SRI VISHNU ENGINEERING COLLEGE FOR WOMEN

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
SUBJECT: THERMAL ENGINEERING II
FACULTY NAME: N. SRINIVASA RAO

UNIT-1
STEAM POWER PLANT
It is a combination of several components or devices whose objective is to convert heat energy of
fuel into mechanical work and then to obtain electric power.
To have heat energy, we need certain source of energy. This source of heat energy is called Fuel. Energy remains locked in the fuel. By burning the fuel, the chemical energy of fuel gets
converted into thermal or heat energy. This burning of fuel is known as - combustion. The place
where combustion of fuel takes place is called Boiler.
We can't convert heat energy directly into work. There must be a medium which takes up heat
energy released by combustion of fuel and acts on another device to produce mechanical work.
In steam power plant, steam that comes from water is used as working medium as water is
cheaply available in large quantity, safe and good conductor of heat.
Water absorbs heat from combustion of fuel, changes its phase and turns into steam. In that
process, it absorbs high amount of heat - latent heat of evaporation.
With continuous absorption of heat, steam changes its state - wet steam to dry saturated steam
and then to superheated steam and the pressure of steam increases.
After attaining required pressure, the high-pressure steam is allowed to flow through a passage
called nozzle over f ring of moving blades attached to a shaft. The unit which houses the shaft
with blades (number of blades mounted circumferentially over a shaft) is called -Turbine.
The high-pressure steam while flowing through the nozzle increases its kinetic energy and then
expands over the blades of turbine and in doing so, imparts rotary motion to the blades.
In this way, heat energy of fuel is converting into mechanical work.
Now, the low pressure, expanded steam from turbine goes to atmosphere. This exhaust steam
from turbine still contains enough heat and can be used for different purposes - for process work,
expansion in low-pressure turbines or for preheating feed water to the boiler.

To increase the work done from the turbine, a unit called condenser is placed after the turbine.
With the inclusion of condenser, steam in turbine can be expanded to a greater extent and we can
get more work from the turbine.
In condenser, the exhaust steam from condenser is cooled and then recirculated as feed water to
the boiler. These are the important components in a steam power plant. To increase the
efficiency of the plant and to have satisfactory running of the plant, other components are also
included in the plant.
The fig. 1.1 shows the phases of energy transformation that take place in a steam power plant.

FIGURE 1.1 : PHASES OF ENERGY TRANSFORMATION IN A STEAM POWER PLANT

LAYOUT OF A STEAM POWER PLANT
The purpose of a steam power plant is to generate electric power only or to generate steam for
industrial purpose besides generation of electric power. Steam is extensively used in industries
like Textile, Sugar, Paper, Refinery, and Chemical etc.
BOILER
It is a closed vessel inside which combustion of fuel takes place. Tubes are arranged in the walls
of the boiler through which water passes. The water by absorbing heat of combustion turns into
steam.
TURBINE
Steam from super heater passes through nozzles and enters into turbine. The high-pressure steam
now expands over the blades of the turbine rotor (shaft upon which the circumferential blades are
mounted). The pressure of steam drops down along with its enthalpy (total heat content). This
drop in heat energy (enthalpy) is converted into mechanical energy. As a result, the shaft of the
turbine rotates.
CONDENSER
This is located after the turbine so that steam after expansion in the turbine exhausts into the
condenser. The exhaust steam from the turbine enters the condenser and major portion of it gets
condensed. The condensed steam is called condensate and is recirculated as feed water to the
boiler. The steam that remains in the condenser is used to preheat the feed water to the boiler,
with the addition of a condenser, we can extract more work from the turbine.

FEED PUMP
It is a pump which takes up purified, preheated water and then forces into the boiler with
pressure. As boiler works at higher pressure, feed pumps are necessary to raise the pressure of
water for its entry to boiler.
VAPOUR POWER CYCLES
A common method of producing mechanical work is by transfer of heat from a heat reservoir
at a high temperature to a working fluid which undergoes through a thermodynamic cycle.
A heat engine cycle or thermodynamic cycle is a combination of thermodynamic processes
through which the working fluid passes in a certain sequence. The cycle begins with one set of
conditions (pressure, volume, temperature etc.), undergoes different changes in different
processes and while doing so, converts part of the heat energy into mechanical work and rejects
the remaining heat to a low temperature reservoir called - sink and finally comes back to original
state - attains initial conditions.
Any machine designed to carry out a thermodynamic cycle and converts heat energy into
mechanical work is called a - heat engine. The thermodynamic cycle upon which it operates is
known as - heat engine cycle or power cycle.
The power cycles may use vapour or gas as the working fluid. Cycle which use vapour as the
working substance are known as vapour power cycles. The most commonly used vapour is steam.
In thermodynamic cycles, the transfer of heat from high temperature reservoir (also called source) to working fluid and from working fluid to sink will be irreversible. But, the processes of
working fluid itself may be reversible. The process is internally reversible. The cycles composed
of reversible processes are called - ideal cycles.
In vapour power cycles, change of phase of working fluid takes place while in gas power cycles,
the working fluid remains in one phase throughout the cycle. In vapour power cycles, water is
universally used as a working fluid as it is easy to change its phase, ease of handling and its
chemical stability.
The vapour power cycle consists of a series of steady flow processes, each process carried out in
a separate component designed for that purpose. Each component in the cycle / plant constitutes
an open system and as the working fluid passes through each component, it passes through a
cycle of mechanical and thermodynamic states.
In the analysis of the cycles, all the processes are assumed to be reversible.
RANKINE CYCLE
A Rankine cycle is a basic cycle for a simple steam power plant. It is a theoretical cycle upon
which steam engine or steam turbine works. It is a modified form of Carnot cycle and an ideal
cycle for comparing the performance of steam power plants."

FIGURE 1.3 COMPONENTS IN A RANKINE CYCLE

The fig. 1.4 shows P-V, T-S and H-S diagrams of a Rankine cycle which uses steam as its
working fluid.

FIGURE 1.4: RANKINE CYCLE

Processes of Rankine Cycle:

Process a-a: The point 'a' represents water at initial pressure p1 and corresponding saturation
temperature T2. The water is pumped into the boiler by feed pump raising its pressure to boiler
pressure p1. The pumping process is isentropic compression. During this process, the
temperature rises slightly.
Process a' -b : As water enters the boiler, water is first heated upto evaporation temperature at
constant pressure px. The temperature increases to T1. Sensible heat is supplied during this
process.
Process b - c: Water evaporates completely at temperature T1 and constant pressure p1.During
this process, the heat supplied is latent heat of vaporization. The final condition (PointC) may be
wet, dry or super heated depending upon the quantity of heat supplied.
Process c - d: Steam expands isentropic ally in the turbine from P1, T1 to p2, T2 and does the
work.
Process d-a: The exhaust steam from the turbine at constant pressure p2 and temperature T2 is
condensed in a condenser where latent heat of steam is removed. The process is isothermal
compression.
At point a; the working fluid restores its original conditions - returns to its original state. Thus
the cycle gets completed. In a steam power plant, supply of heat and rejection of heat are more
easily performed at constant pressure than at constant temperature. In the operation of the cycle,
the work done in pumping feed water to the boiler is very small at low pressures and is usually
neglected. The fig. 1.5 shows the P-V and T-S diagrams for the Rankine cycle, neglecting
pumping work.
ASSUMPTIONS IN THE WORKING OF RANKINE CYCLE
The following assumptions are made in the working of Rankine cycle:
1. The same working fluid is repeatedly circulated in a closed circuit;
2. Heat is added in boiler only and rejected in condenser only. Except boiler and condenser, there
is no heat transfer between working fluid and surroundings.
3. There is no pressure drop in the piping system.
4. Expansion in the prime mover occurs without friction or heat transfer i.e., expansion is
isentropic in which case entropy of working fluid entering and leaving the prime mover is same.
5. The working fluid is not under cooled in the condenser i.e., the temperature of water leaving
the condenser is same as saturation temperature corresponding to the exhaust pressure.

EFFICIENCY OF RANKINE CYCLE

Refer the fig. 1.5 Let
H1 = Enthalpy of 1kg of steam at pressure p1 at entrance to the prime movers at c, c' or c".
H2 = Enthalpy of 1 kg of steam at pressure p2 as its leaves the prime mover at d, d or d.
h2 - Enthalpy of 1kg of water at pressure p2 as it enters the feed pump at a work done by the
prime mover

(H1 - H2) is known as isentropic enthalpy drop or Rankine heat drop.

VARIABLES AFFECTING EFFICIENCY OF RANKINE CYCLE
The important thermodynamic variables in a Rankine cycle are :
1. Steam pressure at inlet to turbine.
2. Steam temperature or degree of superheat at inlet to turbine.
3. Steam pressure at exhaust or condenser pressure. (Also called - Back pressure).
At higher pressure, heat rejection is less and so thermal efficiency increases. With increase in
maximum pressure average temperature of heat addition increases and so, thermal efficiency
increases. But, increase in maximum pressure increases the wetness of the vapour after
expansion which decreases the adiabatic efficiency of the prime mover and causes erosion of
blades.
By using superheated steam at the entrance to the turbine, the cycle efficiency increases. Also,
superheating reduces specific steam consumption as work done per unit mass of steam is greater.
For same condenser pressure, with superheated steam, dryness fraction at exhaust increases, or
for same value of dryness fraction, work done increases. To avoid erosion of blades by water
droplets, minimum dryness fraction at turbine exhaust should be 0.88.
The thermal efficiency of Rankine cycle can be greatly improved by reducing condenser
pressure. By reducing condenser pressure, a large amount of heat drop is available as work done.
But, by reducing back pressure, wetness of steam increases. So, it can be concluded that the
cycle efficiency increases with increase in maximum pressure (upto a certain limit in case of unsuperheated cycle), with increase in initial temperature and with decrease in back pressure.

METHODS OF INCREASING THERMAL EFFICIENCY

The thermal efficiency of Rankine cycle may be increased by :
1. Increasing the average temperature at which heat is added.
2. Decreasing the average temperature at which heat is rejected.
Based on these principles, methods of increasing thermal efficiency are :
(a) Increasing inlet pressure of steam to turbine.
(b) Using superheated steam to turbine.
(c) Reducing the condenser pressure.
(d) By reheating the steam.
(e) By regenerative feed heating.
REHEATING OF STEAM
It is mentioned that efficiency of ordinary Rankine cycle can be improved by increasing the
pressure of steam at inlet to the turbine. With increased pressure, the steam will expand to a
greater extent and becomes quite wet at the end of expansion. The wet steam contains suspended
water particles. These water particles are heavier than steam particles cause erosion of the blades
and increase internal losses. Ultimately, it will lead to reduction in blade efficiency of the
turbine.
In order to increase the life of the turbine blades, it is necessary to keep steam dry during
expansion. This is done by taking out steam from the turbine at a section where it becomes just
dry saturated and is reheated at constant pressure by flue gases until it is again superheated to
about the same temperature as on entry to the turbine. It is then taken to next stage of turbine
where further expansion takes place. This process is known as - Reheating. Generally, the
expansion is carried out in several' stages and steam is reheated between stages at suitable points.
The final dryness fraction should not be less than 0.88 in a steam turbine.
To certain extent, the process of reheating causes increase in work done. But, this increase in
work done is at the cost of additional heat supplied in reheating the steam and so, there will be no
appreciable change in efficiency.
The fig. 1.7 shows reheating of steam.

FIGURE 1.7: REHEATING OF STEAM

The main purpose of reheating is to avoid wet condition in the turbine thereby avoiding erosion
of blades and frictional losses both of which reduce nozzle and blade efficiency. Reheating is
generally employed when pressures are high (Above 100 bar), at one point. For still higher
pressures, reheating may be carried out twice. Reheating has become essential for supercritical
boilers.
The improvement in thermal efficiency due to reheating of steam is dependent to a large extent
upon the reheat pressure with respect to original pressure of steam.
The reheater may be incorporated in the walls of the boiler or it may be a separately fired super
heater or heated by high-pressure superheated steam.
Reheating should be done at proper pressure for economy. If steam is reheated early in its
expansion, additional quantity of heat supplied will be less and so, gain in thermal efficiency will
be less. If it is carried out late, though large amount of additional heat is supplied, much of it will
be discarded in the condenser.
Advantages of Reheating Steam :
Reheating of steam in a turbine has the following advantages :
1. It increases output of the turbine.
2. Erosion and corrosion problems are avoided.
3. The thermal efficiency increases.
4. Nozzle and blade efficiencies increase.

