Switching Power Supply Development History

About 1960

About 1965
About 1970
1972

1974
1976
1978
1995
2000
2004
2005
2006

2008

Stabilized power supplies using vacuum tubes were common at

this time.
Americas NASA began developing switching power supplies for
use in space craft.
Development of semiconductor elements for switching power supplies begins.
TDK and Nippon Electronic Memory Industry Co. Ltd. (predecessor
to Nemic-Lambda) enter the switching power supply business.
Nippon Electronic Memory Industry Co. Ltd. manufactures and
markets Japans first standard switching power supply.
TDK manufactures and markets switching power supplies.
Switching power supplies are adopted for use in commercial television games and the switching power supply market expands.
TDK manufactures and markets switching power supply transformers.
Nemic -Lambda (predecessor to Densei-Lambda) founded, to take
over operations of Nippon Electronic Memory Industry Co. Ltd.
TDK begins production of DC-DC converters for use in HEVs.
TDK launches the RKW and JBW series of switching power supplies.
Densei-Lambda (the predecessor to TDK-Lambda) launches the
HWS series of switching power supplies.
Densei-Lambda joins the TDK Group.
Sales of UPS with lithium-ion batteries (lead-free) begin.
Sales of TDK-Lambda brand products begin.
TDK and Densei-Lambda market a total of 234 types of EMC filters
for power line in 13 series.
All models available on the market comply with the RoHS Directive.
TDK-Lambda Corporation launched.

Advances in Switching Power Supplies

(unit type, 150 W comparison)

Further
miniaturization
and higher
efficiency

1300cm 3

3800cm 3

Japans first standard

switching power supply.
3

Next
generation

1200cm 3

Power supplies have undergone amazing

miniaturization.

4500cm

550cm 3

Fifth
generation
Fourth
generation

Second
generation

Compliance with environmental

regulations such as the RoHS
Third
Directive
Compliance with
generation
EMC regulations,
CE marks, etc.
Compliance with
global standards

First
generation

About 1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

TDK Power Electronics World

Date of publication: March 31, 2009
Publisher: TDK Corporation Corporate Communications Dept.
1-13-1 Nihonbashi, Chuo-ku, Tokyo 103-8272
Telephone: +81-3-5201-7102

SGS-COC-004380
Cert no
.

TDK
Power Electronics
World
Guidebook of TDK Power Electronics Products

TDK Power Electronics World

Welcome to
Power Electronics World

Communications and
broadcasting equipment

Measuring instruments
and test equipment

Factory automation
and control equipment
Introductory Section
What Is Direct Current (DC)? What Is Alternating Current (AC)?

There Is No Such Thing as Perfect DC or AC

Why Are Stabilization Circuits Needed?

Power Supply Devices Play a Variety of Different Roles

What Is Rectification? What Is Smoothing?

The Functions of Main Components

Creating Optimal Power Supply Systems

Distributed Power Supply Systems and Power Modules

10

Computers and
office automation
equipment
Medical devices

Technology Section
Structure of Linear Power Supplies 11
Structure of Switching Power Supplies 12
Basic Circuits of Non-Insulation type DC-DC Converters 13
Chopper Type (Back Converter, Boost Converter),
Charge Pump Type

Basic Circuits of Insulation type DC-DC Converters 15

Flyback Converter, Forward Converter, RCC Type,
Push-Pull Type, Full-Bridge Type

Technologies for Improving Efficiency 17

Areas of Loss in Switching Power Supplies, Soft Switching,
Power Factor and Harmonic Correction (PFHC) Circuits,
Synchronous Rectification Method, Digital Control

Key Parts That Support Power Supply Performance 19

Capacitors, Coils and Transformers

Noise Countermeasures in Switching Power Supplies 20

Uninterruptible Power Supplies 21
New Power Supply Systems and Batteries 22
Switching Power Supply Development History

Automobiles
and traffic control
equipment

Household appliances
and consumer electronics

Introductory Section

TDK Power Electronics World

What Is Direct Current (DC)? What Is Alternating Current (AC)?

Electric current can be direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC). Direct current such as the power
from dry cells is characterized by a uniform direction of flow and amount (voltage) of electricity. Alternating
current is characterized by direction of flow and amount of electricity that changes cyclically over time.
Long ago, static electricity was the only type of electricity known, but when batteries were invented, it
became possible to use DC electricity. Generators were later invented, and it became possible to use AC as
well.

There Is No Such Thing as Perfect DC or AC

When the power of a battery (dry cell or
rechargeable) falls, electric and electronic
devices stop working. This is because the
voltage of a battery falls over time. In recent
years, the driving voltage of integrated
c i r c u i t s h a s d e c l i n e d , s o eve n s m all
changes in voltage are a problem.

T he vo l t age of a b at te r y falls
steadily. The discharge curves vary
depending on the type of battery.

Voltage

Decreasing
battery
voltage
0

Direct Current

Current

Direct current has uniform direction of flow and amount

(voltage) of electricity.
Batteries that are used up such
Primary Batteries and
as dry cells are primary batterSecondary Batteries
ies . Batteries that can be recharged and used repeatedly are
The symbols used in
Lithium-ion
secondary batteries (rechargediagrams for batteries
battery
able batteries).
and DC power supplies
Lead
storage
Dry cell
cell

The commercial AC from outlets is not stable. Commercial AC can become unstable depending on the
load (electrical devices and so on) connected to the distribution network. For example, when all the
houses in a neighborhood are using the air conditioning during the afternoon in the middle of the summer,
the voltage drops. There are also momentary stoppages in distribution and distortion to wave forms
caused by the addition of noise.

Cases of instability in commercial AC

Nicad battery
Button battery

Time

Commercial AC is not
stable as a result of a
variety of causes.

