Introduction to Robotics Technology

prepared and compiled by

Ma. Cristina P. Tungpalan

This Instructional Manual belongs to:

Name: _________________________
Section: ________________________

I. Introduction
In the 21st century, the educative process deals greatly on globalization, computerization, and now
transformation of information system to mobile technology, which fast changing every day. The scope of
the 21st education is to cope with the rapidly changing world filled with fantastic new problems as well as
exciting new possibilities caused by infinite ideations, creations and inventions that transpired by millions
of people exchanging information and ideas globally.

Definitely, we have no idea of what other

technologies will emerge on the next five years, or even what the world will look like 50 years ahead.
Emerging technologies and resulting globalization provides unlimited possibilities for exciting new
discoveries and developments such as new forms of energy, medical advances, restoration of
environment, and new gateways for communications. The possibilities are unlimited. And this is the
challenge to the educators of the 21st century to make a difference and be part of new and unlimited
possibilities.

Robotics is one of the emerging technologies that would create new possibilities to help human
perform repetitive tasks; human partners in medical and surgical operations; and help people increase
their work outputs and help produce accurate quality products.

Why Robotics in TLE subject? Robotics teaches essential skills such as electronics, mechanics,
mathematics, critical thinking, problem solving, teamwork and most importantly programming. The core
area in TLE IV is computer programming, and with robotics, we can do programming for two special
purposessoftware development and developing the microcontroller functionalities with sensors and
actuators.

The Robotics is research-based, and focuses on the development of the 21st century skills set for
the students such as teamwork, problem solving, ideation, project management, and communications.

Mathematics) concepts.

Introduction to Robotics

Likewise, it provides an engaging program to teach STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and

EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES
Robotics was designed to introduce the science behind the design and operation of robots, and after
learning robotics programming, the students will be able to:
1. Define a robot as a machine that gathers information about its environment (senses) and uses
that information (thinks) to follow instructions to do work (acts).
2. Recognize the advantages and limitations of robots by comparing how robots and humans sense,
think, and act and by exploring uses of robots in manufacturing, research, and everyday settings.
3. Understand their connection with technology and create an excitement about science and math
that will prepare them for a workplace in which computer, robotics, and automation are common
and essential.

Course Description

Robotics is the study of the design, construction and use of robots. The Microcontroller is the
main part of a robot in this study. It is an easy to use yet powerful single board computer that has gained
considerable traction in the hobby and professional market; while Arduino Programming Languange is a
programming tool that enables the senses, acts and information storage of the robot. The Arduino
Language is open-source, which means hardware is reasonably priced and development software is free.

This content area will prepare the students in a broader understanding and perspective of how
human minds work in programmable device like robots or electro-mechanical device powered by
microcontroller. This will focus on the introductory and a deeper understanding of programming or
mechanical design. All robotic programs which will be designed by the students should include the
development of 21st century skills; teamwork, problem solving, ideation, project management, and
communications. It likewise provides teachers with an engaging program to teach STEM (Science,

Robot mechanical and electronic parts.

Introduction to Robotics

Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) concepts utilizing the Arduino Programming Language and

Table of Contents

A. Introduction to Robotics Technology

1. Definition
2. Laws of Robotics
3. Three main branches of Robotics
4. Robotics History
5. Robot Part Types

The Robot Parts

The Microcontroller (Controller)
The Sensors
The Actuators
Basic Electricity and Electronics
Solderless Breadboard

Introduction to Robotics

B.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

A. Introduction to Robotics Technology

Robot
Many people will think about robots as machines with hands and feet. However, this kind of robots often
appears in scientific movies, entertainment, exhibitions and toy stores. They are very different from
industrial robots. Most of the industrial robots are simple apparatus, they usually have robotic arms.
Robotic arms are used in performing simple up-and-down motion, to take and pick out components from
machines.
In 1979, the American Robots Association has defined robots as
"A robot is a reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator designed to move material,
parts, tools or specialized devices through variable programmed motions for the performance of a
variety of tasks."
Although many industrial machines do not possess human shapes, they satisfy the criteria and can be called
robots. Word robot was coined by a Czech novelist Karel Capek in a 1920 play titled Rassums Universal
Robots (RUR). Robot in Czech is a word for worker or servant
Robots are being used widely in industries. It is estimated that a lot of industrial robots will be in service in
near future. At present, scientists are designing robots with visions so that robots can accomplish more
complicated tasks.

