JSGS WorkinG PaPer SerieS

Wheat and Trade Policy

in the Great Depression*

GREGORY P.
MARCHILDON
CANADA RESEARCH
CHAIR
JOHNSON-SHOYAMA

While historians often point to different

waves of globalization from the irst European voyages of discovery and European empire to the industrial revolution,2

PUBLIC POLICY
UNIVERSITY OF
REGINA

www.schoolofpublicpolicy.sk.ca

ISSUE 4

While there is considerable debate concerning the precise deinition of globalization, there is consensus that the intensity of commodity trade is one of the
principle measures of globalization. Of
course, commodity trade does not exist
in a vacuum. An increase in the intensity
of trade is accompanied by an ever expanding specialization in, and ultimately
an integration of, the factors of production of land, labour, and capital. Indeed,
for economists and economic historians,
globally integrated commodity and factor
markets are the very essence of globalization. 1

GRADUATE SCHOOL OF

JULY 2010

Globalization and the Wheat

Trade

economic historians generally designate

the nineteenth century as the beginning
of globalization. If integration of international commodity trade is used as the key
measure, then globalizations big bang
can be dated from 1870 to the outbreak
of World War I. Based upon their study
concerning the convergence of commodity prices, and the extent to which
factor (land, labour, and capital) prices
were determined by commodity prices,
Kevin ORourke and Jeffrey Williamson have argued that this period marked
an unprecedented integration of global
markets. This golden era of globalization
was ruptured irst by war and then, most
signiicantly, by the Great Depression of
the 1930s. The dislocation caused by the
Great Depression was so severe that the
degree of globalization achieved between
1870 and 1914, as measured by commodity trade integration, would not recover
until the end of the twentieth century.3

In terms of progressive market integration, the commodity trade in

wheat provides a particularly spectacular study of globalization.4 Wheat
was at the centre of the debate concerning free trade in the irst half of
the eighteenth century. The abolishment of the Corn5 Laws in 1846 and
its tariffs on imported wheat marked
Britains emergence as the worlds
irst great free trade power.6 In the
second half of the nineteenth century, as Britain and other countries in
Europe became more industrialized
and thus increasingly dependent on
imported wheat as bread made from
wheat lour became the main food
staple for most European workers.7
This in turn encouraged expansion
and settlement of new wheat growing
areas in the rest of the world where
climate and soil conditions were suitable, particularly in the United States,
Canada, Argentina, and Australia.
The growth in the wheat trade was
accompanied by lower trade costs
and more facilitative commercial,
monetary, and foreign policy environments. Of course, globalization
was not limited to an intensiication
of commodity trade in the four decades preceding the First World War.
These accompanying features included large scale migration and mixing
of populations, agricultural specialization and commercialization, and
rapid technological innovation and
dissemination.8
The nineteenth century witnessed a

Marchildon

revolution in transportation through

the introduction of steam-powered
trains and ships and, by the latter
part of the nineteenth century and
early twentieth century, a rapid reduction in the cost of transporting
goods such as wheat with very low
value to bulk ratios.9 Before this time,
global trade was dominated by commodities with higher value to bulk
ratios including luxury goods for the
wealthy. From 1870 until 1910, the
four decades that saw the most dramatic decline in transportation costs,
the freight cost to wheat price ratio
fell from 41 percent to 22.6 percent.10
At the same time, the plains and the
pampas of the Americas and Australia were opened to new, primarily European settlers, and wheat became a
key export staple.11
The low cost of land in these areas
of new settlement meant a lower cost
of production than in more denselypopulated Europe, and relatively
open trade facilitated even more
specialization in manufacturing all
at the expense of agricultural production in the Old World.12 At the
same time, this specialization spurred
a high degree of mechanization of
wheat agriculture with a consequent
need for high capital investment
and credit by wheat farmers and the
enterprises that purchased, stored,
transported, and exported grain.13
Manpower shortages, coupled with
the generally high cost of labour
(at least relative to land and capital)
in the countries of new settlement

drove the early and rapid adoption

of mechanized methods to plough,
seed, and harvest wheat. The labour
required to farm one acre of wheat in
the United States plummeted from 61
hours in 1830 to three hours and 19
minutes by 1896.14 As mechanization
expanded, the size and capital intensity of wheat farms also grew. Wheat
producers were increasingly integrated into the cash economy, relying
more on credit and capital markets,
including commodity exchanges.
The purpose of this paper is to examine the impact of the Great Depression on the wheat trade in the
context of a movement away from
globalization, and toward economic
autarky and world war. I irst provide
an overview of the structure of the
global wheat trade in terms of the
world chief exporters and importers.
I then examine the extent to which
the state of the wheat trade in the late
1920s was a contributing cause of the
Great Depression of the 1930s. In
the third section, I review the movement to home market protectionism
and the impact of the Smoot-Hawley
Tariff of 1930 on the wheat trade
and tariff retaliation. Fourth, I examine the role of wheat in the Imperial trade preferences that came out
of the Ottawa Conference of 1932.
Finally, I examine the initial failure
of wheat exporters and importers to
solve the crisis of the global wheat
trade through a managed trade agreement in 1933.

The Interwar Structure of the siied economy than

Canada, Argentina,
Wheat Trade
By the end of the nineteenth century,
the main exporting countries were
located outside of industrialized Europe. These countries included the
United States, Canada, Argentina,
Russia, India, and Australia. By the
end of World War I, Indian exports
had declined and Russian exports had
been disrupted by revolution and civil war. Out of the Great War emerged
four dominant exporters the United States, Canada, Argentina, and
Australia. These Big Four exporting
nations would hold their position as
the worlds four largest wheat exporters for the next half century. There
were some key differences among the
Big Four. By 1914, the United States
had a population that was at least ten
times larger than any one of its three
export competitors, and was also the
single largest consumer of wheat
and lour in the world. Moreover, as
a major manufacturing nation, the
United States had a far more diver-

and Australia, which

were highly dependent on the export
of staple agricultural commodities. In
Canadas case, wheat
was, by far, the countrys most important
export staple in the
interwar period.15 For
Argentina, wheat vied
with beef exports,
while wool vied with
wheat in Australia.16

In response to
war-inflated grain
prices, wheat
acreage in the Big
Four expanded
dramatically from
1914 until 1918.