Time

When high-frequency
AC is added in the form
of noise, the waveform
can become jagged
like this.

Key Point

Load

Alternating Current
Current

Alternating current has direction of flow and amount

(voltage) of electricity that change cyclically.

The symbol used in

diagrams for AC power
supplies

The direction of the electric current that c omes

from the two holes of the
electric socket alternates.

Time

1 cycle

AC Frequency
How many times the direction
of AC changes each second is
called the frequency. The unit
of frequency is Hertz (Hz).The
frequency of commercial AC is
50 Hz in eastern Japan and 60
Hz in western Japan.

Voltage drop

* Not all AC electric power has a sine wave.

There is also AC with a pulse waveform.

The difference between DC and AC is fundamental knowledge concerning

power electronics.

Distorted
waveform

Large plants, railways, etc.

Large buildings,
medium-size plants, etc.

AC
distribution

AC plug
AC with a relatively low frequency is referred to as low
frequency, and that with a high
frequency is referred to as high
frequency, but generally, high
frequency means AC with a
frequency in the kilo -Her tz,
mega-Hertz, or higher range.

Power outage

The flow of electricity from

generation to distribution

Low Frequency and High Frequency

Socket

The waveform of the commercial AC

power supplied by electric power
companies is called a sine wave.

Things that are connected

to power supplies and consume energy are referred to
as loads. Specific ally,
loads include resistor s,
circuits, connection devices, and so on.

Several
hundred

Power plant
(thermal, hydroelectric,
nuclear, etc.)

V-1
Ultra-high thousand
million V or more Primary
voltage
substation
substation

When electricity is distributed at high voltage, the

electric power losses (thermal losses resulting
from the resistance of the power lines) are lower.

60,000 V 150,000 V

Distribution
substations

6,000V

100V 200V

Transformers
on utility poles

Homes

AC has the advantage of being easy to change to a

different voltage using a transformer (DC distribution is
used for some portions of the distribution route).

AC can easily be converted to a different voltage using a transformer.

Introductory Section

TDK Power Electronics World

Why Are Stabilization Circuits Needed?

The DC from a battery or converted from commercial AC using an adaptor still has unstable
variations in voltage. Changes in voltage can cause sensitive electronic devices to malfunction, so
stabilization circuits are used to create DC with stable voltage. Two methods of doing this are the
linear method (also called the series method and dropper method) and switching method.

Power Supply Devices Play a Variety of Different Roles

Most electronic devices operate on direct current. After commercial AC is rectified (the DC is still
unstable), a DC-DC converter is used to change the power (change the voltage or current) and
stabilization circuits are used to produce extremely stable DC.
Power Conversion Devices

Inside Electronic Equipment

Key Point

Linear Method (Series Method)

The cut portion
of the electric
power is lost.

Linear Power Supply

Voltage variation

Electronic equipment uses a wide

variety of power
supply devices.

The linear method

cu t s the uneven ness (variation in
volt age ) to make
the voltage smooth.

Key Point

DC input

Electric power
converted to thermal
energy and discarded using
semiconductor resistors

devices
Voltage and
current conversion
Unstable Voltage and
Stabilized DC-DC converter
DC
current conversion DC
DC

Input
voltage
Output
voltage

Stabilized DC

AC

AC rectification and
smoothing circuits

Commercial
AC power
supply

If the circuit shown to the right is

used and the switch is turned ON
and OFF quickly, the brightness of
the lamp will decrease as if the voltage dropped. Switching power supplies achieve this effect using semiconductor elements.

Voltage (V)

Key Point

DC

DC-DC converter

DC

DC-DC converter

DC

Because of differences in the operating voltages of circuits, multiple

compact DC-DC converters are
dispersed in the vicinity of the ICs.

AC input/
DC output

The switching format is the

most commonly used, so such
power supplies are called
switching power supplies.

OFF

ON

DC-DC converter

AC-DC power supply

The idea behind a switching power supply

Switch ON

DC

DC input/DC output

Power supply unit

Switching Method

T h e di f fe r e nt c ir c ui t s of e l e c t r o ni c
equipment use different operating voltages, so they contain multiple DC-DC
converters.

Conversion from
DC to AC
DC

DC-AC inverter

Switching power supplies are

used as power supply units in
desktop PCs, office equipment,
factory automation equipment,
and many other devices. There
are various types including the
case type, open frame type,
and circuit board type.

The same effect

Smooth as reducing
power the voltage.

DC input/
AC output
AC

High voltages are required

to illuminate the backlights
of liquid crystal televisions,
so current is converted to
alternating current and the
voltage is stepped up using a transformer.

OFF

AC Input Devices

Switching cycle

T his is c alle d pulse width

modulation (PWM).
ON OFF
Input
voltage
Pulse
width

The pulse width is

changed according to
the variation in voltage.

The switching method uses a cutand-paste like method to produce

stable current without losses, making
it extremely efficient.

Linear Power Supplies Switching Power Supplies

Efficiency

Stabilized DC

Output
voltage

Radiated heat

Low (30%-60%) High (70%-90% or higher)

High

Low

Size and weight Large and heavy Compact and lightweight

The current is pulsed at high

frequency by switching (ON/OFF)
a semiconductor element and is
sent to a transformer that changes
the voltage.

The pulses are controlled so

the area of each is the same ,
producing stable current with
uniform voltage.

Unstable DC can cause electronic devices to malfunction.

Degree of stability
Radiated noise

High

Ordinary

None

Noise countermeasures
are necessary

Key Point

The main weakness of switching

power supplies is the generation
of switching noise in conjunction
with the high-speed switching of
the semiconductor elements. As a
result, EMC countermeasures
(noise countermeasures) such as
noise filters are essential.