Robotics
Robotics is the branch of technology that deals with the design, construction, operation, and
application of robots.

Laws of Robotics
Isaac Asimov, who is considered to be the Father of Robotics, proposed three "Laws of Robotics" in 1942,
later adding the Zeroth Law:
Law 0: A robot may not injure humanity or through inaction, allow humanity to come to harm
Law 1: A robot may not injure a human being or through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm,
unless this would violate a higher order law

Law 3: A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with a higher
order law

Introduction to Robotics

Law 2: A robot must obey orders given to it by human beings, except where such orders would conflict with
a higher order law

Three main branches of Robotics

Robots can be divided into three main categories:
Industrial Robots - These robots are dedicated to performing repetitive manufacturing
tasks that are often unsafe or unpleasant for human workers. They are designed to
repeat the same process over and over without change. Modern industrial robots can
easily be programmed to perform new applications.
Research / Service Robots - These robots are designed to assist in exploring and
gathering data. They are often used in space applications, surgeries, and household
chores. They are designed to not only interact with the environment, but react
appropriately, thus coining the term "artificial intelligence."

Educational Robots - These robots are sometimes considered toys or kits and are
designed to provide an educational experience. Educational robots are used in
competitions and for learning experience. They often have the ability to simulate learned
behavior.

Robotics History

1890s: Nikola Tesla designs the first remote control vehicles. He is also known for his invention of the
radio, induction motors, Tesla coils.
1892: In the United States, Seward Babbitt designs a motorized crane with gripper to remove ingots
from a furnace.
1921: The first reference to the word robot appears in a play opening in London, entitled Rossum's
Universal Robots. The word robot comes from the Czech word, robota, which means drudgery or slavelike labor. Czech playwright Karel Capek first used this term when describing robots that helped people
with simple, repetitive tasks. Unfortunately, when the robots in the story were used in battle, they turn
against their human owners and take over the world.
1938: Americans Willard Pollard and Harold Roselund design a programmable paint-spraying
mechanism for the DeVilbiss Company.
1940s: Grey Walters creates an early robot called Elsie the tortoise, or Machina speculatrix.
1941: Science fiction writer Isaac Asimov first uses the word "robotics" to describe the technology of
robots and predicts the rise of a powerful robot industry.
1942: Asimov writes a story about robots, Runaround, which contains the "Three laws of robotics".

Robot Part Types

1. A system to communicate between the mechanical device and sensory data (controller)
2. Sensors that provide feedback from environment (sensors)
3. A mechanical device that can interact with surroundings (actuators and mechanisms)

Introduction to Robotics

Robots consist of three main components

The Robot Parts

It was electricity in the beginning....The people were happy because they did not know that it was all around them and could be
utilized. That was good. Then Faraday came and a stone has started to roll slowly...
The first machines using a new sort of energy appeared soon. A long time has passed since then and just when the people finally got
used to them and stopped paying attention to what new generations of specialists were doing, someone came to an idea that
electrons could be a very convenient toy being closed in a glass pipe. It was just a good idea at first, but there was no return.
Electronics was born and the stone kept on rolling down the hill faster and faster...
A new science - new specialists. Blue coats were replaced with white ones and people who knew something about electronics
appeared on the stage. While the rest of humanity were passively watching in disbelief what was going on, the plotters split in two
groups - software-oriented and hardware-oriented. Somewhat younger than their teachers, very enthusiastic and full of ideas,
both of them kept on working but separate ways. While the first group was developing constantly and gradually, the hardwareoriented people, driven by success, threw caution to the wind and invented transistors.
Up till that moment, the things could be more or less kept under control, but a broad publicity was not aware of what was going on,
which soon led to a fatal mistake! Being naive in belief that cheap tricks could slow down technology development and development
of the world and retrieve the good all days, mass market opened its doors for the products of Electronics Industry, thus closing a
magic circle. A rapid drop in prices made these components available for a great variety of people. The stone was falling freely...
The first integrated circuits and processors appeared soon, which caused computers and other products of electronics to drop down in
price even more. They could be bought everywhere. Another circle was closed! Ordinary people got hold of computers and computer
era has begun...
While this drama was going on, hobbyists and professionals, also split in two groups and protected by anonymity, were working hard
on their projects. Then, someone suddenly put a question: Why should not we make a universal component? A cheap, universal
integrated circuit that could be programmed and used in any field of electronics, device or wherever needed? Technology has been
developed enough as well as the market. Why not? So it happened, body and spirit were united and the first integrated circuit was
designed and called the MICROCONTROLLER.
Source: http://www.mikroe.com/chapters/view/64/chapter-1-introduction-to-microcontrollers/)

