........

14 SATELLITE MOTION
THE BIG

IDEA

The path of an Earth satellite

follows the curvature of the Earth.

f you drop a stone, it will

fall in a straight-line path to
the ground below. If you move
your hand horizontally as you drop
the stone, it will follow a curved path
to the ground. If you move your hand
faster, the stone will land farther away and
the curvature of the path will be less pronounced. What would happen if the curvature
of the path matched the curvature of Earth?
The answer is simple enough: Without air
resistance, youd have an Earth satellite!

discover!
What Happens When You Disturb the
Path of a Pendulum?
1. Make a pendulum from a mass and a 1-m
long string. Tie the free end of the string to a
support.
2. Set the pendulum swinging. It should move
back and forth only and not side-to-side.
3. While the pendulum is swinging back and
forth, tap the mass sideways.
4. Repeat Step 3 several times, each time tapping the mass with a different force.

262

Analyze and Conclude

1. Observing Describe the original shape of the
path of the mass.
2. Drawing Conclusions What effect does tapping the mass with different forces have on
the shape of the path?
3. Predicting How might changing the amount
of mass affect the nature of the path?


FIGURE 14.1
The greater the stones
horizontal motion when
released, the wider the
arc of its curved path.

14.1 Earth Satellites

Simply put, an Earth satellite is a projectile moving fast enough to
fall continually around Earth rather than into it. Imagine yourself on
a planet that is smaller than Earth as shown in Figure 14.2. Because
of the planets small size and low mass, you would not have to throw
the stone very fast to make its curved path match the surface curvature of the planet. If you threw the stone just right, it would follow a
circular orbit.

FIGURE 14.2
If you toss the stone horizontally with the proper speed,
its path will match the surface curvature of the small
planet.

How fast would the stone have to be thrown horizontally for it to

orbit Earth? The answer depends on the rate at which the stone falls
and the rate at which Earth curves. Recall from Chapter 4 that a stone
dropped from rest accelerates downward (or toward the center of
Earth) at 10 m/s2 and falls a vertical distance of 5 meters during the
first second. Also recall from Chapter 5 that the same is true of any
projectile as it starts to fall. Recall that in the first second a projectile
will fall a vertical distance of 5 meters below the straight-line path it
would have taken without gravity as shown in Figure 14.3. (It may
be helpful to refresh your memory and review Figure 5.11.)

FIGURE 14.3
5m

5m

5m

Throw a stone at any speed

and one second later it will
have fallen 5 m below where
it would have been without
gravity.

CHAPTER 14

SATELLITE MOTION

263

264


FIGURE 14.4

8000 m

In the curvature of Earth,

the surface drops a vertical
distance of nearly 5 meters
for every 8000 meters tangent to its surface.

5m

A geometric fact about the curvature of our Earth is that its

surface drops a vertical distance of nearly 5 meters for every
8000 meters tangent to its surface as shown in Figure 14.4.
A stone thrown fast enough to go a horizontal distance of
8000 meters during the time (1 second) it takes to fall 5 meters,
will orbit Earth. Isnt this speed simply 8000 meters per second?
So we see that the orbital speed for close orbit about Earth is
8000 m/s (or 8 km/s). If this doesnt seem to be very fast, convert
it to kilometers per hour; youll see it is an impressive 29,000 km/h
(or 18,000 mi/h). At that speed, atmospheric friction would burn an
object to a crisp. Thats why a satellite must stay about 150 kilometers
or more above Earths surfaceto keep from burning due to the friction of the atmosphere.

The 5-meter drop for

each 8000-meter tangent means that if you
were floating in a calm
ocean youd be able to
see only the top of a
5-meter mast on a boat
8000 meters away.

......

CONCEPT Near the surface of Earth, how fast does a stone

CHECK

have to be thrown to orbit Earth?

14.2 Circular Orbits

Interestingly, in circular orbit the speed of a circling satellite is not
changed by gravity. We can understand this by comparing a satellite in circular orbit to a bowling ball rolling along a bowling alley as
shown in Figure 14.5. Why doesnt the gravity that acts on the bowling ball change its speed? The answer is that gravity is pulling neither
forward nor backwardit pulls straight downward, perpendicular
to the balls motion. The bowling ball has no component of gravitational force along the direction of the alley.

FIGURE 14.5
The speeds of the bowling
ball and the satellite are
not affected by the force of
gravity because there is no
horizontal component of
the gravitational force.