Devices that convert direct currents to alternating currents are called

inverters.

Introductory Section

TDK Power Electronics World

What Is Rectification? What Is Smoothing?

Rectification is the conversion of alternating current to direct current. Rectification is performed
by a diode that allows current to flow in one direction but not in the opposite direction. Direct
current that has only been rectified, however, has various changes in voltage ( ripples ) lingering
from the alternating current. Capacitors are used to smooth the current and make it even.

The Functions of Main Components

In order to understand the structure of a power supply, it is necessary to know the functions of its
main components. If you become familiar with the symbols used for circuits, you will be able to
decipher the basic structure of a power supply circuit.

Capacitors
Electrolytic capacitor

Coil (Inductor)

DC jack

Electrolytic capacitor

A dashed line (or solid

line) shows the core.

(the + indicates
the polarity)

This type of AC adapter

and battery charger is
heavy because it uses a
power supply transformer
with an iron core.

Multilayer ceramic
capacitors are the
leading type of
surface mounted
devices.

Coil Iron core Silicon diodes ( 4)

Transformer
Key Point

Silicon diodes
( 4, bridge format)

Fuse

Electrolytic
capacitor

Transformer

AC
100V

Resistors

Transformer

Even after rectification by the

diodes and smoothing by the
capacitor, the direct current is
still not stable.

DC output

Choke and other

coils have cores.

Storing large amounts of electrical

charge is the role of a smoothing
capacitor in a power supply. The
capacitor functions like a battery
that can be charged and discharged
instantaneously. They also have the
property of allowing alternating
current to pass through.

Coils allow direct currents to pass through

smoothly, but they act
as resistors to alternating current and store
electrical energy.

or
Primary
winding

Secondary
winding
This symbol is
used in school
textbooks.

There are power

supply transformers
and high-frequency
transformers.
Key Point

Electrical power on a primary side

passes through a core and is sent to
the secondary side. At this time,
losses known as core losses (mainly
thermal losses) occur, and as a
result, the properties of the core
material have a large impact on the
efficiency of the power supply.

(unstable direct current)

Voltage conversion

Rectification

Smoothing

Discharging
Charging

Diodes

Transistors

Drain

Collector

There are two types of rectification:

half-wave rectification that rectifies the
alternating current flowing in one direction, and full-wave rectification that rectifies the current in both directions. The
circuit shown above is full-wave rectification using bridge diodes.

Gate

Base

Pulsating
current

Unstable
direct
current
Smoothing uses the charging
and discharging of high-capacity capacitors.

Diodes play an important role in rectification circuits,

and capacitors are important for smoothing circuits.

Integrated Circuits (ICs)

MOSFET

Ripple

Allows current to
flow through in one
direction only
Diodes are elements that
have the property of allowing
the electric current to flow
through in one direction only.
They are used in rectification
and other circuits.

Emitter

Source

Transistors are semiconductor elements that have

amplification functions. They are used in power
supply circuits as switching elements that turned the
current ON and OFF. A MOSFET is a field effect
transistor that uses metal oxide semiconductors.

An integrated circuit is made up

of multiple transistors, the
diodes, resistors, and other
components mounted on a
semiconductor board (made of
silicon or other material).

Capacitors allow alternating current to pass through,

while coils prevent alternating current from passing.

Introductory Section

TDK Power Electronics World

Creating Optimal Power Supply Systems

Switching power supplies (AC-DC power supplies) and DC-DC converters are available in numerous
different formats with various sizes, capacities, shapes, and so on. DC-DC converters are broadly
divided into insulation types and non-insulation types. Insulation types use transformers (to prevent
electric shocks), while non-insulation types are more compact and do not use transformers. Power
modules that integrate numerous components onto a single compact board are also frequently used.

Non-insulation Used after insulated converters to convert voltage

to the voltage necessary to operate circuits. These
type
Non-insulation type DC-DC converters are often compact SMD (surface
mounted device) types. Output of
such converters ranges from less
than 1 watt to hundreds of watts.

DC-DC
converter

converters are compact and low cost.

a transformer and is electrically

Insulation Uses
insulated. It is difficult to make these
type

Distributed Power Supply Systems and Power Modules

In recent years, ICs have moved to operating at lower voltages and higher currents, resulting in a
shift to distributed power supply systems with compact, high-efficiency DC-DC converters installed
in the vicinity of the ICs.
Earlier Power Supply Systems
Insulation types
DC
AC-DC
DC-DC
power supply

Problems with Earlier Systems

Load

converter

48 V,
etc.
Commercial
Unit type, open
AC
frame type
switching power
supplies, etc.

converters compact or at low cost.

Using multiple insulation type

5V

DC-DC
converter

3.3 V

DC-DC
converter

2.5 V, etc.

DC-DC converters is a problem

in terms of cost and space.

Load

ICs are operating on lower

voltages, but it is not efficient to

suddenly reduce the voltage.

Load

At higher frequencies, the wire

Distributed Power Supply System

Non-insulation type
DC-DC converters

Commercial AC
AC adapter

AC-DC
power supply

(AC/DC conversion)

DC input
DC output

LCD

DC

Commercial
AC

Insulation type
DC-DC converter
CPU

HDD

DC
48 V,
etc.

Insulation types Intermediate 12 V,

voltage
5V, etc.
DC-DC
converter
Non-insulation type

Only one insulation type

I /O
CD/DVD
drive

POL (point of load)

What is POL?

Placement of a compact

DC-DC converter near the

load (IC)

Notebook PCs use multiple compact DC-DC converters to convert

voltage to the necessary voltage
and supply it to components.

These power modules integrate an AC-DC

converter and a DC-DC converter. They use
conduction cooling and do not need a cooling
fan. Output power is in the 50 W to 1000 W
range.