Disadvantages:
1. Maintenance is more.
2. Relative to cost of reheating, increase in thermal efficiency is not appreciable.
Efficiency of reheat cycle= work done/heat supplied
REGENERATIVE CYCLE
In this, dry saturated steam from boiler enters the turbine at a higher temperature Tl and then
expands to temperature T2- Now, the condensate from condenser is pumped back and circulated
around turbine casing in a direction opposite to that of expanding steam in the turbine.
The fig. 1.9 shows the ideal regenerative cycle.

Thus, the steam is heated before entering into the boiler, such a system of heating is known as regenerative heating as steam is used to heat the steam itself. At all points, the temperature
difference is infinitesimal between water and steam and so the process is reversible. Due to loss
of heat the expansion in the turbine is not isentropic but follows the path 1-2. The heat gained by
feed water during 3-4 (Area 34ba) is equal to heat gives by steam during 1-2 (Area ldc2). The
heat supplied from external source is equal to 4\db and heat rejected to external sink is equal to
2ca3 (= 2' db3). Areas of heat supplied and heat rejected have the same value as that of Carnot
cycle. So, the efficiency of this cycle is equal to that of Carnot cycle for same temperature limits.
Compared to Rankine cycle, the advantage in regenerative cycle is rejection of less amount of
heat in the condenser.

The ideal regenerative cycle can't be obtained because:

1. It is not practicable to design a turbine which acts as a heat exchanger as well as expansion
device. So, necessary heat transfer is not possible.
2. The dryness fraction of expanding steam will be very low. So, in actual practice, advantage of
principle of regeneration is taken by bleeding a part of steam at certain stages of expansion so
that the dryness fraction of remaining part is not greatly reduced. The resulting cycle is known as
- regenerative or bleeding cycle. The process of draining steam from turbine at certain locations
during its expansion and using this steam for heating feed water (in feed water heaters) supplied
to the boiler is called Bleeding and the process of heating is called - regenerative feed heating.
The corresponding steam is said to be bled.
The result of this process is to supply hot feed water to the boiler. This increases the efficiency of
the plant but there is a loss of small amount of work done by the turbine. This cycle is not an
ideal cycle as mixing in feed water heater is irreversible. By employing more number of heaters,
mixing becomes reversible and efficiency can be increased but correspondingly, cost also
increases.

REGENERATIVE CYCLE WITH SINGLE FEED WATER HEATER

Consider 1kg of steam (at pressure P1) enters the turbine at point A. During its expansion, at
some suitable location B (at pressure p2), m kg of steam is bled off from the turbine and taken to
a feed water heater. The remaining steam (1 - m) kg is expanded further in the turbine to
condenser pressure and leaves the turbine at C. The exhaust steam from turbine goes to a
condenser and after condensation to D; (1 - m) kg of water (condensate) is compressed in the
feed pump to the bleeding pressure p2. It is then mixed with m kg of bled steam in the feed water

heater and 1 kg of mixture leaves at E. This water is compressed by second feed pump to boiler
pressure p1.
Let H1 = enthalpy of steam entering the turbine.
H2 = enthalpy of bled steam.
H3 = enthalpy of steam leaving the turbine.
h2 = sensible heat of head water leaving the heater.
h3 = sensible heat of steam leaving the condenser.
m = amount of steam bled / kg of steam supplied.
We know that,
Heat lost by bled steam = Heat gained by feed water
:: m(H2-h2) = (1 -m) (h 2 -h 3 )

For 1 kg of steam at entrance to turbine

Work done in turbine during A - B = (H1 - H2)
Mass of steam between B - C = (1 - m) kg
Work done in turbine during B - C = (1 - m) (H2 - H3)
Total work done = (H1- H2) + (1 - m) (H2 - H3)
Total heat supplied per kg of feed water = (H1 - h2)
Efficiency of regenerative cycle=

If there is no regenerative feed heating, then efficiency of the cycle will be same as that of
Rankine cycle. The efficiency of regenerative cycle is greater than that of Rankine cycle and the
cycle efficiency is a maximum when the temperature of bled steam is approximately equal to
mean of boiler and condenser temperatures.
Advantages:
The main advantages of bleeding are :
1. It increases efficiency as heat of bled steam is not lost in the condenser but utilized in feed
water heating which increases the average temperature at which heat is added.
2. Due to bleeding, volume flow rate is reduced and due to this, dimensions of turbine blades can
be reduced. Also, the size of condenser can be reduced.
3. Due to higher temperature of feed water, thermal stresses in the boiler are minimized.
Disadvantages:
1. For given output higher capacity boiler is required.
2. With more heaters, maintenance is more and cost is also more.

UNIT-III
STEAM NOZZLES
In steam turbines, the overall transformation of heat energy of steam into mechanical work takes
place in two stages. The available energy of steam is first converted into kinetic energy and then
this kinetic energy is transformed into mechanical work. The first step is accomplished with
devices called steam nozzles.
A steam nozzle is a duct or passage of smoothly varying cross sectional area which converts heat
energy of steam into kinetic energy. The shape of nozzle is designed such that it will perform this
conversion of energy with minimum loss.
When steam flows through a nozzle, expansion of steam takes place. During this expansion, the
pressure of steam decreases and also the heat content (Enthalpy). With the expenditure of
enthalpy, the velocity and specific volume increase. Also, with the expansion of steam, there will
be condensation of steam with varying dryness fraction.
The mass of steam passing through any section of nozzle remains constant. So, the variation of
pressure and the cross section of nozzle depend upon the velocity, specific volume and dryness
fraction of steam. The velocity increases continuously from entrance to exit of the nozzle.
The cross section of the nozzles may be circular, rectangular, elliptical or square. The smallest
section in the nozzle is known as throat. The nozzles are used in steam and gas turbines, jet
engines, for propulsion of rocket motors, flow measurements, in injectors for pumping water, in
ejectors for removing air from condensers etc. The major function of nozzles is to produce a jet
of steam or gas with high velocity to drive steam or gas turbines. So, the nozzles are located just
before the steam or gas turbines. When the nozzles velocity gas is produced and there will be no
question of condensation and hence dryness fraction.
When the nozzles are used with steam turbines, they perform the following functions.
1. They convert part of heat energy of steam (obtained from boiler) into kinetic energy.
2. In case of impulse turbines (details of steam turbines are given in the chapter steam
turbines), the nozzles direct the jet of high velocity steam against the blades of rotor which then
convert the kinetic energy of steam into mechanical (shaft) work.
In case of reaction turbines, the nozzles discharge high velocity steam on to the rotor blades. The
reactive force of steam against the nozzle produces motion of rotor and work is obtained. When a
fluid is decelerated in a duct or passage (velocity decreases) causing a rise in pressure during the
travel along the stream, then the duct or passage is known as - Diffuser. Diffusers are extensively
used in centrifugal, axial flow compressors, ramjets and combustion chambers etc.,
We study about steam nozzles only - Nozzles in which the working fluid is steam.

TYPES OF STEAM NOZZLES

There are three important types of steam nozzles :
1. Convergent nozzie.
2. Divergent nozzle.
3. Convergent - divergent nozzle.

Types of Steam Nozzles

If the cross section of the nozzle decreases continuously from entrance to exit; then it is called
convergent nozzle.
If the cross section of a nozzle increases continuously from entrance to exit then it is called
Divergent nozzle.
If the cross section of a nozzle decreases first upto certain length and then increases up to exit;
then it is called - Convergent - Divergent nozzle. This is used mostly in various types of steam
turbines.
The three types of the nozzle are shown in fig.
FLOW OF STEAM THROUGH NOZZLES
In most of the cases, the steam enters the nozzle with low velocity compared to exit velocity, and
it is generally neglected. As already mentioned, the function of a nozzle is to convert internal
energy of steam into kinetic energy and this is done by expanding the steam from a high
pressurep1 to a low pressurep2.

The flow of steam through nozzles may be regarded as adiabatic expansion because in nozzles,
the velocity of steam is so high that there will be no time available for heat exchange with
surroundings and so heat is neither supplied nor rejected. However, work is performed by
increasing the kinetic energy of steam. Also, in a nozzle, the change of potential energy is
negligible and no work is done on or by the fluid.
The expansion of steam in a nozzle is not a free expansion and the steam is not throttled because
it has a very high velocity at the end of expansion and the pressure as well as enthalpy decrease
as expansion takes place. The pressure at which steam leaves the nozzle is known as Back
pressure.
In actual practice, always some friction is produced between steam and the walls of the nozzle;
this friction causes resistance for the flow of steam, which is converted into heat. This heat tends
to dry the steam. So, for the design of a nozzle, the effect of friction has to be considered.
There is a phenomenon known as - super saturation that occurs in the flow of steam through
nozzles. This is due to time lag in the condensation of steam during expansion. This super
saturated flow affects mass and condition of the steam discharged. So, the flow of steam through
a nozzle may be regarded as either :
1. Reversible adiabatic or isentropic flow.
2. Adiabatic flow modified by friction.
3. Super saturated flow.

Expansion of Steam
The point in the nozzle where area is minimum is called throat and the pressure at the throat is
called - critical pressure. At this section; the mass flow per unit area is maximum.
The velocity of fluid at the throat of a nozzle operating at its designed pressure ratio (when the
flow rate is maximum) is equal to velocity of sound, and it is called - Sonic velocity. The flow up
to throat is sub sonic and the flow after throat is supersonic (greater than velocity of sound).
In nozzles, accelerated flow takes place - the velocity increases and pressure decreases with the
flow of fluid. If the fluid velocity is less than the sound or sonic velocity, then the area of the
nozzle must decreases; i.e., the nozzle must converge which results in converging portion.
As we know, the velocity increases continuously in a nozzle from inlet to exit. After throat, the
fluid velocity becomes greater than sonic velocity and to accelerate flow; the area must increase
or the nozzle must diverge resulting in diverging portion of nozzle. The ratio of fluid velocity to
local sound velocity is known as - Mach number.

Convergent Divergent Nozzle

A convergent nozzle is used if exit pressure is equal to or more than the critical pressure and
convergent - divergent nozzle is used if exit pressure is less than the critical pressure.
As already mentioned, the velocity of steam at inlet to a nozzle is very small compared to exit
velocity. Low velocity implies large inlet area and most nozzles are shaped in such as way that
the inlet area is large and converges rapidly to throat area.
Note : A ventruimeter which is used for flow measurement of fluids is also convergent divergent
in shape. But, in it, there is no continuous rise or fall of pressure. So, it is neither a complete
nozzle nor a diffuser. In its convergent portion, the pressure is decreasing, velocity is rising and
this portion acts as a sub sonic nozzle. In the divergent portion, pressure is rising, velocity is
falling and this portion acts as subsonic diffuser. The pressure at throat may not necessarily
imply sonic velocity.
The ratio of critical pressure to initial pressure is called - critical pressure ratio (p2/p1)- At the
throat, the pressure is critical (velocity of fluid equals to sound velocity), area is minimum and
mass flow per unit area is maximum.
With liquids, convergent - divergent shape is never used because the sonic velocity in liquids is
very high (About 1500 m/sec compare to about 330 m/sec in air) which is out of the limit of
practical velocities used.
STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION
Consider steady flow of 1kg of steam through a nozzle.
Let
P1 and p2= Pressures at inlet and exit - bar.
V1 and V2 = Velocities at inlet and exit - m/sec
Vs1 and Vs2 = Specific volumes at inlet and exit - m3/kg
u1 and u2 = Internal energy at inlet and exit - KJ/kg
Z1 and Z2 = Elevation at inlet and exit - m
h1 and h2 = Enthalpy at inlet and exit - KJ/kg
q = Heat supplied if any - KJ/kg
w = Work done if any - KJ/kg
For a steady flow process (without any accumulation of the fluid between inlet and exit), by
the principle of conservation of energy;

Energy at entrance or inlet = Energy at exit.