CHAPTER 14

SATELLITE MOTION

265

think!
Satellites in close circular
orbit fall about 5 m during each second of orbit.
How can this be if the satellite does not get closer
to Earth?
Answer: 14.2

The same is true for a satellite in circular orbit. Here a satellite is

always moving at a right angle (perpendicular) to the force of gravity. It doesnt move in the direction of gravity, which would increase
its speed, nor does it move in a direction against gravity, which
would decrease its speed. Instead, the satellite exactly criss-crosses
gravity, so that no change in speed occursonly a change in direction. A satellite in circular orbit around Earth is always moving
perpendicular to gravity and parallel to Earths surface at constant
speed.
For a satellite close to Earth, the time for a complete orbit
around Earth, its period, is about 90 minutes. For higher altitudes,
the orbital speed is less and the period is longer. Communications
satellites are located in orbit 6.5 Earth radii from Earths center, so
that their period is 24 hours. This period matches Earths daily rotation. They are launched to orbit in the plane of Earths equator, so
they are always above the same place on the equator. The moon is
farther away, and has a 27.3-day period. The higher the orbit of a
satellite, the slower its speed and the longer its period.14.2

FIGURE 14.6 
The ISS and its inhabitants
circle 360 km above the
Earth, well above its atmosphere, in a state of continual free fall.

Think of the International

Space Station as Earths
lifeboat.

266

The international space station (ISS), shown in Figure 14.6,

orbits at 360 kilometers above Earths surface. Like all satellites, tangential velocity assures that it falls around Earth rather than into
it. Acceleration toward Earth is somewhat less than 1 g because of
altitude. This acceleration, however, is not sensed by the astronauts;
relative to the station, they experience zero g. Over extended periods
of time this causes loss of muscle strength and other detrimental
changes in the body. Future space travelers, however, can avoid this
when space stations rotate (recall our discussion of rotating space
habitats in Chapter 12). Rotation effectively supplies a support force
and can nicely provide Earth-normal weight.


FIGURE 14.7
A satellite in circular orbit close to
Earth moves tangentially at 8 km/s.
Each second, it falls 5 m beneath
each successive 8-km tangent.

Recall from Chapter 13 that Isaac Newton understood satellite

motion from his investigation of the moons motion. He thought
about the launching of artificial satellites, for he reasoned that without air resistance, a cannonball could circle Earth and coast indefinitely if it had sufficient speed. As Figure 14.7 demonstrates, he
calculated this speed to be the same as 8 km/s. Since such speed was
impossible then, he was not optimistic about people launching satellites. What Newton did not consider was multistage rocketsthe idea
of rockets carried piggyback style on other rockets to reach orbital
speed by a succession of rocket firings.

When a spacecraft
enters the atmosphere
at too steep an angle,
more than about
6 degrees, it can burn
up. If it comes in too
shallow it could bounce
back into space like a
pebble skipped across
water.

......

CONCEPT Describe the motion of a satellite in relation to

CHECK

Earths surface and gravity.

14.3 Elliptical Orbits

A satellite in orbit around Earth traces an oval-shaped path
called an ellipse. An ellipse is the closed path taken by a point that
moves in such a way that the sum of its distances from two fixed
points is constant. The two fixed points in an ellipse are called foci.
For a satellite orbiting a planet, the center of the planet is at one
focus and the other focus could be inside or outside the planet. An
ellipse can be easily constructed by using a pair of tacks, one at each
focus, a loop of string, and a pencil, as shown in Figure 14.8. The
closer the tacks, the closer the ellipse is to a circle. When the
foci are together, the ellipse is a circle. A circle is a special case
of an ellipse.
FIGURE 14.8 

discover!

A simple method of
constructing an ellipse
is shown here.

How Do You Draw Different Ellipses?

1. Draw an ellipse with a loop of string, two tacks, and a pen or
pencil, as shown in Figure 14.8.
2. Try different tack spacings for a variety of ellipses. Or draw an
ellipse by tracing the edge of the shadow cast by a circular disk on
a flat surface.
3. Think How can you move the disk to get different ellipses?