AC-DC power supplies

Unit type

Output power ranges from under 10 W to

3000 W and higher. There are various types
including wide input and multi-output.
Open frame type

DC-DC
converter

Load

DC-DC
converter

Load

Key Point

High-efficiency non-insulation type

DC-DC converters generate little
heat and do not require heat sinks,
and as a result, can be mounted
near ICs on printed circuit boards.

1.8V, 1.5V, 1.3V, 0.8V, etc.

Distributed Power Supply Systems

and AC-DC Power Modules

116.8mm

DC-DC
converter

Integrated into a compact module

Full brick
(12.7 mm high)

AC-DC
power module

Unit type (rack-mount type)

PFE Series, etc.

Non-insulation type DC-DC converters are compact onboard

power supplies.

Power modules are

standardized using
units called bricks.

Brick types and sizes

Insulation types

Commercial
AC

Load

AC-DC power modules integrate AC-DC converters, DC-DC converters, PFHC (power factor
and harmonic correction) functions (see page 17), and various other power supply circuits.
Such power modules make possible a variety of flexible distributed power supply systems.

AC-DC
power supply

AC input
DC output

Advantages of Distributed Power Supply Systems

DC-DC
converter

61mm

AC-DC power modules

Load

DC-DC converter is needed.

DC-DC converters

Output ranges from

about 1 watt to
hundreds of watts

resistance to the load and

effects of inductance increase.

Relay Bus Converter

Non-insulation type
DC-DC
Load
converter

DC-DC
converter

Load

DC-DC
converter

Load

Half- Quarter Eighth Sixteenth

brick
brick
brick brick

Key Point

Power modules are high efficiency and use

conduction cooling and as a result do not need a
cooling fan. This means that all power supply devices
can be mounted on the same printed circuit board.

Point of Load means in the immediate vicinity of the load

(ICs, etc.)

10

Technology Section

TDK Power Electronics World

Structure of Linear Power Supplies

Structure of Switching Power Supplies

Even after commercial AC is rectified and smoothed, the DC that is produced is not stable (see page 7).
A stabilization circuit converts this to DC with little variation in voltage. Lets first examine a linear
type stabilization circuit, which was once the most common type of stabilization circuit.

Non-stabilized DC power that has been rectified is converted to high-frequency pulses by a switching element (a transistor or MOSFET) using high-speed switching and sent to a transformer. The
output voltage is detected and compared and feedback data provided to control the pulse widths to
produce stable DC. Switching power supplies are compact, lighter, and higher efficiency than
linear power supplies, but the circuits are more complex and the high-speed switching generates
noise, so noise countermeasures are essential.

Linear Power Supplies Use Three-Terminal ICs

Series type stabilization

circuits receive DC stabilized
by transistors, and as a result,
they generate a lot of heat
and are low efficiency.

Key Point
Power supply transformers
are big and heavy.

Linear Power Supply

Non-stabilized Power Supply Unit

Higher frequencies

Key Point

Key Point

Rectification which is done in

the initial phase is different
from a linear power supply.

Transformers, choke coils,

and capacitors can be miniaturized.

Stabilized Power Supply Unit

Rectification and
smoothing circuit

(three-terminal regulator)

Three-terminal IC

Stabilized DC

Non-stabilized DC

Variations in the input voltage are

adjusted by a variable resistor to
produce stabilized output voltage.

Switching using semiconductor elements

Key Point

Transistor

Heat sink

MOS FET

Zener diode (if current

The three-terminal ICs

play the same role as
the variable resistor.

IN

OUT

is passed through in
the opposite direction,
a uniform voltage can
be achieved)

GND

Three-terminal ICs are integrated

circuits made from transistors, Zener
diodes, and other components. They
generate heat, so a heat sink is
attached.

Linear power supplies are fundamentally low efficiency and

have high thermal losses.

Photo
coupler

Pulse width
modulation
See page 5 for
the principles of
pulse width
modulation (PWM).

Switch OFF

Current
Uniform
voltage

Threeterminal
IC

The output voltage is detected

and compared and feedback
information provided.

Switch ON

Heat is generated, so a
heat sink is needed.

Linear power supplies place resistors in series to control

Key Point the current, so they are also called series power supplies.
They use resistance to reduce the voltage, so they are
also called dropper and series dropper power supplies.

11

Switching

Heat
+

Load

(series regulators)

Rectification and
smoothing circuit

Detection

three-terminal ICs

Highfrequency
transformers

RectificationSmoothing

Stabilized DC

Stabilization circuit using

stabilization circuits

Variable resistor

Load

Smoothing

Non-stabilized DC
with voltage variations
Principles of series type

AC Power Supply

AC power supply

Threeterminal
regulators,
etc.

Power supply transformer Rectification

allow transformer
cores to be made
smaller. Ferrite and
other materials with
low high-frequency
losses are used as
the core materials.

The switch is turned ON and OFF

at the highs and lows of the square
voltage waveform.

The primary and secondary

sides are electrically insulated and a signal is sent.

Switching Regulator Unit

Principles of Switching Regulators

The current is turned ON and OFF by switching
elements at set intervals, converted to a pulse
wave, and sent to a transformer. A comparison of
the timing of the ON status and OFF status (duty
ratio, duty cycle) is used to control the output
voltage. By controlling the duty ratio (pulse width)
in relation to variations in the input voltage, the
output voltage is stabilized (PWM method).

ON

ON

ON

Duty ratio
OFF

OFF

OFF

Time that circuit is ON

Switching cycle

Switching cycle

The key features of switching power supplies are compact size,

light weight, and high efficiency.

