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77

The transfer function completely describes the dynamic characteristics of the system. If
we select a particular input variation X(t) for which the transform is X(s), the response
of the system is simply
Y (s )  G (s ) X (s )

(4.11)

By taking the inverse of Y(s), we get Y(t), the response of the system.
The transfer function results from a linear differential equation; therefore, the
principle of superposition is applicable. This means that the transformed response of a
system with transfer function G(s) to a forcing function
X (s)  a1 X1 (s)  a2 X 2 (s)
where X1 and X2 are particular forcing functions and a1 and a2 are constants, is
Y (s )  G (s ) X (s )
 a1G (s) X1 (s)  a2G (s) X 2 (s)
 a1Y1 (s)  a2Y2 (s)
where Y1 (s) and Y2 (s) are the responses to X1 and X2 alone, respectively. For example,
the response of the mercury thermometer to a sudden change in surrounding temperature of 10F is simply twice the response to a sudden change of 5F in surrounding
temperature.
The functional relationship contained in a transfer function is often expressed by
a block diagram representation, as shown in Fig. 42.
The arrow entering the box is the forcing
function or input variable, and the arrow leavX(s)
Y(s)
G(s)
ing the box is the response or output variable.
The transfer function is placed inside the box.
We state that the transfer function G(s) in the
Forcing
box operates on the input function X(s) to proFunction
Response
Transfer
duce an output function Y(s). The usefulness of
Function
Input
Output
the block diagram will be appreciated in Chap.
8, when a complete control system containing
FIGURE 42
Block diagram.
several blocks is analyzed.

4.2

TRANSIENT RESPONSE

Now that the transfer function of a first-order system has been established, we can easily obtain its transient response to any forcing function. Since this type of system occurs
so frequently in practice, it is worthwhile to study its response to several common forcing functions: step, impulse, ramp, and sinusoidal. These forcing functions have been
found to be very useful in theoretical and experimental aspects of process control. They
will be used extensively in our studies, so lets explore each before we study the transient response of the first-order system to these forcing functions.

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4.3

FORCING FUNCTIONS

STEP FUNCTION. Mathematically, the step function of magnitude A can be expres-

sed as

X(t)

X (t )  Au(t )
X = 0; t < 0
X = A; t > 0
A
X (s) = s

FIGURE 43
Step input.

where u(t) is the unit-step function defined in

Chap. 2. A graphical representation is shown in
Fig. 43.
The transform of this function is X(s) A/s.
A step function can be approximated very closely
in practice. For example, a step change in flow
rate can be obtained by the sudden opening of a
valve.

IMPULSE FUNCTION. Mathematically, the impulse function of magnitude A is

defined as
X ( t )  Ad ( t )
where d (t) is the unit-impulse function defined
and discussed in App. 3A. A graphical representation of this function, before the limit is taken, is
A
shown in Fig. 44.
b
The true impulse function, obtained by letting
b 0 in Fig. 44, has a Laplace transform of A.
It is used more frequently as a mathematical aid
O
0 b
t
than as an actual input to a physical system. For
some systems it is difficult even to approximate
FIGURE 44
an impulse forcing function. For this reason the
Impulse function.
representation of Fig. 44 is valuable, since this
form can usually be approximated physically by application and removal of a step function. If the time duration b is sufficiently small, we will see in Chap. 5 that the forcing function of Fig. 44 gives a response that closely resembles the response to a true
impulse. In this sense, we often justify the use of A
as the Laplace transform of the physically realizable
X
forcing function of Fig. 44.
X(t)

X = 0; t < 0
A
X= ;0<t<b
b
X = 0; t > b
lim X(t) = A(t)
b0
L{A(t)} = A

X = 0; t < 0
X = bt; t > 0
X(s) = b/s2

RAMP FUNCTION. This function increases linearly

with time and is described by the equations

Slope = b

0
0
FIGURE 45
Ramp function.

cou9789x_ch04_069-098.indd 78

X  0
X  bt

t  0
t  0

The ramp is shown graphically in Fig. 45. The transform of the ramp forcing function is X(s) b/s2.
We might, for example, desire to ramp up the
temperature of an oven by 10F/min. This would be
an example of a ramp function.

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SINUSOIDAL INPUT. This function is represented mathematically by the equations

X  0
X  Asin  t
X = 0; t < 0
X = A sin wt; t > 0
Aw
X(s) = 2
s + w2

X(t)

Period = 2p
w
A
0

t  0
t  0

FIGURE 46
Sinusoidal input.

where A is the amplitude and w is the radian frequency. The radian frequency w is
related to the frequency f in cycles per unit time by w 2p f. Figure 46 shows the
graphical representation of this function. The transform is X(s) Aw /(s2 w 2). This
forcing function forms the basis of an important branch of control theory known as
frequency response. Historically, a large segment of the development of control theory
was based on frequency-response methods, which will be presented in Chaps. 15 and
16. Physically, it is more difficult to obtain a sinusoidal forcing function in most process variables than to obtain a step function.
This completes the discussion of some of the common forcing functions. We now
devote our attention to the transient response of the first-order system to each of the
forcing functions just discussed.

