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TOPIC 5 ELECTROSTATICS AND MAGNETISM:

Charge of 1 electron

= 1.6 x 10-19 C.

1 C of charge

= 6.25 x 1018 electrons.

E=

F
electric field acting on objects with charge.
q

F = Force (N)
q = Magnitude of Charge (C)
E = Electric Field Strength (NC-1)

Electrical potential difference (V) is related to the work (W) done to move a charge (q)
as follows:
P.E. W
V=
=
or
W = qV
q
q
Work is done, for example, when an electric charge is move against the electricity in an
electric field, for example, to move a positive charge from A to B:
B

PEA > PEB

Electrical potential difference is also called voltage and is measured in volts.

k Q1 Q2
Coulomb's Law determines the force between 2 charges at a stated
r2
1
distance. k =
and is constant of proportionality. Its value is 9.0 x 109 N.m2.C-2.
4!0
F=

Electric Fields for Some Charge Distributions:

{SORRY THIS IMAGE CANNOT BE REPRODUCED}
{Check your textbook.}

E=

I=

k Q2
The electric field strength due to an isolated point charge.
r2

q
Current the rate of flow of charge in an electric circuit. Measured in
t

amperes (A), or coulombs of charge per second.

Conventional Current and Electron Flow:

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conventional current

electron flow

resistor

V = IR Ohms Law current is proportional to the applied voltage.

L
The resistance of a wire is directly proportional to its length L, and its
A
cross-sectional area A. The constant of proportionality is , and is called the resistivity.
It changes depending on the material used. (NB. When L increases, there are more
obstacles to electron flow. When A increases, there is more space in which electrons can
travel). The units of resistivity are m.
The resistance of a conductor depends on the following:
. Length
. Cross-sectional area
. Resistivity
. Temperature
R=

The increase in resistance in a material can be shown as:

Rf = R0(1 + t)
where:
R0 is the resistance at some reference temperature, say 0C.
Rf is the resistance at some temperature, t C, above the reference temp.
is the temperature coefficient for the material being used.

mf the work per unit charge made available by an electrical source.

energy supplied
,
emf =
charge
BUT
energy dissipated
PD =
charge

V =

W
potential difference in external circuits is the power, dissipated
It

(released) per unit current.

Series & Parallel Circuits:
Series:
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I = I1 = I2 = I3 =
V = V1 + V2 + V2 +
R = R1 + R2 + R3 +
Parallel:

I = I1 + I2 + I3 +
V = V1 = V2 = V2 =
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
+

R
R
R
R
1
2
3
Galvanometers, Ammeters, & Voltmeters:
Galvanometers:
Used to detect electric currents.
Use a property of electromagnetism that a coil with a current flowing in
it experiences a force when placed in a magnetic field.
Most non-digital ammeters and voltmeters consist of a moving coil
connected to resistors.
Voltmeters:
Always connected across a device (in parallel).
Have a very high resistance so that it does not take current from the
device whose potential difference is being measured.
Have a high resistor connected in series with a galvanometer.
Ammeters:
Always connected in series with a circuit.
Have a very low resistance so that they do not alter the current flowing
in the circuit.
Have a low resistor connected in parallel with a galvanometer.

Power is the rate at which energy is supplied to a device.

P = IV

P=

P = I 2R

P=

W
t

V2
R

Magnetism:

Two types of magnets:

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Temporary/Soft magnets lose their magnetic properties easily, eg. iron

magnets. Are the basis of electromagnets.
Permanent/Hard Magnets do not lose their magnetism, eg. steel, and alnico.
Retain magnetic properties over long periods of time.

Magnetic Fields and Patterns:

{SORRY THIS IMAGE CANNOT BE REPRODUCED. CHECK YOUR TEXTBOOK}

When a current flows through a wire, it causes a magnetic field like such:
Magnetic
Field

Current into page

Current out of page
We use the "right-hand grip rule" to determine the direction of the current and field.

A solenoid has a magnetic field like the one shown on page 397 (IB Text). The polarity
is thus:

North End
South End
The strength of a solenoid can be increased by:
. Increasing the current flowing.
. Increasing the number of coils.
. Using a soft iron core in the coil.
When a charged particle is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force. This force on
this current-carrying conductor can be found by the right-hand palm rule:

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F

The fingers point along the lines of the magnetic field, the force comes out of the palm,
and the thumb points in the direction of the current.

F = I l B (sin ) relates force in conductor to the current flowing, the length of the
conductor, and the strength of the magnetic field. (Sometimes it is not perpendicular, in
which case we use sin ).

F = q V B (sin ) relates force in conductor to charged particle moving in magnetic

field. (Sometimes it is not perpendicular, in which case we use sin )

r=

mv
The spiral motion that a charged particle follows when it enters at 90 and
qB

the magnetic field is uniform. The radius can be determined from this.

DC Motors:

Use parts such as armature (rectangular coil of wire mounted in magnetic field
produced by curved magnets), brushes (connect coil to the terminals of a
battery, make contact with split-ring commutator.)
Force can be determined by right-hand palm rule.

