Power Electronics

Chapter 1
Power Electronic Devices
(Part I)

Power Electronics

Outline
1.1 An introductory overview of power electronic devices
1.2 Uncontrolled device power diode
1.3 Half-controlled device thyristor
1.4 Typical fully-controlled devices
1.5 Other new power electronic devices
1.6 Drive circuit for power electronic devices
1.7 Protection of power electronic devices
1.8 Series and parallel connections of power electronic
devices
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Power Electronics

1.1 An introductory overview of power

electronic devices
The concept and features
Configuration of systems using power electronic devices
Classifications
Major topics

Power Electronics

The concept of power electronic devices

Power electronic devices:
are the electronic devices that can be directly used in the power
processing circuits to convert or control electric power.

In broad sense

Vacuum devices: Mercury arc

rectifier thyratron, etc. . seldom
in use today

power electronic devices

Semiconductor devices:
major power electronic devices

Very often: Power electronic devices = Power semiconductor devices

Major material used in power semiconductor devices
Silicon
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Features of power electronic devices

The electric power that power electronic device
deals with is usually much larger than that the
information electronic device does.

Usually working in switching states to reduce power

losses
On-state

Voltage across the device is 0

v=0

p=vi=0

Off-state

Current through the device is 0

i=0

p=vi=0

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Features of power electronic devices

Need to be controlled by information electronic circuits.
Very often, drive circuits are necessary to interface
between information circuits and power circuits.
Dissipated power loss usually larger than information
electronic devices special packaging and heat sink
are necessary.

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Power losses on power semiconductor

devices
v
t

i
t

p
O n -s ta te
( c o n d u c t io n s t a t e )

tu r n in g o ff

O ff-s ta te
( b lo c k in g s t a t e )

t u r n in g
-o n

Total power loss on

= conduction loss + turn-off loss + off-state loss + turn-on loss
power semiconductor
(on-state loss)
Switching loss

Power electronic
system:

Electric isolation:
optical, magnetic

Control circuit (in a broad sense)

Control circuit

Power Electronics

Configuration of systems using power

electronic devices

detection
circuit

drive
circuit

Power circuit
(power stage,
main circuit)

Protection circuit is also very often used in power electronic

system especially for the expensive power semiconductors.
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Terminals of a power electronic device

A power electronic
device usually has
a third terminal
control terminal
to control the
states of the device.

A power electronic device

must have at least two
terminals to allow power
circuit current flow through.

Drive
Circuit

Control signal from drive circuit must be connected between the

control terminal and a fixed power circuit terminal (therefore
called common terminal ).
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Power Electronics

A classification of power electronic devices

Uncontrolled device: diode
(Uncontrollable device)
has only two terminals and can not be controlled by control signal.
The on and off states of the device are determined by the power
circuit.

Half-controlled device: thyristor

(Half-controllable device)
is turned-on by a control signal and turned-off by the power circuit

Fully-controlled device: Power MOSFET, IGBT,GTO, IGCT

(Fully-controllable device)
The on and off states of the device are controlled by control signals.

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Other classifications
Current-driven (current-controlled) devices
power electronic devices
Voltage-driven (voltage-controlled) devices
(Field-controlled devices)
Pulse-triggered devices
power electronic devices
Level-sensitive (level-triggered) devices
Unipolar devices (Majority carrier devices)
power electronic devices

Bipolar devices (Minority carrier devices)

Composite devices

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Major topics for each device

Appearance, structure, and symbol
Physics of operation
Static characteristics

Characteristics
Switching characteristics

Specification
Special issues
Devices of the same family

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Passive components in power electronic

circuit
Transformer, inductor, capacitor and resistor:
these are passive components in a power electronic
circuit since they can not be controlled by control signal and
their characteristics are usually constant and linear.
The requirements for these passive components by power
electronic circuits could be very different from those by
ordinary circuits.

