Int32.
MyGenericMethod<string>();
The result will be:
2013 Mahesh Chand
63
The type of x is a System.String.
Note: you can omit the type parameter if the generic method requires arguments,
because the compiler can infer the type parameter based on the member parameters.
However if your generic method doesn't take any parameters then you are required to
supply the type parameter or you will have a compile error.
Example:
//a generic method that take two parameters
public void MyGenericMethod<T>(T x, T y)
{
......
}
......
string x, y;
//the compiler here will infer the type parameter
MyGenericMethod(x, y)
In the case of a generic method that doesn't take parameters

//a generic method that doesn't take parameters
public void MyGenericMethod<T>()
{
......
}
//you must supply the type parameter
MyGenericMethod<string>();
//you will have a compiler error here
MyGenericMethod();
Generics Part 2
In Part II you will see how to create generic classes, structures, delegates, interfaces and
you will learn how to create a custom generic collection.
Introduction:
Generics gives you the ability to create a generic methods or a generic type by defining a
placeholder for method arguments or type definitions, which are specified at the time of
invoking the generic method or creating the generic type.
2013 Mahesh Chand
A generic class is a class that have a type parameter <T> representing the data type of
the class variables.
Example:
public class MyGenericClass<T>
{
//Generic variables
private T d1;
private T d2;
private T d3;
public MyGenericClass() { }
//Generic constructor
public MyGenericClass(T a1, T a2, a3)
{
d1 = a1;
d2 = a2;
d3 = a3;
}
//Generic properties
public T D1
{
get { return d1; }
set { d1 = value; }
}
public T D2
{
get { return d2; }
set { d2 = value; }
}
public T D3
{
get { return d3; }
set { d3 = value; }
}
}
Assume you want a way to reset the variables in your generic class to its default values,
but in fact you don't know really what is the data type that the placeholder <T> will
represent, so you can't know what is the default value will be.
In generic classes you can make use of the default keyword to reset your data safely to
its default value as follow:
2013 Mahesh Chand
64
Generic classes and structures
So whatever your type parameter will be, you can reset it safely to its default value.
We can add this method to our generic class:
public
{
d1
d2
d3
void ResetValues()
= default(T);
= default(T);
= default(T);
Here is our generic class in use:

//contain int values
MyGenericClass<int> c1 = new MyGenericClass<int>(5, 10, 15);
//reset values to 0
c1.ResetValues();
//contain string values
MyGenericClass<string> c2 = new MyGenericClass<string>("a", "b", "c");
//reset values to null
c2.ResetValues();
Note: you can create generic structures in the same way of creating generic classes, you
only have to remove the class keyword and add struct keyword.
public struct MyGenericStruct<T>
{
}
Creating a Custom Generic Collection

Under the namespace System.Collections.Generic you will find a lot of generic
collections types and may be you will not need to build a custom generic collection.
Building a custom generic collection allows you to build a generic collection that have
your own methods and you can also constrain you generic collection to contain only the
data type you want.
A generic collection is a generic class that implements the IEnumerable<T> generic
interface. The IEnumerable<T> interface allows you to support foreach loop.
Example:
2013 Mahesh Chand
65
d1 = default(T);
66
public class EmployeeCollection<T> : IEnumerable<T>

{
List<T> empList = new List<T>();
public void AddEmployee(T e)
{
empList.Add(e);
}
public T GetEmployee(int index)
{
return empList[index];
}
//Compile time Error
public void PrintEmployeeData(int index)
{
Console.WriteLine(empList[index].EmployeeData);
}
//foreach support
IEnumerator<T> IEnumerable<T>.GetEnumerator()
{
return empList.GetEnumerator();
}
IEnumerator IEnumerable.GetEnumerator()
{
return empList.GetEnumerator();
}
}
public class Employee