Controller
The controller is the processing interface between the robot and its
environment. It provides intelligence and feedback to the robot through the
compilation of the sensor measurements. It also acts as a storage device,
retaining the sensory information and inputted programs

This regulating device initiates one or more functions of operation in the robot
arm, such as starting, stopping, reversing, and changing speeds by issuing a
preset list of commands

Introduction to Robotics

The computation engine is generally able to process many tasks at one time
and seamlessly changes calculations to account for sensory information. The
controller includes the hardware that interfaces with the outside world. It
stores the user interface, which is used to input various commands.

The Microcontroller
What is a Microcontroller?

A microcontroller is a small, low-cost and self-contained computer-on-a-chip that can be used as an embedded
system. A few microcontrollers may utilize four-bit expressions and work at clock rate frequencies, which usually
include:
An 8 or 16 bit microprocessor.
A little measure of RAM.
Programmable ROM and flash memory.
Parallel and serial I/O.
Timers and signal generators.
Analog to Digital and Digital to Analog conversion.
Microcontrollers usually must have low-power requirements since many devices they control are battery-operated.

A microcontroller is a self-contained system with peripherals, memory

and a processor that can be used as an embedded system. Most
programmable microcontrollers that are used today are embedded in
other consumer products or machinery including phones, peripherals,
automobiles and household appliances for computer systems. Due to
that, another name for a microcontroller is "embedded controller."
Some embedded systems are more sophisticated, while others have
minimal requirements for memory and programming length and a low
software complexity. Input and output devices include solenoids, LCD
displays, relays, switches and sensors for data like humidity,
temperature or light level, amongst others.

They are characterized by their bits, memory architecture, memory/devices and instruction set.

Introduction to Robotics

Types of Microcontroller

Bits
The bits in microcontroller are 8-bits, 16-bits and 32-bits microcontroller.
In 8-bit microcontroller, the point when the internal bus is 8-bit then the ALU is performs the arithmetic and
logic operations. The examples of 8-bit microcontrollers are Intel 8031/8051, PIC1x and Motorola MC68HC11
families.
The 16-bit microcontroller performs greater precision and performance as compared to 8-bit. For example 8 bit
microcontrollers can only use 8 bits, resulting in a final range of 000 0xFF (0-255) for every cycle. In contrast,
16 bit microcontrollers with its 16 bit data width has a range of 00000 0xFFFF (0-65535) for every cycle. A
longer timer most extreme worth can likely prove to be useful in certain applications and circuits. It can
automatically operate on two 16 bit numbers. Some examples of 16-bit microcontroller are 16-bit MCUs are
extended 8051XA, PIC2x, Intel 8096 and Motorola MC68HC12 families.
The 32-bit microcontroller uses the 32-bit instructions to perform the arithmetic and logic operations. These are
used in automatically controlled devices including implantable medical devices, engine control systems, office
machines, appliances and other types of embedded systems. Some examples are Intel/Atmel 251 family, PIC3x.
Examples of Microcontrollers in the market
There are several different kinds of programmable, most common types categorized by several parameters including Bits, Flash
size, RAM size, number of input/output lines, packaging type, supply voltage and speed.
Programmable microcontrollers contain general purpose input/output pins. The number of these pins varies depending on the
microcontroller. They can be configured to an input or an output state by software. When configured to an input state, these pins
can be used to read external signals or sensors. When they are configured to the output state, they can drive external devices like
LED displays and motors.

Arduino Microcontroller

Aceduino 328

Introduction to Robotics

Gizduino ATmega328 Microcontroller

The Sensor
Humans (or in general any living organism) has to have some senses to become totally
autonomous. Humans have five senses vision, smell, taste, hearing and touch. If so, then
what do robots have?
In order for the robot to interact with the real world (human-like), we need to
implant sensors!

Sensor Fundamentals
What can we measure using sensors? Practically anything! Light, motion, temperature, magnetic fields, gravity,
humidity, vibration, pressure, electrical fields, sound, and other physical aspects of the external environment can be measured
using them. Of course there are different sensors for each purpose like IR sensors, proximity sensors, temperature sensors, tilt
sensors, accelerometers, ultrasonic sensors, RADAR, SONAR, etc.