Work done in forcing 1kg of steam into nozzle+ initial internal energy + initial kinetic energy
+ initial potential energy + heat supplied if any from the surroundings= work done in sending out
1 kg of steam from nozzle+ final internal energy + final kinetic energy + final potential energy +
work done if any to the surroundings.
P1V1+u1+V12/2+gz1+q=P2V2+u2+V22/2+gz2+w
P1 V1 + u1 = h1 = Enthalpy of stem at inlet
P2 V2 + u2 = h2 = Enthalpy of stem at exit
h 1+V12/2+ gz1 + q = h2 +V22/2 + gz2 + w

Generally, changes in potential energy are negligible.

z1 = z2
If no heat is supplied from surroundings; then q = 0. If no work is done to the surroundings, then
w = 0.

This is the steady flow energy equation of a nozzle. In this equation; the effect of friction is not
considered.
FLOW OF STEAM THROUGH A CONVERGENT - DIVERGENT NOZZLE

In the converging portion 1-2 (From inlet to throat), there is a drop in steam pressure with a rise
in its velocity. Also, there is a drop in the enthalpy of the steam. This drop of enthalpy is not
utilised in doing external work but converted into kinetic energy. In the divergent portion 2-3
(From throat to exit), there is further drop of steam pressure with a further rise in its velocity.

Again, there is a drop in the enthalpy which is converted into kinetic energy. Now, at the outlet,
steam leaves the nozzles with high velocity and low pressure.
EFFECT OF FRICTION IN A NOZZLE; NOZZLE EFFICIENCY
When steam flows through a nozzle, for a given pressure drop, the final velocity of steam gets
reduced because of the following losses :
1. The friction between steam and walls of nozzle.
2. Internal friction of steam itself.
3. Shock losses.
Most of the friction in a convergent divergent nozzle occurs in the divergent portion -between
throat and exit. Due to the effect of friction, the actual flow through a nozzle is not isentropic
but still approximately adiabatic. The effects of friction are :
1. The enthalpy drop is reduced and hence the final velocity.
2. The kinetic energy gets converted into heat due to friction and is absorbed by the steam.
Due to this, the final dryness fraction of steam increases.
3. Steam becomes more dry due to increased dryness fraction and hence specific volume of
steam increases and mass flow rate decreases.
The effect of friction is shown on the h-s diagram or Mother chart in fig.3.8.

FIGURE 3.8: EFFECT Of FRICTION IN A NOZZLE

Point A represents the initial condition of steam which enters the nozzle in a dry saturated state.
If the effect of friction is neglected, the expansion of steam from entrance to throat is represented
by A-B and that from throat to exit by B-C. The whole expansion from A to C is isentropic. The
heat drop (hA - hc) is known as - Isentropic heat drop or Rankine heat drop.
In actual practice, the expansion process is modified by friction. Let point B' represent the final
condition of steam. Now, AB' represents the actual expansion - Adiabatic expansion.
Dryness fraction at B' is more than at C. So, the effect of friction is to improve the quality of the
steam.
The heat drop (hA - hB ') is the actual enthalpy drop during the expansion of steam when effect
of friction is considered and is known as - useful heat drop. The useful heat drop is less than the
isentropic heat drop.
If the steam enters the nozzle in a super heated condition, then during expansion, the friction
tends to super heat the steam.

The ratio of actual or useful heat drop to isentropic heat drop is known as - Coefficient of
nozzle or nozzle efficiency. K.
nozzle = K = Nozzle efficiency

The efficiency of a nozzle generally varies from 0.85 to 0.95. The efficiency of a nozzle depends
upon the following factors :
1. Material of the nozzle.
2. Size and shape of the nozzle.
3. Finish of the nozzle.
4. Angle of divergence.
5. Nature of the fluid and its state,
6. Friction.
7. Fluid velocity.
8. Turbulence in the flow passages.
VELOCITY COEFFICIENT
In the problems of nozzles, sometimes, the term velocity coefficient is used for accounting the
effects of friction.
Velocity coefficient is defined as the ratio of actual exit velocity to exit velocity when the flow is
isentropic for the same pressure drop.

Velocity coefficient=

The velocity coefficient depends upon the dimensions of the nozzle, roughness of the nozzle
walls, velocity of flow, friction etc.
VELOCITY OF STEAM
Steam enters the nozzle with high pressure and low velocity and leaves the nozzle with high
velocity and low pressure. The initial velocity compared to exit velocity is so small and is
generally neglected. Let
V1 = Velocity of steam at entrance of nozzle - m/sec.
V2 = Velocity of steam at any section - m/sec
h1 = Enthalpy of entering steam - J/kg
h2 = Enthalpy of steam at the section considered - J/kg
For unit mass flow of steam, we have the steady flow energy equation :

The gain in kinetic energy between any two sections is equal to loss of enthalpy. Enthalpy
drop hd = (hl - h2)

Neglecting the velocity of entering steam or velocity of approach;

V22= 2 hd =2000 hdJ/kg

In actual practice, always certain amount of friction exits between steam and the surfaces of the
nozzle. This reduces the enthalpy drop by 10-15 percent and hence the exit velocity of steam is
also reduced correspondingly.

K = Nozzle efficiency or coefficient of nozzle.

MASS OF STEAM DISCHARGED THROUGH A NOZZLE
The steam flowing through a nozzle approximately follows the equation pVn = constant.
Where n = 1.135 for saturated steam
= 1.300 for superheated steam.
Let p1 = Initial pressure of steam - N/m2
v1 = Initial volume of 1 kg of steam - m3
p2 = Pressure of steam at throat - N/m2
v2 - Volume of steam at pressure p2 - m3/kg
A = Cross sectional area of nozzle - m2
V2 = Velocity of leaving steam - m/sec.
Work done during Rankine cycle (Rankine area)
= Drop in enthalpy

Gain in kinetic energy =V22 (Neglecting initial velocity )

Gain in kinetic energy is equal to enthalpy drop.

Volume of steam flowing / sec.

= Cross sectional area of nozzle x velocity.
= A.V2
Then, mass of steam discharged through the nozzle per second

This equation gives mass of steam in kgs/sec flowing through a nozzle for a pressure drop
from p1to p2.
CRITICAL PRESSURE RATIO
From equation (4); the rate of mass flow of steam per unit are is given by :

The mass flow per unit are has maximum value at 'throat' which has minimum area. The value of
pressure ratio (p2/p1) at throat can be calculated from equation (5) corresponding to maximum
value of m/A. Except the ratio (p2/p1), all other terms in this equation are constant. So, m/A will
be maximum when

is maximum.
Differentiating the above expression with respect to (p2/p1) and equating to zero for a maximum
discharge per unit area.

The ratio (p2/p1) is known as - Critical pressure ratio and its value depends upon the value of
index n. The pressure at throat is known as - Critical pressure and the ratio of pressure at
minimum cross section i.e., throat (p2) to initial pressure - pressure at entrance (p1) is known as
critical pressure ratio. The area of throat of all steam nozzles should be designed on this ratio.
CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM DISCHARGE AND MAXIMUM DISCHARGE
Normally, a nozzle is designed for maximum discharge by designing a certain throat pressure
(p2) which produces this condition. For only one value of pressure ratio (p2/p1) the discharge
will be maximum. That ratio is Critical pressure ratio - Ratio of throat pressure to inlet pressure
(p2/p1) For maximum discharge;

This condition should be met to obtain maximum discharge from a nozzle. This equation gives
pressure ratio for a maximum discharge per unit area through the nozzle.
When this condition is met and the discharge is maximum, then the flow through the nozzle is
called choking flow. Nozzles are always designed for choked flow.
We know that mass of steam discharged through a nozzle.

.
By substituting the value of critical pressure ratio in the above equation; we obtain maximum
value of discharge / sec.

So, in a nozzle, the maximum mass flow depends only on initial conditions of steam (p1, v1) and
the throat area and is independent of the exit conditions of steam. The mass flow being constant
at all sections of the nozzle, maximum discharge per unit area occurs at throat which has
minimum area. In a convergent - divergent nozzle, the discharge remains constant after throat.
The divergent portion doesn't affect the discharge of steam, passing through the nozzle but it
only accelerates the steam leaving the nozzle. When the initial pressure p1 is constant, the
discharge through the nozzle increases as the pressure p2 at throat decreases during the
expansion process. Once the throat pressure p2 reaches the value given by equation (6); the
discharge reaches a maximum value and it remains constant after throat.
SUPER SATURATED OR META STABLE FLOW
When a super heated vapour expands adiabatically or isentropically, the vapour begins to
condense when saturated vapour line is reached. As expansion continues below this line into wet
region, condensation proceeds gradually and steam becomes more and more wet. There is always
a stable mixture of steam and condensate (liquid) at any point during expansion. This type of
expansion is in thermal equilibrium and is shown in Fig. 3.13 on T-S and H-S diagrams.

The point S in expansion lies on saturation line and represents the point at which condensation
within the vapour just begins. The condensation of steam occurs when steam passes through
certain distance in the nozzle and after certain short interval of time.
When steam flows through the nozzle, the discharge of steam through the nozzle will be slightly
less than the theoretical discharge due to the effect of friction. But, during the flow of wet steam
through the nozzle, the measured discharge is slightly greater than the theoretical discharge even
though we consider the effect of friction.
Normally, condensation starts around tiny dust particles which are always present in commercial
steam plants in sufficient quantity. When steam is free of foreign particles, condensation process
is delayed and the temperature of the steam continues to fall. This is known as - super saturation.
When certain degree of super saturation is reached, the presence of dust particles has no effect on
condensation and equilibrium between vapours and liquid phases is attained completely and also
instantaneously.
In normal condensation, the random kinetic energy of the molecules fall to a level which is
insufficient to overcome the attractive forces of the molecules and some of the slower moving
molecules join together to form tiny droplets of water. A certain time interval is essential for
the collection of these molecules to form droplets.
In actual practice, the velocity of steam in sonic or even super sonic and the convergent portion
of the nozzle is so short the molecules of steam find no sufficient time to collect and form
droplets and steam doesn't condense at the saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure
but continues to expand with fall in temperature but without condensation. As a result,
equilibiurm between liquid and vapour phases is delayed. The expansion takes place very rapidly
and condensation can't keep pace with expansion and lags behind. Due to this, the steam remains
in an unnatural dry or super heated state.
The steam in such conditions is said to be 'super - saturated' or ' meta - stable'. It is also called Super cooled steam and its temperature at any pressure is less than the saturation temperature;
corresponding to that pressure. The flow of super saturated steam through the nozzle is called super saturated or meta stable or non - equilibrium flow. Super saturation means that steam
doesn't condense at the saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure as it occurs in case
of equilibrium pressure as it occurs in case of equilibrium flow.
In the state of 'super saturation', the steam is under cooled to a temperature less than that
corresponding to its pressure; hence, the density of steam increases and hence the measured
discharge increases than the calculated theoretical discharge. Experiments showed that in the
absence of dust; dry saturated steam when suddenly expanded, doesn't condense until its density
is about 8 times that of saturated vapour of the same pressure.
The reasons for super saturated flow are :
1. The flow of steam is so rapid that it doesn't allow time for transfer of heat. It may take
about 0.001 second only for steam to travel from inlet to exit of nozzle.
2. There may not be any dust particles which generally form nucleus for condensation. At a
certain instant, the supersaturated steam condenses suddenly to its natural state.
Thus, flow of steam through a nozzle may be regarded as either ideal adiabatic or adiabatic
flow modified by friction and super saturation.

Super Saturated Flow

Point A' represents the position of initial super heated steam at entrance pressure p1. The line
A' - A represents isentropic expansion of steam in thermal equilibrium upto saturation line. Line
AC represents isentropic expansion of steam in super saturated region. Upto the point at which
condensation occurs, the state of steam is not of stable equilibrium not unstable equilibrium
either, since a small disturbance will cause condensation to commence. So, steam in this
condition is said to be in meta stable state. Point C represents the meta stable state. It is obtained
by drawing a vertical line from points to Wilson line. At C; the steam condenses suddenly. Line
CD represents condensation of steam at constant enthalpy. Point D is obtained by drawing a
horizontal line through C to meet throat pressure p2 of the nozzle. Line DF represents isentropic
expansion of steam in the divergent portion in thermal equilibrium.
During the partial condensation of steam DF, sufficient amount of heat is released which raises
the temperature back to saturation temperature.
EFFECTS OF SUPER SATURATION
The following are the important effects that occur during super saturated flow of steam in a nozzle.
1. As the condensation doesn't take place during super saturated expansion, the temperature at which
super saturation occurs will be less than the super saturation temperature corresponding to the
pressure. So, the density of super saturated steam will be more than that for equilibrium conditions.
(Generally 8 times that of ordinary saturated vapour at the corresponding pressure). Which gives
increase in the mass of steam discharged.
2. Due to super saturation, the entropy and specific volume increase.
3. Super saturation increases slightly the dryness fraction.
4. For some pressure limits, super saturation reduces enthalpy drop slightly. As velocity is
proportional to square root of enthalpy drop; exit velocity is also reduced slightly.
When meta stable conditions exist in the nozzle; Mollier chart (H-S chart) should not be used
and the expansion must be considered to follow the law pv1.3 = C i.e., with index of
expansion for super heated steam. The problems on super saturated flow can't be solved by
Mollier chart unless Wilson line is drawn on it.