4.4

STEP RESPONSE

If a step change of magnitude A is introduced into a first-order system, the transform

of X(t) is
A
X (s ) 
(4.12)
s
The transfer function, which is given by Eq. (4.7), is
Y (s )
1

X (s )
ts  1

(4.7)

Combining Eqs. (4.7) and (4.12) gives

Y (s ) 

A 1
s ts  1

(4.13)

This can be expanded by partial fractions to give

Y (s ) 

cou9789x_ch04_069-098.indd 79

A /t
C1
C2


s(s  1/t )
s
s  1/t

(4.14)

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Solving for the constants C1 and C2 by the techniques covered in Chap. 3 gives C1 A
and C2 A. Inserting these constants into Eq. (4.14) and taking the inverse transform
give the time response for Y:
Y (t )  0

t  0

Y (t )  A 1
e

t /t

t  0

(4.15)

Hereafter, for the sake of brevity, it will be understood that, as in Eq. (4.15), the response
is zero before t 0. Equation (4.15) is plotted in Fig. 47 in terms of the dimensionless quantities Y(t)/A and t/t. (Note that if we refer to the standard form for a first-order
system, Eq. (4.10), Kp A in this case.)
Having obtained the step response, Eq. (4.15), from a purely mathematical
approach, we should consider whether the result seems to be correct from physical
principles. Immediately after the thermometer is placed in the new environment, the
temperature difference between the mercury in the bulb and the bath temperature is at
its maximum value. With our simple lumped-parameter model, we should expect the
flow of heat to commence immediately, with the result that the mercury temperature
rises, causing a corresponding rise in the column of mercury. As the mercury temperature rises, the driving force causing heat to flow into the mercury will diminish, with
the result that the mercury temperature changes at a slower rate as time proceeds. We
see that this description of the response based on physical grounds does agree with the
response given by Eq. (415) and shown graphically in Fig. 47.
Several features of this response are worth remembering:
1.

Y(t)
A

2.

The value of Y(t) reaches 63.2 percent of its ultimate value when the time elapsed
is equal to one time constant t. When the time elapsed is 2t, 3t, and 4t, the percent
response is 86.5, 95, and 98, respectively. From these facts, one can consider the
response essentially completed in three to four time constants.
One can show from Eq. (4.15) that the slope of the response curve at the origin in
Fig. 47 is 1. This means that if the initial rate of change of Y(t) were maintained, the
response would be complete in one time constant. (See the dotted line in Fig. 47.)
3. A consequence of the principle of super1.0
position is that the response to a step input
of any magnitude A may be obtained
0.8
directly from Fig. 47 by multiplying the
ordinate by A. Figure 47 actually gives
0.6
the response to a unit-step function input,
from which all other step responses are
0.4
derived by superposition.
0.2
0

t/t
FIGURE 47
Response of a first-order system to a step input.

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These results for the step response of a firstorder system will now be applied to the following example.
Example 4.2. A thermometer having a
time constant of 0.1 min is at a steady-state

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81

temperature of 90F. At time t 0, the thermometer is placed in a temperature

bath maintained at 100F. Determine the time needed for the thermometer to
read 98F.
(Note: The time constant given in this problem applies to the thermometer
when it is located in the temperature bath. The time constant for the thermometer
in air will be considerably different from that given because of the lower heattransfer coefficient in air.)
In terms of symbols used in this chapter, we have
xs  90
F

t  0 . 1 min

A  10
F

The ultimate thermometer reading will, of course, be 100F, and the ultimate
value of the deviation variable Y() is 10F. When the thermometer reads 98F,
Y(t) 8F.
Substituting into Eq. (4.12) the appropriate values of Y, A, and t gives

8  10 1
e
t / 0.1

Solving this equation for t yields

t  0 . 161 min
The same result can also be obtained by referring to Fig. 47, where it is seen that
Y/A 0.8 at t/t 1.6.

Using MATLAB to Obtain the Response of a First-Order System to a Step Function

The transform of the response is 10/s(0.1s 1). We can simulate that in MATLAB by defining a
system using the numerator and denominator of the response:
num=[10];
den=[0.1 1];

We then use the step function in MATLAB to obtain the response (Fig. 48).
step(num,den)

To obtain numerical values for the plot, we use the tf (transfer function command).
sys=tf(num,den)
Transfer function:
10
0.1 s + 1

% Assigns the variables, temp and t, to the response.

data=[t,temp] % Concatenates time and temperature into one matrix and displays them.