{
string FirstName;
string LastName;
int Age;
public Employee() { }
public Employee(string fName, string lName, int Age)
{
this.Age = Age;
this.FirstName = fName;
this.LastName = lName;
}
public string EmployeeData
{
get { return String.Format("{0} {1} is {2} years old", FirstName,
LastName, Age); }
}
}
Constraining the type parameter of the generic collection:
2013 Mahesh Chand
The first problem is that the user of the collection can use it for any data type instead of
Employee:
EmployeeCollection<int> a = new EmployeeCollection<int>();
EmployeeCollection<string> a = new EmployeeCollection<string>();
The second problem will appear when you try to use the EmployeeData property of the
Employee class in you generic collection, so if we add this method to our generic
collection to use the EmployeeData property:
// Compile time Error
{
}
When we try to compile the generic collection we will get a compile time error because
the identity of T is not known yet, and we do not know for certain if the type of the item
in the List<T> has an EmployeeData property.
We can solve these problems by constraining the type parameter T using where as
follow:
public class EmployeeCollection<T> : IEnumerable<T> where T : Employee
{
//we can call EmployeeData property
//because all items in the List<T> is Employee
{
}
}
We now can use the EmployeeData to contain only the Employee type:
//its OK
EmployeeCollection<Employee> a = new EmployeeCollection<Employee>();
//Compiler error
EmployeeCollection<int> a = new EmployeeCollection<int>();
There is other types of where constrain you can use:
2013 Mahesh Chand
67
When we try to use our Generic collection we will face some problems, let's see it and
see how to solve it.
68
Example:
where T : class
//The type parameter must be a reference type
public class MyGenericCollection<T> : IEnumerable<T> where T : class
{
. . .
}
where T : struct
//The type parameter must be a value type
public class MyGenericCollection<T> : IEnumerable<T> where T : struct
{
. . .
}
where T : new()
//The type parameter must have a default constructor
public class MyGenericCollection<T> : IEnumerable<T> where T : new()
{
. . .
}
where T : InterfaceName
//The type parameter must implement the interface
//specified by InterfaceName
public class MyGenericCollection<T> : IEnumerable<T> where T : InterfaceName
{
. . .
}
where T : ClassName
//The type parameter must be derived
//from the class specified by Classname
public class MyGenericCollection<T> : IEnumerable<T> where T : ClassName
{
. . .
}
You can use the where constrain also with generic methods
Example:
//the arguments of this method must be value type
public void MyGenericMethod<T>(T x, T y) where T : struct
{
. . .
}
2013 Mahesh Chand
Under the .NET 2.0 you can define generic interfaces, you can do this as follow:
public interface IMyGenericInterfce<T>
{
void Method1(T a, T b);
T Method2(T a, T b);
}
You can use the constrains also with the generic interface:
//the type parameter must be a value type
public interface IMyGenericInterfce<T> where T : struct
{
void Method1(T a, T b);
T Method2(T a, T b);
}
Implementing our generic interface:

public class MyClass : IMyGenericInterfce<int>
{
public void Method1(int a, int b)
{. . .}
public int Method2(int a, int b)
{. . .}
}
Creating Generic Delegates

Under the .NET 2.0 you can define generic delegates, you can do this as follow:
//this delegate can call any method that return void
//and takes two parameters
public delegate void MyGenericDelegate<T>(T a, T b);
Using our generic delegate:

MyGenericDelegate<int> myDel1 = new MyGenericDelegate<int>(MyTargetMethod1);
myDel1(5, 10);
MyGenericDelegate<string> myDel2 = new MyGenericDelegate<string>(MyTargetMethod2);
myDel2("a", "b");
public static void MyTargetMethod1(int x, int y)
{. . .}
public static void MyTargetMethod2(string x, string y)
{. . .}
2013 Mahesh Chand
69
Creating Generic Interfaces
6. Anonymous Methods
This article is written by Amr Monjid on C# Corner.
http://www.c-sharpcorner.com/uploadfile/Ashush/anonymous-methods-in-CSharp/
Introduction:
As you may know, if the caller want to respond to any event, it must create a method (event handler) that matches the signature of its associated delegate. Such method is
only called by the event associated delegate object.
If you don't know about delegates and events see my articles Delegates in C#, Events in
C#.
Example:
{
public delegate void MyDelegate(string message);
public event MyDelegate MyEvent;
public void RaiseMyEvent(string msg)
{
if (MyEvent != null)
MyEvent(msg);
}
}
class Caller
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
MyClass myClass1 = new MyClass();
myClass1.MyEvent += new MyClass.MyDelegate(myClass1_MyEvent);
myClass1.RaiseMyEvent("Hiii");
}
//this method called only by MyDelegate
public static void myClass1_MyEvent(string message)
{
//do some thing to respond to the event here
}
}
As you can see, event handler methods such as (myClass1_MyEvent) are never called by
any part of the application other than the invoking delegate so you need it only to handle
you event.
2013 Mahesh Chand
70
I hope you know have a good idea about creating and using generic types.
The next example will show you how to handle the events using anonymous methods:
namespace AnonymousMethods
{
{
public delegate void MyDelegate(string message);
public event MyDelegate MyEvent;
public void RaiseMyEvent(string msg)
{
if (MyEvent != null)
MyEvent(msg);
}
}
class Caller
{
{
MyClass myClass1 = new MyClass();
//Register event handler as anonymous method.
myClass1.MyEvent += delegate
{
Console.WriteLine("we don't make use of your message in the first
handler");
};
//Register event handler as anonymous method.
//here we make use of the incoming arguments.
myClass1.MyEvent += delegate (string message)
{
Console.WriteLine("your message is: {0}", message);
};
//the final bracket of the anonymous method must be terminated by a
semicolon.
Console.WriteLine("Enter Your Message");
string msg = Console.ReadLine();
//here is we will raise the event.
myClass1.RaiseMyEvent(msg);
Console.ReadLine();
}
}
}
Notice that when you use the anonymous methods you don't need to define any static
event handlers. Rather, the anonymous methods are defined at the time the caller is
handling the event.
Note: You are not required to receive the incoming arguments sent by a specific event.
But if you want to make use of the incoming arguments you will need to specify the
parameters defined by the delegate type (just like the second handler in the previous
example).
2013 Mahesh Chand
71
You can associate a delegate directly to a block of code statements at the time of event
registration. Such code is named anonymous method.
72
Example:
myClass1.MyEvent += delegate(string message)
{
Console.WriteLine("your message is: {0}", message);
};
We're done. I hope you now have a good understanding of anonymous methods in C#.
7. Iterators
This article is written by Munir Shaikh on C# Corner.
Iterators in C# 2.0
You can iterate over data structures such as arrays and collections using a foreach loop:
string[] cities = { "New York", "Paris", "London" };
foreach(string city in cities)
{
Console.WriteLine(city);
}
In fact, you can use any custom data collection in the foreach loop, as long as that
collection type implements a GetEnumerator method that returns an IEnumerator
interface. Usually you do this by implementing the IEnumerable interface:
public interface IEnumerable
{
IEnumerator GetEnumerator();
}
public interface IEnumerator
{
object Current { get; }
bool MoveNext();
void Reset();
}
Iterator is one of the new feature in c# 2.0 which provide a way to create classes that
can be used with foreach statement without implementing the IEnumerator &
IEnumerable interfaces when compiler detects iterator it will automatically generate the
current, MoveNext and dispose method of IEnumerable or IEnumerator interface. Here I
explain with employees and department classes GetEnumerator method, typically by
implementing IEnumerable or IEnumerable <ItemType>. You tell the compiler what to
yield using the new C# yield return statement.
Employees:
2013 Mahesh Chand
73
using System;
using System.Collections.Generic;
using System.Text;
namespace CsharpIterators
{
class Employees
{
private string _name;
public string EmployeeName
{
get { return _name; }
set { _name = value; }
}
public Employees(string name)
{
_name = name;
}
public Employees()
{
}
}
}
Department:
using System;
using System.Text;
{
class Department
{
private List<Employees> _employees;
private string _name;
public string DepartmentName
{
get { return _name; }
set { _name = value; }
}
public Department(string name)
: this()
{
_name = name;
}
public Department()
{
_employees = new List<Employees>(5);
}
public void AddEmployees(Employees emp)
{
_employees.Add(emp);
}
public IEnumerator<Employees> GetEnumerator()
{
foreach (Employees emp in _employees)
yield return emp;
}
}
2013 Mahesh Chand
74
Program:
using System;
using System.Text;
{
class Program
{
{
Employees emp1 = new Employees("Jack");
Employees emp2 = new Employees("Radu");
Employees emp3 = new Employees("Emali");
Employees emp4 = new Employees("Jecci");
Department dept = new Department("MyDepartment");
dept.AddEmployees(emp1);
foreach (Employees emp in dept)
{
Console.WriteLine(emp.EmployeeName);
}
}
}
}
8. Friend Assemblies
Reference:
http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/0tke9fxk.aspx
A friend assembly is an assembly that can access another assembly's internal types and
members. If you identify an assembly as a friend assembly, you no longer have to mark
types and members as public in order for them to be accessed by other assemblies. This
is especially convenient in the following scenarios:
When you are developing a class library and additions to the library are contained in
separate assemblies but require access to members in existing assemblies that are
marked as internal.
Class Library Reference:
Creating C# Class Library Using Visual Studio .NET
2013 Mahesh Chand
75
Summary
This book written in 2003 is an overview of the new Microsoft language, C#. C# takes
the best features of many present day programming languages. You became familiar with
some of the languages syntax. You learned how to write and compile your first
command-line program with the Hello, C# World! example. You also became familiar
with classes and their members, their scopes, and how to use them. You learned about
some unique features, such as events the indexers, which were not available in languages
such as C++. In the end of this article, you also saw the new advanced features added to
version 2.0 and 3.0. You also saw some useful references and articles available on C#
Corner website.
Ive written another book titled Programming C# 5.0 that covers C# language features
that are missing in this book. Check out C# Corner Books section to download
Programming C# 5.0 book.
2013 Mahesh Chand