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1.2 Uncontrolled device Power diode

Appearance

Structure
Anode

Symbol
Cathode

Anode

Cathode

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PN junction
Direction of
inner electric field

-
-

+ + +

-
-

-
-

+ + +
+ + +

-
-

-
-

p region

Space charge
region
(depletion region,
potential barrier
region)

+ +
+
+ + +
n region

Semiconductor (Column IV element, Si)

Electrons and holes.
Pure semiconductor (intrinsic semiconductor)
Doping, p-type semiconductor. N-type semiconductor
PN junction
Equilibrium of diffusion and drift

15

V
-

Power Electronics

PN junction with voltage applied in the

forward direction

+
p

+
-

W
Wo

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PN junction with voltage applied in the reverse

direction
Effective direction
of electronic field

+
-

+
-

Wo
W

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Construction of a practical power diode

Anode

i
+
p+
V

19

Na =10 cm

10 m

-3

n - epi

Nd =10 cm

n+ substrate

Nd =10 cm

14

-3

Breakdown
voltage dependent

19

-3

250m

Cathode

Features different from low-power (information electronic) diodes

Larger size
Vertically oriented structure
n- drift region (p-i-n diode)
Conductivity modulation
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Forward-biased power diode

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Reverse-biased power diode

Breakdown
Avalanche breakdown
Thermal breakdown
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Junction capacitor
The positive and negative charge in the depletion region is
variable with the changing of external voltage.
Junction capacitor CJ .
Potential barrier capacitor CB

Junction capacitor CJ
Diffusion capacitor CD

Junction capacitor influences the switching characteristics of

power diode.

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Static characteristics of power diode

I
IF

O UTO

UF

The I-V characteristic of power diode

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Switching (dynamic) characteristics of power

diode
Turn-off transient
IF

diF
dt

trr
td

UF
t F t0

tf
t1

t2

UR

diR
dt
IRP

URP

Reverse-recovery process:
Reverse-recovery time, reverse-recovery charge,
reverse-recovery peak current.
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Switching (dynamic) characteristics of power

diode
Turn-on transient
u
i
UFP

2V
0

iF

uF
tfr

Forward recovery process:

forward-recovery time
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Specifications of power diode

Average rectified forward current IF(AV)
Forward voltage UF
Peak repetitive reverse voltage URRM
Maximum junction temperature TJM
Reverse-recovery time trr

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Types of power diodes

General purpose diode (rectifier diode):
standard recovery

Fast recovery diode

Reverse recovery time and charge specified. trr is usually
less than 1s, for many less than 100 ns ultra-fast
recovery diode.

Schottky diode (Schottky barrier diode-SBD)

A majority carrier device
Essentially no recovered charge, and lower forward voltage.
Restricted to low voltage (less than 200V)

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Examples of commercial power diodes

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History and applications of power diode

Applied in industries starting 1950s
Still in-use today. Usually working with controlled
devices as necessary components
In many circumstances fast recovery diodes or
schottky diodes have to be used instead of general
purpose diodes.

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1.3 Half-controlled deviceThyristor

History
Another name: SCRsilicon controlled rectifier
Thyristor Opened the power electronics era

1956, invention, Bell Laboratories

1957, development of the 1st product, GE
1958, 1st commercialized product, GE
Thyristor replaced vacuum devices in almost every power
processing area.

Still in use in high power situation. Thyristor till has the

highest power-handling capability.

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Appearance and symbol of thyristor

Appearance

Symbol

Cathode

Gate
Anode

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Structure and equivalent circuit of thyristor

Structure

Equivalent circuit

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Physics of thyristor operation

Equivalent circuit: A pnp
transistor and an npn transistor
interconnected together
Positive feedback
Trigger
Can not be turned off by control
signal
Half-controllable

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Quantitative description of thyristor operation

Ic1=1 IA + ICBO1

1-1

Ic2=2 IK + ICBO2

1-2

IK=IA+IG

1-3

IA=Ic1+Ic2

1-4

2IG + ICBO1+ ICBO2

IA =
1 (1 +2 )

1-5

When IG=0, 1+2 is small.

When IG>0, 1+2 will approach 1, IA will be very large.