Sensors measure attributes and interact with external events. Using a transducer, the sensor transforms the energy associated
with what is being measured into another form of energy. In robotics, some of the items sensors measure include speed,
orientation and proximity of other objects.

Sensor and Transducer

The words 'sensor' and 'transducer' are both widely used in the description of measurement system. The word 'sensor' is derived
from entire meaning 'to perceive' and 'transducer' is from transducer meaning 'to lead across'.
Sensor is a device that detects a change in a physical stimulus and turns it into a signal which can be measured or recorded.
Transducer is a device that transfers power from one system to another in the same or in the different form.

Introduction to Robotics

The figure below shows the sensing process in terms of energy conversion. The form of the output signal will often be a voltage
analogous to the input signal, though sometimes it may be a wave form whose frequency is proportional to the input or a pulse
train containing the information in some other form.

Every sensor in this world has three terminals:

o
o
o

Vcc to power up the sensor

GND to provide a fixed negative reference
Output analog output of the sensor (in some sensors, there may be more than one output terminals)

The following block diagram demonstrates it.

The sensor senses the physical parameters and gives a corresponding output. In most cases the output is analog. Some of the
most common sensors used in the field of robotics and embedded systems are as follows:

IR Sensor
IR Sensor- This is the most fundamental type of sensor available in the market. The basic
concept is simple. There is an emitter which emits infrared (IR) rays. These IR rays are
detected by a detector. This concept is used to make proximity sensor (to check if
something obstructs the path or not, etc), contrast sensors (used to detect contrast
difference between black and white, like in line follower robots), etc. The circuit diagram of
a basic IR sensor is given below. So even you can make one by yourself.

Basic Design of IR Sensor

Introduction to Robotics

You can also put an op-amp (comparator) in the output terminal in order to amplify the signal and also to convert the analog
sensor output to a digital one.

10

LM35
LM35 Temperature Sensor LM35 is a precision centigrade temperature sensor. It has three
terminals Vcc, Ground and Output as shown in the adjoining diagram. It has a sensitivity of
10mV/C. This means that for every degree rise in temperature, the output voltage increases by
10mV. In general, it gives a voltage of 0V at 0C. Hence, say for an output of 450mV, the
temperature is 45C.

Apart from LM35, there are many other temperature sensors

like thermistors, thermocouples, etc which are widely used.

MMA7260 Tri-Axis Accelerometer

Accelerometer - An accelerometer is a device which can measure acceleration in any
direction (X, Y, Z). MMA7260 is one such tri-axis accelerometer. Even this has three major
terminals Vcc, ground and output (it has three outputs, one each for X, Y and Z). This is a
very cool stuff. You can program graphical LCDs using this, you can implement this in
humanoids (if you plan to make one) to measure the rate of fall, etc.

Camera- To give your robot the power of vision, you can put cameras on them.

Axis IP Camera
The image processing is done using software like MATLAB, OpenCV, LabVIEW, etc and then the data
is transferred to the MCU using serial communication.

Proximity Sensor
This type of sensor is capable of pointing out the
availability of a component. Generally, the proximity
end effector. This sensor will be turned ON at a specified
distance, which will be measured by means of feet or
millimeters. It is also used to find the presence of a human being in the work
volume so that the accidents can be reduced.

Introduction to Robotics

sensor will be placed in the robot moving part such as

11

Range Sensor
Range Sensor is implemented in the end effector of a robot to calculate the distance between the sensor and a work part. The
values for the distance can be given by the workers on visual data. It can evaluate the size of images and analysis of common
objects. The range is measured using the Sonar receivers & transmitters or two TV cameras.

Tactile Sensors
A sensing device that specifies the contact between an object, and sensor is considered as the Tactile Sensor. This sensor can be
sorted into two key types namely:

Touch Sensor, and

Force Sensor.

Touch Sensor
The touch sensor has got the ability to sense and detect the touching of a sensor and object. Some of
the commonly used simple devices as touch sensors are micro switches, limit switches, etc. If the
end effector gets some contact with any solid part, then this sensor will be handy one to stop the
movement of the robot. In addition, it can be used as an inspection device, which has a probe to
measure the size of a component.