CHAPTER 14

SATELLITE MOTION

267

FIGURE 14.9 
A satellite moves in an elliptical orbit. a. When the satellite
exceeds 8 km/s, it overshoots
a circle. b. At its maximum
separation, it starts to come
back toward Earth. c. The
cycle repeats itself.

think!
The orbit of a satellite is
shown in the sketch. In
which of the positions A
through D does the satellite have the greatest
speed? The least speed?
Answer: 14.3

Satellite speed, which is constant in a circular orbit, varies in an

elliptical orbit. When the initial speed is more than 8 km/s, the satellite
overshoots a circular path and moves away from Earth, against the
force of gravity. It therefore loses speed. Like a rock thrown into the
air, the satellite slows to a point where it no longer recedes, and begins
falling back toward Earth. The speed lost in receding is regained as it
falls back. The satellite then rejoins its path with the same speed it had
initially. The procedure repeats over and over, and an ellipse is traced
each cycle as shown in Figure 14.9.
Quite interestingly, the apparently parabolic paths of projectiles
such as cannonballs are actually tiny segments of a thin ellipse that
extends within and just beyond the center of Earth. Figure 14.10
shows that for speeds less than orbital speeds, the center of Earth is
the far focus of the elliptical path. In this case the near focus is close
to the launching site and varies for different speeds. When the projectile traces a circular orbit, both foci are together at Earths center. For
elliptical orbits, the near focus is Earths center and the location of
the far focus varies for different speeds.

......

CONCEPT What is the shape of the path of a satellite in an

CHECK

orbit around Earth?

FIGURE 14.10 
The parabolic paths of projectiles
are actually segments of ellipses.
a. For relatively low speeds, the
center of Earth is the far focus.
b. For greater speeds, the near
focus is Earths center.

268


FIGURE 14.11
For a satellite in circular orbit,
no component of force acts
along the direction of motion.
The speed, and thus the KE,
cannot change.

14.4 Energy Conservation and

Satellite Motion
Recall from Chapter 9 that moving objects have kinetic energy (KE).
An object above Earths surface has potential energy (PE) due to its
position. Everywhere in its orbit, a satellite has both KE and PE.
The sum of the KE and PE of a satellite is constant at all points
along an orbit.
In a circular orbit, the distance between a planets center and the
satellites center is constant, as shown in Figure 14.11. This means that
the PE of the satellite is the same everywhere in orbit. So, by the law of
conservation of energy, the KE is also constant. Thus, the speed is constant in any circular orbit.
In an elliptical orbit the situation is different. Both speed and
distance vary. The apogee is the point in a satellites orbit farthest
from the center of Earth. The perigee is the point in a satellites
orbit closest to the center of Earth. The PE is greatest when the satellite is at the apogee and least when the satellite is at the perigee.
Correspondingly, the KE will be least when the PE is most; and the
KE will be most when the PE is least, as Figure 14.12 shows. At every
point in the orbit, the sum of the KE and PE is constant.

FIGURE 14.12 
The sum of KE and PE
for a satellite is a constant at all points along
an elliptical orbit.

Physics on the Job

Satellite Design Engineer Satellites play an important role in

conducting scientific research, obtaining environmental data, and

providing communications services. Satellite design engineers are
employed by the United States government through NASA and by
commercial communications companies. The goal of a satellite design
engineer is to design satellites that will orbit at specific distances from
Earth, carry the necessary equipment, and withstand the conditions to
which they will be exposedall of this within a controlled
monetary budget.

CHAPTER 14

SATELLITE MOTION

269

FIGURE 14.13 
In an elliptical orbit, a
component of force exists
along the direction of the
satellites motion. This
component changes the
speed and, thus, the KE.

think!
The orbital path of a
satellite is shown below.
In which of the positions
A through D does the
satellite have the most
KE? Most PE? Most total
energy? Answer: 14.4

At all points on the orbitexcept at the apogee and perigee

there is a component of gravitational force parallel to the direction
of satellite motion, as Figure 14.13 shows. This component changes
the speed of the satellite. Or we can say: (this component of force)
(distance moved) = change in KE. Either way we look at it, when the
satellite gains altitude and moves against this component, its speed
and KE decrease. The decrease continues to the apogee. Once past
the apogee, the satellite moves in the same direction as the component, and the speed and KE increase. The increase continues until
the satellite whips past the perigee and repeats the cycle.

......

CONCEPT What is the relationship between the KE and PE of a

CHECK

satellite in motion?