12

Technology Section

TDK Power Electronics World

Basic Circuits of Non-Insulation Type DC-DC Converters

There are various forms of non-insulation type DC-DC converters also. A form known as the chopper
format is a compact onboard type with output power in the range of less than 1 watt to several
watts. Types of chopper converters include the step down back converter and the step up boost
converter. Each type is suitable for configuring a compact, low-cost local power supply with a low
parts count. An even more simple approach is the charge pump type which uses only capacitors but
no coils or transformers.

Booster Converter (Step Up)

Key Point

Compact, onboard types with low output

Input voltage < Output voltage

The energy stored by the choke coil
is increased or boosted when the
switch is OFF, raising the voltage.

Switch OFF

The switching element

is connected in parallel; this is dif ferent
from the step down
converter.

+
Example of component mounting for compact
onboard DC-DC converters (chopper type)

Switching and Operation of the Coil

Switch ON
+

Switch ON
Choke coil
Winding Core

The choke coil takes up a

relatively large area.

(Connected to
the control circuit)
Current
Direction of electromotive force

When the switch is ON, the coil

generates electromotive force in a
direction that prevents current from
flowing in.

Choke coil
Coils prevent variations in current and
act as resistors (acs
cording to Lenz
Law). They are called
chokes because
they choke off the
electric current.

Switch OFF

When the switch is turned off, the coil

generates electromotive force in the
direction as if to maintain the current.

Input voltage > Output voltage

Key Point

Switching element
Switch ON

Switch ONWhen energy flows from the input to the output, the choke coil accumulates

energy.
Switch OFFThe choke coil releases the stored energy in an attempt to maintain the current.
* There is also a back boost format that combines the functions of the back converter and the boost converter.
This converter is characterized by the ability to reverse the polarity.

Low-output type that uses capacitors

Diodes, capacitors, control ICs, etc.

Back Converter (Step Down)

The coil accumulates

energy.

Choke coil
+

Capacitors are also known as condensers because their basic function is to store electric charge.
The charge pump type converter makes use of this function. They are compact, simple DC-DC converters that do not use any transformers or coils and use only capacitors to convert voltage. The
electric charge stored in the capacitor is carried by switching as if in a bucket relay to increase the
voltage.

Basic Principles of Charge Pump Type DC-DC Converters (step up type)

The chopper converter
was named this because it uses switching
to chop the current and
transmit it.

Key Point

Input
Switch OFF
DC
input
(Connected to
control circuit)

Diode

DC
output

S1

S3

Output

Input

The charged capacitors are connected in series and switching is

performed to raise the voltage.

S1

S3

V
C1

Capacitor

Output
2V

C2

C1

C2

Switch ONWhen energy flows from the input to the output, the choke coil accumulates energy.

S2

S4

S2

S4

Switch OFFThe choke coil generates electromotive force in an attempt to maintain the current and

current flows through the diode to the output (the switching element is connected in series with the circuit;
the needed voltage can be reduced by setting the duty cycle).

13

The choke coil plays an important role in chopper type converters.

S1 and S4 are turned ON and C1 is

charged (actual switching is performed
through IC operation).

When S1 and S4 are OFF and S2 and S3 are

ON, the charge in C1 is carried to C2 and the
output has twice the voltage.

Coils and capacitors have the ability to store energy.

14

Technology Section

TDK Power Electronics World

Basic Circuits of Insulation Type DC-DC Converters

Insulation type DC-DC converters actively use transformers and support high output power. Understanding the basic principles and core circuits will deepen your understanding.

RCC Type (self-exciting flyback converter)

Low Output Power Types

Principles of Transformers and Direction of Electromotive Force

Symbol indicating the

beginning of the windings
of the primary winding

Magnetic flux
from the primary
winding

Switch ON

When Q1 is ON:
When Q1 is OFF:

Q1

Base winding

Load

Inductive
electromotive
force

Reverse
electromotive
force

Core

ON/ON Types and ON/OFF Types

When the switch is ON, magnetic flux is generated by the

primary winding, but electromotive force (reverse electroReverse effect
motive force) is generated to prevent the magnetic flux
magnetic flux from
doubling. The magnetic flux from the primary winding
the secondary winding from
passes through the core and reverse effect magnetic flux
from the secondary winding is generated, creating electromotive force (inductive electromotive force) and current
Current (inductive current) flows. When the switch is OFF, the
current flows in the opposite direction.

Key Point

*A gap is placed in the transformer core to

prevent magnetic saturation (See page 19).

The direction of the electromotive force from the primary and

secondary windings (reverse
electromotive force and inductive electromotive force) is
towards the gray circle ( ).

Symbol indicating the beginning of

the windings of the secondary winding

*RCC : Ringing Choke Converter

When Q1 is ON as a result
of the base current from the
base winding, collector
current flows. When the
base current is insufficient
and Q1 is OFF, current flows
on the secondary side. The
converter is a self-exciting
type that performs this
operation repeatedly. It
requires only a small number of components and can
be used as a simple, low
output power power supply.

DC-DC converters are available in

ON/ON types that output energy when
the switching elements are on and
ON/OFF types that output energy when
the switching elements are off.

Types by Output Voltage and Power

ON/ON Types

(Multi-switching types: Push-pull, half-bridge, full-bridge, etc.)

ON/OFF Types

(RCC, flyback, etc.)

Output voltage
(V)

Medium to high output power types use multiple switching devices which
makes the circuit configuration more complex but enables higher
efficiency, lower noise, and advanced functionality.

Push-Pull Type Medium to High Output Power Types

Low and Medium Output Power Types

1000
100
10
0
0

Switch ON

Q1

Transformer
+

Switch OFF

from the generated magnetic flux (energy

storage). The direction of the diode is reversed, so
no inductive current flows through the secondary
winding.

(Connected to control circuit)

lated in the core is released and current flows

through the diode ( ). The transformer coil plays
a role similar to that of the choke coil.