C Sharp Programming

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

C Sharp Programming

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

C Sharp Programming

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Garnet Valley PA.

Sept 01, 2014

Note: This book was published in year 2008.

2014 Mahesh Chand

A Message from the Author

C# Corner is a community with the main

2013 Mahesh Chand

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Programming C# is a book written in step-by-step tutorial format for beginners and

2013 Mahesh Chand

Programming C# for Beginners

2013 Mahesh Chand

Modern and Object Oriented

a. Modern and Object Oriented

2013 Mahesh Chand

As mentioned, C# is an objectoriented language. It supports all the basic object oriented

b. Simple and Flexible

d. Automatic Memory Management and Garbage Collection

2013 Mahesh Chand

e. Versioning Control and Scalable

f. Language and Cross Platform Interoperability

g. Advanced Features introduced in C# 2.0 and 3.0

2013 Mahesh Chand

The following features were introduced in C# version 3.0.

3. C# Editors and IDEs

2013 Mahesh Chand

Listing 1. Hello, C# world! code

Figure 1. Hello, C# World! program output

2013 Mahesh Chand

The first line of your program is this:

Namespace and Assemblies

2013 Mahesh Chand

2013 Mahesh Chand

Standard Input and Output Streams

2013 Mahesh Chand

string str = Console.ReadLine();

Figure 2. The console class methods output

The Object Class

2013 Mahesh Chand

Table 2. Object class methods

2013 Mahesh Chand

Figure 3. Output of listing

2013 Mahesh Chand

Figure 4 get type and compare objects code output

2013 Mahesh Chand

2013 Mahesh Chand

The ToString Method and String Conversion

2013 Mahesh Chand

2013 Mahesh Chand

Figure 5. Output of listing 10

2013 Mahesh Chand

public int Year;

2013 Mahesh Chand

Listing 12. The interface type example

2013 Mahesh Chand

In listing 12 MyInterface is an interface that defines the method TestMethod.MyClass is

int tot = cls.TestMethod2(num1, num2);

2013 Mahesh Chand