Force Between 2 Parallel Wires:

2 unlike wires repel, 2 like wires attract.

Magnetic Field Strength (B) can be determined by right-hand grip rule. Force can
be determined by right-hand palm rule.
For magnetic fields resulting, see p.408 (IB Text).

Electromagnetic Induction:
Faradays Law of Magnetic Induction:
Experiment to Produce Induced Current:

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Motion

Sensitive
Galvanometer

Found that the strength of the induced mf was dependent upon:

1. The speed of the movement
2. The strength of the magnetic flux density
3. The number of turns on the coil
4. The area of the coil
Found that the magnitude of the induced mf was not proportional to the rate of change
of the magnetic field B but rather proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux
for a straight conductor or flux linkage N..

Induced EMF in a Conductor:

B into page
l
v

For a conductor of length l that moves with velocity v perpendicular to a magnetic flux
density of induction B as shown above, when the wire conductor moves in the magnetic
field, the free electrons experience a force as the conductor moves in the field. This force
causes the electrons to drift from one to the other, and eventually the emf becomes large
enough to balance the magnetic force and stop the electrons from moving. Thus:
=Blv
(AB)
where A is the area in m2.
=
t
Magnetic flux through a region a measure of the number of lines of magnetic force
passing through that region:
= A B cos where A is the area of the region and q is the angle of movement
between the magnetic field and a line drawn perpendicular to the area swept out. Unit of
magnetic flux is the Weber (Wb).
For N number of conductors as in the case for a solenoid, the term flux-linkage is used:

. (Newmann Equation)
= -N x
t
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Faradays Law the magnitude of the induced emf in a circuit is directly

proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux or flux linkage.

Lenzs Law of Electromagnetic Induction:

In diagram below, when north pole is moved toward core of solenoid, induced current
flows in external circuit, anti-clockwise to end of solenoid nearest magnet. This end acts
like north pole. When magnet stationary induced current is zero. When bar magnet is
removed from solenoid, induced current flows in opposite direction, and south pole is
created in end that was previously north pole.
Lenzs Law - The direction of the induced mf is such that the current it causes
to flow opposes the change producing it.
Combining two laws above gives Newmann Equation.

magnet moving
inwards

magnet not
moving

current flow

no current flow

magnet moving
outwards
current flow

9.4 Generators and Alternating Current:

Most important practical application of Laws of electromagnetic induction was
development of electric generator or dynamo. On a C.R.O, the induced emf is of a
sinusoidal nature, when graphed as a function of time.
A.C. generator: uses mechanical rotational energy to provide the force to turn a coil of
wire called an armature in a magnetic field. As armature cuts magnetic flux, mfs are
induced in the coil. As the sides of the coil reverse direction every half turn, the mfs
alernate in polarity. If there is a complete circuit, alternating current A.C. is produced.
The induced currents are conducted in and out by way of slip-rings and carbon brush
contacts.

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I
N

S
I

AC Generator
Alternating current can be represented by the equation I = IP sin (t), where Ip is the
maximum current called the peak current. Alternating currents are expressed by their
r.m.s (root-mean-square) or effective current and voltage, which can be found by: Irms =
I0 x 2 and Vrms = V0 x 2
The Transformer This is a useful device that makes use of electromagnetic
induction, which is used for increasing or decreasing a.c. voltages.
Vp Np Is
=
=
where
Vs Ns Ip
N is equal to the number of turns on a
ac input
designated coil.
If Ns is greater than Np then the
transformer is a step-up transformer.
If the reverse occurs and Ns is less
primary coil
secondary coil
than Np the it is a step-down
A simple Transformer
transformer.
If the voltage is stepped up by a
certain ratio, the current in the
secondary coil is stepped-down by
the same ratio.
Power Transmission high voltage transmission is used in power transmission rather
than high current trnasmission. This minimises energy and heat losses because of the
resistance in the wires. Transformers are used until the required voltages are reached.
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope Used to display electrical signals.
Uses: d.c or a.c voltmeter, displays waveforms, measures time intervals,
displays pahse relationships, compares frequencies, displays hysteresis loops.
Consists of sophisticated cathode ray tubel; consists of electron gun, deflecting
system and flourescent screen.
Electrons pass through control grid and anode system that control and focus the
electrons. Electrons then accelerated to high velocities electron gun. X and Y
plates put them on a certain part of the screen. Time-base control applies
steadily changing voltage to X-plates so beam is swept over screen from left to
right. Controls beam from dot/straight line to straight line/waveform.
ac
output

Direction of emf can be found by

applying the right hand palm rule for
electromagnetic induction for left
side of coil.
Magnitude of emf can be found by the
following formula:
= 2!f N A B sin(2!f t) where the
coil has N turns, has an area A, and is
in the magnetic field B.