WILSON LINE
Generally, there is a limit upto which super saturated flow is possible. This limit of super saturation
is represented by a curve known as - Wilson line, on the Mollier diagram. Above
this curve, steam is super saturated and super heated. Beyond Wilson line, there is no super
saturation. At Wilson line condensation occurs suddenly and irreversibly at constant enthalpy and
then remains in stable condition. The result is to reduce heat drop slightly during expansion
causing corresponding reduction in exit velocity and final dryness fraction increases slightly.
The limiting condition of under cooling at which condensation begins and restores the
conditions of thermal equilibrium is called Wilson line.
Generally, Wilson line closely follows 0.96 dryness fraction line.
In nozzles, this limit may be within the nozzle or after the vapour leaves the nozzle.
DEGREE OF UNDER COOLING
It is the difference between super saturated steam temperature and saturation temperature at that
pressure.
The temperature T2 ' is less than the normal temperature of steam at pressure p2. The state C is known
as - Under cooled as the temperature of steam is lesser than the saturation temperature at pressure p2'.
The amount of under cooling (Difference in temperatures) is known as - Degree of under cooling.
Degree of under cooling = T2 T2 '
There is a limit to the degree of under cooling possible and the limit to which the super saturated
flow is possible is given by - Wilson line. The region between the Wilson line and the dry saturated
line is called - Super saturated zone.
When Wilson line is reached, condensation begins at constant enthalpy and pressure remains
unaltered.
DEGREE OF SUPER SATURATION
The ratio of pressures corresponding to temperature of super saturated steam and saturation
temperature is known as - Degree of super saturation.

UNIT-IV
STEAM TURBINES
A steam turbine is a key unit in a steam power plant from which we get power. A steam turbine
is a turbo-machine and a prime mover in which potential energy of steam is transformed into
kinetic energy and this kinetic energy is then transformed into mechanical energy of rotation of
shaft of turbine.
In reciprocating steam engines, the pressure energy of steam is utilised and dynamic action of
Steam is negligible. In steam engines, steam acts on piston as a load or weight and so, the action
of steam is - static. Steam engines may be operated without any expansion or drop of pressure in
the cylinder. The expansive property of steam is not utilised to fullest extent even in the best
types of multi expansion steam engines.
Steam turbines can't be operated as that of steam engines. The turbine depends wholly upon the
dynamic action of steam. The turbine utilises the kinetic or velocity energy of steam instead of
pressure energy only. The expansive property of steam is almost utilised in the turbine either in
admission nozzles or in the turbine blading.
The steam is caused to fall in pressure in a nozzle during admission to the turbine, due to this fall
in pressure; certain amount of heat energy is converted into kinetic energy. A steam turbine
consists of a number of curved blades fixed uniformly on the rim of a wheel which is fastened to
a shaft and we obtain power from this shaft.
The high velocity steam from nozzles impinges on the blades of turbine, suffers a change in the
direction of motion and thus gives rise to change in momentum and so a force. This constitutes
the driving force of the turbine. The blades obtain no motive force from the static pressure of
steam or from any impact of steam jet because blades are designed and curved in such a ways
that steam enters the blades without any shock and will glide ON and OFF the blades.
According to Newton's second law of motion, the force is proportional to rate of change of
momentum (Mass x velocity). If the rate of change of momentum is caused by allowing a high
velocity steam jet to pass over a curved blade, then, steam will impart a force to the blade. If the
blade is free, then it will move (rotate) in the direction of force.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
1. A nozzle in which heat energy of high pressure steam is converted into kinetic energy so that
steam issues from the nozzle with very high velocity.
2. Blades which change the direction of steam issuing from the nozzle so that a force acts on
blades due to change of momentum and rotates them.
So, the basic principle of operation a steam turbine is generation of high velocity steam jet by
expansion of high pressure steam in a nozzle and motive power in the turbine is obtained by
change in momentum of the high velocity steam jet by allowing it to impinge on curved blades.
Steam turbines are steady flow machines, have large exhaust outlets (for discharging used steam)
and the speed of flow is very high. So, they can handle large volume of steam and produce
higher power and the processes are assumed to be adiabatic. Steam turbines are capable of
expanding steam to the lowest exhaust pressure obtainable in the condenser. The turbine is a
constant high speed machine and really must be operated condensing in order to take full
advantage of greater range of steam expansion.
Steam turbines are mainly used for electric power generation and for large marine propulsion.
These are also used for direct drives of fans, compressors, pumps etc.
When properly designed and constructed, a steam turbine is the most durable prime-mover.
TYPES OF STEAM TURBINES
Steam turbines may be classified in many ways. Considering the action of steam which is most
important factor, steam turbines are mainly classified as :
1. Impulse turbines.
2. Impulse reaction turbines (In practice known as - reaction turbines).
If the flow of steam through the nozzles and moving blades of a turbine takes place in such a
way that steam is expanded and entire pressure drop takes place in nozzles only and pressure at
the outside of blades is equal to inside of blades, then such a turbine is known as impulse

turbine. In these turbines, the pressure drop takes place in nozzles only and not in moving blades.
This is obtained by making the blade passage of constant cross sectional area.
In impulse reaction turbines, the pressure drop takes place in nozzles as well as moving blades.
The drop of pressure of steam while flowing through the moving blades results in the generation
of kinetic energy within the moving blades giving rise to reaction and adds to the driving force
which is then transmitted through the rotor to the turbine shaft. This turbine works on the
principles of both impulse and reaction. This is achieved by making the blade passage of varying
cross sectional area.
IMPULSE TURBINE
The turbines in which complete process of expansion of steam takes place in stationary nozzles
and the kinetic energy is converted into mechanical work on the turbine blades are known as Impulse turbines.
In impulse turbines, the entire pressure drop takes place in nozzles only. The pressure drops from
steam chest pressure to condenser or exhaust pressure. The pressure in the blade passages
remains approximately constant and is equal to condenser pressure.
An impulse turbine for its operation, depends wholly on the impulsive force of high velocity
steam jets, which are obtained by expansion of steam in nozzles. The action of steam jet
impinging on the blades is said to be impulse and the rotation of rotor is due to impulsive forces
of steam jets.
Generally, converging - diverging nozzles are used. Due to relatively large expansion ratio,
steam leaves the nozzles at a very high velocity (Even supersonic). The steam at high velocity
impinges over blades, both pressure and enthalpy remain constant, work transfer takes place,
velocity reduces gradually and steam comes out with appreciable velocity . The nozzle angle is
inclined at a fixed angle to tangent of rotor wheel.
Mostly, impulse turbines are axial flow turbines and they have zero degree of reaction (discussed
later). The entire pressure drop takes place in nozzles resulting in enthalpy drop. The energy
transfer is derived from a change of absolute velocity.
Impulse turbines are generally employed where relatively small amounts of power are required
and where rotor diameter is fairly small.

ARRANGEMENT OF A SIMPLE IMPULSE TURBINE.

DE-LAVEL TURBINE
A De-lavel turbine named after Swedish Engineer De-lavel is the simplest impulse turbine and is
commonly used.

RUNNER AND BUCKET OF DE-LAVEL TURBINE

The essential parts of an impulse turbine are - nozzles, blades and casing.
In nozzles, the expansive property of steam is utilised to produce jets of steam with very high
velocity. The nozzle guides the steam to flow in the designed direction. It also regulates the flow
of steam. It is kept very close to turbine blades to minimise wind age losses.

The runner or rotor consists of a circular disc mounted on a shaft. On the periphery of the runner,
a number of buckets or curved blades are fixed uniformly.
The surface of the blades is made very smooth to minimise losses due to friction. Mostly, the
blades are bolted to the disc. Sometimes, the blades and disc are cast as a single unit. The
function of blades is to change the direction of steam jet and hence momentum of the jet and so
to produce a force which will rotate the blades.
The casing is air tight metallic case which houses the rotor and blades. It controls the flow of
steam from blades to condenser and to safeguard the runner against any accident.
A De-lavel turbine consists of a single impulse wheel on which steam jets impinge from several
nozzles arranged around the circumference. The blades are made symmetrical with angles of
about 30 at inlet and exit. It has spherical bearings. It uses helical gears to reduce high rotational
speed to a practical value.
PRESSURE AND VELOCITY VARIATION IN IMPULSE TURBINE
The fig. shows the variation of pressure and velocity of steam in a simple impulse turbine while
it flows through nozzles and blades.

VARIATION OF PRESSURE AND VELOCITY IN A SIMPLE IMPULSE TURBINE

The entire pressure drop takes place in nozzles and the pressure remains constant while passing
through the blades.
As enthalpy drop takes place in nozzles the heat energy is converted into kinetic energy and so
velocity of steam increases in the nozzle and is reduced gradually while flowing through the
blades.

For economy and for maximum work; the speed of the blade should be one half of the velocity of
steam. The small rotor employed in simple impulse turbine gives very high rotational speed
about 30,000 RPM as most of the kinetic energy is absorbed by one set of moving blades only.
Such high speeds can be used to drive the machines or generators with large reduction gearing
arrangement.
From the velocity graph; it is clear that the velocity of steam leaving the blades consists of a
large portion of velocity of steam leaving the nozzle. This results in loss of energy and this loss
of energy due to higher exit velocity is called - carry over loss or leaving energy loss.
VELOCITY DIAGRAM FOR AN IMPULSE TURBINE
We should be able to estimate the propelling force that would be applied to a turbine rotor under
any given set of conditions. With this, we can estimate the work done and hence the power.
Since force is due to change of momentum mainly caused by change in the direction of flow of
steam, it is essential to draw velocity diagram that shows how velocity of steam varies during its
passage through the blades.
Velocity is a vector quantity as it has both magnitude and direction. So, we can represent
velocity by a straight line and the length of the straight line indicates its magnitude and its
direction is indicated by the direction of the line with reference to some fixed direction.

VELOCITY DIAGRAMS FOR AN IMPULSE TURBINE

The steam jet after leaving the nozzle, impinges on one end the blade, glides over the inside
surface of the blade and finally leaves from the other edge.

Let Vb = Linear velocity of moving blade.

V1 = Absolute velocity of steam at inlet to moving blade i.e., exit velocity of nozzle.
Vw1 = Tangential component of entering steam. Vw1 Also known as velocity of
whirl at entrance.
Vr1 = Relative velocity of steam with respect to tip of blade at inlet. It is the
vectorial difference between Vb and V1
Vf1=Velocity of flow = Axial velocity at entrance to moving blades. It is the
vertical component of V1
1= Angle of nozzle = Angle which the entering steam makes with the moving blade at
entrance - with the tangent of the wheel at entrance.
1 = Angle which the relative velocity makes with the tangent of the wheel
direction of motion of blade. It is also known as blade angle at inlet.
The above notations stand for inlet triangle.
V2, Vw2, Vf2, Vr2, 2, 2 are the corresponding values at the exit of the moving blades. They
stand for outlet triangle.
The steam jet with absolute velocity V1 impinges on the blade at an angle of a1 to the tangent of
the blade. The absolute velocity V2 can be considered as having two components. The tangential
component called whirl component Vw1 = V1cos1 is parallel to direction of rotation of blades
and axial or flow component Vf1 = V sin 1 is perpendicular to the direction of rotation of
blades.
The tangential component of the steam jet does work on the blade because it is in the same
direction as the motion of the blade. The axial component doesn't work on the blades because it
is perpendicular to the direction of motion of blade. It is responsible for the flow of steam
through the turbine. Change of velocity in this component causes an axial thrust on the rotor.
As the blade moves with a tangential velocity in peripheral direction, the entering steam jet will
have relative velocity to the blades. If there is no friction loss at the blade, relative velocity at
inlet is equal to relative velocity at outlet i.e., Vr1= Vr2.
As the steam glides over the blades without shock, the surface of the blade at inlet must be
parallel to relative velocity Vr1. So, the moving blade at inlet must be inclined to the tangent of
the blade at an angle 1. In other words, to avoid shock at entrance, vector Vr1 must be
tangential to the blade tip at entry i.e, 1 must be equal to angle of blade at entrance. The blade is
designed on this principle.
From the above analysis, following points are to be noted.
1. No expansion of steam takes place in the moving blades. The blades only deflect steam.
This causes change in momentum and consequently force.
2. If the steam has to enter and leave the blades without shock, angle 1, should be angle of
blade at inlet and angle 2 should be angle of blade at outlet. This is an essential condition.
3. Since there is no pressure drop in the moving blades, the pressure on the two sides of the
blades is equal.