Force Sensor
The force sensor is included for calculating the forces of several functions like the machine
loading & unloading, material handling, and so on that are performed by a robot. This
sensor will also be a better one in the assembly process for checking the problems. There
are several techniques used in this sensor like Joint Sensing, Robot Wrist Force Sensing,

Introduction to Robotics

and Tactile Array Sensing.

12

ROBOTIC Actuators and Mechanism

Actuator is a device that converts an electrical control signal into mechanical motion.

The actuators are the motors and drives inside the robot body that are used to create and control motion.

An actuator is a mechanism for activating process control equipment by use of pneumatic, hydraulic, or electronic
signals.

Motors
A robot is a system that can automate some tasks called freedoms. The most important and popular actuator is a
motor, which allows the robot to control a wheel, a switch or even an arm
There are different types of motors
a.

DC Motors Direct Current (DC) motors

b.

AC Motors Alternating Current (AC) motors

c.

Inductive motors

Motors also have different ways to control them

Increasing or decreasing the voltage (stepper motors)

Slowing or speeding up the motor using a feedback loop (servo motors)

Stepper Motors
Stepper - A type of brushless servo motor, this motor is generally electric and moves or rotates in small discrete steps. Stepper
motors offer many advantages, such as dual compatibility with both analog and digital feedback signals. They can be used to
easily accelerate a load because the maximum dynamic torque occurs at low pulse rates. Drawbacks of their use include low
efficiency; much of the input energy is dissipated as heat and the inputs must be matched to the motor and load. The load should
be carefully analyzed for optimal performance. Damping may be required when load inertia is exceptionally high to prevent
oscillation.

Stepper motors contain several coils of wire. The coils are switched on and off in a special sequence of steps to turn the shaft.

Introduction to Robotics

These motors are very precise because they can be made to turn through an exact number of steps. They are used in products
such as printers, CNC machines, scanners and robotic devices.

13

Servo Motors
Used to control the wheels of a robot, or an arm
A popular control method is the pulse width modulation (PWM) scheme

By varying the pulse width we can

Increase/decrease the speed of the motor

Change the direction of the motor
Stop

AC Servo Motors - Used in applications that require a rapid and accurate response, these
motors are basically two-phase, reversible induction motors that are modified for servo
operation. AC Servo motors have a small diameter and high resistance rotors. This design
provides low inertia for fast starts, stops, and reversals. AC Servo Motors can also be
classified as asynchronous or synchronous.

Pneumatic - Powered by the conversion of compressed air, these actuators are used to control processes
that require a quick and accurate response, but not a large amount of force. These compact and lightweight
actuators are less energy efficient than electric motors.
Hydraulic - With the ability to convert hydraulic pressure and flow into torque and rotation, these actuators
can be used when a large amount of force is needed. The most common example is a piston. This motor uses
hydraulic fluid under pressure to drive machinery. The energy comes from the flow and pressure, not the
kinetic energy of the flow.
Brushless DC Servo - This synchronous electric motor features permanent magnet
poles on the rotor, which are attracted to the rotating poles of the opposite magnetic
polarity in the stator creating torque. It is powered by a DC current that has an
electronically controlled commutation system instead of a system based on brushes.
Current, torque, voltage, and rpm are linearly related. The advantages of a brushless
motor include higher efficiency and reliability, reduced noise, longer lifetime (no
brush erosion), elimination of ionizing sparks from the commutator, and an overall
reduction of electromagnetic interference (EMI).

Brushed DC Servo - The classic DC motor generates an oscillating current in a rotor with a
split ring commutator, and either a wound or permanent magnet stator. A coil is wound
around the rotor, which is then powered by a battery. The rotational speed is proportional
to the voltage applied to it and the torque is proportional to the current. Speed control

electronic controls. The advantage to using a brushed motor over a brushless is cost. The
brushless motor requires more complex electronic speed controls; however a brushed DC
motor can be regulated by a simple variable resistor, such as a potentiometer or rheostat. This is not efficient, but proves
satisfactory for cost-sensitive applications.

Introduction to Robotics

can be achieved by applying tape to the battery, varying the supply voltage, resistors, or

14

Basic Electricity and Electronics

Understanding the concepts of electricity and the use of various electrical and electronic components will help you to incorporate
basic functions such as lighting a bulb, sounding a buzzer, running a motor and turning on a light-emitting diode for your design
project. You will also explore other components: different types of switches, resistors, transistors, sensors, potentiometers,
thyristors, capacitors and integrated circuits that can be used to control how your robot behave. Finally, to help you ensure that
your final solution is feasible.