14.5 Keplers Laws Of Planetary

Motion
Newtons law of gravitation was preceded by Keplers laws of planetary motion. Keplers laws of planetary motion are three important discoveries about planetary motion that were made by the
German astronomer Johannes Kepler in the beginning of the 1600s.
Keplers career as an astronomer began with a junior assistantship
with the famed Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe. Brahe headed the
worlds first great observatory in Denmark, just prior to the advent
of the telescope. Using huge brass protractor-like instruments called
quadrants, Brahe measured the positions of planets over twenty
years so accurately that his measurements are still valid today. Brahe
entrusted his data to Kepler. After Brahes death, Kepler devoted
many years of his life to the analysis of Brahes measurements.

270


FIGURE 14.14
a. Tycho Brahe (15461601)
measured the positions of
planets over 20 years so
accurately that his measurements are still valid today.
b. Johannes Kepler
(15711630) devoted many
years of his life to the analysis
of Brahes measurements.
a. Tycho Brahe

b. Johannes Kepler

Keplers First Law Keplers expectation that the planets would

move in perfect circles around the sun was shattered after years of
effort. He found the paths to be ellipses. Keplers first law states
that the path of each planet around the sun is an ellipse with the
sun at one focus.
Keplers Second Law Kepler also found that the planets do not
go around the sun at a uniform speed but move faster when they are
nearer the sun and more slowly when they are farther from the sun.
They accomplish this in such a way that an imaginary line or spoke
joining the sun and the planet sweeps out equal areas of space in
equal intervals of time. The triangular-shaped areas swept out during a month when a planet is orbiting far from the sun and when a
planet is orbiting closer to the sun are shown in Figure 14.15. These
Keplers second law states that each planet
two areas are equal.
moves so that an imaginary line drawn from the sun to any planet
sweeps out equal areas of space in equal intervals of time.
Kepler was the first to coin the word satellite. He had no clear
idea why the planets moved as he discovered. He lacked a conceptual model. Kepler didnt see that a satellite is simply a projectile
under the influence of a gravitational force directed toward the body
around which the satellite orbits. You know that if you toss a rock
upward, it goes slower the higher it rises because its going against
Earth gravity. And you know that when it returns its going with
gravity and its speed increases. Kepler never realized that a satellite
behaves in the same way. Going away from the sun, it slows down.
Returning toward the sun, it speeds up. A satellite, whether a planet
orbiting the sun, or one of todays satellites orbiting Earth, is slowed
going against the gravitational field and sped up going with the field.
Kepler wasnt aware of this simplicity, and instead fabricated complex
systems of geometrical figures to find sense in his discoveries. These
proved futile.
CHAPTER 14

FIGURE 14.15 
Equal areas of space are
swept out in equal intervals of time.

Keplers second law is

a consequence of the
conservation of angular
momentum. And his
third law is the result of
equating Newtons law
of gravitation to centripetal force. The connections of conceptsyum!

SATELLITE MOTION

271

Keplers Third Law After ten years of searching by trial and

error for a connection between the time it takes a planet to orbit
the sun and its distance from the sun, Kepler discovered a third
law. From Brahes data, Kepler found that the square of any planets
period (T) is directly proportional to the cube of its average orbital
radius (r). Keplers third law states that the square of the orbital
period of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the average distance of the planet from the sun. This means that the ratio
T 2/r 3 is the same for all planets. So if a planets period is known, its
average orbital radial distance is easily calculated (or vice versa).
Keplers laws apply not only to planets but also to moons or any
satellite in orbit around any body. The elliptical orbits of the planets
are very nearly circular. Only the precise measurements of Brahe
showed the slight differences.
It is interesting to note that Kepler was familiar with Galileos
concepts of inertia and accelerated motion, but he failed to apply
them to his own work. Like Aristotle, he thought that the force on a
moving body would be in the same direction as the bodys motion.
Kepler never appreciated the concept of inertia. Galileo, on the other
hand, never appreciated Keplers work and held to his conviction
that the planets move in circles.14.6 Further understanding of planetary motion required someone who could integrate the findings of
these two great scientists. The rest is history, for as we have seen, this
task was later taken up by Isaac Newton.

......

The mass of any celestial body can be found

if it has one or more
satellites, for the bodys
mass is directly proportional to r 3/T 2.

CONCEPT

CHECK

What are Keplers three laws of planetary motion?

14.6 Escape Speed

FIGURE 14.16 
The initial thrust of the
rocket lifts it vertically.
Another thrust tips it from
its vertical course. When
it is moving horizontally, it
is boosted to the required
speed for orbit.