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Power Electronics

Other methods to trigger thyristor on

High voltage across anode and cathode
avalanche breakdown
High rising rate of anode voltagte du/dt too high
High junction temperature
Light activation

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Power Electronics

Static characteristics of thyristor

IA

forward
conducting

increasing IG

U RSM U RRM
reverse
blocking

avalanche
breakdown

I G2

IG = 0

I G1

forward
blocking

U DRM

U bo

U DSM

U Ak

Blocking when reverse

biased, no matter if there
is gate current applied
Conducting only when
forward biased and there
is triggering current
applied to the gate
Once triggered on, will be
latched on conducting
even when the gate
current is no longer
applied
Turning off: decreasing
current to be near zero
with the effect of external
power circuit
Gate I-V characteristics
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Power Electronics

Switching characteristics of thyristor

iA
100%
90%

10%
0 td
uAK

Turn-on transient

tr

Delay time td
Rise time tr
Turn-on time tgt

Turn-off transient
IRM

trr

Reverse recovery
time trr
Forward recovery
time tgr
Turn-off time tq

URRM t
gr

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Specifications of thyristor
Peak repetitive forward blocking voltage UDRM
Peak repetitive reverse blocking voltage URRM
Peak on-state voltage UTM
Average on-state current IT(AV)
Holding current IH
Latching up current IL
Peak forward surge current ITSM
du/dt
di/dt

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Power Electronics

The family of thyristors

Fast switching thyristorFST
Triode AC switchTRIAC
(Bi-directional triode thyristor)

IG=0

T1

T2

Reverse-conducting thyristor
RCT
K

Light-triggered (activited) thyristor

LTT
A

G
A

K
A

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Power Electronics

1.4 Typical fully-controlled devices

1.4.1 Gate-turn-off thyristor GTO
1.4.2 Giant transistor GTR
1.4.3 Power metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect
transistor Power MOSFET
1.4.4 Insulated-gate bipolar transistor IGBT

Features
IC fabrication technology, fully-controllable, high frequency

Applications
Begin to be used in large amount in 1980s
GTR is obsolete and GTO is also seldom used today.
IGBT and power MOSFET are the two major power
semiconductor devices nowadays.
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Power Electronics

1.4.1 Gate-turn-off thyristorGTO

Structure

Symbol
A
G

N2

P2
N1

N2

P1
A
a)

b)

Major difference from conventional thyristor:

The gate and cathode structures are highly interdigitated, with
various types of geometric forms being used to layout the
gates and cathodes.
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Power Electronics

Physics of GTO operation

The basic operation of GTO is the
same as that of the conventional
thyristor.

A
IA

PNP

V1
G IG
S
EG

Ic2
Ic1
NPN

V2
IK
K

EA

The principal differences lie in the

modifications in the structure to
achieve gate turn-off capability.
Large 2
1+2 is just a little larger than
the critical value 1.
Short distance from gate to
cathode makes it possible to
drive current out of gate.

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Power Electronics

Characteristics of GTO
Static characteristic
Identical to conventional thyristor in the forward direction
Rather low reverse breakdown voltage (20-30V)

Switching characteristic
iG

iA
IA
90%IA
10%IA
0

td

t0

tr

t1

ts

t2

t3

tf

t4

tt

t5

t6

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Power Electronics

Specifications of GTO
Most GTO specifications have the same meanings
as those of conventional thyristor.
Specifications different from thyristors

Maximum controllable anode current IATO

Current turn-off gain off
Turn-on time ton
Turn-off time toff

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Power Electronics

1.4.2 Giant TransistorGTR

GTR is actually the bipolar junction transistor that can handle
high voltage and large current.
So GTR is also called power BJT, or just BJT.

Basic structure

Symbol
c

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Structures of GTR different from its

information-processing counterpart
Multiple-emitter structure

Darlington configuration

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Physics of GTR operation

Same as information BJT device
i c= ib

holes
ib
Ec
Eb

electrons
i e =(1+ )ib

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region

Saturatio
n

Power Electronics

Static characteristics of GTR

Amplifying (active) region

ib3
ib2
ib1

ib1<ib2<ib3

cut-off region

Uce
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Power Electronics

Switching characteristics of GTR

ib

Ib

90%Ib1

Turn-on transient
Turn-on delay time td
Rise time tr
Turn-on time ton

10%Ib1
0

t
Ib

Turn-off transient

toff

ton
ic

td tr

ts

Ics

Storage time ts
Falling time tf

tf

90%Ics
10%Ics
0

Turn-off time toff

t0 t1

t2

t3

t4

t5

t
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Second breakdown of GTR

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Safe operating area (SOA) of GTR