While the reparations settlement following World War I caused a general

contraction in the volume and growth
of trade for the majority of commodities and manufactured goods,
after the short but sharp postwar recession, the trade in wheat grew from
an annual average of 686 million
bushels for the 1909-13 crop years
to an annual average of 777 million
bushels for the 1922-26 crop years.

This annual average would increase

slightly to 808 million bushels in the
next ive years, then drop to 572 million bushels on average an almost
30 percent decrease from the previous ive-year average in the midst
(1932-36) of the Great Depression.17
In response to war-inlated grain
prices, wheat acreage in the Big
Four exporting countries expanded

Marchildon

dramatically from 1914 until 1918,

particularly in Canada and Australia
where there was more arable land left
to settle than in Argentina and the
United States. Canadas wheat acreage increased by 50 percent, from
10 million to 15 million acres, while
Australias acreage increased twofold, from six million to 12 million
acres.18

Union. Of these European countries,

only the Soviet Union had the land
mass possible to compete on the
same scale as the Big Four. However,
due to the years of disruption caused
by the First World War, the Russian
Revolution, and the civil war that followed, the Soviet Union could only
sporadically export enough wheat to
affect supply and price in the global
market in the 1920s although it
Immediately before World War I, would further disrupt an already fallthe Big Four wheat exporters were ing market in the early years of the
responsible for 50 percent of the Great Depression.
worlds wheat trade (see Table 1
above, and Figures A1 and A2 in During the interwar period, the printhe Appendix). This percentage that cipal market for the Big Four and
would reach a peak of almost 90 other exporters was furnished by
percent in the early to mid-1920s western and central European counas a consequence of the disruption tries. These European importers reand destruction of agricultural pro- ceived 73 percent of global wheat
duction due to the First World War exports during the worst years of
and the Russian Revolution. The Big the Great Depression, from 1930-31
Fours share would decline slightly to 1934-45. During this time, these
after the mid-1920s, largely due to same European countries were also
the rise in protectionism as countries wheat producers with domestic marstrove to defend home agricultural kets and farmers to protect during
markets and producers. However, the Great Depression. However, afthis decline was gradual, primarily ter erecting of a host of tariff and
because of the massive international non-tariff barriers in the depths of
specialization of wheat production the Great Depression, these Europethat had already taken place from the an countries still only met 71 percent
of their domestic requirements for
1870s until the mid-1920s.
wheat and lour.19
During the interwar period, the remaining export market for wheat was The four largest European importers
divided among Eastern European were the United Kingdom, France,
exporters, including the countries of Germany, and Italy. By the 1930s,
the Danube River Basin (Bulgaria, all four countries were attempting
Hungary, Romania, and Yugosla- to protect their own wheat farmers
via), as well as Poland and the Soviet from disastrously low prices, and,

Marchildon

in the case of continental countries,

from cheap imports. It was dificult
for the continental countries to wean
themselves from wheat imports, and
for the United Kingdom, the worlds
single largest importer of wheat, the
history and ideology of free trade
and cheap food was too strong to
even consider full-scale protectionism. Before the end of the 1930s,
these countries would be rearmed
for war, and large parts of the wheat
ields of France, Germany, and Italy
would become the killing ields of
Europe.

Wheat and the Great

Depression: Anticipating
Major Conlict
While there is considerable controversy among economists and economic historians concerning the
more proximate causes of the Great
Depression, there is somewhat less
debate concerning the longer-term
inluences. The underlying conlict
among the major powers that produced the First World War was not
resolved through the terms of the
Treaty of Versailles in 1919. Though
historians continue to debate whether
Germany was actually capable of paying reparations, the conlict triggered
by contested reparations, inancial
disruption, collapsing incomes, and
rearmament, the pre-1914 globalized
order could not be re-established. A
global recession followed hard on the
heels of the Great War. Major trad-

ing nations such as the United Kingdom and Germany, far from enjoying
the postwar prosperity of the 1920s,
faced high unemployment and inancial dislocation.20 Most agricultural
commodity markets including wheat
were volatile during the 1920s. It
was not until the 1924 crop year that
wheat prices reached pre-war levels. However, after 1925, as shown
in Table 2, the price of wheat began
to drift down as unsold inventories
grew.21

This pre-depression weakness in agriculture has been closely examined by

scholars searching for a more proximate cause of the Great Depression.
One hypothesis maintains that this
earlier decline in agricultural prices
was a key factor in lowering the general price level, consumption, and
investment in a large number of European countries and in the United
States and Canada, thereby transmitting the conditions that led to a depression on a more global scale. This

hypothesis is supported by evidence

of overproduction and mounting
stocks of agricultural commodities
which made agricultural prices vulnerable to shocks in demand, international lending and the international
inancial system. 22
Wheat stocks accounted for only 14.7
percent of world production from
1922 to 1928 on average, compared
to 17.6 percent of world production in the pre-war boom years from
1890 to 1913. Only after the 1928
bumper crop did inventories rise to
about 25 percent of world production, the level at which they would
remain for most of the 1930s. According to Giovanni Federico, since
other agricultural commodities followed a trajectory similar to wheat,
these data challenge the hypothesis
that overproduction and consequent
lower agricultural commodity prices
after 1925 caused the Great Depression.23
Table 3 indicates that wheat stocks
in 1927 and 1928 exceeded the iveyear average set in the mid-1920s
(from 1922 to 1926). By 1929, wheat
stocks were 37 percent above the average of the mid-1920s. The glut of
wheat would only continue to grow
during the worst years of the Great
Depression.
When the trend inally began to reverse, it was a direct result of drought
and major crop failures in Canada and
the United States.24 With the bumper