272

When a payload is put into Earth-orbit by a rocket, the speed and

direction of the rocket are very important. For example, what would
happen if the rocket were launched vertically and quickly achieved
a speed of 8 km/s? Everyone had better get out of the way, because it
would soon come crashing back at 8 km/s. As Figure 14.16 shows, to
achieve orbit, the payload must be launched horizontally at 8 km/s
once above air resistance. Launched vertically, the old saying What
goes up must come down becomes a sad fact of life.
Earth But isnt there some vertical speed that is sufficient to ensure
that what goes up will escape and not come down? The answer is yes.
Neglecting air resistance, fire anything at any speed greater than
11.2 km/s, and it will leave Earth, going more and more slowly, but
never stopping.14.6.1 Lets look at this from an energy point of view.

How much work is required to move a payload against the force

of Earths gravity to a distance very, very far (infinitely far) away?
The PE is not infinite because the distance is infinite. But gravity
diminishes rapidly with distance via the inverse-square law. Most of
the work done in launching a rocket, for example, occurs near Earth.
It turns out that the value of PE for a 1-kilogram mass infinitely far
away is 62 million joules (MJ). So to put a payload infinitely far from
Earths surface requires at least 62 MJ of energy per kilogram of load.
A KE per unit mass of 62 MJ/kg corresponds to a speed of 11.2 km/s.
This is the value of the escape speed from the surface of Earth.14.6.2
The escape speed is the minimum speed necessary for an object to
escape permanently from a gravitational field that holds it.
If we give a payload any more energy than 62 MJ/kg at the
surface of Earth or, equivalently, any greater speed than 11.2 km/s,
then, neglecting air resistance, the payload will escape from Earth
never to return. As it continues outward, its PE increases and its KE
decreases. Its speed becomes less and less, though it is never reduced
to zero. The payload outruns the gravity of Earth. It escapes.
The Solar System The escape speeds of various bodies in the
solar system are shown in Table 14.1. Note that the escape speed from
the sun is 620 km/s at the surface of the sun. Even at a distance equaling that of Earths orbit, the escape speed from the sun is 42.2 km/s.
The escape speed values in the table ignore the forces exerted by other
bodies. A projectile fired from Earth at 11.2 km/s, for example, escapes
Earth but not necessarily the moon, and certainly not the sun.
Table 14.1

Escape Speeds at the Surface of Bodies in the Solar System

Astronomical
Body

Mass
(Earth masses)

Radius
(Earth radii)

Escape Speed
(km/s)

Sun

333,000

109

Sun (at a distance

of Earths orbit)

333,000

23,500

42.2

318

11

60.2

Jupiter

620

Saturn

95.2

9.2

36.0

Neptune

17.3

3.47

24.9

Uranus

14.5

3.7

22.3

Earth

1.00

1.00

11.2

Venus

0.82

0.95

10.4

Mars

0.11

0.53

5.0

Mercury

0.055

0.38

4.3

Moon

0.0123

0.28

2.4

CHAPTER 14

SATELLITE MOTION

273

FIGURE 14.17 
Pioneer 10, launched from
Earth in 1972, escaped from
the solar system in 1984 and is
wandering in interstellar space.

For: Links on satellite motion

Visit: PHSchool.com
Web Code: csn 1406

274

The first probe to escape the solar system, Pioneer 10, shown in
Figure 14.17, was launched from Earth in 1972 with a speed of only
15 km/s. The escape was accomplished by directing the probe into the
path of oncoming Jupiter. It was whipped about by Jupiters great
gravitational field, picking up speed in the processjust as the speed
of a ball encountering an oncoming bat is increased when it departs
from the bat. Its speed of departure from Jupiter was increased
enough to exceed the suns escape speed at the distance of Jupiter.
Pioneer 10 passed the orbit of Pluto in 1984. Unless it collides with
another body, it will continue indefinitely through interstellar space.
Like a note in a bottle cast into the sea, Pioneer 10 contains information about Earth that might be of interest to extraterrestrials, in hopes
that it will one day wash up and be found on some distant seashore.
It is important to point out that the escape speeds for different
bodies refer to the initial speed given by a brief thrust, after which
there is no force to assist motion. But we could escape Earth at
any sustained speed greater than zero, given enough time. Suppose
a rocket is going to a destination such as the moon. If the rocket
engines burn out while still close to Earth, the rocket will need a minimum speed of 11.2 km/s. But if the rocket engines can be sustained
for long periods of time, the rocket could go to the moon without
ever attaining 11.2 km/s.
It is interesting to note that the accuracy with which an unpiloted rocket reaches its destination is accomplished not by staying
on a preplanned path, or by getting back on that path if it strays
off course. No attempt is made to return the rocket to its planned
path. Instead, by communication with the control center, the rocket
in effect asks, Where am I now, and where do I want to go? What
is the best way to get there from here, given my present situation?
With the aid of high-speed computers, the answers to these questions are used to find a new path. Corrective thrusters put the rocket
on this new path. This process is repeated continuously along the
way until the rocket reaches its destination.