It is found that:

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TOPIC 6 ATOMIC & NUCLEAR PHYSICS:

Milikans Experiment Robert Milikan carried out experiment to try to quantify the
elementary charge. Passed oil droplets of uniform size through charged plates, so that a
uniform electric field with a known potential difference. By knowing the magntude of
the potential difference, distance between the plates, and acceleration due to gravity (in
this case equal to electric force), he was able to calculate charge on individual oil drop.
He found the following equation:
V
mgd
mg
OR, when the equation E = is used (magnitude of electric field), q =
q=
d
V
E
.
Milikan was able to calculate that the charge on each oil drop was a multiple of the
elementary charge, which he found to be e = 1.602 x 10-19 C.
Thermionic Emission and Cathode Rays Physicist Heinrich Geissler, and later Sir
William Crookes, used experiment with electron guns in discharge tubes and in doing so
discovered the cathode ray. The process by which this is done, thermionic emission,
is shown below:
Screen
Cathode

Anode

Cross

Shadow of
Cross

Cathode rays are named thus because they originate from the cathode and are attracted
to the anode. They are thus negatively charged, and they can be deflected by magnetic
and electric fields.
Sir John Joseph Thomson was also able to determine the nature of cathode rays, and
e
v
thus determine the ratio of charge to mass:
=
.
m Br
e
E
E
= 2 . .He was able to then determine the charge to
OR because v = , therefore
m
B
2B r
mass ratio of cathode rays = 1.76 x 1011 kg.

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Rutherfords / Geiger and Marsdens

Alpha
Scattering
Experiment:
Bombarded thin sheet of gold foil with
alpha-particles (positively charged
particle). Most passed through foil,
thus they concluded that atoms
consist mostly of empty space. Also
some particles were deflected off the
foil they were directed straight at a
dense, positive nucleus. Determined
existence of nucleus, and was basis for
new model of atom (nuclear model).
Equations from experiment: If r is closest approach distance, then potential energy at
distance r is equal to U = Fr. However, given that the force F is the coulomb force of
kq1q2
kq1q2
repulsion between the alpha particle and gold nucleus, F = 2 . Therefore U =
r
r
. Rutherford was able to find approximately the radius of the gold nucleus less than
2.94 x 10-14 m.
From this the new planetary, or nuclear model of the atom, consisting of a dense
positive nucleus surrounded by electrons which orbit the nucleus. His research
continued after this with Niels Bohr and answered some of Rutherfords unanswered
questions, including a hypothesis for neutrons.

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Nuclear Physics:

Use of Z X nomenclature:
Z is atomic (proton) number of a nuclide number of protons found in the
nucleus of the isotope. In electrically neutral isotope, also number of electrons.
A is mass (nucleon) number of an isotope number of nucleons (protons &
neutrons). Number of neutrons = A Z.
Artificial transmutation the change of one element to another through the
bombardment of a nucleus.(Rutherford).
Rutherford determined through cloud chamber experiment that the alpha particle was
absorbed when it collided with a nitrogen nucleus:
4
2

14

17

He + 7 N 8 O + 1 H
Other equations can thus be determined, eg. O16 bombarded with neutrons:
16
8

15

O+0n 7 N+1H

Radioactive Decay:
Type:
Description:

Alpha ()
Helium Nucleus:

Beta ()
Fast-moving electron

Charge (q)
and
Mass (m):
Energy (E)
and
Speed (v)
Penetration
(range)

(2 He)

(1 e)

q = +2e
m = 4u

q = -e
1
u
m=
1850
1
Kinetic (E = mv2)
2
v = (099%) of c.
Stopped by a few
millimetres of Al
(a few metres)

1
mv2)
2
v ~ 0.05c
Stopped By a sheet
of paper
(a few centimetres)

Kinetic (E =

Ionising power of alpha-particles is the greatest.

Radioactive Decay:
A
Z X

Alpha Decay:

A4

A
Z X

Beta () Decay:
A

Z 2 Y + 2 He

Z + 1 Y + 1 e + v
0

Positron (+) Decay: Z X Z 1 Y + +1 e + v

NOTES BY JAMES ROBERTSON, 2001

Gamma ()
Electromagnetic
radiation with short
wavelength () and
high frequency.(f).
q=0
m=0
Photon
(E = h f)
v=c
Stopped by many
centimetres of Pb.
(no max range).

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Electron Capture:

A
ZX

Gamma Decay

A *
ZX

+ e > Z 1 Y + v
A

Z Y+

Radiation ionises gases use is made of this in the Geiger-Mller detector, which uses
Argon gas at low presure in a cathode metal tube, connected to an anode wire, and a
loudspeaker.

Radioactive decay is a random process for individual atoms, but the average rate of
decay is exponential, and is independent of physical & chemical conditions. The 'halflife' is the time it takes for half the number of unstable atoms in a sample to decay.
Model of decay is N = N0e-t
Activity in SI units is measured by the Becquerel = 1 event/s.
Therefore,
loge2
0.693
=
or =
t1/2
t1/2

NOTES BY JAMES ROBERTSON, 2001