Marchildon

crop of 1939 came another surfeit that of 1928. Attempting to exercise marwould require a world war to be ame- ket power as the single largest exporter
of wheat, domestic grain dealers held
liorated.
back the release of high-grade CanaThe early glut meant that wheat prices dian wheat into world markets, hopwere already falling before the Ameri- ing that the consequent shortage of
can stock market crash of October wheat would raise prices.26 Within the
1929. Moreover, the collapse of ag- irst months of 1929, it was clear that
ricultural credit markets in developed the gambit had failed. European buycountries such as the United States in ers went on strike against the much
the 1920s eventually triggered a global higher than normal margin for top
contraction of credit that was especial- grade Canadian wheat and instead purly harsh on agricultural credit markets chased lower grade wheat from other
in the First World from the Americas countries.27
to Australia, and in Third World countries as different as India and Indo- By May, there was a sudden and major
nesia. According to Dietmar Rother- collapse in the price of wheat on the
mund, this recoil in the global web Winnipeg Grain Exchange the main
of credit explains why the Great De- agricultural commodity market in Canpression had such a severe global im- ada in a single day known as Black
Tuesday. Despite this drop in price, the
pact.25
grain dealers persisted in their policy
There was a precipitous drop in the of holding back supplies, leading to
price of wheat months before the New lost wheat exports and severe balance
York stock market collapse of October of payments dificulties. The price of
1929. The trouble appears to have be- wheat would continue to decline until
gun in Canada with the bumper crop the mid-1930s when it began a slug-

Marchildon

gish recovery only to plummet again in

the1938 crop year (see Table 2).
In a perfectly competitive market, supply should respond to demand with
prices luctuating in a manner designed
to eliminate surpluses and prevent deficits. As can be seen in Table 2, wheat
prices did drop in response to a decrease in demand caused by the Great
Depression, but it took until 1937
and 1938 before wheat stocks were
reduced to a level as low as the mid1920s only to be upset by the bumper crop of 1939 which caused prices
to plummet yet again. Although it was
dificult for wheat producers in the exporting countries to adjust quickly to
annual changes in price, the degree of
specialization of these wheat growing
areas and the public and private storage and transportation infrastructure
that supported it also worked against
converting wheat acreage into alternative agricultural production. While
the United States and Canada had extensive grain storage capacity that al-

lowed their grain sellers to hold large

inventories, Argentina and Australia
did not. As a consequence, the latter
countries were forced to export wheat
irrespective of market conditions,
even if it meant looding the market,
thereby contributing to the downward
spiral in wheat prices. Moreover, if
wheat producers and grain marketers
in any of Big Four countries were under strain from creditors due to low
wheat prices, and their national governments were experiencing severe
balance of payment problems, then
the pressure to sell immediately at
ever lower prices may have been almost irresistible. Wheat acreage was,
at best, poorly responsive to price
changes, and at worst, perversely responsive to downward shifts in the
world price for wheat.
In Australia, the Commonwealth
government responded to the collapse in the prices of wool and wheat
by launching the grow more wheat
campaign of 1930. In addition to
the six million acres that had already

been added to wheat production during the 1920s, this policy would increase total wheat acreage from 18
million acres in 1929 to 21 million
acres in 1930.28 Through a compulsory pool operated under the central control of the Australian Wheat
Board, producers were encouraged
to expand their operations. However,
the government ultimately bungled its
legislative efforts to provide farmers
with a guaranteed price, and had to
rely on currency devaluation in order
to give Australian wheat a competitive edge in world markets. While this
form of competitive devaluation did
alleviate the Australian governments
balance of payments crisis, it did little
for wheat farmers as prices continued
to drop.29
The situation worsened when the Soviet Union resorted to using wheat
exports to obtain the currency needed
to purchase imports of capital equipment essential to Stalins industrialization drive. Although this policy began
in 1927, a combination of poor crops

and peasant resistance to forced collectivization delayed any major exports

of Soviet wheat to Europe until the
bumper crops of 1930. In that year,
the Soviet Union exported almost 2.3
million metric tons of wheat. Soviet
exports more than doubled to 5.2 million tons in 1931, but a lower price
meant that the value remained the
same as the year before.30 While the
Big Four accused the Soviet Union of
dumping, they too found it dificult
to avoid exporting more wheat into a
falling market even as they were taking steps to protect their own farmers
and domestic markets.
Although trade protectionism had
been rising even before the Great
Depression, the 1930s were marked
by a major increase in the intensity
of beggar-thy-neighbour commercial
policies. After the election of the Nazi
Party in Germany, these policies were
fortiied by the division of the world
into hostile blocks accompanied by
a group of European countries nervously preserving their neutrality. Al-

Marchildon

most all of the continental European

nations were concerned about ensuring adequate food security given the
increasing possibility of war.

From 1930 until 1933, there would

be a total of 20 international conferences that would attempt to grapple
with this problem. Eleven of these
conferences were general, seven were
restricted to eastern European producers, and two were limited to the
British Empire and Commonwealth
countries.31 None of these gatherings
produced a workable plan to address
the overproduction of wheat and, as
a consequence, the price of wheat
continued to be determined by climate and crop yields.

Of the three major continental importers, France and Germany were

the most effective in using a combination of tariff and non-tariff barriers to protect local wheat production
and improve food security in the years
immediately preceding World War II.
Both countries managed to become
almost self-suficient in wheat during
the Great Depression. Italy continued to depend on imports to satisfy As shown in Table 5, global wheat
nearly one quarter of its total wheat stocks remained high by historical
standards. They had climbed to aland lour requirements.
most one billion bushels by 1929
The United Kingdom remained the and would hover around this level or
great exception, dependent on ex- higher until the 1935-36 crop year.
ports for almost 80 percent of its Only the Big Four exporters had the
consumption. As a destination for market power to alter this trajectory
exports, the United Kingdom grew in through a policy intervention but all
relative importance during the 1930s of their efforts ultimately failed.
by virtue of the increasingly protectionist measures imposed by the ma- The Smoot-Hawley Tariff of 1930
jority of continental European coun- and the Imperial preferences of 1932
involved domestic protection and
tries.
trade diversion beggar-thy-neighBy the end of 1930, it was obvious to bour efforts that attempted to solve
all exporters that the shrinking of the the problem for one country at the
global market for wheat caused by expense of another. The Internationprotectionism, balance of payments al Wheat Conference of 1933 was
crises, and plummeting income cre- the irst global effort by major wheat
ated a surplus of global wheat stocks. producers to manage the world trade
Prices could only continue to de- in wheat by setting export quotas and
cline unless the main exporters could reducing the volume of land seeded
agree to take some wheat out of pro- to wheat.
duction and reduce existing stocks of
wheat.