Is there a lesson to be learned here? Suppose you find in your

personal life that you are off course. You may, like the rocket, find
it better to take a newer course that leads to your goal as best plotted
from your present position and circumstances, rather than try to get
back on the course you plotted from a previous position and in, perhaps, different circumstances. So many ideas in physics, it seems, have
a moral.

The mind that encompasses the universe is

as marvelous as the universe that encompasses
the mind.

......

CONCEPT What condition is necessary for a payload to escape

CHECK

Earths gravity?

Science, Technology, and Society

Communications Satellites The electromagnetic
signals that are broadcast into space to carry
television programs or telephone conversations
travel in straight lines. In times past these straightline (often called line-of-sight) communications
required tall receiving antenna towers and signalboosting relay stations on high buildings or
mountains. Today many television and telephone
signals bounce to us
from satellites. These
communications satellites
are in equatorial orbits
with 24-hour periods.
Because they revolve
once each time Earth
rotates once, they appear
stationary when we
look up at them. These
satellites are said to be in
geosynchronous orbits.
Dish-shaped antennas almost anywhere on Earth are
on a line of sight from one or more communications
satellites. Because communications satellites are in
equatorial orbit, dish antennas on the equator may
tilt east or west, but they dont tilt north or south.
An equatorial dish right under a communications
satellite is looking straight up. If it held water, it
would resemble a birdbath filled to the brim.

Antennas north of the equator must be tilted to

the south (and perhaps east or west, too). Those
south of the equator must be tilted to the north,
and likely east or west as well. Unless you live on
the equator, all of the antennas that you see look
like partly emptied bowls. In Antarctica or near the
North Pole, a dish antenna is tipped so far over
that it could hold no water at all.
The fact that
geosynchronous satellites
remain in one place
overhead means it is
possible for them to
drop vertical cables to
Earths surface where
they could be attached.
Cables composed of very
strong and lightweight
carbon-based materials are
currently being researched.
Rather than being rocketed to the satellite,
supplies could be lifted in elevator fashion. Watch
for such space elevators in the future!
Critical Thinking Explain why it is not possible for
a single communications satellite to serve all parts
of Earth.

CHAPTER 14

SATELLITE MOTION

275

14 REVIEW
Concept Summary

276

A stone thrown fast enough to go a horizontal distance of 8000 meters during the
time (1 second) it takes to fall 5 meters
will orbit Earth.
A satellite in circular orbit around Earth
is always moving perpendicular to gravity
and parallel to Earths surface at constant
speed.
A satellite in orbit around Earth traces
and oval-shaped path called an ellipse.
The sum of the KE and PE of a satellite is
constant at all points along an orbit.
Keplers first law states that the path of
each planet around the sun is an ellipse
with the sun at one focus.
Keplers second law states that each
planet moves so that an imaginary line
drawn from the sun to any planet sweeps
out equal areas of space in equal intervals
of time.
Keplers third law states that the square of
the orbital period of a planet is directly
proportional to the cube of the average
distance of the planet from the sun.
(T 2 ~ r 3 for all planets)
If we give a payload any more energy
than 62 MJ/kg at the surface of Earth or,
equivalently, any greater speed than
11.2 km/s, then, neglecting air resistance,
the payload will escape from Earth never
to return.

For: Self-Assessment
Visit: PHSchool.com
Web Code: csa 1400

Key Terms

satellite (p. 263)

period (p. 266)
ellipse (p. 267)
focus (pl. foci) (p. 267)
apogee (p. 269)
perigee (p. 269)
Keplers laws of planetary motion (p. 270)
escape speed (p. 273)

think! Answers
14.2

In each second, the satellite falls about

5 m below the straight-line tangent it
would have taken if there were no gravity.
Earths surface curves 5 m below an 8-km
straight-line tangent. Since the satellite
moves at 8 km/s, it falls at the same rate
Earth curves.