Ic
P SB

IcM

SO A

P cM

U ceM

U ce
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Power Electronics

1.4.3 Power metal-oxide-semiconductor field

effect transistorPower MOSFET
A classification
Field Effect
Transistor
(FET)

Metal-onside-semiconductor FET (MOSFET)

n channel
p channel
Junction FET (JFET)

Power MOSFET

Static induction transistor (SIT)

Basic structure

Symbol
D

G
S
N channel

S
P channel

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Structures of power MOSFET

Also vertical
structureVMOS
VVMOS, VDMOS

Multiple parallel
cells
Polygon-shaped
cells

A structure of hexagon cells

52

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Physics of MOSFET operation

Off-state
p-n- junction is
reverse-biased
off-state voltage
appears across
n- region

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Physics of MOSFET operation

On-state
p-n- junction is slightly
reverse biased
positive gate voltage
induces conducting
channel
drain current flows
through n- region and
conducting channel
on resistance = total
resistances of n- region,
conducting
channel,source and drain
contacts, etc.

54

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Static characteristics of power MOSFET

55

Power Electronics

Switching characteristics of power MOSFET

+UE

up

RL
iD
Rs
up

RG uGS R
F

iD

uGS
uGSP
uT
O
iD

Ot
d(on)

Turn-on transient
Turn-on delay time td(on)
Rise time tr

tr

td(off)

tf

Turn-off transient
Turn-off delay time td(off)
Falling time tf

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Specifications of power MOSFET

Drain-source breakdown voltage UDS
Continuous drain current ID
Peak pulsed drain current IDM
On (On-state) resistance RDS(on)
Inter-terminal capacitances
Short circuit input capacitance Ciss= CGS+ CGD
Reverse transfer capacitance Crss= CGD
Short circuit output capacitance Coss= CDS+ CGD

SOA of power MOSFET

No second breakdown

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Examples of commercial power MOSFET

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Features and applications of power MOSFET

Voltage-driven device, simple drive circuit
Majority-carrier device, fast switching speed, high
operating frequency (could be hundreds of kHz)
Majority-carrier device, better thermal stability
On-resistance increases rapidly with rated blocking
voltage
Usually used at voltages less than 500V and power less
than 10kW
1000V devices are available, but are useful only at low
power levels(100W)

Part number is selected on the basis of onresistance rather than current rating
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The body diode of power MOSFET

The body diode

Equivalent circuit

60

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1.4.4 Insulated-gate bipolar transistor

IGBT
Combination of MOSFET and GTR
GTR:

low conduction losses (especially at larger blocking voltages),

longer switching times, current-driven

MOSFET:

IGBT

faster switching speed, easy to drive (voltage-driven),

larger conduction losses (especially for higher blocking voltages)

Features
On-state losses are much smaller than those of a power
MOSFET, and are comparable with those of a GTR
Easy to drive similar to power MOSFET
Faster than GTR, but slower than power MOSFET
Application
The device of choice in 500-1700V applications, at power
levels of several kW to several MW
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Power Electronics

Structure and operation principle of IGBT

Basic structure
Emitter
E

Gate
G

N + N+
N+ N +
P
P
J3 J
N
2
N+
J1
P+
C
a)

Collector

Drift region
Buffer layer
Injecting layer

Also multiple cell structure

Basic structure similar to
power MOSFET, except
extra p region
On-state: minority carriers
are injected into drift region,
leading to conductivity
modulation
compared with power
MOSFET: slower switching
times, lower on-resistance,
useful at higher voltages
(up to 1700V)

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Power Electronics

Equivalent circuit and circuit symbol of IGBT

Equivalent circuit

Circuit symbol
C
IC

ID
-

RN

VJ1
+

Drift region
resistance

+
IDRon
-

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Power Electronics

Static characteristics of IGBT

IC

Active region

Saturation region
(On region)
UGE

URM

Reverse
blocking region
O

UGE(th)
Cut-off (forward
blocking) region

UFM UCE

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Switching characteristics of IGBT

UGE

UGEM

IGBT turn-on is
similar to power
MOSFET turn-on

90%UGEM
10%UGEM
0
IC
90% ICM

ICM
td(on)

tr

td(off)
tfi1

10% ICM
0
UCE

tf
tfi2
current tail

ton

toff

UCEM

tfv1

tfv2

The major
difference between
IGBT turn-off and
power MOSFET
turn-off:
There is current
tailing in the IGBT
turn-off due to the
stored charge in
the drift region.