Marchildon

Home Market Protectionism

and the Smoot-Hawley Tarif
Passed into American law in June
1930, the Smoot-Hawley Tariff is
the most infamous trade protectionist measure of the Great Depression.
Observers at the time as well as historians and economists after the fact
blamed Smoot-Hawley for triggering tariff retaliation throughout the
industrialized world and continuing
the downward spiral.32 From this perspective, Smoot-Hawley turned what
was a sharp recession into a longer
and more severe global depression.
In recent years, some historians and
economists have revised this view,
providing evidence demonstrating
that Smoot-Hawley was less a major
cause of the Great Depression than
as one contributing cause among
many others.33
For most of the 1920s, tariff levels for most agricultural commodities (as opposed to manufactured
goods) were not far off pre-war levels.34 However, in the case of wheat,
protectionism started early. As can
be seen in Table 5, Germany, Italy,
Sweden, and the United States were
already in the protectionist camp. By
1928, France, Germany, and Italy
continental Europes three largest importers increased their wheat tariffs
to levels that exceeded what would
become the Smoot-Hawley Tariff
rate some two years later. Well before
the stock market crash of 1929, some
European countries were introducing

non-tariff barriers to protect their

farmers against import competition
as wheat prices fell. Compulsory milling requirements in which domestic
millers had to use a minimum percentage of domestic grain was one
such non-tariff barrier.35
Contrary to the revisionist interpretation of Smoot-Hawley, there is at
least some evidence of tariffs that
were raised in direct retaliation to the
American tariff increase in 1930. In
at least one case, agricultural tariffs
were raised in order to dissuade the
American government form passing
Smoot-Hawley. Canadas cross-border trade with the United States in
agricultural commodities had already
been suffering from the Fordney-

McCumber tariffs of 1923, when Republican presidential nominee Herbert Hoover advocated even higher
agricultural duties in 1928. After
Hoovers election, the protracted negotiations over the content of what
would become Smoot-Hawley Tariff
were carefully followed in Canada.

Smoot-Hawley Tariff into law on 17

June 1930, just as an election was being called in Canada. The Conservative opposition leader successfully
used Smoot-Hawley in his election
bid, promising to impose even higher
tariffs than the more free-trade Liberals in retaliation against the United
States.36 Indeed, there is compelWhen some rates were actually raised ling evidence that the Conservatives
in March 1930 before Smoot-Haw- could not have won the election
ley had been inalized, the Canadian without Smoot-Hawley. 37
government intervened with retaliatory food tariffs in an effort to let Both Canada and Australia were in
American legislators know what to the vanguard of nations retaliating
expect if Smoot-Hawley was passed against Smoot-Hawley after its pasinto law. This pre-emptive strike by sage, imposing higher tariffs and inCanada had no appreciable impact on troducing preferences for countries
American legislators, however, and within the British Empire and ComPresident Herbert Hoover signed the monwealth as the United Kingdom

Marchildon

itself shifted away from free trade

by adopting an Imperial Preference
policy in November 1931.38 Although
there is some debate as to the motives surrounding tariff hikes by
other countries after Smoot-Hawley,
there is evidence that Smoot-Hawley
indirectly contributed to the severity
of the Great Depression by destabilizing the international monetary
system. In strengthening the balance
of payments situation for the United
States and conveying additional gold
lows to America, Smoot-Hawley
strengthened the American dollar at
the expense of the stability of foreign currencies.39
As shown in Table 5, whatever the
more direct impact of Smoot-Hawley was on tariff retaliation, there is
little question that both tariff and
non-tariff barriers on agricultural
commodities were raised in the Great
Depression. Even some of the smaller, open European countries that had
previously been committed to free
trade Belgium, Denmark, Ireland,
and the Netherlands eventually restricted wheat imports. As the largest
exporters of agricultural commodities within the British Empire, both
Canada and Australia were eager to
engage the United Kingdom and all
other Empire countries in a larger
agreement that would divert trade to
member countries and, most importantly, give privileged access to the lucrative British home market, the largest destination market for wheat and
lour in the world.

10

Marchildon

The Ottawa Conference and

Trade Diversion

for the next meeting to be held in Ottawa.

By the time governments were preparing for the 1932 Conference, the
political situation had changed considerably. A new government in the
United Kingdom had reluctantly
accepted the principle of Imperial
preference as part of a strategy that
would give it bargaining leverage in
From the perspective of the United convincing protectionist countries
Kingdom and at least some of the to lower tariff and nontariff barrier
self-governing Dominions, the eco- against British exports.
nomic portion of the 1930 Imperial Conference had ended in failure In addition, the United Kingdom
partly because of personality clashes would use its concession to move the
between the British and Canadian Dominions to provide similar preferprime ministers.41 At the time, the ences and some tariff reductions for
prime minister of Canada, R.B. Ben- British goods.44 As major wheat pronett, had proposed a 10 percent in- ducers in the world, Canada and Auscrease in the British tariff that was tralia not only wanted privileged acsummarily dismissed by the United cess to the British home market but
also new bargaining leverage against
Kingdom.42
other wheat importing countries.
However, even before the 1930 Conference had begun, the British gov- At bottom, the governments of both
ernment had ruled out the possi- Dominions understood that they,
bility of any taxes on food and raw along with other Empire countries,
materials, and Britain maintained produced more wheat than could be
its no-tariff position throughout the consumed within the Empire so that
Conference.43 As a sop to the Do- any protection could only produce
minions, the British delegates said trade diversion rather than any fundathey would consider a Dominion mental changes in global production,
quota for wheat as long as it did not consumption, and price patterns. In
involve any guaranteed price, but this other words, whatever Canada and
was rejected at least initially by Australia gained in the British home
the Canadian and Australian prime market for wheat they would likely
ministers. The 1930 Conference end- lose to other exporters in third mared without agreement, and the issue kets. Nonetheless, R.B. Bennett, the
of both tariffs and quotas was tabled prime minister of Canada, would