The transformer core stores energy,

so no choke coil is needed.

B-H Curves of Magnetic Cores

When Q1 is ON:
When Q2 is ON:
Q1 and Q2 are switched in alternation.
Push-pull types are commonly used as power
supplies up to about 300 W.

Switch ON

When the switch is ON, electro-

+
Reverse electromotive force

Switch
OFF

Choke coil

Inductive
electromotive
force

D2

Q1

Q3

The transformer is the key component of insulation type DC-DC converters.

The narrower the curve,

the smaller the losses.

Comparison of Performance of Core Types

DC
output
Q2

15

H: Magnetic field

The half-bridge type replaces Q1 and Q2 with two

capacitors.

Magnetic
permeability
Saturation
magnetization

Q4

When the switch is OFF, the choke coil generates

(Connected to control circuit)

Excitation Process
The greater the magnetic
permeability, the greater
the slope.
Magnetic permeability

Used as high-efficiency, high output power power supplies with outputs of several hundred watts and higher.

motive force (reverse electromotive force and inductive electromotive force) is generated in the
primary and secondary windings
as a result of the transformer
principle and current flows
through the diode (D1) (). At
this time, energy is stored in the
choke coil.

electromotive force, preventing changes in the current, the

stored energy is released, and current flows through the
reverse flow diode (D2) ( ).

B: Magnetic flux density

Saturation
magnetic
flux density

Full-Bridge Type Medium to High Output Power Types

Medium Output Power Type

D1

1000 Power (W)

(single-switching forward, etc.)

Q2

When the switch is OFF, the energy accumu-

Key Point

100

ON/OFF Types & ON/ON Types

DC
output

When the switch is ON, current flows in the

primary winding () and the core is magnetized

10

Iron losses

When Q2 and Q3 are ON:

When Q1 and Q4 are ON:

Manufacturing
cost

Silicon

Ferrite

Amorphous

Acceptable

Good

Excellent

Excellent Acceptable Acceptable

Poor

Excellent Excellent

Acceptable Excellent

Iron cores generate high losses (thermal losses) at high frequencies,

so they are not used.

Poor

16

Technology Section

TDK Power Electronics World

Technologies for Improving Efficiency

If the efficiency of power supplies could be increased by just one percent, this would have a
tremendous energy-saving impact on society as a whole. Some new technologies for improving
energy efficiency are discussed below.

In the switching power supplies, the semiconductor elements in particular generate high losses.
Also, the power supplies are compact, and as a result if the frequency of the switching operation is
increased, losses also increase. Research to solve these problems is being conducted on the frontlines of power supply technology.

The properties of the transformer core material have

a major impact on efficiency. Using accumulated
ferrite technologies is one of TDK
s strengths.
Main areas of loss (thermal losses) in AC-DC switching power supplies
AC
input

Rectification and
smoothing circuits

High-frequency
transformer

Switching unit

DC
output
Bridge Smoothing
diode capacitor

Transistor MOSFET

High-frequency
transformer

Rectification Smoothing
capacitor
diode

When multiple
losses of less than
1% to several percent
are combined, total
losses can reach
20%.

Synchronous Rectification Type Flyback Converter

Conventional Flyback Converter

Losses from the

resistance of the
diode are high.

Key Point

Voltage induced by a
supplementary winding
drives the Q2 gate.

High-frequency
Diode
transformer

Key Point
The losses of semiconductor elements are large, so
various circuits have been
proposed.

IC

The orange indicates the main

components that generate losses
(thermal losses)

Comparison and
detection circuit

DC
output

DC
input

(Connected to
control circuit)

Normal switching (hard switching)

Soft Switching

Voltage waveform
Current waveform

Voltage waveform
Current waveform

ON

OFF

ON

OFF

Soft switching is an advanced technology that precisely controls the timing of

the ON and OFF switching to reduce
switching losses. There is the zero
voltage switching (ZVS) method, which
performs switching with the voltage at
zero, and the zero current switching
(ZCS) method, which performs switching
with the current at zero.

ON

Turn-off time
The areas of overlap are
switching losses (voltage
current).

The areas of overlap are

reduced and dead times
created to reduce switching losses.

This technology improves the power factor by rectifying the waveform through control of the high-frequency portions of commercial
AC (the portions that are integral multiples of the base frequency).

Efficiency and Power Factor of a Power Supply

Efficiency = Output power (W) / Input power (W)
Power factor = Effective power (W) / Apparent power (VA)

Key Point

A coil and capacitor store

energy in the power supply
and return it to the input side,
so the power factor is
less than one.

In response to the use of higher

frequencies, a technology known as
resonant power supply that uses the
resonance of a coil and a capacitor to
perform switching is also starting to
be applied in practical applications.

A power module that

integrates an AC-DC
converter with PFHC
and a DC-DC converter

PFE Series

(The apparent power is the product of the values obtained from a voltmeter and an ammeter. It is the power that appears to be present.)

17

Power MOSFET
(Q2)

IC

Control Circuit

OFF

Supplementary
winding

High-frequency
transformer

DC
output

DC
input

Power MOSFET (Q1)

Power
transistor

OFF

A low resistance power

MOSFET is used in place
of a diode. The linkage
between Q1 and Q2
(synchronous rectification) increases efficiency.

Example of a Simple Synchronous Rectification Circuit for an Insulation Type DC-DC Converter

High-frequency
rectification circuit

The high-frequency portion of commercial AC reduces the power factor.

Digital control of power supplies

began in communications fields and
is progressing towards full digital
control including control circuits.

(Connected to
control circuit)

Two power MOSFETs regulate the flow of current.