4. 1is the outlet angle of nozzle. If steam has to enter the next nozzle ring without shock, its
inlet angle must be equal to 2.
5. In a simple impulse turbine, the loss at exit is the whirl component at outlet - V2 cos 2. For
minimum loss, this quantity should be minimum, i.e., 2 should be equal to 90. In that case the
turbine discharges axially and it is called axial turbine.
COMBINED VELOCITY DIAGRAM
To solve problems on turbines conveniently, it is common practice to combine both the inlet and
outlet velocity diagrams on a common base which represents the blade velocity.

COMBINED VELOCITY DIAGRAM FOR AN IMPULSE TURBINE

Construction of combined velocity diagram :
1. First, draw a horizontal line and cut off AB equal to velocity of blade to some suitable scale.
2. From 5, draw a line BC at an angle a1, with AB. Cut off BC equal to V1 to scale.
3. Join AC. It represents Vrl.
4. From A; draw a line AD at an angle 2 with AB. With A as centre and radius equal to AC,
draw an arc that meets the line through A at D such that AC = AD. Or Vr1 = Vr2.
5. Join BD. It represents absolute velocity at exit to scale.
6. From C and D draw perpendiculars to meet the line AB produced at E and F.
7. Now; to scale,
EB = velocity of whirl at entrance.
BF = velocity of whirl at exit.
CE = velocity of flow at inlet.
DF = velocity of flow at outlet.
When friction is neglected, there will be no fall in steam pressure as it flows over the blades
and Vr1 = Vr2.
Also, when friction is absent,
1 = 2 and Vf1 = Vf2

FORCES ON BLADE AND WORK DONE BY BLADE

The work done may be found out from the change of momentum of steam jet during its flow
over the blades. As mentioned earlier, velocity of whirl is responsible for work on the blade.
1. Force on Rotor:
According to Newton's second law of motion,
Tangential force on rotor = mass x tangential acceleration.

m = Mass rate of steam flow - kgs/sec.

Actually, Vw2 is negative as the steam is discharged in opposite direction to blade motion. So,
Vw1 ,and Vw2 are added together. Generally,

Positive sign is to be used when Vw2 and Vb are in opposite direction as shown above and
negative sign is to be used when Vw2 and Vb are in same direction.
2. Work done as Blade:
Work done = force x distance
= Tangential force x distance moved in unit time in the direction of force.

3. Power Developed by the Turbine:

Power = Rate of doing work

(1 watt= 1 N-m/sec)
This power is known as Rim power or diagram power to distinguish it from shaft power.

4. Axial Thrust on Rotor:

Axial force Fa= Mass x Axial acceleration
= Mass x change in velocity of flow.

This axial force must be balanced or must be taken by a thrust bearing.

EFFICIENCIES
The following efficiencies are common to both impulse and reaction turbines :
1. Blading or diagram efficiency.
2. Gross or stage efficiency.
3. Nozzle efficiency.
1. Blading or Diagram Efficiency :
It is defined as the ratio of work done on blades to energy supplied to blades.
Let V1 = Absolute velocity of steam at inlet m/sec
m = Mass of steam supplied kgs/sec.
Energy of steam supplied to blade = 1/2*m*V12
Work done on blade = m . (Vw1 Vw2) . Vb J/sec
Diagram or blading efficiency

This is called diagram efficiency because the quantities involved in it are obtained from velocity
diagram
2. Gross or Stage Efficiency:
A stage consists of a set of nozzles and a row of moving blades and so, stage efficiency includes
the performance of nozzles also.
Stage efficiency is defined as the ratio of work done on blades per kg of steam to total energy
supplied per stage per kg of steam. If h1 and h2 represent before and after expansion of steam
through the nozzles, then the enthalpy drop (h1- h2) is the enthalpy drop through a stage, i.e., the
heat energy (h1 - h2) is the energy supplied per stage per kg of steam.

3. Nozzle Efficiency:
It is defined as the ratio of energy supplied to blades per kg of steam to total energy supplied per
stage per kg of steam.
Energy supplied to blades per kg of steam = *m*V12
Total energy supplied per stage per kg of steam = (h1-h2)

Stage efficiency = blade efficiency x nozzle efficiency.

Energy converted to heat by blade friction= Loss of kinetic energy during flow over the blades

EFFECT OF BLADE FRICTION

In an impulse turbine, the relative velocity remains same as steam passes over the blades if
friction is neglected. In actual practice, the flow of steam the blades is resisted by friction. The
effect of this friction is to reduce the relative velocity of steam while passing over the bladesGenerally, there is a loss of 10-15% in relative velocity. Owing to friction in blades. Vr2 is less
than Vr1 and we may write

The ratio of Vr2 to Vr1 is called blade velocity coefficient or coefficient of velocity friction
factor K. The effect of blade friction is to reduce relative velocity at outlet and consequently
Vw2 This in turn will cause reduction in work done and blade efficiency. Depending upon the
shape of the blades, value of K varies from 0.75 to 0.85.
CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY OF AN IMPULSE TURBINE
We know that blade efficiency of an impulse turbine is

:.
The blading efficiency will be maximum when V1 is minimum. From combined velocity
diagram, we can observe that, value of V1, will be minimum when 2=90. So, for maximum
efficiency, the steam should leave the turbine blades at right angles to their motion.
Also, for maximum efficiency, Vw2=0

COMBINED VELOCITY DIAGRAM FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY

Neglecting blade friction, Vr1= Vr2

= 0.5 V1 cos 1

=cos2 1
When we consider friction;

Here, we introduce another term blade speed ratio or blade velocity ratio which is defined as
the ratio of speed of blade to absolute velocity at inlet.

This is a very important factor in the design of turbines and efficiency of a turbine depends
largely on the value of
Optimum Value of Blade Speed Ratio :.

In terms of blade efficiency

For maximum blade efficiency.

For maximum blade efficiency,

2(1 + KCT) (cos 1 -2) =0
cos 1 -2 =0

Maximum work done : Wmax = 2 . Vb2

For maximum work developed per kg of steam or for maximum efficiency, the blade velocity
should be approximately half of absolute velocity of steam jet coming out from nozzle.
COMPOUNDING OF IMPULSE TURBINES
We already know that, in impulse turbines, the entire pressure drop takes place in nozzles only.
If the entire pressure drop from boiler pressure to condenser pressure (say 125 bar to 1 bar) is
carried out "in one stage (one set of nozzles) only, then, the velocity of the steam will be
extremely high. It will make the turbine rotor to run at very high speeds (upto 30.000 RPM). In
practice, such a high speed of a turbine is of no use and will have number of disadvantages. The
leaving loss also becomes high. It is usually necessary to reduce the speed by gearing which will
be of undue proportions.
So, it is essential to make improvement in the impulse turbine to make it more efficient, practical
- to reduce the high speed of the rotor to practical limits. This is achieved by making use of more
than one set of nozzles, blades and rotors in series keyed to a common shaft so that either
pressure of steam or its velocity is absorbed in stages and in doing so, the speed gets reduced.
This also reduces leaving loss. This process of absorbing pressure or velocity of steam in stages
to reduce the speed of the turbine rotor is called - compounding.
There are three important methods of compounding:
1. Pressure compounding.
2. Velocity compounding.
3. Pressure - velocity compounding.
1. Pressure Compounding:
In this, the whole expansion of steam is carried out in a number of steps by employing a number
of simple impulse turbines in series on same shaft as shown in fig
We can arrange a number of simple impulse turbines in series on same shaft allowing exhaust
steam from one turbine to enter the nozzles of next turbine. Then, each of the simple impulse
turbine is termed as - stage of the turbine, each stage containing a set of nozzles and blades.

This is equivalent to splitting the whole pressure drop into a series of smaller pressure drops and
so it is called - pressure compounding. The total pressure drop of steam doesn't take place in the
first set of nozzles but divided equally among all nozzle sets and the pressure remains constant
while flowing over the moving blades.

The nozzles are usually fitted into partitions termed as diaphragms which separate one wheel
chamber from the next.
The steam from boiler pressure is passed through the first set of nozzles ( A number of nozzles
are arranged around the circumference of the wheel. All nozzles for one wheel constitute one set
of nozzles); where only a small pressure drop occurs with an increase in velocity of steam. While
flowing over the first set of moving blades, pressure remains constant but velocity decreases.
This constitutes one stage. A stage consists of a set of fixed nozzles and a set of moving blades.
A stage itself is a simple impulse turbine.
The steam from first set of moving blades enters the second stage - into second set of nozzles
where its pressure is further reduced. Consequently, the velocity increase again. Now, the steam
enters the second set of moving blades in which pressure remains constant but velocity

decreases. This process is repeated in the remaining stages also until condenser pressure is
reached.
As pressure drop per stage is reduced, the velocity of steam is reduced which in turn reduces the
blade or rotor velocity. The speed of the turbine can be reduced further by increasing number of
stages. The leaving velocity of the last stage of the turbine is much less compared to simple
impulse or De-lavel turbine.
This is the most efficient type of impulse turbine because the ratio of blade velocity, to steam
velocity remains constant. But to obtain very low speed, number of stages required are more and
it becomes more expensive. Now-a-days, pressure compounded impulse turbines are not being
used. Rateau and Zoelly turbines belong to this group.
2. Velocity Compounding:
In this, the entire pressure drop takes place in one set of nozzles thereafter, the pressure remains
constant while the steam flows over the blades. Due to the entire pressure drop, the velocity of
steam becomes high, and this velocity is absorbed in steps while steam flows over different sets
of moving blades.
Here, the turbine consists of a set of nozzles and a wheel fitted with two or more rows of moving
blades. There are fixed or guide blades arranged between moving blades and set in reverse
manner.
The expansion of steam takes place in the set of nozzles from boiler pressure to condenser
pressure. The resulting high velocity of steam is utilized by as many sets of rotor blades as
necessary.
A portion of initial high velocity of steam is absorbed by the first set of moving blades. The
steam from first set of moving blades comes out with a fairly high velocity. It then enters the
fixed or stationary or guide blades which change the direction of steam and direct the steam into
second set of moving blades; without affecting the velocity appreciably. There is slight drop in
velocity in guide blades due to friction. While passing through the second set of moving blades,
steam suffers a change of momentum and gives up another portion of its velocity -kinetic energy
to the rotor.
The process is repeated and the steam finally enters the condenser from the last set of moving
blades.
The entire pressure drop takes place in the nozzles only and no pressure drop occurs in fixed
(guide) blades or moving blades. This method of velocity compounding is known as - Curtis
principle and Curtis turbine is an example of velocity compounded impulse turbine.

3. Pressure - Velocity Compounding:

In this, both the principles of pressure compounding and velocity compounding are used. Total
pressure drop of steam is divided into stages and velocity in each stage is also compounded.
This type allows bigger pressure drop in each stage and hence less number of stages are required.
So, for a given pressure drop, this is more compact than a pressure compounded turbine.
In this turbine, each stage has a set of nozzles, two or more rows of moving blades and one or
more rows of guide blades both placed alternately. Each stage is separated from adjacent stage
by a diaphragm containing a nozzle.
In this turbine, the whole pressure drop takes place in different sets of nozzles, i.e., whole
pressure drop doesn't take place on set of nozzles but divided into small drops. So, it is pressure
compounded.

While flowing over different sets of moving blades in different stages, the velocity is reduced.
So, it is velocity compounded.
The diameter of this turbine is increased at each stage to allow increasing volume of steam at
lower pressures. This type of compounding is used in Curtis turbine.