Electronic Systems
Electronic circuits are sometimes referred to as electronic systems.

An electronic system has:

An INPUT for gathering information;

A PROCESS for deciding what to do with the information; and
An OUTPUT, which normally involves switching a device on or off.

INPUT
(press switch)
PROCESS
(microchip)

OUTPUT
(display screen)

CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

Electricity flows grease ease through some materials than others

An electrical insulator is a material that electricity cannot flow

through easily. (e.g. rubber, wood, glass and most plastics)

Introduction to Robotics

An electrical conductor is a material that allows electricity to flow through easily.

(e.g. aluminum, copper, silver, gold, and most metals)

15

Power Supply
An electric and electronic products need power to run them.

Mains Power
Some electrical products we use require mains power. Main power is produced by huge generators at a
power station and the electricity is then supplied to our homes, schools and workplaces via thick
underground cables. Some products use more electricity than others.
Mains power has an alternating current (A.C.) which means that the
flow of electricity continually changes direction in a circuit. In fact, it
changes 50 times every second. Many electrical products require a
direct current (D.C.) supply, which constantly flows in one direction.
These products have converters that convert the A.C. into D.C.

Batteries
The most common source of power is the battery. Batteries come in all shapes
and sizes; from miniature button cells for watches and calculators, to large
power packs for starting the engines of jumbo jets. Dry cell batteries contained
in metal casings and are made in different sizes

Dry cell batteries

Batteries have a positive and a negative terminal. These are identified with a + and a - sign
respectively.

Introduction to Robotics

Button cell batteries

16

Switches
In our everyday life, we come across different switches;

For turning lights on or off;

When using telephone buttons; and
For turning radios and computer on or off.

Switches are used to make or break a circuit. A simple switch has two contacts:
OPEN position the contacts are not connected so no current will flow through the switch;
CLOSED position the contacts are connected so current is able to flow through the switch.

Open

closed
switch

+
bulb

battery

Battery, bulb and switch connected in series

Introduction to Robotics

17

OUTPUT COMPONENTS
Components that move, light up or make a noise are called output components.
Giving off Light and Sound
When an electronic current passes through the filament bulb, the filament gets hot and glows.

Buzzers make a loud

Noise when connected to a battery.
They are often used as warming
devices. Connect the red wire to the
positive contact and the black wire to
the negative contact

Creating Motion

Introduction to Robotics

Motors are often used to turn wheels, gears, cams or pulleys.

Motors have two terminals that connect to a battery. The direction
of turning depends on the way the battery wires are connected to
the terminals. Motors need a lot of current to make them workespecially the bigger motors.

18

Controlling Current Flow

A light-emitting diode (LED) is simply a diode that lights up when current flows through one direction only
.One side of an LED has a flat edge. The leg next to this
edge is the cathode, which must be connected to a negative
terminal in the circuit. The other leg is the anode, which
connects to a positive terminal

LEDs are made in different colours.

They last much longer than filament

bulbs and use a fraction of the current.

Introduction to Robotics

Ultra-bright LEDs glow with an intense light and are used in traffic lights, torches and rear lights on some
cars and buses.

19

Resistors
Resistors are the most commonly used component in electronics and their
purpose is to create specified values of current and voltage in a circuit.

Resistors are used to protect other components from being damaged by reducing
excessively high currents in the circuit. They are made in different values. The
higher the value, the greater the resistance.
An LED works at about 2 V. If it was connected directly to a 9 V battery, it would
burn out quickly. A resistor is to be connected in series with the LED to reduce the current
and protect the LED.

Resistance is measured in ohms (). The ohm is named after the German scientist, Georg Simon Ohm,
who was born in 1798.
Larger values of resistance are measured in kilohms (k) or megaohms (M).
1 k = 1000
1 M = 1,000,000
Letters are sometimes used instead of the symbol.

100 R = 100

4 k 7 = 4.7k

4M 7 = 4.7M

What is the function of a Resistor?

The main function of the resistor is to reduce the flow of electric current.

Example:

The LED will allow the exact voltage to appear across it and the brightness will
depend on the value of the resistor.