Unlike previous Imperial Conferences which were all held in London, the
1932 Imperial Conference was held
in Ottawa at Canadas long-standing
request. The Ottawa Conference
came in the wake of a disastrous Imperial Conference two years earlier.40

not be swayed on any point of negotiation without obtaining a commitment from the British government to
impose a tariff on wheat.
Bennett was making good on his earlier election promise to use tariffs to
blast a way into world markets.45
Neither the Canadian nor Australian
government thought the British tariff
on wheat would change the underlying conditions, but it would provide
a political bargaining chip for both
countries. The British delegation
not only understood this, but were
extremely worried that giving a preference to the Dominions through a
wheat tariff that would be applied
against the rest of the world would
cause more harm than good in the
long run when the Dominions came
to realise that the scheme had not
been as beneicial to them as they
expected.47
In addition, the British government concluded that any agreement
reached in Ottawa could not affect the United Kingdoms ability to
conclude commercial treaties with
countries outside the Empire, an important consideration given the governments desire to avoid imposing
penalties on historically important
trading partners such as Argentina.48
While the British government was
extremely reluctant to impose any
tariff in wheat and reverse a policy that had been in place since the
Corn Laws were abolished in 1846,

the British negotiators reluctantly

concluded that a tariff on wheat was
essential to progress on other fronts
given the entrenched positions of
Canada and Australia, the two most
important members of the Commonwealth. The new tariff was set at
2 shillings per quarter (approximately
6 cents per bushel). This tariff was
substantially lower than the tariff requested by prime minister of Canada
two years before. Certainly, the modest tariff provided no protection for
home markets. Farmers in the United
Kingdom and Canada had been receiving government subsidies that
ensured domestic prices were above
world prices well before the Ottawa
Conference.49

At irst, the Argentine government

requested that the problem of abnormal overproduction of wheat be
put on the agenda of the World Monetary and Economic Conference that
was to be held in London under the
auspices of the League of Nations in
the summer of 1933.51 Eventually,
it was agreed to deal with wheat in
a separate, dedicated meeting following the major conference. Representatives of the Big Four exporters had
a preparatory meeting in Geneva on
10 to 17 May where they agreed on
the principle of export quotas for
themselves as well the eastern European and Soviet exporters. Though
the Big Four were not unanimous on
the issue of whether to even suggest
production limits for the major westMoreover, such a modest tariff would ern European producers, they did
do little to stop the Soviet Union agree that a meeting with the major
dumping its wheat in western Eu- importers was essential to the success
ropean markets, a major concern for of any inal agreement.52
both Canada and Australia, and despite those countries best efforts, the
The International Wheat
United Kingdom refused to capituConference of 1933
late to demands that Soviet wheat be
excluded from the British market.50 The four-day International Wheat
In order to deal with the larger prob- Conference began on 21 August
lem of low wheat prices caused by 1933. It was chaired by R.B. Bennett
the global glut and dumping, the Big as the leader of the worlds largest
Four promoted the idea of a wheat wheat exporter. The countries invitconference. Undoubtedly concerned ed to the conference included major
about their exclusion from the Impe- importers as well as exporters includrial preference system established at ing the Soviet Union which had not
the Ottawa Conference, the United previously been extended diplomatic
States and Argentina were looking recognition by a number of countries
for a way to bind Canada and Aus- including the United States.53 The
tralia to a larger, non-exclusionary conferences main objective was to
agreement.
get the main exporting and import-

Marchildon

11

ing nations to agree to quotas and

acreage reductions in order to reduce wheat production for both export and home consumption.54 If an
agreement could be reached among
the majority of major country producers, then the participants expected
that global stocks would be reduced
and the world price of wheat would
recover to a level that would, once
again, provide an adequate living for
farmers and a proit for landowners,
grain marketers, and transportation
companies.
On 15 August, an agreement was
signed by 22 wheat-exporting and
wheat-importing countries.55 The
main exporters agreed to maximum
export quotas for two crop years,
the levels of which were based upon
their recent export history. The export quotas for the 1933-34 crop year
were: Canada (200 million bushels);
Argentina (110 million bushels); Australia (105 million bushels); the United States (47 million bushels); the
four Danubian countries (50 million
bushels); and others including the Soviet Union (48 million bushels).56
These quotas set a target total wheat
trade of 560 million bushels for the
1933 crop year, considerably below
previous levels of trade. For example, the global trade in wheat exceeded 945 million bushels in the 1928
crop year, the highest level reached
in the 1920s. While the global trade
fell to 637 million bushels the following crop year, it reached 838 mil-

12

Marchildon

lion bushels in 1931 and 802 million

bushels in 1922.57 The group set a
slightly higher, and less aggressive,
global export quota for the following
year. Though they could not secure
the inclusion of the Soviet Union
and the Danubian countries, the Big
Four exporting countries agreed to
reduce their own wheat acreage by
15 percent based on the average of
seeded wheat acreage from 1931 to
1933.58

was broken well before the two-year

period was over. Argentina was the
irst to renege. In 1933-34, Argentina had a bumper crop but, suffering
a lack of storage facilities, it quickly
exceeded its export quota in the irst
year of the agreement.61 To justify its
action, the government of Argentina
pointed to the fact that the United
States and Canada had not met their
promises to reduce wheat acreage by
15 percent. In reality, only Argentina
among the Big Four had increased its
acreage. Though none would come
close to achieving a full 15 percent
reduction in 1934, the three other
nations had at least made moves in
the right direction: Canada reduced
its sown acreage by 8.6 percent, Australia by 8 percent, and the United
States by 4 percent. As for the wheat
importers, they did not make any
major changes to domestic agricultural policy as prices remained stuck
below the higher target price under
the agreement. As a consequence, the
irst global effort to alleviate the crisis
in one of the worlds most tradeable
agricultural commodities lay in tatters.