14.3

The satellite has its greatest speed as it

whips around A. It has its least speed at C.
Beyond C, it gains speed as it falls back to
A to repeat its cycle.

14.4

The KE is maximum at A; the PE is maximum at C; the total energy is the same

anywhere in the orbit.

14 ASSESS
Check Concepts

Section 14.1

1. If we drop a ball from rest, how far will

it fall vertically in the first second? If we instead move our hand horizontally and drop
it (throw it), how far will it fall vertically in
the first second?

8. a. Where in an elliptical orbit is the speed of

a satellite maximum?
b. Where is it minimum?
9. The sum of PE and KE for a satellite in
a circular orbit is constant. Is this sum also
constant for a satellite in an elliptical orbit?
10. Why does the force of gravity do no
work on a satellite in circular orbit, but does
do work on a satellite in an elliptical orbit?
Section 14.5

11. What scientist gathered accurate data on

planetary paths around the sun? What scientist discovered that the paths are ellipses?
What scientist explained the ellipses?
2. What do the distances 8000 m and
5 m have to do with a line tangent to
Earths surface?
Section 14.2

3. How does the direction of motion of a

satellite in circular orbit compare with the
curve of Earths surface?

12. When is the speed of a satellite greatest,

when closer to Earth or farther from Earth?
13. What is the mathematical relationship between how long it takes a planet to orbit the
sun and its distance from the sun?

4. Why doesnt gravitational force change

the speed of a satellite in circular orbit?
5. Does the period of a satellite in a circular orbit increase or decrease as its distance
from Earth increases?
Section 14.3

6. Describe an ellipse.
Section 14.4

7. Why does gravitational force change the

speed of a satellite in elliptical orbit?
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(continued)

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Section 14.6

Think and Rank

14. a. What is the minimum speed for

circling Earth in close orbit?
b. What is the maximum speed in an orbit
that comes close to Earth at one point?
c. What happens above the maximum
speed?

Rank each of the following sets of scenarios in

order of the quantity or property involved. List
them from left to right. If scenarios have equal
rankings, then separate them with an equal sign.
(e.g., A = B)

15. Neglecting air resistance, what will happen to a projectile that is fired vertically at
8 km/s? At 12 km/s?
16. a. How fast would a particle have to be
ejected from the sun to leave the solar
system?
b. What speed would be needed if an ejected
particle started at a distance from the sun
equal to Earths distance from the sun?
17. What is the escape speed on the moon?
18. Although the escape speed from the surface of Earth is 11.2 km/s, couldnt a rocket
with enough fuel escape at any speed? Why
or why not?
19. How was Pioneer 10 able to escape the
solar system with an initial speed less than
escape speed?

20. The dashed lines show three circular orbits

about Earth.

Rank the following quantities for these

orbits from greatest to least.
a. orbital speed
b. time for orbiting Earth
21. Four satellites in circular orbit about Earth
have the following characteristics:
(A) m
4000 kg; height 300 km
(B) m
5000 kg; height 350 km
(C) m
4000 kg; height 400 km
(D)m
5000 kg; height 500 km
a. Rank the satellites orbital speeds from
greatest to least.
b. Rank the satellites times for orbiting
Earth from greatest to least.
c. Does mass affect your answers to parts (a)
and (b)?

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14 ASSESS
22. The positions of a satellite in elliptical orbit
are indicated.

Think and Explain

24. A satellite can orbit at 5 km above the

moon, but not at 5 km above Earth. Why?
25. Does the speed of a satellite around
Earth depend on its mass? Its distance from
Earth? The mass of Earth?

Rank these quantities from greatest to least.

a. gravitational force
b. speed
c. momentum
d. KE
e. PE
f. total energy (KE  PE)
g. acceleration
23. Kepler tells us that a planet sweeps out equal
areas in equal intervals of time. Four such
equal-area triangles are shown.

26. If a cannonball is fired from a tall

mountain, gravity changes its speed all
along its trajectory. But if it is fired fast
enough to go into circular orbit, gravity
does not change its speed at all. Why?
27. Does gravity do any net work on a satellite
in an elliptical orbit during one full orbit?
Explain your answer.
28. A geosynchronous Earth satellite can remain
almost directly overhead in Singapore, but
not San Francisco, Chicago, or New York
City. Why?
29. If you stopped an Earth satellite dead in
its tracks, it would simply crash into Earth.
Why, then, dont the communications satellites that hover motionless above the same
spot on Earth crash into Earth?