Introduction to Robotics

One of the most important things to remember about a LED is the

characteristic voltage that appears across it when connected to a voltage. This
does not change with brightness and cannot be altered. For a LED, this voltage
is 1.7v and if you supply it with more than this voltage, it will be
damaged. The easy solution is to place a resistor on one lead as shown in
the diagram below:

20

Electric Circuit
What's a circuit?
A circuit is a closed loop that electrons can travel in. A source of electricity such as a battery provides electrical energy in the
circuit. Unless the circuit is complete, that is, making a full circle back to the electrical source, no electrons will move.
A circuit has three parts: an energy source, a connection, and a load. The energy source gives the electricity its 'push' through a
circuit, for example, a battery or a generator. This push is called voltage and is similar to water pressure in a hose.

Types of circuits
A simple circuit
A simple circuit is just what it sounds like. A simple circuit! It must have an energy source such as a battery. It must be
connected through a wire or a similar substance that will conduct electricity. It must also have a load or device, something
that is going to be operated by the electricity. Once all these are connected, there is a simple circuit.
Try this:

Connect one end of the wire to the bottom of your battery. Connect the other end to the bottom of
your light bulb. Connect the other wire to the top of your battery and the other end to your light
bulb. Your circuit should now be complete and your bulb should be glowing.

If you take one of the wires of your battery you will notice that the light bulb no longer shines. This is
exactly what a light switch does when you flick it on or off. When it is on, it completes the circuit and
the light comes on. When you switch it off, the circuit is open, the flow of electricity stops and the
light goes off.

A series circuit
A series circuit is a circuit with only one possible path through which electricity can flow.
What happens if you add another bulb to your circuit?
As you add more bulbs, the brightness decreases. This is because the energy carried by
the electricity has to be shared between the bulbs. Since each bulb receives less
energy, it glows less brightly.
What happens if you add an extra battery to your circuit? The lamp becomes brighter.
By adding the extra battery, the extra energy allows more electricity to flow through
the bulbs. This extra energy makes the bulb shine brighter.

A parallel circuit is a circuit in which there are at least two independent paths in the circuit back
to the source. In a parallel circuit, the current will flow through the closed paths and not through
the open paths. In a parallel circuit the electricity has several paths that it can travel.

Introduction to Robotics

A parallel circuit

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Circuit Connections
Circuit Symbols and Circuit Diagrams
Electric circuits, whether simple or complex, can be described in a variety of ways. An electric circuit is commonly described
with mere words. Saying something like "A light bulb is connected to a D-cell" is a sufficient amount of words to describe a
simple circuit. Upon hearing (or reading) the words, a person grows accustomed to quickly picturing the circuit in their mind.
But another means of describing a circuit is to simply draw it. Such drawings provide a quicker mental picture of the actual
circuit.

Describing Circuits with Words

"A circuit contains a light bulb and a 1.5-Volt D-cell."
Describing Circuits with Drawings

A final means of describing an electric circuit is by use of conventional circuit symbols to provide a schematic diagram of the
circuit and its components. Some circuit symbols used in schematic diagrams are shown below.

1.

Three D-cells are placed in a battery pack to power a circuit containing three light bulbs.

2.

Three D-cells are placed in a battery pack to power a circuit containing three light bulbs.

Introduction to Robotics

Examples:

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The Solderless Breadboard

A breadboard is a rectangular plastic box filled with holes, which have contacts in which you can insert electronic
components and wires. A breadboard is what you use to string together a temporary version of your circuit. You don't
have to solder wires or anything else; instead, you poke your components and wires into the little contact holes
arranged in rows and connected by lines of metal; then you can connect your components together with wires to form
your circuit.

How to use a breadboard?

A breadboard also known as protoboard is a type of solderless electronic circuit building. You can build an
electronic circuit on a breadboard without any soldering! Best of all it is reusable. It was designed by Ronald
J Portugal of EI Instruments Inc. in 1971.

Example of Solderless breadboard Connections

LED

Connected to GND (microcontroller)

or terminal of a battery
Connected to Pin 13 of a

jumper
wire

Resistor

Introduction to Robotics

microcontroller) or + terminal of a
battery

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References:
http://mechatronics.poly.edu/smart/pdf/Intro2Robotics.pdf
http://www.robots.com/education
http://www.mfg.mtu.edu/cyberman/machtool/machtool/sensors/intro.html

Introduction to Robotics

http://www.elprocus.com/types-of-microcontrollers/

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