For their part, the wheat importing

countries agreed not to increase their
home production beyond existing
levels. They also agreed to encourage
the consumption of wheat and more
high quality wheat imports, and to
begin lowering their tariff duties on
wheat once the world price exceeded
63.2 cents per bushel (at the time of
the agreement, the price was 50 gold
cents per bushel). They also made a
soft commitment to relax import restrictions if prices improved over a
minimum period of one year. Finally,
a Wheat Advisory Committee composed of both exporting and importing countries was established with a
secretariat headquartered in London
and a mandate to monitor the terms
Conclusion
of the agreement and report export,
production, acreage, and price data to The historical consensus is that the
Imperial preferences established unthe participating countries.59
der the 1932 Ottawa Conference and
At the time, the Economist described the export quotas agreed to at the
the agreement as an armistice in the 1933 International Wheat Conferwheat trade war rather than provid- ence had minimal impact on supply
ing an interim solution to glut and and price conditions in the wheat
low prices.60 In fact, the agreement trade.62 Instead, it would be the con-

tinuing drought in North America, as

well as poor harvests in other major
producing countries, that would ultimately reduce surplus inventories
of wheat and allow the world price
to reverse its downward trend. Ultimately, however, it would take the
dislocation and destruction of World
War II to create the shortages necessary for the price to rebound to preDepression levels.
With this recovery in the price of
wheat came greater harmony in the
wheat trade. However, this did not
mean reverting to the more globalized wheat trade regime in the decades preceding World War I. Instead, in the global wheat trade,
protectionism and managed trade
became the dominant feature of
postwar prosperity.

concerns, agricultural production

was excluded from trade liberalization efforts under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).64
Countries such as the United States
introduced export subsidies to give
their producers and grain marketers
competitive advantages in a highly
controlled market. Fully implemented by 1969, the Common Agricultural
Policy in Europe not only controlled
production throughout the member
states of what would eventually become the European Union, but also
turned Europe into a net exporter of
wheat, after decades of being a net
importer.
The experience of the Great Depression and the conlict that followed
was at least partially responsible for
this postwar preference for orderly
markets in wheat and managed export trade. In the decades following
the war, wheat remained one of the
more important export commodities
in the world, and major exporters
preferred stability and certainty over
the free market.

The domestic agricultural supports

that had been introduced in the
1930s became a permanent part of
the policy landscape in advanced industrial countries, including the Big
Four. The government-run wheat
boards in Canada and Australia continued or even expanded their
respective mandates. Managed trade
agreements such as the CanadianBritish Wheat Agreement of 1946
and the International Wheat Agreement of 1949 (involving the United
States, Canada, Australia, France,
and Uruguay) shaped the direction
of the trade.63

*The author would like to thank Angela Scott as well as the participants in the
workshop Unpeaceable Exchange: Trade
and Conlict in the Global Economy,
1000-2000, University of Lisbon, 16-17
July 2010. for their helpful comments.

As a consequence of American

1. See Kevin ORourke and Jeffrey

ENDNOTES

G. Williamson, Globalization and

History: The Evolution of a Nineteenth-Century Atlantic Economy
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999).
2. For a summary of these views,
see David Northrup, Globalization and the Great Convergence:
Rethinking World History in the
Long Term, Journal of World History 16, no. 3 (2005): 249-267. A.G.
Hopkins and the authors contributing to his volume describe three
stages of globalization: archaic globalization (pre-17th century), protoglobalizations (1600s and 1700s),
and modern globalization (industrial revolution to present). See
A.G. Hopkins, ed., Globalization
in World History (New York: W.W.
Norton, 2002). For David Eltis,
globalization began in 1,000 A.D.
when the previously dominant pattern of global population dispersion
and isolation became a pattern of
increased contact and mixing: Introduction: Migration and Agency
in Global History, in Coerced and
Free Migration: Global Perspectives
(Stanford: Stanford University Press,
2002).
3. Kevin H. ORourke and Jeffrey
G. Williamson, When Did Globalization Begin? (Cambridge, MA:
National Bureau of Economic Research, NBER Working Paper 7632,
2000).
4. Giovanni Federico and Karl
Gunnar Persson, Market Integration and Convergence in the World
Wheat Market, 1800-2000, in The
New Comparative Economic His-

Marchildon

13

tory: Essays in Honor of Jeffrey G.

Williamson, ed. Timothy J. Hatton,
Kevin H. ORourke, and Alan M.
Taylor (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press,
2007).
5. Corn in the sense used here is
deined as the chief cereal crop of a
region, thus wheat in England and
oats in Scotland are both known as
corn.
6. See Cheryl Schonhardt-Bailey,
From the Corn Laws to Free Trade:
Interest, Ideas, and Institutions in
Historical Perspective (Cambridge,
MA: MIT Press, 2006), and Bernard
Semmel, The Rise of Free Trade Imperialism: Classical Political Economy, the Empire of Free Trade and
Imperialism (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2004).
7. Michael Turnor, Agriculture,
1860-1914, in The Cambridge
Economic History of Modern Britain: Volume II, Economic Maturity,
1860-1939, ed. Roderick Floud and
Paul Johnson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 136.
8. David S. Jacks, What Drove 19th
Century Commodity Market Integration? Explorations in Economic
History 43, no. 4 (2006): 383-412.
9. C. Knick Harley, Ocean Freight
Rates and Productivity, 1740-1913,
Journal of Economic History 48,
no. 4 (1988): 851-876. S.I. Shah Mohammed and Jeffrey G. Williamson, Freight Rates and Productivity Gains in British Tramp Shipping,
1869-1950, Explorations in Economic History 41, no. 3 (2004): 172203. David S. Jacks, Christopher M.