UCE(on)
O

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Power Electronics

Parasitic thyristor and latch-up in IGBT

Location of equivalent devices

Complete IGBT equivalent circuit

Main current path pnp transistor and the parasitic npn transistor
compose a parasitic thyristor inside IGBT.
High emitter current tends to latch the parasitic thyristor on.
Modern IGBTs are essentially latch-up proof
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Power Electronics

Specifications of IGBT
Collector-emitter breakdown voltage UCES
Continuous collector current IC
Peak pulsed collector current ICM
Maximum power dissipation PCM
Other issues:
SOA of IGBT
The IGBT has a rectangular SOA with similar shape to the
power MOSFET.

Usually fabricated with an anti-parallel fast diode

67

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Examples of commercial IGBT

68

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1.5 Other new power electronic devices

Static induction transistor SIT
Static induction thyristor SITH
MOS controlled thyristor MCT
Integrated gate-commutated thyristor IGCT
Power integrated circuit and power module

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Power Electronics

Static induction transistorSIT

Another name: power junction field effect
transistorpower JFET
Features

Major-carrier device
Fast switching, comparable to power MOSFET
Higher power-handling capability than power MOSFET
Higher conduction losses than power MOSFET
Normally-on device, not convenient (could be made
normally-off, but with even higher on-state losses)

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Static induction thyristorSITH

other names
Field controlled thyristorFCT
Field controlled diode

Features
Minority-carrier device, a JFET structure with an additional
injecting layer
Power-handling capability similar to GTO
Faster switching speeds than GTO
Normally-on device, not convenient (could be made
normally-off, but with even higher on-state losses)

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MOS controlled thyristorMCT

Essentially a GTO with integrated MOS-driven
gates controlling both turn-on and turn-off that
potentially will significantly simply the design of
circuits using GTO.
The difficulty is how to design a MCT that can be
turned on and turned off equally well.
Once believed as the most promising device, but
still not commercialized in a large scale. The future
remains uncertain.

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Power Electronics

Integrated gate-commutated thyristor IGCT

The newest member of the power semiconductor
family, introduced in 1997 by ABB
Actually the close integration of GTO and the gate
drive circuit with multiple MOSFETs in parallel
providing the gate currents
Short name: GCT
Conduction drop, gate driver loss, and switching
speed are superior to GTO
Competing with IGBT and other new devices to
replace GTO

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Power Electronics

Power integrated circuit and power module

Monolithic integration:
power integrated circuit

Integration of
power electronic
devices

High voltage integrated circuit (HVIC)

Smart power integrated circuit(Smart
power IC, SPIC, Smart switch)

Ordinary power module:just power

devices packaged together

Packaging integration:
power module

Intelligent power module (IPM):

power devices, drive circuit, protection
circuit
Integrated power electronics
Module(IPEM): power devices, drive
circuit, protection circuit, control circuit

Two major challenges

Electrical isolation of high-voltage components from lowvoltage components
Thermal managementpower devices usually at higher
temperatures than low-voltage devices
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Power Electronics

Review of device classifications

power electronic
devices

Current-driven (current-controlled) devices:

thyristor, GTO, GTR
Voltage-driven (voltage-controlled) devices
(Field-controlled devices):power MOSFET,
IGBT, SIT, SITH, MCT, IGCT
Pulse-triggered devices: thyristor, GTO

power electronic
devices

Level-sensitive (Level-triggered) devices:

GTR,power MOSFET, IGBT, SIT, SITH,
MCT, IGCT
Uni-polar devices (Majority carrier devices):
SBD, power MOSFET, SIT

power electronic
devices

Bipolar devices (Minority carrier devices):

ordinary power diode, thyristor, GTO, GTR,
IGCT, IGBT, SITH, MCT
Composite devices: IGBT, SITH, MCT
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Power Electronics

Comparison of the major types of devices

Power-handling capability

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Power Electronics

Comparison of the major types of devices

Maximum allowed current density as a function of
the switching frequency

77