Rank these quantities from greatest to least.

a. average speed during the time interval
b. acceleration during the time interval
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14 ASSESS

(continued)

30. In an accidental explosion, a satellite breaks

in half while in circular orbit about Earth.
One half is brought momentarily to rest.
What is the fate of the half brought to rest?
What is the speed of the other half? (Hint:
Think momentum conservation.)

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36. Why does most of the work done in

launching a rocket take place when the
rocket is still close to Earths surface?

31. Would you expect the speed of a satellite

in close circular orbit about the moon to be
less than, equal to, or greater than 8 km/s?
Why?
32. Why do you suppose that sites close
to the equator are preferred for launching
satellites? (Hint: Look at the spinning Earth
from above either pole and compare it to a
spinning turntable.)
33. Why do you suppose that a space shuttle
is sent into orbit by firing it in an easterly
direction (the direction in which Earth
spins)?
34. Consider two planets: Mercury, close to the
sun, and Uranus, far from the sun. Which
of these planets has a period shorter than
Earths period around the sun? Which has a
period longer than Earths?
35. What is the maximum possible speed of
impact upon Earths surface for a faraway
object initially at rest that falls to Earth due
only to Earths gravity?

37. If Pluto were somehow stopped short

in its orbit, it would fall into the sun rather
than around it. About how fast would it be
moving when it hit the sun?
38. If an astronaut in an orbiting space
shuttle wished to drop something to Earth,
how could this be accomplished?
39. If Earth somehow acquired more mass,
with no change in its radius, would escape
speed be less than, equal to, or more than
11.2 km/s? Why?

Think and Solve

40. Calculate the speed in m/s at which

Earth revolves around the sun. Note: The
orbit is nearly circular.
41. A spaceship in circular orbit about the
moon is 2.0 106 m from its center.
a. Show that the period of the spaceship is
2.2 h.
b. Show that the speed of the spaceship relative to the moon is about 5800 km/h.

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14 ASSESS
42. Calculate the speed in m/s at which the
moon revolves around Earth. Note: The
orbit is nearly circular.
43. At a particular point, a satellite in an
elliptical orbit has a gravitational
potential energy of 5000 MJ with respect
to Earths surface and a kinetic energy of
4500 MJ. At another point in its orbit, the
satellites potential energy is 6000 MJ. What
is its kinetic energy at that point?
44. An orbiting satellite of mass m is pulled
toward Earth by a force ma. Equate ma to
the force in Newtons equation for universal
gravitation and show that the satellites
acceleration is a  GM
.
2
d

45. The force of gravity between Earth and an

., where
Earth satellite is given by F  G mM
d2
m is the mass of the satellite, M is the mass
of Earth, and d is the distance between
the satellite and the center of Earth. If the
satellite follows a circular orbit, the force
keeping it in orbit must2 be the centripetal
mv
force, given by F  r . Equate the two
expressions for force to show that the speed
is v 
GM
.
d

47. In 1610, Galileo discovered four moons of

Jupiter. (Today we know that there are more
than 60!) Io, the innermost of the moons
observed by Galileo, is 4.2 108 m from
Jupiters center and has a period of
1.5 105 s. Calculate Jupiters mass.
48. A planet in a circular orbit takes a time T to
orbit its sun at a radial distance r. In terms
of r and T, how fast is the planet moving in
its orbit?
49. The speed of a satellite in a circular orbit is
GM
given by the equation v 
r , where G is
the gravitational constant, M is the mass of
Earth, and r is the radial distance
between the satellite and the center of Earth.
Equate this to the other expression for
speed, v  dt . Find the equation for the
time the satellite takes to completely orbit
Earththe period T. Use the circumference
of the complete orbit, 2)r , for the distance
traveled, and T for the period of rotation.
r3

50. Use the equation T  2)
GM to show

that the period of the space shuttle 200 km
above Earths surface is about 90 minutes.

46. Use the result of Question 45 (now with the

sun instead of Earth as the center of force)
to calculate the speed in m/s at which Earth
revolves about the sun. Assume Earths orbit
is nearly circular.

More Problem-Solving Practice

Appendix F

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281