Example of a DC-DC converter

circuit block using digital control
for communications functions

input and output voltage, output

current, and temperature can be
displayed on a PC in real time.
Energy savings are possible through
precise control of the output.
A soft start function to prevent damage to semiconductor elements from
inrush current is possible.
POL power management for the distributed placement of multiple DC-DC
converters is beneficial.
The number of components can be
reduced.
* In 2005, we launched full digital control
DC-DC converters with DSP (Digital
Signal Processing). Currently, AC-DC
power supplies using digital control are
being developed for market introduction
in the near future.

DC
input

DC

Switching
circuit

Smoothing output
circuit

Communications

Analog
controller

Digital
interface

Benefits of full digital control

Power supply information such as the

Key Point

Key Point

Communications functions
are controlled digitally to
enhance functionality.

Error
amplifier

Standard
voltage

Oscillator

The adoption of digital control makes

possible incorporation of multiple and
advanced functions in power supplies.

PWM uses analog control

Full Digital Control

Example of a DC-DC
converter circuit block
using full digital control

DC
input

DC

Switching
circuit

Smoothing output
circuit

Communications

Digital
interface

DSP
(digital signal
processor)

A-D
converter

Key Point Analog control units are replaced

by A-D converters and DSP.

Standard
voltage

Power supplies are making the transition from analog control to digital
control.

18

Technology Section

TDK Power Electronics World

Key Parts That Support Power Supply Performance

Switching power supplies contain semiconductor elements such as diodes, transistors, MOSFETs,
and ICs, while passive components such as capacitors, coils, and transformers also play important
roles.

Noise Unique to Switching Power Supplies (AC input)

Voltage

Since the capacity is high, capacitors are used for

smoothing.

One of the weak points of switching power supplies is the generation of electromagnetic noise.
TDK provides total EMC solutions that support all aspects of
noise control from input to output
and include various EMC countermeasure components (noise
countermeasure components)
and noise measurement in anechoic chambers.

Voltage

Multilayer ceramic chip capacitors

are compact and offer high
reliability and long life spans.
There are also high capacity types
that encroach on the territories of
film capacitors and electrolytic
capacitors. Multilayer ceramic
chip capacitors are important as
EMC countermeasure components (noise countermeasure
components).

Such capacitors are characterized by their compact size, high

reliability, and longer life spans.
They also have excellent highfrequency characteristics.

Noise Countermeasures in Switching Power Supplies

Ripple
noise
Switching frequency
Commercial AC frequency

Ideal DC

Spike
noise

Output waveform

of an AC-DC
switching power
supply

Aluminum
electrolytic
capacitors

Multilayer
ceramic chip
capacitor

Examples of EMC countermeasures for switching power supplies (AC input)

Switching power supplies use numerous transformers other than the main transformer as well as coils. Mobile phones and other devices use
SMD (surface mounted device) type compact power coils. The characteristics of the core material have a substantial impact on making power
supplies more efficient as well as making them smaller, slimmer, and lighter.

Choke Coils

Wire loops become

antennas and radiate
noise, so the area of
such loops must be
minimized.

The operation of capacitors

and resistors can control
the switching noise and
spike noise of transistors
and diodes.

Transformers
A gap is placed in
the core to prevent magnetic
saturation.

Ferrite Cores
Clamp Filters

Ferrite absorbs
noise to control
radiated noise.

CR snubber
Power Supply EMC Filters
Core gap

Examples of choke coil cores (toroidal cores)

Core gap
Winding
wire
Core

Magnetic
flux
leakage

Common mode
choke coil
AC
Input

EMC filter

Magnetic flux
leakage

The magnetic flux

leaking from the
gap can cause noise,
so shielding must
be used.

Active filter
choke coil

DC
input

AC
Input

EI Core

EE Core

The characteristics can be controlled by adjusting the gap. Magnetic shielding is needed as a countermeasure against the magnetic
flux leaking from the gap.

The effects from magnetic

flux leakage can be minimized by creating a gap in
the center pole.

They prevent common mode and

differential mode noise and prevent
it from flowing in and out.

Flexield

Control circuit

Output
rectification and
smoothing
circuit

DC
output

Comparison and
detection circuit

A flexible electromagnetic shield material

that absorbs radiated
noise, converts it to
heat, and eliminates it.

Main transformer Smoothing

choke coil

PFHC circuit

Key Point

Switching power supplies use numerous

transformers and coils.

19

Noise generated by transistors and diodes is also radiated from heat sinks designed to

Power switch
circuit

Supplementary Switching
element drive
power supply
transformer
transformer

Control
Circuit
Current
transformer

A common mode
filter on the output line prevents
noise from flowing out.

EMC Filters for Power Line

Other Sources of Noise

Supplementary
power supply circuit

Common mode filter

release thermal energy.

Winding bobbins, transformer
exteriors, and ferrite cores
(various types including EE
cores and EI cores)

High-capacity multilayer ceramic chip capacitors are also used

for smoothing.

Advanced circuit
design and simulation technologies
are needed.

Magnetic flux leakage from transformers and choke coils can cause eddy current in metal

cases, generating noise.

Wires and components where large currents are turned ON and OFF. The inductor portion

of wire leads can also have an impact, so wiring and leads are made as short as possible.

TDK provides Total EMC Solutions.

20

Technology Section

TDK Power Electronics World

Uninterruptible Power Supplies

New Power Supply Systems and Batteries

During normal
operation
AC
output

Main Power Supply Methods of UPS

Rectifier

Standard commercial type

(square wave output)

Line interactive type (sine
wave output)
Standard inverter type (sine
wave output; connection is
instantaneous, so there is no
interruption of the wave form)

Inverter

(AC/DC conversion)

(DC/AC conversion)

AC
input

Output of a
high-quality
sine wave with
no distortion or
noise
Power
outage

During
power
outage

Battery
Power Supply Structure Using
the Standard Inverter Method

UPS operates

Method of Calculating UPS Capacity

Total capacity

(VA)

Total capacity of indicated VA of device

Total capacity of indicated W of device / 0.6

Total capacity Total capacity of indicated

VA of device Power factor*
(W)

10% to 30% additional

capacity is added on top
of total capacity (VA) and
total capacity (W)

Total capacity of indicated W of device

Select a UPS with a

capacity larger than
both of the calculated
figures. It is necessary
to have extra margin
during a power outage.