14

Marchildon

Meissner, and Dennis Novy, Trade

Costs in the First Wave of Globalizations, Explorations in Economic
History 47, no. 2 (2010): 127-141.
10. ORourke and Williamson, When
Did Globalization Begin, table 1.
11. Carl E. Solberg, The Prairies
and the Pampas: Agrarian Policy in
Canada and Argentina, 1880-1913
(Stanford: Stanford University Press,
1987). Over the period 1870 to 1913,
net migration to the United States
was 15.8 million people, in Australia, it was 885,000, and in Canada, it
was 861,000. Over a similar period
(1871-1910), Argentina received a net
migration of 2.5 million people. See
Angus Maddison, The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective (Paris:
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2001), p.
128, for data on the United States,
Australia and Canada, and Solberg,
The Prairies and the Pampas, p. 75,
for data on Argentina.
12. Tariffs on wheat remained low
until the protectionist backlash of the
1880s. By the mid-1890s, wheat import duties in France, Germany, and
Italy exceeded 60 percent of the Chicago price. See Federico and Persson,
World Wheat Market, 1800-2000.
13. Jeremy Adelman, The Social
Bases of Technical Change: Mechanization of the Wheatlands of Argentina and Canada, 1890 to 1914,
Comparative Studies in Society and
History 34, no. 2 (1992): 271-300.
14. Adelman, The Social Bases of
Technical Change, p. 282.
15. Vernon C. Fowke, The National

Policy and the Wheat Economy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press,

1957).
16. C.B. Schedvin, Staples and Regions of Pax Britannica, Economic
History Review 43, no. 4 (1990): 533559.
17. Paul de Hevesy, World Wheat
Planning and Economic Planning in
General (London: Oxford University
Press, 1940, Appendix 9).
18. R.J. Hammond, British Food
Supplies, 1914-1939, Economic
History Review 16, no. 1 (1946): 1-14.
19. Wilfred Manenbaum, The
World Wheat Economy, 1885-1939
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 1953), p. 63.
20. Charles H. Feinstein, Peter Temin, and Gianni Toniolo, The World
Economy between the World Wars
(Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2008), pp. 60-63.
21. Charles P. Kindleberger, The
World in Depression, 1929-1939
(Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1973), p. 90.
22. Jakob B. Madsen, Agricultural
Crises and the International Transmission of the Great Depression,
Journal of Economic History 61,
no. 2 (2001): 327-365, quotation at p.
356.
23. Giovanni Federico, Not Guilty?
Agriculture in the 1920s and the
Great Depression, Journal of Economic History 65, no. 4 (2005): 949976.
24. On the United States, see Geoff
Cunfer, On the Great Plains: Agriculture and Environment (College

Station: Texas A & M Press, 2005),

and Donald Worster, Dust Bowl: The
Southern Plains in the 1930s (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979).
On Canada, see Gregory P. Marchildon, The Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration: Climate Crisis
and Federal-Provincial Relations during the Great Depression, Canadian
Historical Review 90, no. 2 (2009):
275-301, Gregory P. Marchildon,
Suren Kulshreshtha, Elaine Wheaton, and David Sauchyn, Drought
and Institutional Adaptation in the
Great Plains of Alberta and Saskatchewan, 1914-1939, Natural
Hazards 45, no. 3 (2008): 391-411,
and David C. Jones, Empire of Dust:
Settling and Abandoning the Prairie
Dry Belt (Edmonton: University of
Alberta Press, 1987).
25. Dietmar Rothermund, The
Global Impact of the Great Depression, 1929-1939 (London: Routledge,
1996), pp. 12-18. On the United
States, see Lee J. Alston, Farm Foreclosures in the United States during
the Interwar Period, Journal of Economic History 43, no. 4 (1983): 885903.
26. As a general rule, the higher the
protein content in wheat, the harder
the wheat and the higher the quality.
Due to the climate on the northern
Great Plains, Canada tended to produce a larger quantity of high quality
hard wheat. Canadian hard wheat
fetched a premium in world markets
because it could be mixed with softer
wheat to improve the quality of bead
making lour. D.A. MacGibbon, The

Canadian Grain Trade, 1931-1951

(Toronto: University of Toronto
Press, 1952), p. 22.
27. Kindleberger, World in Depression, p. 92.
28. Kindleberger, The World in
Depression, p. 92. C.B. Schedvin,
Australia and the Great Depression:
A Study of Economic Development
and Policy in the 1920s and 1930s
(Sydney: Sydney University Press,
1970), p. 146.
29. Schedvin, Australia and the
Great Depression, pp. 146-153. Rothermund, The Global Impact of the
Great Depression, pp. 82-86.
30. Kindleberger, The World in Depression, pp. 92-93. Paul R. Gregory
and Joel Sailors, The Soviet Union
during the Great Depression: The
Autarky Model, in The World Economy and National Economies in the
Interwar Slump, ed. Theo Balderston
(London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003),
pp. 191-210. The Soviet Union depended most heavily on oil products,
wood, and grain to pay for its strategic imports of the machinery and
metals required for industrialization.
31. Kindleberger, The World in Depression, pp. 92-93.
32. The classic account is Joseph
M. Jones, Tariff Retaliation: Repercussions of the Smoot-Hawley Bill
(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1934).
33. Harold James, The End of Globalization: Lessons from the Great
Depression (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), pp. 112118. Thomas W. Zeiler, Free Trade,

Free World: The Advent of GATT

(Chapel Hill: University of North
Carolina Press, 1999), p. 7. Barry
Eichengreen, The Political Economy of the Smoot-Hawley Tariff,
Research in Economic History 11
(1989): 1-44.
34. Giovanni Federico, Feeding the
World: An Economic History of
Agriculture, 1800-2000 (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 2005), p.
192. See James (The End of Globalization, p. 119) who argues while the
tariffs on manufactured goods did go
up signiicantly in the 1920s, agricultural tariffs stayed relatively low until
the advent of the Great Depression.
35. From 1929 to 1932, Belgium,
France, Germany, Italy, and Sweden
introduced compulsory milling requirements. James, The End of Globalization, p. 113.
36. Richard N. Kottman, Herbert
Hoover and the Smoot-Hawley Tariff: Canada, A Case Study, Journal
of American History 62, no. 3 (1975):
609-635. Gregory P. Marchildon,
Canadian-American
Agricultural
Trade Relations: A Brief History,
American Review of Canadian Studies 28, no. 3 (1998): 1-20.
37. Judith A. McDonald, Anthony
Patrick OBrien, and Colleen M. Callahan, Tariff Wars: Canadas Reaction to the Smoot-Hawley tariff,
Journal of Economic History 57, no.
4 (1997): 802-826.
38. Richard Pomfret, Trade Policy
in Canada and Australia in the Twentieth Century, Australian Economic
History Review 40, no. 2 (2000), p.