VELOCITY DIAGRAM FOR VELOCITY COMPOUNDED IMPULSE TURBINE

In a single stage turbine, steam after leaving the nozzle impinges on one end of the blades, glides
over the inner surface of the blades and leaves the blades at the other end. A velocity
compounded impulse turbine consists of one set of nozzles, two or more sets of moving blades
and guide blades. If we consider two rows or two sets of moving blades only, then, steam after
expansion in the nozzles, enters the first set of moving blades and after leaving the first set of
moving blades, enters first set or first row of fixed or guide blades.

There is no enthalpy drop in the guide blades. Their function is to change the direction only.
But, there may be slight reduction in velocity due to friction. The guide blades are also called as
fixed blades as they do not rotate but arc attached to the casing. The moving blade rows are
attached to the rotor.

The first set of fixed blades make the steam to flow at designed angle and direct it to impinge on
second row of moving blades After leaving the second row of moving blades, steam enters the
condenser. Such a turbine in which there are two sets of moving blades is called two stage
velocity compounded impulse turbine.
The separate velocity diagrams for the first moving, first fixed and second moving blade rows for
a two stage velocity compounded impulse turbine arc shown in fig.

The blade velocity is constant for both the stages as there are mounted on same shaft. The
absolute velocity at exit from the first moving blade is the entry velocity to the fixed blade.
Similarly, the exit velocity from the fixed blade is the entry velocity to the second moving blade.
We can draw combined velocity diagrams for the first and second row of moving blades
individually with a similar procedure as given for a single stage impulse turbine. We can
combine these individual velocity diagrams to obtain final combined velocity diagram for the
whole turbine.

Combined Velocity Diagram for Two Stage Impulse Turbine

Calculations:
I. Total work done per kg of steam passing through both stages:
Wt = work done in first moving blade set + work done in second moving blade set.

2. Blading or diagram efficiency for a two stage turbine:

Maximum efficiency implies minimum rejection of energy which is obtained when discharge is
axial i.e., 4 = 90.
For any given blade speed, a two row wheel (two sets of moving blades) can utilize four times
the enthalpy drop of a simple impulse turbine.

3. Maximum work done:

We know that work done

UNIT-V
REACTION TURBINE
In a reaction turbine, steam enters the rotor under pressure and flows over the blades. While
gliding, steam propels the blades and makes them to move. The rotor is rotated by reactive forces
of steam jets. The motion of blades is similar to recoil of a gun. Pure reaction turbine is not
possible in actual practice and all turbines employ both impulse and reaction principles. The
driving force is partly impulsive and partly reactive.

In this turbine, there are number of rows of moving blades fixed to shaft with equal number of
fixed blades attached to the casing. The fixed blades are set in reversed manner compared to
moving blades and correspond to nozzles referred to in impulse turbines.

The impulse turbines are partial admission turbines as nozzles do not occupy the complete
circumference leading into blade annulus. In impulse - reaction turbines, instead of a set of
nozzles, steam is admitted for the whole circumference and so there is full, complete admission.
A set of fixed blades are positioned at the entrance in place of nozzles.
In passing through the first row of fixed blades, steam suffers a small drop in pressure and hence
its velocity increases. It then enters the first row of moving blades and as in impulse turbine,
suffers a change in direction and so results in momentum. This results in an impulse on blades.
But, here the passage of moving blades is so designed that there is a small pressure drop in
moving blades giving rise to increase in velocity - kinetic energy. This kinetic energy gives rise
to a reaction in the direction opposite to that of added velocity. Thus, the driving force is vector
sum of impulse and reaction forces. Normally this type of turbine is known as - Reaction turbine.
It is also called as - Parson's reaction turbine.
In this turbine, the pressure drop takes place in both fixed and moving blades and blade passages
in both are of convergent nozzles shape. The steam velocities in this turbine are comparatively
low and the maximum value is about equal to blade velocity. In this turbine, as pressure falls,
specific volume increase and so, height of blades is increased progressively.
This type of turbine is very successful in practice and popular in power plants.
PARSON'S REACTION TURBINE
A Parson's reaction turbine is the simplest type of reaction turbine and is commonly used.
The main components of it are:
1. Casing.
2. Guide mechanism.
3. Runner.
4. Draft tube.
The casing is an air tight metallic case in which steam from boiler under high pressure is
distributed around the fixed blades which are positioned at the entrance. The casing is so
designed that steam enters the fixed blades with uniform velocity.
The guide mechanism consists of fixed or guide blades. They allow the steam to enter the rotor
without shock and they allow required quantity of steam to enter the turbine. The guide blades
may be opened or closed by a regulating shaft which allows steam to flow according to the need.

The runner consists of moving blades. These blades are designed properly to allow steam to enter
and leave the blades without shock. The steam after passing through the rotor flows to condenser
through a draft tube. It minimises losses due to eddies.
In impulse turbines, steam pressure on both sides of moving blades is same and axial thrust is
negligible. But, in a reaction turbine, this thrust is considerable due to fall of pressure within the
blades and difference between blade sizes in various steps. (To accommodate increased volume,
height of blades in increased progressively). Thrust bearings are used to balance this thrust.
In a reaction turbine, the pressure is reduced in both fixed and moving blades. The velocity
increases in fixed blades and reduces while passing through moving blades.
VELOCITY DIAGRAM OF A REACTION TURBINE
The fig shows the inlet and outlet velocity diagrams for moving blade of a reaction turbine.
The steam jet enters the blades along CA with absolute velocity V1 at an angle a1 in the direction
of motion of blade. DA represents relative velocity of steam at entrance Vr1 with respect to
blade. CE represents velocity of whirl at entrance Vw1 which causes the work done. EA
represents axial component of absolute velocity V1 known as velocity of flow at entrance Vf1. It
causes steam to flow through the blades and also exerts an axial thrust on the rotor. It does not
work on the blade. Mean velocity of blade is represented by Vb.
The steam jet glides over and leaves the blades at the other end. V2Vr2, Vf2, Vw2, 1, 2
represents corresponding values at outlet of the moving blade.

In Parson's reaction turbine, both the fixed and moving blades are made identical. SO, l = 2
and 1= 2. So, the velocity diagram for Parson's reaction turbine will be symmetrical about
vertical centre line and Vf1 = Vf2; V1 = Vr2; V2 =Vr1.

Blading or Diagram Efficiency of Parson's Turbine:

To obtain condition for maximum efficiency following assumptions are made:

1. Degree of reaction is 50%.
2. Fixed and moving blades are symmetrical.
3. Velocity of steam at exit from preceding stage is same as velocity of steam at the entrance to
the next stage.

For maximum efficiency; optimum value of

In reaction turbines, both fixed and moving blades act as nozzles as pressure drop takes place in
both.
HEIGHT OF BLADES FOR A REACTION TURBINE:
In designing blades, the height of blade plays an important role. In a reaction turbine, the steam
enters the moving blades over the whole circumference. So, the area through which steam flows
is always full of steam.

HEIGHT OF BLADE
We have from continuity equation;

m.v = A.V

Total area through the blade section at outlet

Neglecting blade thickness.

Similarly for moving blades inlet;

For a Parson's reaction turbine, 1 = 2, V1 = Vr2 and v - specific volume of steam is assumed
to be constant, the blade height for fixed as well as moving blades is same in a stage.
DEGREE OF REACTION
The energy transfer is by change of dynamic pressure and by change of dynamic pressure in
rotor passage. The ratio of energy transfer by means of change of static pressure in the rotor to
total energy static pressure in the rotor to total energy transfer in the rotor is called the degree of
reaction.
In case of turbines, a stage consists of a set of nozzles (or fixed blades) and rotor having moving
blades. The fig shows the H-S diagram for isentropic flow of steam through stationary (fixed)
and moving blade.
The degree of reaction is defined as the ratio of enthalpy drop in moving blades to total enthalpy
drop in a stage.

FLOW OF STEAM IN A TURBINE

In an impulse turbine, the total enthalpy drop takes place in nozzles only and no enthalpy drop
takes place in the rotor. (Both enthalpy and static pressure remain constant in rotor passage). So
for impulse turbines, degree of reaction is zero.
In case of reaction turbines, enthalpy drop is divided in fixed blades and moving blades.
(Pressure changes in both fixed and moving blades). So, for a reaction turbine,

For a Parson's reaction turbine;

Degree of reaction = 0.5 = 50%.

So, a Parson's reaction turbine is also known as 50% reaction turbine. In it, half of the total
enthalpy drop takes place in fixed blades and the remaining half of the enthalpy drop takes place
in moving blades.
COMPARISON OF IMPULSE AND REACTION TURBINES
The following are the important differences between impulse and reaction turbines.

1 Steam flows through nozzles and impinges on moving blades.

Steam (lows through fixed blades and then flows over moving blades
2 pressure drop takes place in nozzles and pressure remains constant in moving blades.
Pressure drop takes place both in fixed and moving blades.
3 Blade passage is of constant cross sectional area as there is no expansion.
Due to expansion, the blade passage is of variable cross sectional area.
4 Blade shape is profile type and easy to manufacture.
Blade shape is aerofoil type and difficult to manufacture.
5 Nozzles are located in diaphragms and rotor is disc or wheel type.
Fixed blades attached to casing serve as nozzles and rotor construction is drum type.
6 Admission of steam is partial over the circumference
Admission of steam is full over the whole circumference.
7 Because of large pressure drop, number of stages is less.
Because of small pressure drop, for same pressure drop, larger numbers of stages are required.
Reaction turbines are multi stage turbines only.
8 Because of large pressure drop, velocity of steam and velocity of blade are higher.
Because of small pressure drop, the velocity of steam and velocity of blade are lower.
9 The diagram efficiency decreases rapidly with change in designed blade speed ratio.
Greater working range is possible.
10 Suitable for small power requirements
Suitable for medium and higher power requirements

11 Occupies less space per unit power.

Occupies more space per unit power.
12 Degree of reaction is zero
Degree of reaction is greater than zero
The choice of stages in a steam turbine depends upon relative importance of capital cost and
turbine efficiency. Higher turbine efficiency results in lower steam consumption and smaller size
of boiler and condenser which in turn reduces the capital cost of total steam power plant.

UNIT-VI
STEAM CONDENSERS
Condenser is one of the important elements of a steam power plant. It is placed at the exhaust
end of a steam engine or steam turbine. A steam condenser is a closed vessel in which steam is
exhausted from steam engine or steam turbine. The steam is cooled by-means of cooling water.
The condensed steam formed together with air and other non-condensable gases is removed by
pumps. The condensed steam is called condensate.
The exhaust steam leaving the prime mover (steam engine or steam turbine) still contains
considerably large amount of heat. So, the exhaust steam is passed into a condenser in which
heat exchange between steam and cooling water takes place.
The work done and efficiency of a turbine plant are increased if back or exhaust pressure of
turbine is reduced. This is because the average temperature at which heat is rejected in the cycle
is reduced.
There exists a relation between temperature and pressure. If the back or exhaust pressure of
steam is low, the temperature is also low. Thus, by lowering the back pressure, the temperature at
which heat is rejected is reduced and in turn work done and efficiency are increased. In order
reduce the back pressure for increasing work done and efficiency, the steam should be exhausted
in a closed vessel where it is condensed. The condensation of steam in a closed vessel enables
expansion of steam to a lower back pressure (Temperature).
In a non condensing plant (plants which doesn't employ a condenser), the back pressure should
be higher or equal to atmospheric pressure otherwise steam can't exhaust to atmosphere.