If V and A are indicated, multiply them (e.g., 100 V & 1.8 A --> 180 VA)
* Power factors will vary depending on the device. They are generally in the range of 0.6 to 0.8.

Power supply interruption types and TDK-Lambda UPS categories

Key Point

Commercial
power
supply noise

Select the UPS that is optimal for

the power supply interruption
types and the necessary capacity.

Recently, UPS batteries have been changing from conventional lead storage cells to lithium-ion batteries,
and UPS units are rapidly becoming smaller and lighter and have longer life spans. Batteries will also be
the key to the proliferation of electric automobiles such as hybrid electric vehicles (HEV).

Energy Density of Secondary Batteries

Volume energy density (Wh/R)

Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) are used to prevent unforseen information system downtime
caused by various interruptions to power supplies such as power outages, drops in voltages, and distortions to commercial AC waveforms. There are many types of UPS available depending on the application.

Nickelhydrogen
battery

300

Lithium-ion
battery

200
100

NiCd battery
0

40

80

Supplementary
battery

DC-DC
converter

Generator

120

High-voltage
battery

Motor

160

Lithium-ion batteries, nickel

hydrogen batteries, and so on
are stacked. High voltage of
200 V to 300 V is achieved.

Key Point

Saving on batteries requires highefficiency onboard

DC-DC converters.

Electronic devices
operate on DC, and
there is the idea of
supplying offices and
homes with DC as
well.

Floor mount type

s HEV DC-DC converter. It converts

TDK
high voltage from the main battery to
low voltage.

Future Model for Power Electronics

Power plants and

substations
AC
distribution
AC/DC
conversion

DC distribution
Power router

Solar power generation

Installed type

Voltage drops Overvoltage

Rack mount type

Level 5

Capacity:
Several hundred watts
to about 1000 watts

Line interactive type

Surges

Energy from wind and

solar power is initially
stored in lithium-ion
batteries.

DC
distribution

Compact, lightweight types

Level 3

Capacity:
Several dozen watts to
several hundred watts

Standard commercial power

supply type
The levels according to the number of power supply interruptions that the UPS can
protect against and the corresponding power supply formats.

A UPS comprises a rectifier, battery, and inverter.

Engine

Mass energy density (Wh/kg)

Standard inverter type

21

Inverter for
the motor,
generator,
air conditioner

High-capacity
installed type
Mobile type
with casters

Variations in Switching High-frequency

frequency
distortion
noise

Voltage
sags

Lights,
windshield
wipers, etc.

Level 9

Power
outage

Basic Mechanism of an HEV (using a parallel

format as an example) and DC-DC Converter

Plug-in hybrids that can

be charged from a regular outlet are also appearing on the market.

Wind power and mini-wind

power generation

Control
board

Household
devices

Highcapacity
battery

Plug-in electric vehicles Fuel cells

Power electronics will play a major role in saving energy and

protecting the global environment.

22

Switching Power Supply Development History

About 1960

About 1965
About 1970
1972

1974
1976
1978
1995
2000
2004
2005
2006

2008

Stabilized power supplies using vacuum tubes were common at

this time.
Americas NASA began developing switching power supplies for
use in space craft.
Development of semiconductor elements for switching power supplies begins.
TDK and Nippon Electronic Memory Industry Co. Ltd. (predecessor
to Nemic-Lambda) enter the switching power supply business.
Nippon Electronic Memory Industry Co. Ltd. manufactures and
markets Japans first standard switching power supply.
TDK manufactures and markets switching power supplies.
Switching power supplies are adopted for use in commercial television games and the switching power supply market expands.
TDK manufactures and markets switching power supply transformers.
Nemic -Lambda (predecessor to Densei-Lambda) founded, to take
over operations of Nippon Electronic Memory Industry Co. Ltd.
TDK begins production of DC-DC converters for use in HEVs.
TDK launches the RKW and JBW series of switching power supplies.
Densei-Lambda (the predecessor to TDK-Lambda) launches the
HWS series of switching power supplies.
Densei-Lambda joins the TDK Group.
Sales of UPS with lithium-ion batteries (lead-free) begin.
Sales of TDK-Lambda brand products begin.
TDK and Densei-Lambda market a total of 234 types of EMC filters
for power line in 13 series.
All models available on the market comply with the RoHS Directive.
TDK-Lambda Corporation launched.

Advances in Switching Power Supplies

(unit type, 150 W comparison)

Further
miniaturization
and higher
efficiency

1300cm 3

3800cm 3

Japans first standard

switching power supply.
3

Next
generation

1200cm 3

Power supplies have undergone amazing

miniaturization.

4500cm

550cm 3

Fifth
generation
Fourth
generation

Second
generation

Compliance with environmental

regulations such as the RoHS
Third
Directive
Compliance with
generation
EMC regulations,
CE marks, etc.
Compliance with
global standards

First
generation

About 1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

TDK Power Electronics World

Date of publication: March 31, 2009
Publisher: TDK Corporation Corporate Communications Dept.
1-13-1 Nihonbashi, Chuo-ku, Tokyo 103-8272
Telephone: +81-3-5201-7102

SGS-COC-004380
Cert no
.

TDK
Power Electronics
World
Guidebook of TDK Power Electronics Products