Marchildon

15

118.
39. Eichengreen, The Political
Economy of the Smoot-Hawley Tariff. On the inancial weaknesses
of the interwar economy, see Barry
Eichengreen, Elusive Stability: Essays in the History of International
Finance, 1919-1939 (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1990).
40. Ian M. Drummond, British Economic Policy and the Empire, 19191939 (London: George Allen and
Unwin, 1972), pp. 69, 89-90.
41. Malenbaum, The World Wheat
Economy, p. 199.
42. United Kingdom, National Archives (hereafter UK), CAB/24/224,
cabinet memorandum, proposed
Imperial Economic Conference at
Ottawa. Report by cabinet committee, 23 Nov. 1931, memorandum by
the Secretary of State for Dominion
Affairs. Accessed on 26 May 2010:
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/
cabinetpapers/themes/economicpolicy-1930s.htm
43. UK, CAB/23/65, cabinet conclusion 7, Imperial Conference 1930,
9 Oct. 1930. Accessed on 26 May
2010: http://www.nationalarchives.
gov.uk/cabinetpapers/themes/economic-policy-1930s.htm
44. UK, CAB/24/224, cabinet
memorandum, proposed Imperial Economic Conference at Ottawa. Report by cabinet committee,
23 Nov. 1931. Accessed on 26 May
2010: http://www.nationalarchives.
gov.uk/cabinetpapers/themes/economic-policy-1930s.htm
45. Larry A. Glassford, Reaction

16

Marchildon

and Reform: The Politics of the Conservative Party under R.B. Bennett,
1927-1938 (Toronto: University of
Toronto Press, 1992), p. 116.
46. im Rooth, British Protectionism and the International Economy:
Overseas Commercial Policy in the
1930s (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 84, 89,
47. UK, CAB/24/221, cabinet
memorandum, proposed Imperial
Economic Conference at Ottawa,
second report by Cabinet Committee, 2 May 1931, p. 2. Accessed on
26 May 2010: http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/cabinetpapers/
themes/economic-policy-1930s.htm
48. For trade purposes, Argentina
was often treated by the UK as an
honorary Dominion, and the RocaRunciman Pact (1933) between the
two countries was, in large part, an
effort to undo any damage done by
the Ottawa Conference: Alan Knight,
Latin America, in The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume
IV. The Twentieth Century, ed. Judith M. Brown and Wm. Roger Louis
(Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1999), pp. 633-635.
49. Rooth, British Protectionism
and the International Economy, p.
230.
50. Rooth, British Protectionism
and the International Economy, p. 90.
Though a general clause was put into
the agreements that suggested the
UK would act if it could be shown
that Soviet wheat supplies were destroying the value of the UK home
market for the Dominions, the Brit-

ish prime minister and cabinet were

resolved not to allow their relationship with the Soviet Union deteriorate any further. UK, CAB/24/232,
Conference (Agreements) Bill, note
by the cabinet secretary, 9 Sept. 1932.
Accessed on 26 May 2010: http://
www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/cabinetpapers/themes/economic-policy1930s.htm
51. Malenbaum, The World Wheat
Economy, p. 205. E.H. Carr, International Relations between the Two
World Wars, 1919-1939 (New York:
Harper & Row, 1966, orig. 1937), pp.
149-152.
52. Malenbaum, The World Wheat
Economy, pp. 205-206.
53. Robert E. Bowers, American
Diplomacy, the 1933 Wheat Conference, and the Recognition of the Soviet Union, Agricultural History 40,
no. 1 (1966): 39-52.
54. MacGibbon, The Canadian
Grain Trade, p. 26.
55. Every country except Ireland
had signed the agreement by August 30. Sweden and Czechoslovakia
signed conditionally. Malenbaum,
The World Wheat Trade, pp. 206207.
56. Malenbaum, The World Wheat
Trade, p. 207.
57. De Hevesy, World Wheat Planning, appendix 9, following p. 750.
58. Malenbaum, The World Wheat
Trade, p. 207. MacGibbon, The Canadian Grain Trade, p. 27
59. MacGibbon, The Canadian
Grain Trade, pp. 27-28. Malenbaum,
The World Wheat Economy, p. 208.

60. Economist, 2 Sept. 1933, summarized in MacGibbon, The Canadian Grain Trade, p. 29.
61. Malenbaum, The World Wheat
Economy, pp. 194, 208-209. Hammond, British Food Supplies, p. 6.
62. Malenbaum, The World Wheat
Economy, p. 199.
63. Marchildon, Canadian-American Agricultural Trade Relations, pp.
245-247.
64. John W. Evans, The Kennedy
Round in American Trade Policy: The
Twilight of the GATT? (Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press, 1971).

Appendixes to follow

Marchildon

17

Source: de Hevesy, World Wheat Planning, appendix 9, after p. 750

18

Marchildon

Source: de Hevesy, World Wheat Planning, appendix 10, before p. 751

Marchildon

19

Source: de Hevesy, World Wheat Planning, appendix 4, after p. 738.

20

Marchildon

Source: de Hevesy, World Wheat Planning, p. 715.

Marchildon

21

Source: de Hevesy, World Wheat Planning, appendix 7, after p. 748.

22

Marchildon