Area A-5-3-4 shows the work done by a steam turbine which is not fitted with a condenser (Non
condensing turbine). Area A B 2 1 shows work done by a condensing steam turbine. The shaded
area 1-2-3-4 shows the increase in work done by fitting a condenser to a non condensing steam
turbine.
The condensation of steam in a closed vessel produces partial vacuum as volume reduces greatly.
I kg of dry steam at 1.013 bar and with a volume of 1.67 m3, if condensed in a closed vessel, it
will be condensed into water at a temperature of 100C, liquid condensed will occupy only 0.001
m3 and pressure falls to about 0.2 bar. It means that the exhaust pressure can be lowered from
1.013 bar to 0.2 bar.
So, by fitting a condenser to a steam turbine or steam engine, the range of expansion of steam
can be increased as the exhaust steam can be discharged at a pressure below atmospheric and
hence work output from turbine can be increased.
Steam engines can't take advantage of very low vacuum as they are intermittent flow machines
and they have to force the expanded steam out of cylinder through restricted exhaust ports and
passages.
Steam turbines being continuous flow machines (steam flow takes place continuously from inlet
to outlet without any obstruction) can take advantage of low vacuum because they have large
exhaust outlets through which steam can be discharged after expansion.
There is a limit for reduction in back pressure beyond which it is not economical. This limit is
based on the increased cost involved in the creation and maintenance of higher vacuum. In steam
turbines, steam can be expanded upto 0.035 bar or even less depending upon the temperature of
the cooling water and capacity of the plant.
The condensed steam (condensate) still contains considerable amount of heat and it canbe reused
as feed water to the boiler.
OBJECTS OF CONDENSER
A steam condenser has 2 objects:
1. The primary object is to maintain ve4y low back pressure on the exhaust side of steam turbine.
This enables steam to expand to a greater extent by which maximum possible energy from steam
can be converted into mechanical work.
2. The secondary object of steam condenser is to supply pure, hot feed water to the boiler. Thus,
by fitting a condenser, the thermal efficiency of steam power plant can be greatly increased and
also the capacity without increasing the size.

ADVANTAGES OF CONDENSER IN STEAM POWER PLANT

The following advantages can be obtained by employing a condenser in a steam power plant:
1. It increases expansion ratio of available steam (increased available enthalpy drops) and thus
increases efficiency of the plant.
2. It reduces back pressure of steam, thus more work can be obtained.
3. The condensate can be recovered and can be reused as feed water to the boiler. This reduces
cost of power generation. Recovery of condensate is important in case of marine plants.
4. Recovery of condensate reduces make up water that must be added.
5. Supplying hot feed water reduces thermal stresses; steam consumption also can be reduced.
6. As condensate recovered is pure, the cost of water treatment is saved.
ELEMENTS OF A STEAM CONDENSING PLANT

A Steam Condensing Plant

The following are the important elements in a steam condensing plant:
1. Condenser.
2. Condensate pump

3. Hot well.
4. Boiler feed pump.
5. Air extraction pump.
6. Cooling tower.
Steam condenser is a closed vessel in which steam is condensed. Steam gives up heat energy to
cooling water during the process of condensation.
A pump that removes condensed steam from the condenser and supplies to hot well is called condensate extraction pump. Dry air pump is a pump for removing non condensable gases from
the condenser. If a single pump is used for removing air and condensate, it is known as wet air
pump.
Hot well is a reservoir for collecting condensate from a condenser. From the hot well, the water
is fed to boiler. Boiler feed pump pumps condensate from hot well to boiler.
A cooling tower is an arrangement for recooling the cooling water of condenser. It is essential
where there's scarcity of water.
Cooling Tower: The cooling water is placed at a certain height. The hot water falls down in
radial sprays from a height and atmospheric air enters from base of tower. Partial evaporation of
water takes place which reduces the temperature of circulating water. This cooled water is
collected in the pond at the base of the tower a pumped back into the condenser.
CLASSIFICATION OF CONDENSERS
Depending upon the way of condensing the exhaust steam, steam condensers are of 2 types:
1. Jet condensers or mixing type condensers.
2. Surface condensers or non mixing type condensers.
In jet condensers, cooling water comes in direct contact with the exhaust steam. As the name
implies, cooling water is sprayed into the exhaust steam in the form of a jet so that rapid
condensation takes place. The temperature of cooling water and condensate is same when
leaving the condenser.
With these condensers, the condensate can't be used as feed water to the boiler as it is not free
from salts and impurities. Because of the loss of condensate and high power requirement for jet
condenser pumps, these condensers are rarely used in modern power plants. These are employed
where water of good quality is easily available in sufficient quantity.

In surface condensers, there is no direct contact between the steam to be condensed and the
cooling water. Cooling water passes through number of tubes while exhaust steam passes over
the outer surface of the tubes. Here, the temperature of condensate may be higher than cooling
water at exit. Both cooling water and condensate are separately with drawn. The condensate is
pure and can be used as feed water to the boiler.
This type of condenser is essential in ships and other marine applications which can carry limited
quantity of fresh water for the boiler. Also widely used in land installations where impure water
can be used for cooling or better quality of water for feed is to be used economically.
A jet condenser is much simplier and less costly than a surface condenser.
JET CONDENSERS
There are 3 classes of jet condensers:
1. Low level jet condensers (parallel flow and counter flow).
2. High level or Barometric jet condensers.
3. Ejector condenser.
In low level jet condensers, the condensing chamber is at low elevation and overall height of the
unit is low enough so that condenser can be placed directly beneath the steam turbine.
Combined or separate pumps are required to extract cooling water, condensate and air from the
condenser.
In high level jet condensers, the condensing chamber is placed at sufficiently high level to enable
water to drain away by gravity. No water pump is required to remove condensate and cooling
water but an air pump is required to remove air and other gases from condenser.
In ejector condensers, the steam and water mix in a series of combining cones and the kinetic
energy of water is utilised in removing condensate and air from the condensers. No separate
pump is required to remove condensate and air.
LOW LEVEL JET CONDENSERS
According to direction of flow of water and steam, low level jet condensers are sub classified as :
1. Parallel flow jet condensers.
2. Counter flow jet condensers.

In parallel flow jet condensers, both steam and water enter at top and fall together to bottom
where the mixture is removed by an extraction pump. This arrangement is best suited for turbine
work where exhaust steam comes from underside of turbine.
In counter flow jet condensers, water and steam flow in opposite directions. Steam enters at
bottom and flows upwards while water enters at top and falls downwards. Air extraction pump is
at the top.

Parallel Flow Jet Condenser

The exhaust steam enters at top into the condenser. Cold water enters from top and is sprayed.
The baffles or trays ensure proper mixing of steam and water. A condensate extraction pump
discharges condensate to the hotwell. Surplus condensate from the hotwell gravitates to cooling
pond. A separate dry pump may be incorporated to maintain proper vacuum.
2. Counter Flow Jet Condenser:

COUNTER FLOW JET CONDENSER

In these condensers, exhaust steam enters at the bottom, flows upwards and meets the down
coming cooling water. Air pump is placed at the top of the condenser shell.
Vacuum is created by the air pump. This draws the supply of cooling water which falls in large
number of jets through perforated conical plates. The falling water is caught in the trays from
which it escapes into a second series of jets and meets the exhaust steam entering at the bottom.
Rapid condensation occurs, condensate and cooling water descend through a vertical pipe to the
condensate pump from which it is delivered to hot well.
HIGH LEVEL OR BAROMETRIC JET CONDENSER
It is so named because it is placed at a height greater than that of water barometer. If a long pipe
over 10 metres was closed at one end filled with water, inverted without slipping any water and
the open end is submerged in an open tank of water, the atmospheric pressure would hold water
up in the pipe to a height of 10.368 m at sea level. This fact is made use of in a barometric
condenser by making the discharge pipe more than 10 metres in height and thus making it

impossible for any vacuum in the condenser to cause the water to rise high enough and flood the
engine.

High Level Jet Condenser

Exhaust steam enters at bottom, flows upwards, and meets the down coming cooling water.
Vacuum is created by air pump placed at the top of the condenser shell. The condensate and
cooling water flow by gravity into hot well and thus, there is no need of condensate extraction
pump. The surplus water from hot well flows to cooling pond through an overflow pipe.
The shell is placed at a height greater than 10.36 metres - barometric height of water column.

EJECTOR CONDENSER
The principle of operation of this condenser is that the momentum of flowing water ejects throws
out the condensate and air without the aid of a pump.

EJECTOR CONDENSER
In these condensers, steam and water mix up while passing through a series of metal cones. The
exhaust steam enters the condenser through a non return valve arrangement. Water enters at top
and while flowing through the truncated cones its velocity increases and pressure drops. Due to
the decreased pressure, the exhaust steam is drawn through the cones and finally lead to
diverging cone.
In diverging cone, part of kinetic energy is transformed into pressure energy so that the
condensate is discharged into hot well. So, the condenser acts as an air pump and as well as a
condenser.
The non returns valve prevents sudden back rush of water into engine exhaust pipe in case of
sudden failure of water supply to condenser.
An ejector condenser requires more cooling water than any other type of jet condensers.

SURFACE CONDENSERS
These may be subdivided into 2 types :
1. Condensers in which exhaust steam passes over a series of tubes through which cooling water
flows.
2. Evaporative surface condenser in which steam passes through a series of tubes and cooling
water flows in the form of a thin film outside the tubes. Surface condensers may also be
classified as - 2 flow or multi flow condensers.
Depending upon the direction of flow of condensate, surface condensers are classified as:
1. Down flow surface condenser.
2. Central flow surface condenser.
3. Inverted flow surface condenser.
4. Regenerative surface condenser.
5. Evaporative surface condenser.
2 FLOW SURFACE CONDENSERS
It consists of a cast iron shell cylindrical in shape and closed at each end to form a water box.
Numbers of water tubes are fixed to the tube plates. Exhaust steam enters at top and condensed
by coming in contact with cold surface of tubes through which cooling water circulates.

The cooling water enters at one end of tubes in one half of the condenser (one pass-one flow) and
then enters into the tubes of second half of the condenser (second pass). Next, the water goes to
outlet.
The resulting water from condensation of steam and air associated with uncondensed water
vapour are extracted from the bottom of the condenser.
This type of condenser requires 2 pumps : Wet air pump to remove air and condensate, water
circulating pump to circulate cooling water under pressure.
This is called 2 flow or 2 pass condenser because the cooling water circulates the whole length of
condenser twice. By introducing more partitions in the water boxes, the same
condenser may be converted into 3 flow or even 4 flow condenser. The rate of heat transmission
increases with increase in number of flows but power required to circulate water also increases.
As steam flows in a direction right angle to the direction of flow of water, it is also called as Cross flow surface condenser.
DOWN FLOW SURFACE CONDENSER

Down Flow Surface Condenser

In this, the exhaust steam enters at top, flows over the surface of the tubes due to force of gravity
as well as suction of extraction pump located at the bottom. The condensate is collected at the
bottom and then pumped by the extraction pump.

A baffle is provided to cover the suction pipe of the dry air pump to prevent entry of condensed
steam into it. As steam flows perpendicular to the direction of flow of water (inside the tubes),
this is also called as - Cross flow surface condenser.
CENTRAL FLOW SURFACE CONDENSER

In this, the exhaust steam enters at the top of the condenser shell and flows downwards. The
suction pipe of the air extraction pump is placed in the centre of the 'nest' of the tubes. This
causes the steam to flow radially inwards towards the centre. The tubes carry circulating cooling
water. The condensate is collected at the bottom and then pumped by the extraction pump.
This condenser is more efficient than down flow type as steam has access to the whole periphery
of the tubes.
INVERTED FLOW SURFACE CONDENSER
This condenser has air extraction pump at the top. The exhaust steam enters at the bottom, rises
up and then again flows down to the bottom of the condenser by flowing near outer surface of
the condenser. Condensate extraction pump is located at the bottom.
REGENERATIVE SURFACE CONDENSER
In this condenser, the condensate is heated by a regenerative method. The condensate after
leaving the tubes is passed through the exhaust steam from the steam engine or steam turbine.
Thus, it raises the temperature of the condensate for use as feed water to the boiler.

EVAPORATIVE CONDENSER
It consists of sheets of gilled piping which is bent backwards and forward and placed in a vertical
plane.

The steam to be condensed enters at the top of a series of gilled pipes outside of which a film of
cold water falls from a water header. At the same time, a current of air circulates over the water
film causing rapid evaporation of some of the cooling water. As a result, the steam gets
condensed. The water which is not evaporated falls into a collecting tank from which it is reused
again. Its original temperature is restored by adding requisite quantity of cold water.
This condenser can run on minimum quantity of water and even without cooling water in cold
weather and on light loads.
REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD SURFACE CONDENSER
For a surface condenser to work effectively, the following requirements should be met:
1. There should be no leakage of air in the condenser. The pressure in the condenser also
depends upon the amount of air. Owing to high vacuum pressure in the condenser, it is
impossible to prevent air from leaking through the joints thereby increasing the pressure in the
condenser and thus limiting the amount of work done by unit mass of steam in steam engine or
steam turbine. Air leakage also results in lowering the partial pressure of steam and temperature.