[temp,t]=step(sys);

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10
9
8
7

6
5
4
3
2
1
0

0.1

0.2

0.3
0.4
Time (min)

0.5

0.6

FIGURE 48
Step response of thermometer in Example 4.1.
data =
0
0.0055
0.0110
0.0166
0.0221
0.0276
0.0331
0.0387
0.0442
0.0497
......
0.1380
0.1436
0.1491
0.1546
0.1601
0.1656
0.1712
0.1767
......

0
0.5372
1.0455
1.5265
1.9817
2.4124
2.8200
3.2057
3.5707
3.9161
......
7.4851
7.6202
7.7481
7.8690
7.9835
8.0918
8.1943
8.2913
......

0.5908
0.5963

9.9728
9.9743

cou9789x_ch04_069-098.indd 82

temp=8.0 at approximately t = 0.16 min

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Using Simulink to Obtain the Response of a First-Order System to a Step Function

We constructed the block diagram for the system using Simulink (Fig. 49). The simulation was run
for 0.6 min, and the Scope output is shown in Fig. 410. The data were also exported to the MATLAB workspace and graphed in Fig. 411 using the plot command.
[plot (ScopeData.time, ScopeData.signals.values)]
1
0.1s + 1
Step

Thermometer

Scope

FIGURE 49
Simulink block diagram for thermometer.

FIGURE 410
Thermometer response to step input from Simulink scope.
10
9
8
7

6
5
4
3
2
1
0

0.1

0.2

0.3
Time

0.4

0.5

0.6

FIGURE 411

Thermometer response to step input using MATLAB

plot command.

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PART 2

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Note that the Simulink results are the same as we obtained previously by hand calculation and with
MATLAB.
The speed of the response of a first-order system is determined by the time constant for the system. Consider the following first-order system disturbed by a step input (Fig. 412).
The response of a first-order system for several values of t is shown in Fig. 413.
It can be seen that as t increases, it takes longer for the system to respond to the step
disturbance.
1
tau. s + 1
Step

Scope

First-Order System
tau = 2,4,6,8,10 min

FIGURE 412
Simulink model for examining the effect of t on the step
response.

1
0.9
0.8
increasing t
slows the response

0.7

63.2% of the ultimate value

Response

0.6
0.5

This curve is t = 8, note that it passes

63.2% of the ultimate response at t = t = 8

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

10
Time

12

14

16

18

20

FIGURE 413
Effect of t on the step response of a first-order system.

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4.5

RESPONSE OF FIRST-ORDER SYSTEMS

85

IMPULSE RESPONSE

The impulse response of a first-order system will now be developed. Anticipating the
use of superposition, we consider a unit impulse for which the Laplace transform is
X (s )  1

(4.16)

Combining this with the transfer function for a first-order system, which is given by
Eq. (4.7), results in
Y (s ) 

1
ts  1

(4.17)

Y (s ) 

1/t
s  1/t

(4.18)

This may be rearranged to

The inverse of Y(s) can be found directly from the table of transforms and can be written in the form
t Y (t )  e
t /t

(4.19)

A plot of this response is shown in Fig. 414 in terms of the variables t/t and t Y(t). The
response to an impulse of magnitude A is obtained, as usual, by multiplying t Y(t) from
Fig. 414 by A/t.
Notice that the response rises immediately to 1.0 and then decays exponentially.
Such an abrupt rise is, of course, physically impossible, but as we will see in Chap. 5,
it is approached by the response to a finite pulse of narrow width, such as that of
Fig. 44.

1.0

t Y(t)

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

t/t
FIGURE 414
Unit-impulse response of a first-order system.

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Using MATLAB to Generate the Impulse Response to a First-Order System

num=[1];
den=[1 1];
sys=tf(num,den)
Transfer function:
1
s + 1
[x,y]=impulse(sys); % Assigns the variables x and y to the response.
data=[x,y] % Concatenates x and y into one matrix and displays them.
data =
0
0.0552
0.1104
0.1656
0.2209
0.2761
0.3313
0.3865
0.4417
0.4969
......
5.0245
5.0797
5.1350
5.1902
5.2454
5.3006
5.3558
5.4110
5.4662
5.5215
5.5767
5.6319
5.6871
5.7423
5.7975
5.8527
5.9080
5.9632

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1.0000
0.9463
0.8954
0.8473
0.8018
0.7588
0.7180
0.6794
0.6429
0.6084
......
0.0066
0.0062
0.0059
0.0056
0.0053
0.0050
0.0047
0.0045
0.0042
0.0040
0.0038
0.0036
0.0034
0.0032
0.0030
0.0029
0.0027
0.0026

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