This means that latent heat increases and so more cooling water is required which results in low
overall efficiency.
2. The steam should enter the condenser with least possible resistance.
3. The drop in pressure of steam should be minimum (To extract more work) and steam should
be well distributed in the vessel for effective condensation.
4. The circulating cooling water should flow through the tubes with least resistance and with a
velocity consistent with high efficiency.
5. The condensate should be removed as quickly as possible at maximum practicable to obtain
higher thermal efficiency.
6. There should be no under cooling of condensate. This can be achieved by regulating quantity
of cooling water such that the temperature of exit water is equal to saturation temperature of
steam.
7. Air should be removed from the condenser with minimum possible expenditure of energy.
COMPARISON OF JET AND SURFACE CONDENSERS
The following are the advantages and disadvantages of jet and surface condensers.
Advantages of Jet Condensers:
1. Intimate mixing -There is a thorough mixing of exhaust steam and cooling water. So, heat
transfer is much better.
2. Smaller quantity of cooling water Due to direct mixing of steam with cooling water, small
quantity of cooling water is enough for condensation of given quantity of exhaust steam.
3. It requires less building space.
4. The equipment is simple and cost is less.
5. Maintenance cost is low.
6. Use of impure water is possible.
7. With barometric condenser, there is no danger of flooding.
8. Cooling water pump is not required for barometric condenser.

Disadvantages:
1. The condensate is wasted. Due to direct mixing of steam with cooling water (which may be
not pure); condensate can't be used as feed water to the boiler and is wasted.
2. Failure of condensate pump would flood the engine.
3. As cooling water leaves the dissolved air, lower vacuum is achieved.
4. More power is required for air extraction pump.
5. It is less suitable for high capacity plants due to low vacuum efficiency.
6. The barometric condenser requires a long pipe which increases the cost of condenser and
possibility of more air leakages. Also, it is difficult to accommodate.
Advantages of Surface Condensers:
1. Steam and cooling water are not mixed and hence condensate can be used again and again as
boiler feed water.
2. It requires less quantity of makeup water which saves the cost of feed water treatment.
3. High vacuum can be obtained which results in greater plant efficiency.
4. It is suitable for large capacity plants.
5. Any type of cooling water can be used.
6. Power required by air and cooling water pumps is much less.
Disadvantages:
1. High initial cost.
2. Maintenance cost is more.
3. As water doesn't mix with steam, more cooling water is needed to affect perfect condensation.
4. It requires large floor space.
5. The plant is complicated.
MEASUREMENT OF VACUUM IN A CONDENSER
In case of condensers, vacuum means pressure below atmospheric. It is usually expressed in mm
of mercury.

The pressure in the condenser should be minimum possible to obtain maximum work from the
steam engine or turbine. The vacuum that can be obtained depends upon - Temperature of water,
tightness of joints and valves, amount of air infiltration. This vacuum is not uniform throughout
the condenser. It is least at the air pump suction, high in condenser body and still higher at
engine exhaust valve.

Measurement of Vacuum in a Condenser

The vacuum depends upon the Barometric pressure (Atmospheric pressure) and absolute
pressure in the condenser.
Barometric pressure is a variable quantity and it varies from place to place. For the purpose of
comparison, it is convenient to refer vacuum gauge reading to a standard barometric pressure
(Atmospheric pressure) of 760 mm of Mercury. Mathematically, vacuum gauge reading is
'corrected' to a standard barometer.
Standard or corrected vacuum =
= (760 mm of Hg - Absolute pressure in condenser - in mm of Hg)
= [760 - (Barometer reading - Vacuum gauge reading)] mm of Hg)
760 mm of Hg =1.013 bar

1 bar = 105N/m2
1 mm of Hg = 133 N/m2
= 0.00133 bar
The loss of vacuum in a condenser is mainly due to - air infiltration, reduced circulation of
cooling water, accumulation of scale inside and outside the tubes and plugging of ejector jet.
METHODS TO OBTAIN MAXIMUM VACUUM
Following are some of the methods employed to obtain maximum possible vacuum in
condensers:
1. Air Pump: Air pumps are provided to maintain desired vacuum in the condenser by extracting
air and other non condensable gases. There are 2 types of pumps: Dry air pump which removes
air only and wet air pump - which removes a mixture of condensate and non condensable gases.
2. Steam Air Ejector: When a wet air pump is used, then steam air ejectors are employed to
remove air from the mixture. The operation consists in utilising the viscous drag of a high
velocity steam jet for the ejection of air and other non condensable gases from the chamber.
3. De-aerated Water: If dissolved air is removed from feed water, then it is called Deaerated
water. The de-aerated water helps in maintaining better vacuum and controls corrosion of boiler
shell and piping of the plant.
4. Air Tight Joints: Various joints in the plant should be made air tight to avoid air infiltration.
DALLT0N,S LAW 0F PARTIAL PRESSURES
This law is very helpful for analytical treatment of problems dealing with a mixture of gases or
of gas and vapour.
This law states that - "In a mixture of perfect gases that don't react chemically with one another,
total pressure exerted by the mixture is the sum of partial pressures which each gas would exert
if separately occupy the whole volume at the temperature of the mixture".
Let there is a mixture of air and steam in condenser.
Let t = Temperature of the mixture
Pa = Partial pressure of air at temperature t
Ps = Partial pressure of steam (water vapour) at temperature
P = Total pressure in the condenser

Then, according to Dalton's law,

P= Pa + Ps
So, the total pressure is the sum of partial pressures of steam and non condensable gases. The
non condensable gases lie in dissolved form in the water and get separated on heating the water.
The non condensable gases chiefly consist of C02 and air. Amount of C02 is extremely small
compared to air and can be neglected.
The Dalton's law also states that - "Each constituent of the mixture in the container occupies
the whole volume of the container and exerts its own partial pressure in the container".
Let V = Volume of container - m3
ma = Mass of air in the condenser - Kgs
ms= Mass of steam in the condenser -Kgs
Va= Specific volume of air at temperature t - m3/kg
Vs = Specific volume of steam at temperature t - m3/kg
According to Dalton's law, V =ma.va
= ms .vs

Total mass of mixture in the container =

m=ma+ ms

VACUUM EFFICIENCY
In steam condensers, we have a mixture of air and steam. If no air is present in the condenser,
then total absolute pressure would be equal to partial pressure of steam and maximum vacuum
would be obtained in the condenser.
The ratio of actual vacuum obtained at the steam inlet to the condenser to the maximum vacuum
(Ideal vacuum) which could be obtained in a perfect condensing plant (No air is present) is called
- Vacuum efficiency.

Actual vacuum = Barometric pressure - Absolute pressure in condenser.

(Actual pressure).
Ideal vacuum = Barometric pressure - Absolute pressure of steam corresponding
to temperature of condensation. (Ideal pressure).
So, vacuum efficiency is a measure of the degree of perfection to maintain desired vacuum in the
condenser. Always, there will be some amount of air present in the condenser due to leakage and
dissolved air present in the steam. So, vacuum efficiency depends upon the quantity of air
removed from the condenser by the air pump. Generally, the vacuum efficiency is about 98%.
CONDENSER EFFICIENCY
In an ideal condenser, only latent heat should be removed from the exhaust steam and there
should be no under cooling of condensate. Minimum quantity of cooling water should be used
and temperature rise of cooling water should be maximum. The maximum temperature to which
cooling water can be raised is the condensate temperature.

The performance of a condenser is given by the term - Condenser efficiency. It is the ratio of
actual temperature rise of cooling water to maximum possible rise.
Condenser efficiency is defined as the ratio of difference between outlet and inlet temperatures
of cooling water to difference between saturation temperature corresponding to absolute pressure
in the condenser and inlet temperature of cooling water.

The condenser efficiency generally varies from 75% to 85%.

QUANTITY OF CIRCULATING COOLING WATER REQUIRED
The function of circulating cooling water in a condenser is to absorb heat from steam and thereby
to condense it. In surface condenser, the temperature of condensate and exit water is not the same
while in jet condenser, it is the same. To design a condenser, it is essential to calculate the
quantity of cooling water necessary for a certain capacity of steam to be condensed.
Determination the amount of cooling water is a problem of simple heat exchange.
Heat lost by steam = Heat gained by cooling water
Heat lost by steam = ms . (HT - Hc)
Where ms = Mass of condensate kgs/hr
HT = Total heat of steam entering the condenser kJ/kg
HC= Total heat in the condensate kJ/kg
Heat gained by cooling water = mw . cw . (t0 - ti)
Where mw= Mass of cooling water required - kgs/hr
cw = Specific heat of cooling water - kJ/kg
ti = Inlet temperature of cooling water.
t0 = Outlet temperature of cooling water.
Although the steam is supplied in superheated state to steam engine or steam turbine, usually, it
is wet when enters the condenser.
Heat lost by wet steam = Latent heat + Sensible heat due to cooling of condensate due to air
which leaks into condenser.

SOURCES OF AIR IN A CONDENSER

The performance of a condenser is adversely affected by the presence of air in the condenser.
Following are the main sources through which air may enter into condenser:
1. The dissolved air in the feed water enters boiler which in turn enters condenser with the
exhaust steam. The amount of air coming in depends upon the treatment of feed water.
2. Air leaks from atmosphere through various joints which are internally under less pressure than
atmosphere. The amount of air depends upon accurate workmanship, care in design and making
of joints.
3. Leakage through condenser accessories like atmospheric relief valve etc.
4. In case of jet condenser, some air comes in with injection water - cooling water in which it is
dissolved.
EFFECTS OF AIR IN A CONDENSER
The following are the important effects of presence of air in a condenser:
1. With increased amount of air, condenser pressure or back pressure increases. This reduces the
useful work done.
2. Presence of air lowers partial pressure of steam and so lowers saturation temperature of steam.
With the lowering saturation temperature, latent heat of steam increases and so more cooling
water is required.
3. Air is a poor conductor of heat and so reduces rate of heat transmission. So, surface area of the
tubes has to be increased for a given condenser capacity.

4. The presence of air reduces the rate of condensation of steam since abstraction of heat by
cooling water is partly from steam and partly from air.
5. The air extraction pump is required to remove air only but some quantity of steam escapes
with air. This reduces the amount of condensate. Also, the condensate is under cooled with the
result that more heat has to be supplied to the feed water in the boiler.
6. Larger the amount of air present in the condenser, capacity of air pump increases and greater
is the corrosive action by the air. Corrosive action is roughly proportional to the concentration of
oxygen present in the condenser.
It is most important to check all air leakages and to remove any air that may be in the condenser.
In practice, it is impossible to remove all the air. So, it is continuously removed by air pump
which sucks air from condenser, compresses it to a little above atmospheric pressure so that it is
forced out.
AIR PUMPS
It is essential to extract the air present in the condenser as it adversely affects the performance of
a condenser. Air extraction pumps remove air and other non condensable gases from the
condenser. The primary function of an air pump is to maintain vacuum in the condenser as nearly
as possible corresponding to exhaust steam temperature. This is done by removing air and other
non condensable gases from the condenser.
There are 2 types of air pumps:
1. Dry air pump which removes air only.
2. Wet air pump which removes air and non condensable gases along with condensate.
Air pumps may be classified as:
1. Reciprocating piston or bucket pumps.
2. Rotary pumps.
3. Steam jet air pumps.
4. Wet jet pumps.
Here, we discuss about one type of reciprocating piston or bucket pump only.
EDWARD'S AIR PUMP
This is a commonly used reciprocating piston wet air pump. The fig shows an Edward's air
pump.

The delivery valve is placed in the cover which is on the top of the pump barrel lever. The
reciprocating piston is flat on its upper surface and conical at bottom. The pump lever has a ring
of ports around its lower end for whole circumference. This communicates with the condenser.
When the piston is at the top of the barrel, the condensate and air from the condenser is collected
in the conical portion of lower part of barrel through the ports. On the downward stroke of the
piston, vacuum is produced above it since the delivery valves are closed and sealed by water.
The piston uncovers the ports. When it moves downwards, the mixture rushes into space above
the piston. This mixture is compressed when the piston goes to top and raises the pressure
slightly above atmospheric pressure. The delivery valves are now open which allow mixture to
pass on the top of the cover. Condensate flows to hot well which is at atmospheric pressure. A
relief valve is placed to release the pressure. This pump is most suitable for condensing vapours
in land and marine steam plants.